coe Pet sereet ott ‘Srese’s Totes Rt aay cme it. a ‘is i | wel 4 lap me ae res i qe a ie Leu i Ties Vhs rs } 4 ee “ s A f cre | 7 m <9 eh. ; L fxd ie Se ae ‘ ‘ Ud : —— Teh J it i) “ ‘ q a - 3 - —_ % * ~~ % \ Fast j : * ) 4 a 5 hm tt CSN CPG mr ee 30h " cn , > y . - -* ya 1 ue 5 ' Bel? j , i : ad 7] ‘J _ mt ‘ cs ad > i ad 4 FP 4 << a Ani Ate 44 7 i ad se | eur rt Me ‘ mes OTE A e ra Wa he ; ‘ 4 ’ ' i U j . } “ » . ae oe 0 _ fon ; 7 f i i a > 4 i ‘ vv 7 y a ah , 4 ce 7) ae ; 44 \ ' Lily e api { ial | y. y] yer oo rm P : i ry ) Ss We i vA " | ORS (lle One SB AR lg Oe et ete a ates ae ' NY. aS aie acta iy espa Siar nt a ae Nie eyeing re a n Ne di j , be 7 Ati A nee 5 4 } le a ee " A fa gp iv \ou As). re | a, : ay a aa ‘ = ra uy } AN ) t ei) uh 7 ne’ ai ie J ne s oly , a —— —y Pe ee ee is ad tn = tiv 4 } yer Aji. REPORT OF THE -THIRTY-SEVENTH a LK ory IS ON OF THE | -_- ‘ ‘ IN Sy} ere a BRITISH ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT DUNDEE IN SEPTEMBER 1867. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1868. PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET, COANE Nee: neem Oxnsecrs and Rules of the Association............ 00 cee eee teen a Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .............. BX: Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com- “LSAT Tine 545 oat ononclio pious coos ROR Ce eprom tc ence Uichoas Rac rcRac RS met: XXV AED B, ACOOUID L559 ane 4.4 Bers Vs bv alnotgeld ws here hea ed sa ROR XXXV Pee nNeaO Gounctl. 107-05, 3.4 cen at ees nk wee eee XXXVI Officers of Sectional Cominittiogs :.. 26.6. ce ube eet eees XXXVii ummerrmmrneiin MOM bets 2% 56.602. . icles cvince s wahie de ac ae cise os XXXYili Report of the Council to the General Committee ................ XXxix Report of the Committee on Scientific Education in Schools ...... XXX1xX Report of the Kew Committee, 1866-67 ......... cece eee es liv Report of the Parliamentary Committee................ ee eguees Ix Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports BemEcHeATChes I, SCLONCE ss... : sles pm Sana ris 8 ence ss lxi Sees areMoney Greinta visi! 4 oh. . CSL S ereuatal. eee 4b os lxvi General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific MN ee cM orev he. vais Meee Chava eee NEN cate Oa Bre as Ixvii Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ............ xxii Arrangement of the General Meetings .........0 cscs veaseves lxxili REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon. Drawn up by W. R. Brrr, at the request of the Committee, consisting of James GuaisnEr, F.R.S., Lord Rossz, F.R.S., Lord Wrorrestey, F.R.S., Sir J. Herscuer, Bart., F.R.S., Professor Purxips, F.R.S., Rey. C. Prircnarp, F.R.S., W. Hucerns, F.R.S., Warren De La Ruz, F.R.S8., C. Brooxn, F.R.S., Rev. T. W. Wusz, F.R.A.S., J. N. Lockyer, F.R.A.S., Herr Scummpr, and W. R. Brrr, F.R.A.S....... 1 a2 lv CONTENTS. Page Third Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- shire. The Committee consisting of Sir Cuartes Lyxtt, Bart., Pro- fessor Pures, Sir Joun Lussocx, Bart., Mr. Joun Evans, Mr. Epwarp Vivian, Mr. Gzuorce Busx, and Mr. Witiiam PEnGELty Reporter) Soscok c cea tree sees o's pen ane eee ees 24 The present state of the Manufacture of Iron in Great Britain, and its position as compared with that of some other countries. By 1. Low- TESTASN NDS LG oss ave lycos ose eee RIO Ses ATE = Slab oece Wee ee Oe eT To Tete ee 34 Third Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea. By Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S., F.Z.8., of the British Museum ...... 44 Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Compounds. By IBENIAMEN, WVe IRTCHARDSON, MCA., MUD WOR Ss... «<.. che eemeer AT Preliminary Report of the Committee for the Exploration of the Plant Beds of North Greenland appointed at the Nottingham Meeting, 1866 57 Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. J. Scorr Russert, Mr. T. Hawxstey, Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. Wittram Farrparen, and Pro- fessor W. J. M. Ranxiyu, appointed to analyze and condense the in- formation contained in the Reports of the “‘Steam-ship Performance” Committee and other sources of information on the same subject .... 58 On the Meteorology of Port Louis in the Island of Mauritius. By Guanine MELpRoM, (McAy gis Sie. Mr, F. W. Morrar on Meteorological Observations at Sea ......6.+se000. . 25 Mr. Batrour Stewart on the Errors of Aneroids at various Pressures .... 26 Colonel SyxeEs on Storm-Warnings, their Importance and Practicability .... 27 Mr. JoHn TurvusTon on Evaporation from Rain-gauges .......0..eeeeenee 28 CHEMISTRY. Address by Tomas ANDERSON, M.D., F.R.S.E., President of the Section .. 28 Mr. G, ANSELL on an Apparatus for indicating the Pressure and Amount of Firedamp in Mines ve.je)n.m,\oFu, ele is 0 [d's be ivie o.(6, 9 .evienw oie 0) 0 46)5i8).6..0b.6 @nelei be lwiaie ys (eae Mr. I. Lowru1an Bett on a Method of Recovering Sulphur and Oxide of Manganese used at Dieuze, near Nancy, France .........-..sseeeveseees 31 Dr. A. Crum Brown’s Remarks on the Calculus of Chemical Operations.... 31 Mr. Ducatp CamPBE.t’s Note on Messrs. Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith’s method of determining Nitrogenous Organic Matters in Water .......... Mr. A. R. Catron on the Synthesis of Formic Acid................0.2085 32 on Loewig’s Researches on the Action of Sodium Amalgam 9005.9 (etnies (vv ¢ isi vib eta eis, 0s «e's s « ehe).s s/s a 0 iu.é 0 oe 6.8 5 6:0) oa ole ss) \s on Oxalic Ether Mr. A. E. Frercuer on a Self-Registering Perpetual Aspirator .......... 32 ——______———_ on an Ether Anemometer for Measuring the Speed of Jig abaya MUNG) chal (Cliibievieyye pono kon D0 de ws, Dood Opno ao aon oon oC Dr. GLADSTONE on the Refraction Equivalents of Salts in Solution ........ 34 Dr. N. pe Kuanrkor’s Experiments for the Verification of the laws of Dr. Henry and Dalton on the Absorption of Gases by Liquids .............. 34 Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Girsrrr’s Preliminary Notice of Results on the Composition of Wheat grown for twenty years in succession on the seieE ILENE Gang cut o's nooauuinootundoo ooo bm oom peon tay Ydoipo..0 06h 36 Dr. Grorar Lawson’s Notes of the Analyses of Gold Coins of Columbia, New Granada, Chili, and Bolivia; with some account of the operations of Golds Manine inpNovaiscotials. .ctteriiaee at ie elect stellt a etree eae 37 Dr. W. Lavuprr Liypsay on the present Uses of Lichens as Dye-stuffs .... 38 Messrs. P. T. Mary and A. R. Carron on a New Synthesis of Ammonia.... 40 Mr. W. L. Scorr’s Note on the Artificial Production of Oil of Cmmnamon .. 40 -— on the Bisulphite of Calcium as a Preservative of Animal Substancesi® Heep stays eidanietocsseielebeiemovere aioe ofeleielssa’s tlle a, «k's ee Drs. MAXWELL Smrpson and A. GAUTIER on a Compound fortaeal by the direct union of Aldehyde and Anhydrous Prussic Acid..............+4.- 40 Dr. MaxweELu Simpson on the Formation of Succinic Acid from Chloride of Hthylideneyt.f5ch tlw. slccquilatareegts Sie aoe ode age «s+ «ae eee Mr. R. F. Smrrx on the Gaseous Products of the destructive distillation of Hydrocarbons, obtained from Shales and Coals at Low and High Tem- POLAGUTES Sieve ete vae ts atte: ctcPepcvewoueee”s fojlarchislicts fais ads eked sss 8,5; saitenedels nieletcioi Capt. Frep. Brome’s Report on recent Explorations in the Gibraltar Caves . Mr. F. M. Burton on the Lower Lias, and traces of an ancient Rheetic Shore Tit) [LAR LIN SLT oto a cattle e IMIDE ciseacithe 0 Conon DD eGo cin GeICniGDK Inert Mr, Witi1am Carruruers’s Enumeration of British Graptolites.......... — on Calamiteze and Fossil Equisetacee........ Mr. RopertT CuamBeERs’s Notice of an “Esker” at St. Fort .............. Dr. Cottrnewoop on the Geology of North Formosa ............0..0 eee a on the Geology of the Islands round the North of Formosa The Rey. W. H. Crossxey’s Notes on the relation of the Glacial Shell Beds of the Carse of Gowrie to those of the West of Scotland ................ Mr. F. Gorpon Davis on the Calamine Deposits of Sardinia.............. Mr. Henry S. Exxis on some Mammalian Remains from the submerged Forest in Barnstaple Bay, Devonshire .......... 0 cesses eeeeeeceeevenes Mr. C. Le Neve Fosrer’s Notes on the Perseberg Iron-Mines, Sweden . Mr. A. Grrxim’s Account of the Progress of the Geological Survey of 20UIBTG le ieelt-0 0's 0! so, COeoaEin D SADE URED CEN Cnc To Digs cp OoeroOmOCne The Rev. J. Gunn on Tertiary and Quaternary Deposits in the Eastern Counties, with reference to Periodic Oscillations of Level and Climate.... Professor Harkness and Dr. H. A. NrcHouson on the Coniston Group of the J SIG Allee hs ° 2 ean een eR ISe Bt Cnn Cemegen Mr. D. MitnE Home on the Old Sea-cliffs and Submarine Banks of the Frith BRBEVOE UNS eyeceet Pete PMPRNS oe oyolleig. ci ieic: ae via sreSc re atej6. 01 sialic) sss] elalaeeis atelsl ete & 6 Mr. Epwarp Hou on the Structure of the Pendle Range of Hills, Lanca- shire, as illustrating the South-easterly Attenuation of the Carboniferous Sedimentary Rocks of the North of England ........... 0... 0000 0.0000 ——____———s Observations on the relative Geological Ages of the principal Physical Features of the Carboniferous District of Lancashire... . 1x Page x CONTENTS. Pa Mr. E. Ray LankeEsTER on some New Cephalaspidean Fishes ...... Sontyehiut 63 Dr, W. LaupEr Linpsay on the Goldfields of Scotland .....,.....0000008 M. Cuartes Martins et Epovarp Cottoms sur |’Ancien Glacier de la Walléerd Arcelés dansilesi br yrencese cr ciciriereyelels ties skocelels ielstetettereitel = Mr. GeoreGr Maw on the Cambrian Rocks of Llanberis with reference to a Break in the Conformable Succession of the Lower Beds................ Mr. P. W. Stuart MenTEATH on Tertiary and Posttertiary Action in the PAY ACTEES Pie. oze lacie greitie a alisln sel sisi sel als fe oforafetniate otietalte steletcte tein fetoistototaietseeterae ts 9a Mr. Henry ALLEYNE NICHOLSON on the Nature and Systematic Position of Wey Coir Wigs) yooagn ooo dno a aoe pInCHOGONoddoO SON OKCO Se fe-fals st ———————_—___————-_ on the Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates , Dr: OrpwAMron the Geology of indians is ¢aaketenyl slate vahenteamery tel Mr. C. W. Pracn on Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness and Sutherland, with notices of some new to those Counties ............ Mr. Jonn Pxant on the Geology and Fossils of the Lingula Flags at Upper Misinyd dachsuNorilmVvales iryeletcic sis sj ele slo n cilovaleiele) sis ¢ e(clohenelshelsieteretets socae Dr. Jutrus Scuvarcz on the Internal Heat of the Earth ..... Geraci = Hinge Mr. J. E. Tayior on the Relation of the Upper and Lower Crags in Norfolk Mr. J. F. WatkeEr on a new Phosphatic Deposit near Upware, in Cam- Torte esa barir Saver store eto otortetcrevakgra el GPa Nel@ctl 01 64d dla lS ig.sa ese ChE pal obo Naic ete atae ene ateter Mr. E. A. Wounscu on some Carboniferous Fossil Trees imbedded in Trap- pean’ Atshiinithe Vale. qh eA wep 1, 2) ieve sits rnc clale ore vernie oreivt Wiis re meeenrOn aT Mr. J. Wyatt on the Gradual Alteration of the Coast-line in Norfolk ..... : BIOLOGY. Address by Professor Witt1aAM SHarpry, M.D,, Sec. R.S., F.R,S.E., Presi- dentiof the SeCtON. coc io\. a/c) eles jo peela minis wis gies 3 steps wip lee she's sivun ee eye eta Sir James E, ALEXANDER on the Preservation of Fishing Streams ........ Professor ALLMAN’S Notes on the Structure of certain Hydroid Meduse .... Professor BaLFour’s Notice of some rare Plants recently collected in Scotland Mr. Wi111AM Brown on the Claims of Arboriculture as a Science ........ Mr. WiL1L14M CARRUTHERS on British Fossil Cycadeze ..............005 Dr. Coppoxp’s Remarks on the Entozoa of the Common Fowl and of Game Birds, in their supposed relation to the Grouse Disease..,..........0005 y Dr. CoLLinewoon’s Observations on the Habits of Flyingfish (Zvocetus) .. on Pelagic floating Animals observed at Sea............ 4s Notes on Oceanic Hydrozoa ..........00eeeesseceess — on some remarkable Marine Animals observed in the China on Trichodesmium, or Sea-dust ........0e.eeneeeceees Dr. Anton Dourn on the Morphology of the Arthropoda ..............5- Dr. JoHN FRASER on Amblystegium confervoides, a Moss new to Britain ..,. Dr. GriERSON on the Destruction of Plantations at Drumlanrig by a species Of MOL sacs, oyoy oyeteverosa.os0 sieyeele\ete ore fA pealElScpimie ey) pic") Wie « pdt eae a Dr. Joun DEaxrn Heaton on certain Simulations of Vegetable Growths by Mineral Substances ........ Serr REIARP tele « oye ey bisa baeela 6G eee 64 66 70 70 71 71 72 72 72 73 73 73 73 73 82 83 m CONTENTS. x1 ay Mr. W. P. Hiern on the occurrence of Aster salignus (Willd.) in Wicken a 84 HGH MAORGTTOPCSNITOS 05) ose lein aptin a's olem ence eRe ovo 016 Giri Reet Mr. E. Ray LanKeEsTER on the Boring of Limestones by certain Annelids.. 85 on the Anatomy of the Limpet.......... Séncound 85 Dr. W. Lauprr Liypsay on the Conservation of Forests in our Colonies 85 —__—_____——.._ Is Lichen-growth detrimental to Forest and ERTS CAE ECR ches tet cle oats: reece sive olais Site vista atone permaberatl ars diaries wes 87 ——________—_——- on Plant Acclimatization in Scotland, with special estore PCMUCARINSAC CRESS 9 icles stelergere el aise stone ici ce via > oruealeloiitel® a 6) 1 veratar el ay 88 ———__—_—_—__——.. To what extent is Lichen-growth a testof Age? 88 ———_—___-+ on Polymorphism in the Fructification of Lichens 89 Mr. E. J, Low on the Abnormal forms of Ferns ........0eseeeneeereees 91 Sir J. Lupsocxk on some Points in the Anatomy of the Thysanura ....... fers | Dr. M‘Intosn’s Remarks on Mr. J. G. Jeffreys’s Collection of Hebridean SIGNI (hQeeadigo magn Hea lin Gos c Hotiga amo ant. vor any se Pe sdccatigsctr ala axe 92 Report on the Invertebrate Marine Fauna and Fishes of St. “DODGE O RRRMIRG Gad ae ee BB OnE Epo oeiecouonopoapon do mat cma rae: Roby ee onidhe Amnelids;o£ St. -AvidTe Wises c:cj a alsralelele «leeisic cs «ee 92 M. Cuartrs Martins sur les Racines Aériféres ou Vessies Natatoires, la synonymie et la distribution géographique de quelques espéces aquatiques POTTS SUSSICO. occ kee eb ne cnancrns se taberemmeevensseresererge 93 Dr. M. T. Masters on Polliniferous Ovules in a Rose ...,....00. se cece ees 93 M. O. A. L. M6rcu’s Notice of Dredging by the late H. P. C. Moller, off Fair Isle, between Orkney and Shetland .........+ eee eeeenneeneeeees 93 Mr. AnpREw Murray on the future Administration of the Natural-History Wollections of the British Museum .......500ccccesse cess tecrereesses 94 Mr. Henry ALLEYNE NicHoLson on the Nature and Systematic Position of BEG EAPLOMIL A 2 cGleteviebalel ala deviate SbIS she oh cinind Bile WSR Peele ee veces nes 96 Mr. C. W. Peacu on the Fructification of Griffithsia corallina, found in the West Voe, Outskerries, Shetland ....... 0... ccs e cece cence eee eeeeee 96 —________— on Naked-eyed Meduse found at Peterhead and Wick, Met.vand other tritish Localities. 0. sacs cc tte eatin aces edens oe 96 The Rey. H. B. Tristram on the Zoological Aspects of the Grouse Disease.. 97 Mr. Atrrep R. WaLLacer on Birds’ Nests and their Plumage ; or the Rela- tion between Sexual Differences of Colour and the Mode of Nidification in eS riety. «icine slave eterna anal 149 Mr. J. Van-NorpDEN BazaLGETTE on the Difficulty of obtaining Local Infor- mation after reaching the Summits of Eminences from which extensive INA OWE AFG ODtALHOM &. iiss: cetety how Sheed Seolec’ 1 ckghslavdielelevede/steiolelatanieniene 152 Admiral Sir E. 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XXV Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS. Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 1832. Oxford ...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S....|Rev. H. Coddington. 1833. Cambridge |Sir D. Brewster, E.R. s. aL, LER Prof. Forbes. 1834. Edinburgh |Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.......... Prof. Forbes, Prof, Lloyd. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 1835. Dublin ...... Rey. Dr. Robinson..............2... Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof. Wheatstone. 1836. Bristol ...... Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S..../Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W. Jerrard. 1837. Liverpool ...\Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S............. W.S. Harris, Rey. Prof. Powell, Prof. Stevelly. 1838. Neweastle...\Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,/Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine, E.RS. Prof. Stevelly. 1839. Birmingham Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S. ......\J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof. Stevelly. 1840. Glasgow ...|Prof. Forbes, F.R.S. ..............- Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch. Smith. 1841. Plymouth.../Rey. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. -|Prof. Stevelly. 1842. Manchester | Very aa G. Peacock, “=D. D.. Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. FR W. Scoresby, 1843. Cork......... Prof aT Oallbch, AST SAS 35.835 J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly. 1844. York......... The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.......... Rey. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly. 1845. Cambridge. .|The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely .{Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, a. 1846. Southampton 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. Swansea .. Birmingham Edinburgh... sent en ees 1854. Liverpool.. Sir sone F. W. Herschel, Bart., E.R Rey. eee Powell, M.A., F.R.S. .|Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. William Hopkins, F.R.S.. Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E. ....|Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., F.RB.S., &e. Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E. The Dean of Ely, F.R.S. .|Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec. B.S. G. Stokes. John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. -|Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. -.|Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. --|Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W. Ridout Wills. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Smyth, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. 8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran- kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. ai ..|B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt, Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh. J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh. XXV1 REPORT— 1867. Date and place. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1832. 1833. 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. Glasgow ... Cheltenham Dublin Aberdeen ... Oxford ...... Manchester . Cambridge Newcastle... Birmingham Nottingham Dundee...... Presidents. an’ Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E. Rey. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. . Rev. T. R. Robinson, DD., F.B.S., M.R.LA. Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., V.P.R.S. The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P., ERS. Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S. ...... G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. .|Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.R.S. M.A, FERS, W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S., E.R.AS. Prof. Cayley, FE.R.A.S. Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., E.BS. Secretaries. Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof. Tyndall. ..1C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull. Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A. Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Stevelly. Rey. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Stevelly, HS Smith, Prof. Tyndall. J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H. J. Smith, Prof. Stevelly (Rey. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison, Prof. Stevelly. Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Rey. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jen- kin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley. Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rey. G. Buckle, Prof. Stevelly. Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G. 8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, J. M. Wilson. Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, 8. N. Swann. Rev. C. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster, Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan. CHEMICAL SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, Oxford John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....... James F. W. Johnston. Cambridge..|John Dalton, DOT. Wa. ..cns. Prof. Miller. Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison. Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston. Dr. Apjohn, Dr, C. Henry, W. Hera- path. Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr. Reynolds. Prof. Miller, R. L. Pattinson, Thomas Richardson. ..{Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson. ..|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark, Dr. L. Playfair. J. Prideaux, Rebert Hunt, W. M. Tweedy. Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham. R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny. ..|Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker. Hidinburgh) A) Dr SH Opes-cme seas. -aeesesebeeaseeeeans SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. Dublin ...... Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......... Bristol ...... Rev. Prof. Cumming............... Liverpool .../Michael Faraday, F.R.S. ......... Newcastle ...|Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.... Birmingham|Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S8. ... Glasgow ...|Dr. Thomas Thomson, E.R. S. Plymouth...|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ..............- Manchester .'John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....... Cork. ...4.c0s (Prof. Apjohn, M.R.LA. ......... York ree Prof. T. Graham, F-.R.S. Cambridge . Rev. Prof. Cumming ..........0665 R. Hunt, J. E. Solly. P. Joule, Prof. Miller. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. enn eee EUaEEE EIS nInIEISS ISSUE UnS SSUES | Date and Place. Presidents. | 1846. Southampton|Michael Faraday, D.C.L., ERBS.| 1847. Oxford ...... Rey.W. V. Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S. 1848. Swansea ...,Richard Phillips, F.R.S. .........| 1849. Birmingham|John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......... 1850. Edinburgh .|Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...... 1851. Ipswich _ ...|Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S. ... 1852. Belfast ...... Thomas Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.. Pesos Eta ......<. Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,| ERS. 1854. Liverpool...|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. 1855. Glasgow ...'Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .| 1856. Cheltenham |Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S.......... 1857. Dublin ......|Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.BS., M.R.LA. ’ 1858. Leeds ...... Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,| D.C.L. 1859. Aberdeen .../Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. . 1860. Oxford ...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, M.A., F.R.S. .| 1861. Manchester ./Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.) 1862. Cambridge .|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.| 1863. Newcastle.../Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, F.R.S. 1864. Bath......... W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.. 1865. Birmingham Prof.W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.B.8.| 1866. Nottingham |H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. ... 1867. Dundee....../Prof. T. Anderson,M.D., F.R.S.E. Secretaries. Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall. B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt., Prof. Solly. T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams. R. Hunt, G. Shaw. Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson. T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward. Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof. Ronalds. H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J. Pearsall. Dr. Edwards, Dr. Price. Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe. J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof. Voelcker. Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- livan. Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey- nolds. J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D. Liveing, Dr. Odling. A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, A. B. Northcote. A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing. H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof. Roscoe. Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C. Stevenson. A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R. Biggs. A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof. Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills. J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J. Russell, J. White. A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing, Gladstone, Dr. W. J. Russell. GEOLOGICAL (anp, unri. 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 1832. Oxford...... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......... John Taylor. 1833. Cambridge..|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ........./W. Lonsdale, John Phillips. 1834. Edinburgh../Prof. Jameson ..........-...-+6-+++ Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie, Rev. J. Yates. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 1835. Dublin ...... Df Pade (Gari iai ph anes apedbeeinenoncees Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie. 1836. Bristol ...... Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo- William Sanders, S. Stutchbury, T. J. 1837. Liverpool... 1838. Newcastle .. 1839. Birmingham graphy. R.I.Murchison,F.R.S. Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Geo- graphy. G.B. Greenough, F.R.S. C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.— Geo- graphy. Lord Prudhope. Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-! graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S. | Torrie. Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo- graphy. Captain H. M. Denham, N W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.— Geography. Capt. Washington. George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strickland, Charles Darwin. XXVill REPORT—1867. Date and Place. 1840. Glasgow . 1841. Plymouth ../H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. 1842. Manchester |R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8. ........ 1843. Cork......... Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S., M.RB.I1.A. 1844. York......... Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres. Geol. Soe. 1845. Cambridge .|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. 1846. Southampton|Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geogra- 1847. Oxford...... Very Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S. 1848. Swansea E.B.S. 1849. Birmingham Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.8. 1850. Edinburgh *|Sir Roderick I. Murchison,F.R.8. 1851. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. . Glasgow ... Presidents. ..|Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geogra- phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ..\Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B., Secretaries. W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh Murray, H. E. Strickland, John Scoular, M.D. W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D., R. Hutton. .|E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R. Lloyd, H. B. Strickland. Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick- land. Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury. Rey. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay, Rey. W. Thorp. Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D., Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C. T. Beke. Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C. Ramsay, J. Ruskin. Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof. Ramsay. J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof. A. C. Ramsay. A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro- fessor Nicol. SECTION ¢. (continued. )—GEOLOGY. Ipswich ...{William Hopkins, M.A., F.R.S... . Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. Bullets Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ..........4. Liverpool ..|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S. ... Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ...... Cheltenham|Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ...... Dublin...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide ... Leeds William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D., E.R.S. Aberdeen...|/Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., E.R.S. . Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D., E.RB.S., F.G:8. Manchester|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., &e. Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S....... Newcastle.../Prof. Warington, W. Smyth, E.RBS., F.G.8. C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod, Searles Wood. James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol. Prof. Harkness, William Lawton. John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall. James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol. Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rey. R. Hepworth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T. Wright. Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro- bert H. Scott. Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. Shaw. Prof. Harkness, Rey. J. Longmuir, H. C. Sorby. Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt. Woodall. Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru- pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod. Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, H. C. Sorby. E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sor- by, Thomas Sopwith. Bath i..5: Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S. W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly. * At the Meeting of the General Committee held in Edinburgh, it was agreed “That the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to consti- tute a separate Section, under the title of the “ Geographical and Ethnological Section,” for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxi. a ee eee PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XxXix Date and place. Presidents. Secretaries. 1865. Birmingham|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B./Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E. Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly. 1866. Nottingham|Prof. A. C.Ramsay, LL.D.,F.R.S..R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil- son, G. H. Wright. 1867. Dundee ...|Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S./Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry | Woodward. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY. 1832. Oxford...... Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ....../Rev. Prof. J. 8S. Henslow. 1833. Cambridge*|Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S....|C. C. Babington, D. Don. 1834, Edinburgh |Prof. Graham..................c6008 W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 1835. Dublin...... ID TS WAU AIY, ccssnccessececanccresseuce J. Curtis, Dr. Litton. 1836. Bristol...... Rey. Prof. Henslow ............ ...(J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S. Rootsey. 1837. Liverpool...|W. S. MacLeay ..............:00000 C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W. Swainson. 1838. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bart............... J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr. Richardson. 1839. Birmingham|Prof. Owen, F.R.S...................|H. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson. 1840. Glasgow .../Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......... Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat- terson. 1841. Plymouth {John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S....|J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson. 1842. Manchester|Hon. and Very Rey. W. Herbert,|Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A. LL.D., F.L.S. Turner. 1843. Cork.........;William Thompson, F.L.S. ......|G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R. Pat- terson. 1844. York ...... Very Rey.The Dean of Manchester|Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, Dr. Lankester. 1845. Cambridge |Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ......|Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston. 1846. Southampt"/Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.../Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H. Wooldridge. 1847. Oxford...... H, E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S..../Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V. Wollaston. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. [For Anatomical and Physiological Subsections and the temporary Section E of Ana- _ tomy and Medicine, see pp. xxx, xxxi. For the Presidents and Secretaries see p. xxxi.] 1848. Swansea ...|/L. W. Dillwyn, F.RB.S. ............ Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen- frey, Dr. Lankester. 1849. Birmingham] William Spence, F.R.S. ......... Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell. 1850. Edinburgh ..|Prof. Goodsir, F.R.8.L.& EH. ...|Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan- kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan. 1851. Ipswich...... Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.S./Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E. Lankester. 1852. Belfast ...... Wie Optloyarcs atti ass 2nchoat hades Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr. dwin Lankester. #853: Hull ......... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....|Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester. * At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xxx. XXX Date and Place. Presidents. 1854. Liverpool ...|Prof. Balfour, M.D., E-R.S......- 1855. Glasgow .../Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. ... 1856. Cheltenham ./Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres. L.S. 1857. Dublin ...... Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D., F.R.S. 1858. Leeds......... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S. ... ..|Sit W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. . ‘fie Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.LS. ...... . Manchester .|Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S. ... . Cambridge ..|Prof. Huxley, F.R.S................ . Neweastle ...|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....... Ath costoeeea Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. . Birmingham|T. Thomson, M.D., IDM iris Reoeeene 1866, Nottingham.|/Prof. Huxley, LL.D, F.R.S.—| Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum- phry, M.D., F.R.S.—Anthropo- logical Dep. Alfred R. Wallace, | F.R.G.S. Dundee ...... ‘Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.— Dep. of Zool. and Bot. George 1867. REPORT— 1867. Secretaries. Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester. William Keddie, Dr. Lankester. Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman, Dr. Lankester. Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lan- kester, Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele. Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. Prof. Dickie, M.D, Dr. H. Lankester, Dr. Ogilvy. W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P. L. Selater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright. Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright. Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rey. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T. Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright. Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. SECTION D.—BIOLOGY*. Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rey. H. B. Tristram, W. Turner, FE. B. Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright. C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr. M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. Busk, M.D., F.R.S. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner. ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEES OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 1833. 1834. Cambridge .|Dr. Haviland .................-...4.. Edinburgh ..|Dr. Abercrombie SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—anat 1835. Dublin ...... DEP ritGHALOs, saceenssccseeee seas cues 1836. Bristol ...... Drs Rotel, HORS: 12; .sesdecckns sence 1837. Liverpool ...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ............ 1838. Newcastle ...|T. E. Headlam, M.D. 1839. Birmingham|Jobhn Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D................ 1841. Plymouth ...|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. .. 1842. Manchester .|Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S. ... 1843. Cork ......... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.......... 1844. York ......... JsCebrtenardy MID. s....205.5.- Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget. Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson. OMY AND MEDICINE. Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart. Dr. Symonds. Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid. .|\Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. Dr. Chaytor, Dr. Sargent. Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent. * At the Meeting of the General Committee at Birmingham, it was resolved :—“ That the title of Section D be changed to Biology ;” and ‘“ That for the word ‘Subsection’ in the third paragraph of the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted.” 1856. Cheltenham. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXX1 Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. ~ SECTION E.— PHYSIOLOGY. 1845. Cambridge ..|Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ......... 1846. Southampton|Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. 1847. Oxford*...... Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster. C. P. Keele, Dr. Layeock, Dr. Sargent. Dr. Thomas, K. Chambers, W. P. PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBS 1850. Edinburgh ..{Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. ... 1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. . 1857. Dublin Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......... wegeches Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,F.R.S. ..|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. B.S... 1860. Oxford ......|Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S. 1861. Manchester .|Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E.... 1862. Cambridge ..|C, E. Paget, M.D. .................. 1863. Newcastle ...|Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. ... 1864. Bath Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.R. 1865. Birmingham|Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,F.R. 8. 8. Ormerod. ECTIONS. ..|Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers. Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern. C. G. Wheelhouse. Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. \Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith. Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. ‘Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES. [For Presidents and Secretaries previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxvii.] ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS. 1846. Southampton|Dr. Pritchard 1847. Oxford Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. 1849. Birmingham 1850. Glasgow .../Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm Dr. King. Prof. Buckley. G. Grant Francis. Dr. R. G. Latham. Daniel Wilson. SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 1851. Ipswich 1852. Belfast 1853. Hull 1854, Liverpool ... 1855. Glasgow ... Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., Pres. R.GS. Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L., E.R.S. R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., E.RBS. Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B. 1857. Dublin ...... Rev. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres. R.LA. 1858, Leeds......... Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S., E.R.S. * By direction of the General Committee at Oxfor R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton Shaw. ...|R. Cull, Rey. H. W, Kemp, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. Richard Cull, Rey. H. Higgins, Dr. Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw. Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H. Rum- sey, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, 8S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad- den, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal- laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas Wright. d, Sections D and E were incorporated under the name of “ Section D-—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology ” (see p. xxix). Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography. KXX11 REPORT—1867. Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 1859. Aberdeen .../Rear-Admiral Sir James Clerk|Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr. Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. Norton Shaw. 1860. Oxford ...... Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., |Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C. E.RBS. Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw. 1861. Manchester .|John Crawfurd, F.R.S. ............ Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode. 1862. Cambridge ../Francis Galton, F.R.S. ............ J. W. Clarke, Rey. J. Glover, Dr. Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright. 1863. Newcastle ...\Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., |C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield, F.B.S. C. R. Markham, R. S. Watson. 1864. Bath ......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., |H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt. FE.R.S. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright. 1865. Birmingham|Major-General Sir R. Rawlinson,|H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C. M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S. R. Markham, Thomas Wright. 1866. Nottingham.|Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart., |H. W. Bates, Rey. E. T. Cusins, R. LL.D. H. Major, Clements R. Markham, D. W. Nash, T. Wright. 1867. Dundee...... Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.......,H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R. Markhan, S. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock. STATISTICAL SCIENCE. COMMITTEES OF SCIENCES, VI.— STATISTICS, 1833. Cambridge .|Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. ............ J. E. Drinkwater. 1834. Edinburgh .|Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. ........./Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean. SECTION F,—STATISTICS. 1835. Dublin ...... \Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ........./W. Greg, Prof. Longfield. 1836. Bristol ...... Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.|Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp, James Heywood. 1837. Liverpool ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon ............ Sy are. W. Langton, Dr. W. C. ayler. 1838. Newcastle ...|Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ..........4. W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood. 1839. Birmingham|Henry Hallam, F.R.S. ............ F. — R. W Rawson, Dr. W. C. ‘ayler. 1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, F.R.S.,/C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W. M.P. Rawson. 1841. Plymouth .,.|Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. ........./Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R. W. Rawson. 1842. Manchester .|G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ......|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr. W. C. Tayler. 1843. Cork ......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ....../Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. 1844. York ......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S. |J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock. 1845. Cambridge ..|Rt. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam.../J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D. 1846.Southampton|G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............... J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott. 1847. Oxford ...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...|Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G. P. Neison. 1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ....../J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede. 1849. Birmingham|Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton ......... pe Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P. eison. 1850. Edinburgh ..|Very Rev. Dr. John Lee, Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J. V.P.R.S.E. Stark. 1851. Ipswich...... Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...... J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock. 1852. Belfast ...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James Dublin. MacAdam, Jun. 1853. Hull i ecc.. James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S. ...{Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXxlli Date and Place. President. Secretaries. 1854. Liverpool ...|Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ............ E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H. Duncan, W. Newmarch. 1855, Glasgow ...../R. Monckton Miles, M.P.......... J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New- 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861, 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. march, Prof. R. H. Walsh. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, Cheltenham Manchester Cambridge. . Newcastle ... Birmingham Nottingham Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. His Grace the Archbishop of Dublin, M.R.I.A. Edward Baines ..|Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S, ......... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......... William Newmarch, F.R.S. ...... Edwin Chadwick, O.B. ............ William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ...... William Farr, M.D., D.C.L., E.R.S. Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D., M.P. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers Bristol Liverpool ... Neweastle ... Birmingham Glasgow Plymouth... Manchester . Cambridge .. 1846. Southampton 1847. Oxford . Swansea...... . Birmingham . Edinburgh .. . Ipswich . Belfast sees 1867. M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. Rey. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr. W. N. Hancock Newmarch, W. M. Tartt. Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W. Newmarch. T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown, Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang. Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A.M. Smith, Dr. John Strang. Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch, Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie, E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory. T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy, James Potts. KE. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy. G. J.-D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston, E. Macrory. R. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory. Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J. MECHANICAL SC Warden. TENCE. SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE, Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.... ive urs Robinsons ......desscseesse Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......... Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robert Stephenson. ..(Sir John Robinson....... Pras eneee John Raylor HRS. ..:.s.cm.ssee: Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....... John Taylor, F.R.S. ............... George Rennie, F.R.S. ............ Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. . Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. ‘Robert Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S. T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West. Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Web- ster. W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, Tho- mas Webster. J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod, C. Vignoles. Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster. J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, Charles Vignoles. James Thomson, Robert Mallet. Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. Rev. W. T. Kingsley. Wiliam Betts, Jun., Charles Manby. J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier. R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé. Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall. Revie OpInsOW ssc....ccc0ssa+s0 William Cubitt, F.R.S. ............ John Walker, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S. Dr. Lees, David Stevenson. John Head, Charles Manby. John F, Bateman, C. B. Hancock, Charles Manby, James Thomson. ¢ XXXIV Date and Place. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. Liverpool ... Glasgow Cheltenham Aberdeen .. Oxford ...... Manchester . Cambridge .. Newcastle ... Bathi sss... Birmingham Nottingham Dundee...... ..|W. J. REPORT—1867. President. William Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S. John Scott Russell, F.R.S.......... Macquorn Rankine, C.E., E.R.S. George Rennie, F.R.S. ............ The Right Hon. The Karl of Rosse, F.R.S. William Fairbairn, F.RS.......... .|Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.RS. . Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S. J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....... William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S. Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. . J- Hawkshaw, F.R.S................ Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D., E.RS. Thomas Hawksley, V.P-Inst. C.E., F.G.S8. Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Secretaries. James Oldham, J. Thomson, W. Sykes Ward. John Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thom- son. L. Hill, Jun., William Ramsay, J. Thomson. C. Atherton, B. Jones, Jun., H. M. Jeffery. Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate, James Thomson, Henry Wright. J.C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright. R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H. Wright. P. Le Neve Foster, Rey. F. Harrison, Henry Wright. P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H. Wright. i W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster. P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, J. F. Spencer. P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt. P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P. Marshall, Walter May. P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M. A. Tarbottom. P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith, LL.D., F.R.S. W. W. 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TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). Sir RopERick I. Murcuison, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S. Lieut.-General EDWARD SABINE, R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S. Sir Poitip DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. PRESIDENT. HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH, K.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., ETC. VICE-PRESIDENTS. The Right Hon. The EArt oF AIRLIE, K.T. Sir Davip BAXTER, Bart. The Right Hon. The Lonp KrnnairD, K.T. JAMES D. Forses, LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of Sir Joun Oaityy, Bart., M.P. the United College of St. Salvator and St. Sir RopERICK I. MURCHISON, Bart., K.C.B., Leonard, University of St. Andrews. LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., &e. PRESIDENT ELECT. JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.8., F.L.S., F.G.S8. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. The Right Hon. The EARL oF LEICESTER, Lord- Sir Joun LuBsBock, Bart., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Lieutenant of Norfolk. Joun Coucu ADAMS, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Sir JoHN PETER BOILEAv, Bart., F.R.S. F.R.A.S., Lowndean Professor of Astronomy The Rey. ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., and Geometry in the University of Cambridge. F.G.S., &c., Woodwardian Professor of Geologyin| THOMAS BRIGHTWELL, Esq. the University of Cambridge. | LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT NORWICH. Dr. DALRYMPLE. Rey. Canon Hinps HOWELL. Rey. JOSEPH CROMPTON, M.A. LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT NORWICH. 8. GURNEY BuxToN, Esq. ROGER KERRISON, Esq. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.R.S. PRICE, Professor, M.A., F.R.S. Bropik, Sir B., Bart., F.R.S. RAMSAY, Professor, F.R.S. Busk, GEORGE, Esq., F.R.S. RAWLINSON, Sir H., Bart., M.P., F.R.S. CRAWFURD, JOHN, Esq., F.R.S. SHARPEY, Dr., Sec. R.S. DELARUE, WARREN, Esq., F.R.S. Smiru, Professor H., F.R.S. Durr, M. E. Grant, Esq., M.P. SmMyTH, WARINGTON, Esq., F.R.S. GALTON, Capt. Dougtas, C.B., R.E., F.R.S. Sykes, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S. GassiotT, J. P., Esq., F.R.S. SYLVESTER, Prof. J. J., LL.D., F.R.S. Gopwin-AUSTEN, R. A. C., Esq., F.R.S. TxHomson, Dr. T., F.R.S. HUXLEY, Professor, F.R.S. TiTE, W., Esq., M.P., F.R.S. JONES, Sir WILLOUGHBY, Bart. TYNDALL, Professor, F.R.S. MILLER, Prof. W. A., M.D., F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor, F.R.S. ODLING, WILLIAM, Esq., M.B., F.R.S. WILLIAMSON, Prof. A. W., F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former years, viz.— Rey. Professor Sedgwick. G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer | William Fairbairn, Esq., LL.D. The Duke of Devonshire. _ Royal. The Rev. Professor Willis. Rey. W. V. Harcourt. Lieut.-General Sabine, D.C.L. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. |The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A., LL.D. Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B. | The Duke of Argyll. Professor Phillips, M.A., D.C.L. The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. William R. Grove, Esq., F.R.S. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. GENERAL SECRETARIES. FRANCIS GALTON, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S8., 42 Rutland Gate, Knightsbridge, London. T. ARCHER Hips’, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematicsin niversity College, London. ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., 1 Woodside, Harrow. GENERAL TREASURER. WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.8., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W. AUDITORS, J. Gwyn Jeffreys Esq., F.R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., F.R.S. Dr. Odling, F R.S. Sette OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. - XXXVI OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE DUNDEE MEETING. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS, President.—Professor Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Fischer, F.R.S. ; y, 124 Gassiot, F.R.S.; Professor Kel- land, F.R.S.; J. Clerk Maxwell, F 1R4SHe "Rev. C, Pritchard, F. R. S., Pres. Astr. Soe. ; Professor Tyndall, LL.D., "F.R.S.; Charles Wheatstone, D.C. ime F.R.S. Secretaries.—Rey. G. Buckle, M. "”A.; Professor G. C. F oster ; Professor Fuller, M.A.; Professor Swan. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS, President.—Professor Thomas Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E. Vice-Presidents.—I. Lowthian Bell; Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S. ; Professor Odling, F.R.S. ; Professor Penny ; Dr. Maxwell Simpson, ER. S.; Professor William- son, F. RS. Secretaries.—Dr. A. Crum Brown; Professor G. D. Liveing, F.C.S.; Dr. W. J. Russell. SECTION C,—GEOLOGY. President.—Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S Vice-Presidents.—The Earl of Enniskillen, F.R.S. ; Sir Philip Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.; Professor Harkness, F.R.S.; Dr. T. Oldham, F.R.S.; Professor Ram_ say, F. RS. Secretaries, wes Hull, F.R.S., F.G.S.; W. Pengelly, F.R.S.; Henry Wood- ward, F.G.S., SECTION D.—BIOLOGY. President.—Professor Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S. a esidents.— Professor ‘Allman, F.R.S.; Professor Balfour, F.R.S.; G. Busk, F-.R.S.; Professor Christison, D.C.L. ; De: J. Davy, F.R.S.; J. Gwyn Jettreys, F.RS.; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F. R. S.; Professor Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ; ALR. Wallace, F.R.G.S. Secretaries.—C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.; Dr. Spencer Cobbold, F.R.S.; Dr. M. Fos- ter; H. T. Stainton, FBS; Rey. I. B. Tristram, M.A., "ELS.; ’ Professor W. Turner, F.R.S.E. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. President.—Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G:S. Vice-Presidents.—Sir James E. Alexander, K.C.L.S.; Admiral Sir Edward Belcher, K.C.B.; John Crawfurd, F.R.S.; Colonel Sir Henry James, R.E., F.R.S.; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F. R. S.; Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., K. C. B., F. R. S.; Admiral E. Ommanney, C.B.; Major-General Sir A. 8. W augh, F.RS. Secretaries.—H. W. Bates, Assist. Sec. R.G. SiH Ox aul (Ce Graham, E.R.G:S. ; Clements R. Markham, F.R.G.S.; 8. J. Mackie, F.G.S.; R. Sturrock, SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, President.—M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. Vice-Presidents.—Sir John Bowring, F.R.S. ; Dr. Farr, F.R.S.; Professor Rogers ; Colonel Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ; Principal Tulloch. Secretaries.-Professor Leone Levi, F.S.A.; Edmund Macrory, M.A.; Alex. J. ‘Warden. SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. President.—Professor W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.K., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-PresidentsSir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., FR. 8. ; yaar Bateman, F.R.S. ; Admiral Sir Edward Belcher, K.C.B. ; ; William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R. S.; ; Capt. Douglas Galton, R.E., F. R. SF General Lefroy, R.A., F.R. S.; J aneA Old- * ham, C.E. Secretaries.—P. Le Neve Foster, M.A. ; J. P. Smith, C.E.; W. W. Urquhart. X&XVIil REPORT—1867. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts. M. Babinet, Paris. Captain Belavenetz, R.I.N., Cronstadt. Dr. H. D. Buys Ballot, Utrecht. Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Amsterdam. Professor Bolzani, Kasan. Dr. Berzsma, Utrecht. Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S. M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). Professor Braschmann, Moscow. Dr. Carus, Leipzig. M. Des Cloizeaux, Paris. Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau. M. Antoine d’Abbadie. Geheimrath yon Dechen. M. De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Wilhelm Deltfts, Hezdelberg. Professor Dove, Berlin. Professor Dumas, Paris. Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe, Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. Professor A. Escher von der Linth, Zurich, Switzerland. Professor Esmark, Christiania. Professor A. Favre, Geneva. Professor E, Fremy, Paris. M. Frisiani, Ilan. M. Gaudry, Paris. Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S. Professor Grube. M. E. Hébert, Paris. Professor Henry, Washington, U.S. Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. M. Jacobi, S¢. Petersburg. Dr. Janssen, Paris. Prof. Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Griess- wald, Prussia. Professor Aug. Kekulé, Ghent, Belgium. M. Khanikof, Paris. Professor Kiepert. Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg. Professor De Koninck, Liége. Professor Kreil, Vienna. Dr. Lamont, Munich. M. Le Verrier, Paris. Baron von Liebig, Munich. Professor Loomis, New York. Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin. Professor Mannheim, Paris. Professor Martins, Montpellier, France. Professor Matteucci, Pisa. Professor P. Mevian, Bale, Switzerland. Professor von Middendorff, St. DPeters- burg. M. l’Abbé Moigno, Paris. Dr. Arnold Moritz, Z7flis. Chevalier C. Negri. Herr Neumayer, Munich. Professor Nilsson, Sweden. M. E. Péligot, Paris. Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. Gustav Plaar, Strasburg. Professor Pliicker, Bonn. M. Constant Prévost, Paris. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S. Professor F. Romer. Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin. Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin. M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm. Professor J. A. de Souza, University of Coimbra. Professor Adolph Steen, Copenhagen. Professor Steenstrup. Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. M. Pierre de Paris Tchihatchef. Dr. Otto Torell, University of Lund. M. Vambéry, Hungary. M. de Verneuil, Paris. Baron Sartorius yon Waltershausen, Gottingen. Professor Wartmann, Geneva. Dr. Welwitsch. — REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE, p.0.0.00.4 Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the General Committee, Wednesday, September 4, 1867. The Annual Reports of the Treasurer, the Parliamentary Committee, and the Kew Committee have been received, and will be presented to the General Committee. At the last Meeting of the General Committee at Nottingham, the following Resolution was adopted :— “That the Kew Committee be authorized to discuss and make the neces- sary arrangements with the Board of Trade should any proposal be made re- specting the superintendence, reduction, and publication of Meteorological Observations, in accordance with the recommendations of the Report oi the Committee appointed to consider certain questions relating to the Meteorolo- gical Department of the Board of Trade.” The arrangements which have been made by virtue of the power thus granted to the Kew Committee are described in detail in their Report, to which the Council beg to refer the General Committee. The General Officers of the Association were requested by the Council to inquire into the practicability of having lectures delivered to the Opera- tive Classes when the Association meets in large towns. The Officers having reported in favour of the occasional delivery of such lectures, and having like- wise ascertained that a lecture of the kind was desired by the Local Officers at Dundee, the Council have requested Professor Tyndall to deliver one on Thursday next. At the last Meeting of the Association, the Committee of Recommendations referred to the Council certain Resolutions which- had been adopted by the Committees of two Sections, relative to the teaching of Natural Science in Schools. The Council, fully impressed with the importance of the subject, appointed a Special Committee for the purpose of inquiring into the question, and of preparing a report thereon. This Committee consisted of the General Officers of the Association, the Trustees, the Rev. F. W. Farrar, M.A., F.R.S., the Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, M.A., Professor Huxley, I’.R.S., Mr. Payne, Pro- fessor Tyndall, F.R.S., and Mr. J. M. Wilson, M.A. The Council, having con- sidered the Report presented by this Committee, adopted the recommenda- tions contained therein, and resolved that the Report be submitted to the General Committee at Dundee. The Council recommend that Sir Roderick Murchison, Bart., be elected a Vice-President at the present Meeting. At their Meeting on the 9th of March, the Council also decided to recom- mend for election, as a Vice-President, the late Provost Parker. They after- wards learned, with deep regret, that death had deprived the Association of the services of so esteemed and zealous an officer, The name of M. Janssen has been added to the list of Corresponding Members. The Council have been informed that the Association will be invited to hold future Meetings at Norwich, Plymouth, Exeter, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Brighton. Report of the Committee appointed by the Council of the British Association fur the Advancement of Science to consider the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools. 1. A demand for the introduction of Science into the modern system of education has increased so steadily during the last few years, and has re- xl REPOoRT—1867. 4 ceived the approval of so many men of the highest eminence in every rank and profession, and especially of those who have made the theory and prac- tice of education their study, that it is impossible to doubt the existence of a general, and even a national desire to facilitate the acquisition of some scientific knowledge by boys at our Public and other Schools. 2. We would point out that there is already a general recognition of Science as an element in liberal education. It is encouraged, to a greater or less degree, by the English, Scotch, and Irish Universities ; it is recognized as an optional study by the College of Preceptors; it forms one of the sub- jects in the Local Examinations of Oxford and Cambridge; and it has even been partially introduced into several Public Schools. We have added an appendix containing information on some of these points*. But the means at present adopted in our Schools and Universities for making this teaching effective, are, in our opinion, capable of great improvement. 3. That general education in Schools ought to include some training in Science is an opinion that has been strongly urged on the following grounds :— As providing the best discipline in observation and collection of facts, in the combination of inductive with deductive reasoning, and in accu- racy both of thought and language. Because it is found in practice to remedy some of the defects of the ordinary school education. Many boys on whom the ordinary school studies produce very slight effect, are stimulated and improved by instruction in science ; and it is found to be a most valuable element in the education of those who show special aptitude for literary culture. Because the methods and results of Science have so profoundly af- fected all the philosophical thought of the age, that an educated man is under a very great disadvantage if he is unacquainted with them. Because very great intellectual pleasure is derived in after life from even a moderate acquaintance with Science. On grounds of practical utility as materially affecting the present position and future progress of civilization. This opinion is fully supported by the popular judgment. All who have much to do with the parents of boys in the upper classes of life are aware that, as a rule, they value education in Science on some or all of the grounds above stated. 4, There are difficulties in the way of introducing Science into schools ; and we shall make some remarks on them. They will be found, we believe, to be by no means insuperable. First among these difficulties is the necessary increase of expense. For if science is to be taught, at least one additional master must be appointed ; and it will be necessary in some cases to provide him with additional school- rooms, and a fund for the purchase of apparatus. It is obvious that the money which will be requisite for both the initial and current expenses, must in general be obtained by increasing the school fees. This difficulty is a real but not a fatal one. In a wealthy country like England, a slight increase in the cost of education will not be allowed (in cases where it is unavoidable) to stand in the way of what is generally looked on as an important educa- tional reform; and parents will not be unwilling to pay a small additional fee if they are satisfied that the instruction in Science is to be made a reality. Another ground of hesitation is, the fear that the teaching of Science will injure the teaching in classics. But we do not think that there * See Appendix A. REPOR? OF THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE. xli need be the slightest apprehension that any one of the valuable results of a classical education will be diminished by the introduction of Science. It is a very general opinion, in which schoolmasters heartily concur, that much more knowledge and intellectual vigour might be obtained by most boys, during the many years they spend at school, than what they do as a matter of fact obtain. It should, we think, be frankly acknowledged, and indeed few are found who deny it, that an exclusively classical education, however well it may operate in the case of the very few who distinguish themselves in its curriculum, fails deplorably for the majority of minds. As a general rule the small proportion of boys who leave our schools for the Universities consists undeniably of those who have advanced furthest in classical studies, and judging the existing system of education by these boys alone, we have to confess that it frequently ends in astonishing ignorance. This ignorance, often previously acknow- ledged and deplored, has been dwelt on with much emphasis, and brought into great prominence by the recent Royal Commission for Inquiry into our Public Schools. We need not fear that we shall do great damage by endeavouring to improve a system which has not been found to yield satisfactory results. And we believe, further, that the philological abilities of the very few who succeed in attaining to a satisfactory knowledge of classics will be rather stimulated than impeded by a more expansive training. Lastly, it may be objected that an undue strain will be put upon the minds of boys by the introduction of the proposed subjects. We would renly that the same objections were made, and in some schools are still made, to the introduction of Mathematics and Modern Languages, and are found by general experience to have been untenable. A change of studies, invol- ving the play of a new set of faculties, often produces a sense of positive relief; and at a time when it is thought necessary to devote to games so large a proportion of a boy’s available time, the danger of a general over- pressure to the intellectual powers is very small, while any such danger in individual cases can always be obviated by special remissions. We do not wish to advocate any addition to the hours of work in schools where it is be- lieved that they are already as numerous as is desirable ; but in such schools some hours a week could still be given up to science, by a curtailment of the vastly preponderant time at present devoted to classical studies, and especially to Greek and Latin Composition. 5. To the selection of the subjects that ought to be included in a pro- gramme of scientific instruction in public schools we have given our best attention, and we would make the following remarks on the principles by which we have been guided in the selection that we shall propose. There is an important distinction between scientific information and scien- tifie training; in other words, between general literary acquaintance with scientific facts, and the knowledge of methods that may be gained by studying the facts at first hand under the guidance of a competent teacher. Both of these are valuable ; it is very desirable, for example, that boys should have some general information about the ordinary phenomena of nature, such as the simple facts of Astronomy, of Geology, of Physical Geography, and of elementary Physiology. On the other hand, the scientific habit of mind, which is the principal benefit resulting from scientific training, and which is of incalculable value whatever be the pursuits of after life, can better be at- tained by a thorough knowledge of the facts and principles of one science, than by a general acquaintance with what has been said or written about many. Both of these should co-exist, we think, at any school which professes to xli REPORT—1867. z offer the highest liberal education; and at every school it will be easy to provide at least for giving some scientific information. I. The subjects that we recommend for scientific information as distinguished from training, should comprehend a general description of the solar system ; of the form and physical geography of the earth, and of such natural phe- nomena as tides, currents, winds, and the causes that influence climate ; of the broad facts of Geology ; of elementary Natural History, with especial reference to the useful plants and animals; and of the rudiments of Physiology. This is a kind of information which requires less preparation on the part of the teacher ; and its effectiveness will depend on his knowledge, clearness, method, and sympathy with his pupils. Nothing will be gained by circumscribing these subjects by any general syllabus; they may safely be left to the dis- cretion of the masters who teach them. IT. And for scientific training we are decidedly of opinion that the subjects which have paramount claims, are Experimental Physics, Elementary Chemistry, and Botany. i. The science of Experimental Physics deals with subjects which come within the range of every boy’s experience. It embraces the phenomena and laws of light, heat, sound, electricity, and magnetism; the elements of mechanics, and the mechanical properties of liquids and gases. The thorough knowledge of ~ these subjects includes the practical mastery of the apparatus employed in their investigation. The study of experimental physics involves the observation and colligation of facts, and the discovery and application of principles. It is both inductive and deductive. It exercises the attention and the memory, but makes both of them subservient to an intellectual discipline higher than either. The teacher can so present his facts as to make them sug- gest the principles which underlie them, while, once in possession of the principle, the learner may be stimulated to deduce from it results which lie beyond the bounds of his experience. The subsequent verification of his deduction by experiment never fails to excite his interest and awaken his delight. The effects obtained in the class-room will be made the key to the explanation of natural phenomena,—of thunder and lightning, of rain and snow, of dew and hoar-frost, of winds and wuyes, of atmospheric refraction and reflexion, of the rainbow and the mirage, of meteorites, of terrestrial magnetism, of the pressure and buoyancy of water and of air. Thus the knowledge acquired by the study of experimental physics is, of itself, of the highest value, while the acquisition of that knowledge brings into healthful and vigorous play every faculty of the learner’s mind. Not only are natural phenomena made the objects of intelligent observation, but they furnish material fur thought to wrestle with and to overcome ; the growth of intel- lectual strength being the sure concomitant of the enjoyment of intellectual victory. We do not entertain a doubt that the competent teacher who loves his subject and can sympathize with his pupils, will find in experimental physics a store of knowledge of the most fascinating kind, and an instrument of mental training of exceeding power. ii, Chemistry is remarkable for the comprehensive character of the training which it affords. Not only does it exercise the memory and the reasoning powers, but it also teaches the student to gather by his own experiments and observations the facts upon which to reason. It affords a corrective of each of the two extremes against which real educators of youth are constantly struggling. For on the one hand it leads even sluggish or uncultivated minds from simple and interesting observa- tions to general ideas and conclusions, and gives them a taste of intellectual =a vy REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTER. xh enjoyment and a desire for learning. On the other hand, it checks over- confidence in mere reasoning, and shows the way in which valid extensions of our ideas grow out of a series of more and more rational and accurate ob- servations of external nature. It must not, however, be supposed that all so-called teaching of chemistry produces results of this kind. Young men do occasionally come up to public examinations with a literary acquaintance with special facts and even prin- ciples of chemistry, sufficient to enable them to describe those facts from some one point of view, and to enunciate the principles in fluent language, and yet who know nothing of the real meaning of the phrases which they have learnt. Such mere literary acquaintance with scientific facts is in chemistry an incalculable evil to the student if he be allowed to mistake it for science. Whether the student is to learn much or little of chemistry his very first lessons must be samples of the science. He must see the chief phenomena which are described to him; so that the words of each description may after- wards call up in his mind an image of the thing. He must make simple ex- periments, and learn to describe accurately what he has done, and what he has observed. He must learn to use the knowledge which he has acquired before proceeding to the acquisition of more; and he must rise gradually from well-examined facts to general laws and theories. Among the commonest non-metallic elements and their simplest compounds the teacher in a school will find abundant scope for his chief exertions. ii. Botany has also strong claims to be regarded as a subject for scientific training. It has been introduced into the regular school course at Rugby (where it is the first branch of Natural Science which is studied); and the voluntary pursuit of it is encouraged at Harrow and at some other schools with satisfactory results. It only requires observation, attention, and the acquisition of some new words; but it also evolves the powers of comparison and colligation of facts in a remarkable degree; of all sciences it seems to offer the greatest facilities for observation in the fields and gardens; and to this must be added the fact that boys, from their familiarity with fruits, trees, and flowers, start with a considerable general knowledge of botanical facts. It admits therefore preeminently of being taught in the true scientific method. The teaching of Science is made really valuable by train- ing the learner’s mind to examine into his present knowledge, to arrange and criticise it, and to look for additional information. The science must be begun where it touches his past experience, and this experience must be converted into scientific knowledge. The discretion of the teacher will best determine the range of Botany at which it is desirable to aim. 6. The modes of giving instruction in the subjects which we have re- commended are reducible to two. I. A compulsory system of instruction may be adopted, similar to that which exists at. Rugby, where science has now for nearly three years been introduced on precisely the same footing as Mathematics and Modern Languages, and is necessarily taught to all boys. Il. A voluntary system may be encouraged as has been done for many years at Harrow, where scientific instruction on such subjects as have been enume- rated above is now given in a systematic series of lectures, on which the attendance of all boys who are interested in them is entirely optional. Of these systems it is impossible not to feel that the compulsory system is the most complete and satisfactory. The experience of different schools will indicate how it may best be adopted, and what modifications of it may be madetosuit the different school arrangements. It will often be very desirable to xliy REPORT—1867. supplement it by the voluntary system, to enable the boys of higher scientific ability to study those parts of the course of Experimental Physics which will rarely, if ever, be included in the compulsory school system. Lectures may also be occasionally given by some non-resident lecturer with a view of stimulating the attention and interest of the boys. We add appendices con- taining details of these two systems as worked at Rugby and Harrow*, and we believe that a combination of the two would leave little or nothing to be desired. The thorough teaching of the Physical Sciences at schools will not, how- ever, be possible, unless there is a general improvement in the knowledge of Arithmetic. At present many boys of thirteen and fourteen are sent to the Public Schools almost totally ignorant of the elements of Arithmetic, and in such cases they gain only the most limited and meagre knowledge of it; and the great majority enter ill-taught. It is a serious and lasting injury to boys so to neglect Arithmetic in their early education ; it arises partly from the desire of the masters of preparatory schools to send up their boys fitted to take a good place in the classical school, and from the indifference of the public schools themselves to the evil that has resulted. 7. With a view to the furtherance of this scheme, we make the following suggestions :— i. That in all schools Natural Science be one of the subjects to be taught, and that in every Public School at least one Natural Science master be appointed for the purpose. ii. That at least three hours a week be devoted to such scientific instruc- tion. iii. That Natural Science should be placed on an equal footing with Mathematics and Modern Languages in affecting promotions, and in winning honours and prizes. iv. That some knowledge of Arithmetic should be required for admission into all Public Schools. y. That the Universities and Colleges be invited to assist in the intro- duction of scientific education, by making Natural Science a subject of exa- mination, either at Matriculation, or at an early period of a University career. vi. That the importance of appointing Lecturers in Science, and offering Entrance Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Fellowships for the encourage- ment of scientific attaimments be represented to the authorities of the Colleges. With reference to the last two recommendations, we would observe that, without the cooperation of the Universities, Science can never be effectively introduced into School education. Although not more than 35 per cent., even of the boys at our great Public Schools, proceed to the University, and at the majority of schools a still smaller proportion, yet the curriculum of a public school course is almost exclusively prepared with reference to the requirements of the Universities and the rewards for proficiency that they offer. No more decisive proof could be furnished of the fact that the Univer- sities and Colleges have it in their power to alter and improve the whole higher education of England. * See Appendices B and C. ee ee REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE. xlv APPENDIX A. I. Oxrorp. The Natural Science School at Oxford was established in the year 1853. By recent changes the University allows those who have gained a first, second, or third class in this school to graduate without passing the classical school, provided they have obtained honours, or have passed in three books at least, at the second classical examination, viz., moderations (which is usually passed in the second year of residence) ; honours in this school are thus placed on an equality with classical honours. The first classical examination, ‘ re- sponsions,’ is generally passed in the first term of residence. Arithmetic and two books of Euclid, or algebra up to simple equations, are a necessary part of this examination. The University offers ample opportunities for the study of physics, che- mistry, physiology, and other branches of natural science. At present only a few of the Colleges have lecturers on this subject ; while for classics and mathe- matics every College professes to have an adequate staff of teachers. At Christ Church, however, avery complete chemical laboratory has been lately opened. A junior studentship at Christ Church and a demyship at Magdalen College, tenable for five years, are, by the statutes of those Colleges, awarded annually for proficiency in natural science. A scholarship, tenable for three years, lately founded by Miss Brackenbury at Balliol College for the promotion of the study of Natural Science, will be given away every two years. With the exception of Merton College, where a scholarship is to be shortly given for proficiency in natural science, no College has hitherto assigned any scholarships to natural science. The number of scholarships at the Colleges is stated to be about 400, varying in annual value from £100 to £60. With these should be reckoned College exhibitions*, to the number of at least 220, which range in annual value from £145 to £20, and exhibitions awarded at school, many of which are of considerable value. The two Burdett-Coutts geological scholarships, tenable for two years, and of the annual value of £75, are open to all members of the University who have passed the examination for the B.A degree, and have not exceeded the 27th term from their matriculation. Every year a fellowship of £200 a year, tenable for three years (half of which time must be spent on the Con- tinent) on Dr. Radcliffe’s foundation, is at present competed for by candidates who, having taken a first class in the school of natural science, propose to enter the medical profession. At Christ Church two of the senior studentships (fellowships) are awarded for proficiency in natural science: at the examination for one of these, che- mistry is the principal subject, and for the other physiology. At Magdalen College it is provided that, for twenty years from the year 1857, every fifth fellowship is assigned to mathematics and physical science alternately. In the statutes of this and of every College in Oxford (except Corpus, Exeter, and Lincoln?) the following clause occurs :— The system of * At Magdalen College there will be twenty exhibitions tenable for five years, and of the value of £75 a year, to be held by persons in need of support at the University ; in the election to these, “‘ the subjects of examination, for one exhibition at least in each year, shall be mathematics and physical science alternately.” + These Colleges exercised the powers of making statutes granted to them by the Oxford University Act of 1854, 17 and 18 Vic. cap. 81. In the statutes of Exeter College it is provided that, in the election of Fellows, “preference shall be given to those candidates in whom shall be found the highest moral and intellectual qualifications, such intellectual qualifications having been tested by an examination in such subjects as the College from time xlvi REPORT— 1867. examinations shall always be such as shall render fellowships accessible, from time to time, to excellence in every branch of knowledge for the time being recognized in the schools of the University.” This clause, so far as it relates to the study of natural science, has been acted on only by Queen’s College and at Merton College, where a natural-science fellowship will be filled up during the course of the present year. At Pembroke College one of the two Sheppard fellows must proceed to the degree of Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine in the University. At the late election to this fellowship natural science was the principal subject in the examination. The number of College fellowships in Oxford is at present about 400. II. Camprwce. It is important to distinguish between the University and the Colleges at Cambridge as at Oxford. There is a natural-science tripos in which the University examines in the whole range of natural sciences, and grants honours precisely in the same manner as in classics or mathematics. The University also recognizes the natural sciences as an alternative sub- ject for the ordinary degree. As the regulations on this point are compara- tively recent, it will be well to state them here. A student who intends to take an ordinary degree without taking honours has to pass three examinations during his course of three years,—the first, or previous examination, after a year’s residence, in Paley, Latin, Greek, Euclid, and arithmetic, and one of the Gospels in Greek; the second, or gene- ral examination, towards the end of his second year, in the Acts of the Apostles in Greek, Latin, Greek, Latin prose composition, algebra, and ele- mentary mechanics; and the third, or special examination, at the end of his third year, in one of the following five subjects:—1. Theology ; 2. Moral Science ; 3. Law; 4. Natural Science ; 5. Mechanism and applied science. In the natural-science examination a choice is given of chemistry, geology, botany, and zoology. There are only five Colleges in Cambridge that take any notice of Natural Science ; namely, King’s, Caius, Sidney Sussex, St. John’s, and Downing. At King’s two exhibitions have been given away partly for proficiency in this subject ; but there are no lectures, and it is doubtful whether similar exhi- bitions will be given in future. At Caius there is a medical lecturer and one scholarship given away annually for Anatomy and Physiology. At Sidney Sussex two scholarships annually are given away for mathematics and natural science; and a prize of £20 for scientific knowledge. There is also a laboratory for the use of students. At St. John’s there is a chemical lecturer and laboratory ; and though at this College there is no sort of exami- nation in natural science either for scholarships or fellowships, it is believed distinction in the subject may be taken into account in both elections. Downing was founded with “ especial reference to the studies of Law and Medicine ;” there is a lecturer here in medicine and natural science, and in the scholarship examinations one paper in these subjects ; no scholarship is appropriated to them, but they are allowed equal weight with other subjects to time shall determine.” In the statutes of Lincoln College the following clause occurs :— “ Pateat autem societas non iis tantum, qui in literis Grecis et Latinis se profecisse pro- baverint, sed etiam aliarum bonarum artium peritis juvenibus.” And in the statutes of Corpus Christi College, ‘‘ Quicunque se candidatos offerant examinentur in bonis literis et scientiis, sicut Preesidenti et sociis videbitur.” REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE. xlvii in the choice of candidates. It is believed that the same principle will govern the election to fellowships in this College, though no fellowship has yet been given for honours in natural science. We believe that, owing to the new University regulations (mentioned above), the authorities of Trinity College have determined to appoint a lecturer in natural science ; the matter is under deliberation in other Colleges, and it is not improbable that the same considerations will induce them to follow this example. It must always be remembered that the practice is rare in Cambridge of appropriating fellowships and scholarships to special subjects. At present public opinion in the University does not reckon scientific distinction as on a par with mathematical or classical ; hence the progress of the subject seems enclosed in this inevitable circle—the ablest men do not study natural science because no rewards are given for it, and no rewards are given for it because the ablest men do not study it. But it may be hoped that the dis- interested zeal of teachers and learners will rapidly break through this circle ; in that case the subject may be placed on a satisfactory footing without any express legislative provision. III. Tuer Untverstry or Lonpon. At the University of London the claims of science to form a part of every liberal education have long been recognized. At the Matriculation Exami- nation the student is required to show that he possesses at least a popular knowledge of the following subjects :— a. In Mechanics: the composition and resolution of forces ; the mechanical powers ; a definition of the centre of gravity; and the general laws of motion. 6. In Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, and Pneumatics: the pressure of liquids and gases; specific gravity; and the principles of the action of the barometer, the siphon, the common pump and forcing-pump, and the air-pump. ¢c. In Acoustics: the nature of sound. d. In Optics: the laws of refraction and reflection, and the formation of images by simple lenses. ‘é. In Chemistry: the phenomena and laws of heat; the chemistry of the non-metallic elements ; general nature of acids, bases, &c. ; constitution of the atmosphere ; composition of water, &c. At the examination for the degree of B.A. a more extensive knowledge of these subjects is required, and the candidate is further examined in the fol- lowing branches of science :— f. Astronomy: principal phenomena depending on the motion of the earth round the sun, and on its rotation about its own axis ; general description of the solar system, and explanation of lunar and solar eclipses. g. Animal Physiology: the properties of the elementary animal textures ; the principles of animal mechanics ; the processes of digestion, absorption, assimilation ; the general plan of circulation in the great divisions of the animal kingdom ; the mechanism of respiration ; the structure and actions of the nervous system ; and the organs of sense. Besides the degree examination there is also an examination for honours in mathematics and natural philosophy, in which, of course, a much wider range of scientific knowledge is required. We would venture to remark that, if a similar elementary acquaintance with the general principles of sciences were required for matriculation at xlvili REPORT— 1867. Oxford and Cambridge, it is certain that they would at once become a subject of regular teaching in all our great public schools. There are also two specially scientific degrees, a Bachelor of Science and a Doctor of Science. For the B.Sc. there are two examinations of a general but highly scientific character. The degree of D.Sc. can only be obtained after the expiration of two years subsequent to taking the degree of B.Sc. The candidate is allowed to select one principal subject, and to prove his thorough practical knowledge thereof, as well as a general acquaintance with other subsidiary subjects. LY. Tue Cottece oF PREcEPTORS. In the diploma examinations at the College of Preceptors, one branch of science, viz. either chemistry, natural history, or physiology, is required as a necessary subject for the diploma of Fellow. In the examinations for the lower diploma of Associate or Licenciate some branch of science may be taken up by candidates at their own option. The Council recently decided to offer a prize of three guineas half-yearly for the candidate who showed most proficiency in science, and who at the same time obtained a second class in the other subjects. In the examinations of pupils of schools, natural philosophy, chemistry, and natural history are optional subjects only, and are not required for a certificate for the three classes. Two prizes are given to those candidates who obtain the highest number of marks in these subjects at the half-yearly examinations; and it is an interesting fact that last year, out of a total of 651 candidates, 100 brought up natural history, and 36 brought up che- mistry as subjects for examination. Two additional prizes were conse- quently awarded. VY. Tue Frencu Scuoots. In France the “ Lycées”’ correspond most nearly to our Public Schools, and for many years science has formed a distinct part of their regular curriculum. A strong impulse to the introduction of scientific teaching into French schools was given by Napoleon I., and since that time we believe that no French school has wholly neglected this branch of education. The amount of time given to these subjects appears to average two hours in every week. The primary education is that which is given to all alike, whatever may be their future destination in life, up to the age of eleven or twelve years. After this period there is a “bifurcation” in the studies of boys. Those who are intended for business or for practical professions lay aside Greek and Latin, and enter on a course of ‘special secondary instruction.” In this course mechanics, cosmography, physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, and geology occupy a large space; and the authorized oflicial programmes of these studies are very full, and are drawn up with the greatest care. The remarks and arguments of the Minister of Public Instruction (Mons. Duruy) and others, in the ‘ Programmes officiels &c. de l’enseignement secondaire spécial,” are extremely valuable and suggestive; and we recommend the sylla- buses of the various subjects, which have received the sanction of the French Government, as likely to afford material assistance to English teachers in determining the range and limits of those scientific studies at which, in any special system of instruction, they may practically aim. The ‘“ Enseigne- ment secondaire spécial” might very safely be taken as a model of what it is desirable to teach in the “ modern departments ’’ which are now attached to some of our great schools. REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE. xlix The boys who are destined to enter the learned professions continue a classical course, in which, however, much less time is devoted to classical com- position than is the case in our Public Schools. Nor is science by any means neglected in this course, which is intended to cover a period of three years. Besides the “elementary division’’ there are five great classes in these schools, viz., a grammar division, an upper division, a philosophy class, and classes for elementary and special mathematics. In the grammar division there is systematic instruction on the physical geography of the globe. In the second class of the upper division the boys begin to be taught the elements of zoology, botany, and geology in accordance with the ministerial programmes ; and in the rhetoric class descriptive cosmography (which seems to be nearly coextensive with the German Erdkunde) forms the subject of a certain number of weekly lessons. In the class of philosophy, the young students are initiated into the ele- mentary notions of physics (including weight, heat, electricity and magnetism, acoustics, and optics) and of chemistry, in which, at this stage, the teaching is confined to “ general conceptions on air, water, oxidation, combustion, the conditions and effects of chemical action, and on the forces which result from it.” In the classes of elementary and special mathematics this course of scientific training is very considerably extended; and if the authorized programmes con- stitute any real measure of the teaching, it is clear that no boy could pass through these classes without a far more considerable amount of knowledge in the most important branches of science than is at present attainable in any English Public School. VI. Tue German ScHoots. In Germany the schools which are analogous to Public Schools in England are the Gymnasia, where boys are prepared for the Universities, and the Biirgerschulen or Realschulen, which were established for the most part about thirty years ago for the purpose of affording a complete education to those who go into active life as soon as they leave school. An account of the Prussian Gymnasia and Realschulen may be seen in the Public-School Com- mission Report, Appendix G; further information may be obtained in ‘ Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen,’ by Dr. Wiese, published under the sanction of the Minister of Public Instruction in Prussia, and in the programmes issued annually by the school authorities throughout Germany*. At the Gymnasia natural science is not taught to any great extent. Ac- cording to the Prussian official instructions, in the highest class two hours, and in the next class one hour, a week are allotted to the study of physics. Tn the lower classes two hours a week are devoted to natural history, 7. ¢. botany and zoology. ‘The results of the present training in natural science at the Gymnasia are considered by many eminent University professors in Germany to be unsatisfactory, owing to the insufficient time allotted to it. In the Realschulen about six hours a week are given to physics and che- mistry in the two highest classes, and two or three hours a week to natural history in the other classes. In these schools all the classes devote five or six hours a week to mathematics, and no Greek is learnt. In Prussia there were in 1864 above 100 of these schools. * See also Etude sur V'instruction secondaire et supérieure en Allemagne, par J. F. Minssen, Paris, 1866. A brief Report addressed to the Minister of Public Instruction in France. 1867. d 1 REPORT—1867. APPENDIX B. On tae Narurat-Scrence Tracuine at Rucsy. Before the summer of £1864 a boy on entering Rugby might signify his wish to learn either modern languages or natural science; the lessons were given at the same time, and therefore excluded one another. If he chose “natural science he paid an entrance fee of £11s., which went to an apparatus fund, and £5 5s. annually to the lecturer. Out of the whole school, numbering from 450 to 500, about one-tenth generally were in the natural science classes. The changes proposed by the Commissioners were as follows: — That natural science should no longer be an alternative with modern languages, but that all boys should learn some branch of it. _ That there should be two principal branches,—one consisting of chemistry and physics, the other of physiology and natural history, animal and vegetable; and that the classes in natural science should be entirely independent of the general divisions of the school, so that boys might be arranged for this study exclusively accord- ing to their proficiency in it. ‘Since, owing to circumstances which it would be tedious to detail, it was impossible to adopt literally the proposals of the Commissioners, a system was devised, which must be considered as the system of the Commissioners in spirit, adapted to meet the exigencies of the case. The general arrangement is this,—that new boys shall learn botany their first year, mechanics their second, geology their third, and chemistry their fourth. In carrying out this general plan certain difficulties occur, which are met by special arrangements depending on the peculiarities of the school system. We need not here enter upon these details, because it would be impossible to explain them simply, and because any complications which occur in one school would differ widely from those which are likely to arise in another. Next, as to the nature of the teaching. In botany the instruction is given partly by lectures and ‘partly from Oliver’s Botany. Flowers are dissected and examined by every boy, and their parts recognized and compared in different plants, and then named. No technical terms are given till a familiarity with the organ to be named or described has given rise to their want. The terms which express the cohesion and adhesion of the parts are gradually acquired until the floral schedule, so highly recommended by Henslow and Oliver, can be readily worked. Fruit, seed, inflorescence, the forms of leaf, stem, root are then treated, the principal facts of vegetable physiology illustrated, and the prin- ciple of classification into natural orders explained, for the arrangement of which Bentham’s ‘Handbook of the British Flora’ is used. Contrary to all previous expectation, when this subject was first introduced it became at once both popular and effective among the boys. The lectures are illustrated by Henslow’s nine diagrams, and by a large and excellent collection of paintings and diagrams made by the lecturers and their friends, and by botanical collections made for use in lectures. When the year’s course is over, such boys as show a special taste are invited to take botanical walks with the principal lecturer, to refer to the School Her- barium, and are stimulated by prizes for advanced knowledge and for dried collections, both local and general. In mechanics the lecturer is the senior Natural Science Master. The lectures include experimental investigations into the mechanical powers, with REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE. hi numerous examples worked by the boys; into the elements of mechanism, conversion of motion, the steam-engine, the equilibrium of roofs, bridges, strength of material, &. They are illustrated by a large collection of models, and are very effective and popular lectures. The lectures in geology are undertaken by another master. This subject is only temporarily introduced, on account of the want of another experimental school. When this is built the third year’s course will be some part of experi- mental physics, for which there already exists at Rugby a fair amount of appa- ratus. {It is very desirable that boys should obtain some knowledge of geology, but it 1s not so well fitted for school teaching as some of the other subjects on several grounds. Perhaps a larger proportion of boys are interested in the subject than in any other; but the subject presupposes more knowledge and experience than most boys possess, and their work has a tendency to become either superficial, or undigested knowledge derived from books alone. The lectures include the easier part of Lyell’s Principles, 7. e. the causes of change now in operation on the earth; next, an account of the phenomena obsery- able in the crust of the earth, stratification and its disturbances, and the construction of maps and sections ; and, lastly, the history of the stratified rocks and of life on the earth. These lectures are illustrated by a fair geo- logical collection, which has been much increased of late, and by a good col- lection of diagrams and views to illustrate geological phenomena. For chemistry the lecturer has a convenient lecture-room and a small but well-fitted laboratory*, and he takes his classes through the non-metallic and the metallic elements : the lectures are fully illustrated by experiments. Boys, whose parents wish them to study chemistry more completely, can go through a complete course of practical analysis in the laboratory, by becoming private pupils of the teacher. At present twenty-one boys are studying analysis. This being the matter of the teaching, it remains to say a few words on the manner. This is nearly the same in all the classes, mutatis mutandis : the lecture is given, interspersed with questions, illustrations, and experi- ments, and the boys take rough notes, which are recast into an intelligible and presentable form in note-books. These are sent up about once a fort- night, looked over, corrected, and returned; and they form at once the test of how far the matter has been understood, the test of the industry, care, and attention of the boy, and an excellent subject for their English composition. Examination papers are given to the sets every three or four weeks, and to these and to the note-books marks are assigned which have weight in the _ promotion from form to form. The marks assigned to each subject are pro- portional to the number of hours spent in school on that subject. There are school prizes given annually for proficiency in each of the branches of natural science above mentioned. This leads us, lastly, to speak of the results. First, as to the value of the teaching itself ; secondly, as to its effects on the other branches of study. The experience gained at Rugby seems to point to these conclusions :—That botany, structural and classificatory, may be taught with great effect and interest a large number of boys, and is the best subject to start with. That its exactness of terminology, the necessity cf care in examining the flowers, and the impossibility of superficial knowledge are its first recommendations ; and the successive gradations in the generalizations as to the unity of type of flowers, and the principles of a natural classification, are of great value to * Another and larger Jaboratory and school for Experimental Physics will shortly be built at Rugby. d 2 ln REPORT—1867. the cleverer boys. The teaching must be based on personal examination of flowers, assisted by diagrams, and everything like cram strongly dis- couraged. Mechanics are found rarely to be done well by those who are not also the best mathematicians. But it is a subject which in its applications interest many boys, and would be much better done, and would be correspondingly more profitable, if the standard of geometry and arithmetic were higher than itis. The ignorance of arithmetic which is exhibited by most of the new boys of fourteen or fifteen would be very surprising, if it had not long since ceased to surprise the only persons who are acquainted with it; and it forms the main hindrance to teaching mechanics. Still, under the circumstances, the results are fairly satisfactory. The geological teaching need not be discussed at length, as it is temporary, at least in the middle school. Its value is more literary than scientific. The boys can bring neither mineralogical, nor chemical, nor anatomical know- ledge ; nor have they observed enough of rocks to make geological teaching sound. The most that they can acquire, and this the majority do acquire, is the general outline of the history of the earth and of the agencies by which that history has been effected, with a conviction that the subject is an extremely interesting one. It supplies them with an object rather than with a method. Of the value of elementary teaching in chemistry there can be only one opinion. It is felt to be a new era in a boy’s mental progress when he has realized the laws that regulate chemical combination and sees traces of order amid the seeming endless variety. But the number of boys who get real hold of chemistry from lectures alone is small, as might be expected from the nature of the subject. Of the value of experimental teaching in physics, especially pneumatics, heat, acoustics, optics, and electricity, there can be no doubt. Nothing but impossibilities would prevent the immediate introduction of each of these subjects in turn into the Rugby curriculum. Lastly, what are the general results of the introduction of scientific teach- ing in the opinion of the body of masters? In brief it is this, that the school as a whole is the better for it, and that the scholarship is not worse. The number of boys whose industry and attention is not caught by any school study is decidedly less ; there is more respect for work and for abilities in the different fields now open to a boy; and though pursued often with great vigour, and sometimes with great success, by boys distinguished in classics, it is not found to interfere with their proficiency in classics, nor are there any symptoms of overwork in the school. This is the testimony of classical masters, by no means specially favourable to science, who are in a position which enables them to judge. To many who would have left Rugby with but little knowledge, and little love of knowledge, to show as the results of their two or three years in our middle school, the introduction of science into our course has been the greatest possible gain: and others who have left from the upper part of the school, without hope of distinguishing them- selves in classics or mathematics, have adopted science as their study at the Universities. It is believed that no master in Rugby School would wish to give up natural science and recur to the old curriculum. REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE, li APPENDIX C. On THE TEACHING OF ScIENcE AT Harrow Scuoor. From this time forward natural science will be made a regular subject for systematic teaching at Harrow, and a natural science master has been appointed, But for many years before the Royal Commission for Inquiry into the Public Schools had been appointed, a voluntary system for the encouragement of science had been in existence at Harrow. ‘There had been every term a voluntary examination on some scientific subject, which, together with the text-books recommended, was announced at the end of the previous term. Boys from all parts of the school offered themselves as candidates for these voluntary examinations, and every boy who acquitted himself to the satisfac- tion of the examiners (who were always two of the masters) was rewarded with reference to what could be expected from his age and previous attain- ments. The text-books were selected with great care, and every boy really interested in his subject could and did seek the private assistance of his tutor or of some other master. The deficiencies of the plan, if regarded as a sub- stitute for the more formal teaching of science, were too obvious to need pointing out; yet its results were so far satisfactory that many old Harro- vians spoke of it with gratitude, among whom are some who have since de- voted themselves to science with distinguished success. One of the main defects of this plan (its want of all system) was remedied a year ago, when two of the masters drew upa scheme, which was most readily adopted, by which any boy staying at Harrow for three years might at least have the opportunity during that time of being introduced to the elementary conceptions of astronomy, zoology, botany, structural and classificatory, che- mistry, and physics. These subjects were entrusted to the responsibility of eight of the masters, who drew up with great care a syllabus on the subject for each term, recommend the best text-books, and give weekly instruction (which is perfectly gratuitous) to all the boys who desire to avail themselves of it; indeed a boy may receive, in proportion to the interest which he manifests in the subject, almost any amount of assistance which he may care to seek. Proficiency in these examinations is rewarded as before; and to encourage steady perseverance, the boys who do best in the examination du- ring a course of three terms receive more valuable special rewards. As offering to boys a voluntary and informal method of obtaining much scientific information this plan (which was originated at Harrow, and has not, so far as we are aware, been ever adopted at any other school) offers many advantages. It is sufficiently elastic to admit of many modifications ; it is sufficiently comprehensive to attract a great diversity of tastes and incli- nations ; it cannot be found oppressive, because it rests with each boy to decide whether he has the requisite leisure or not; it can be adopted with ease at any school where even a small body of the masters are interested in one or other special branch of science; and it may tend to excite in some minds a more spontaneous enthusiasm than could be created by a compulsory plan alone. We would not, however, for a moment recommend the adoption of any such plan as a substitute for more regular scientific training. Its chief value is purely supplemental, and henceforth it will be regarded at Harrow as entirely subordinate to the formal classes for the teaching of science which will be immediately established. In addition to this, more than a year ago some of the boys formed them- liv REPORT—1867. selves intoa voluntary association for the pursuit of science. This Scientific Society, which numbers upwards of thirty members, meets every ten days at the house and under the presidency of one or other of the masters. Objects of scientific interest are exhibited by the members, and papers are read gene- rally on some subject connected with natural history. Under the auspices of this Society the nucleus of a future museum has already been formed ; and among other advantages the Society has had the honour of numbering among its visitors more than one eminent representative of literature and science. We cannot too highly recommend the encouragement of such associations for intellectual self-culture among the boys of our public schools, Report of the Kew Committee of the Briiish Association for the Advancement of Science for 1866-67. The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Council of the British Association the following statement of their proceedings during the past ear :-— ; At the Nottingham Meeting it was resolved, “ That the Kew Committee be authorized to discuss and make the necessary arrangements with the Board of Trade, should any proposal be made respecting the superintendence, reduc- tion, and publication of Meteorological observations, in accordance with the recommendations of the Report of the Committee appointed to consider cer- tain questions relating to the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade.” On the 18th of October last, a joint Meeting of the Kew Committee, and of the President, Vice-Presidents, and other Officers of the Royal Society, took place, to take into consideration a communication which had been received by the President of the Royal Society from the Board of Trade relative to the Meteorological Department, and to consider what reply should be sent. At this joint Meeting it was recommended that the Department under whose care the Meteorological observations, reductions, and tabulations are to be made should be under the direction and control of a Superintending Scientific Committee, who should (subject to the approval of the Board of Trade) have the nomination to all appointments, as well as the power of dismissing the usual officials receiving salaries or remuneration. It was also understood that while the services of the Committee were to be gratuitous, they would yet necessarily require the services and assistance of a competent paid Secretary. Finally, the draft of a reply to the above-mentioned communication from the Board of Trade was agreed to at this Meeting, for consideration of the Council of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society, on 13th Dec, 1866, nominated the following Fellows of the Society as the Superintending Meteorological Committee :— General Sabine, Pres. R.S., Mr. De la Rue, Mz. Francis Galton, Mr. Gassiot, Dr. W. A. Miller, Captain Richards (Hydrographer of the Admiralty), Colonel Smythe, and Mr. Spottiswoode; and on the 3rd of January this Committee appointed Mr. Balfour Stewart as its Secretary, on the understanding that he should, with the concurrence of the Kew Committee of the British Associa- tion, retain his present office of Superintendent of the Kew Observatory. It was also proposed that Kew Observatory should become the Central Observatory, at which all instruments used by or prepared for the several observatories or stations connected with the Meteorological Department should REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. lv be verified,—the entire expense attendant thereon, or any future expense arising through the connexion of the Observatory with the Meteorological Department being paid from the funds supplied by the latter, and not in any way from money subscribed by the British Association. These proposals haying been submitted to the Kew Committee, they approved of the Kew Obseryatory being regarded as the Central Observatory of the Meteorological Department, and of Mr. Stewart’s holding the office of Secretary to the Scientific Committee superintending that Department. When the Meteorological Department was placed under the superinten- dence of a Scientific Committee, one of the main objects contemplated was the establishment of a series of meteorological observatories, working in unison with the Kew Observatory, provided with similar self-recording instruments, and distributed throughout the country in such a manner that by their means thé progress of meteorological phenomena oyer the British Isles might be re- corded with great exactness. For this purpose it was proposed to have observatories in the following places :— Kew (Central Observatory). Aberdeen (probably). Falmouth. Armagh, Stonyhurst. Valencia. Glasgow. , Such a plan of course involves an additional annual expenditure; but, the appointment of a Committee having been sanctioned in the first instance by the Government, and the estimates attendant thereon afterwards by the House of Commons, the arrangement may now be regarded as established, without involving any additional expense to the British Association, The consequence will be a considerable access of work to Kew Observatory, and the duties now undertaken by that establishment may, for clearness’ sake, be considered under the two following heads :— (A) The work done by Kew Observatory under the Direction of the British Association. : (B) That done at Kew as the Central Observatory of the Meteorological . Committee. This system of division will be adopted in what follows of this Report. (A) Work Done By Kew OnseRvaTory UNDER THE DIRECTION oF THE British Assocration, 1. Magnetic.—The Self-recording Magnetographs ordered by the Vic- toria Government for Mr. Ellery, of Melbourne, have been verified at Kew, and dispatched to Melbourne, where they have arrived. They will, it is be- lieved, be very shortly in continuous action. It was mentioned in the last Report that a set of Self-recording Magneto- graphs ordered by the Stonyhurst Observatory had been verified at Kew and dispatched to their destination. These instruments are now in action at Stonyhurst, under the direction of the Rev, W. Sidgreaves. Mr. Meldrum, of the Mauritius Observatory, who is now in this country, has received at Kew instruction in the various processes of that establish- ment. His Self-recording Magnetographs have been verified in his presence, and they are now in the hands of the optician, who is awaiting Mr, Meldrum’s instructions regarding them. It is hoped that very soon a considerable number of Magnetographs after the Kew pattern will be in continuous operation at different parts of the lyi REPORT—1867. world; and as during the next two or three years magnetic disturbances may be expected to increase, it will be interesting to institute comparisons between the simultaneous records produced by these various instruments. The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con- tinue to be made by Mr. Whipple, magnetic assistant ; and the Self-record- ing Magnetographs are in constant operation as heretofore, also under Mr, Whipple, who has displayed much care and assiduity in the discharge of his duties. The photographic department connected with the self-recording instruments is under the charge of Mr. Page, who performs his duties very satisfactorily. The observations made for the purpose of determining the temperature coefficients of the horizontal-force and vertical-force magnetographs have been reduced. In order to obviate the chance of any break in the continuity of the series of absolute magnetic determinations made at Kew which might arise from a change of the magnetic assistant, the Superintendent has commenced taking quarterly observations of the dip and horizontal force, with the view of cor- recting any change in personal equation which might be produced by change of assistant. The magnetic curves produced at Kew previously to the month of Ja- nuary 1865, have all been measured and reduced under the direction of General Sabine, by the staff of his office at Woolwich, and the results of this reduction have been communicated by General Sabine to the Royal Society in a series of interesting and valuable memoirs. It is now proposed that the task of tabulating and reducing these curyes since the above date be performed by the staff at Kew working under the direction of Mr. Stewart. 2. Meteorological work.—The meteorological work of the Observatory con- tinues in charge of Mr. Baker, who executes his duties very satisfactorily. Since the Nottingham Meeting 89 Barometers have been verified; 608 Thermometers have likewise been verified, and two Standard Thermometers have been constructed at the Observatory. The Self-recording Barograph continues in constant operation, and traces in duplicate are obtained, one set of which is regularly forwarded to the Meteorological Office. : A Self-recording Barograph and Thermograph on the new Kew pattern about to be made for Mr. Ellery of Melbourne, and a Self-recording Baro- graph for Mr. Smalley of Sydney, will be verified at the observatory before they are dispatched to their destination. The Anemometer is in constant operation as heretofore. Dr. R. Coleridge Powles, before he proceeded to Pekin, received meteorolo- gical instruction at Kew. The well-known apparatus employed for so long a time by Mr. Robert Addams for liquefying carbonic acid, has been purchased by Mr. Stewart from funds supplied by the Royal Society; and Mr. Addams has kindly under- taken to make a preliminary experiment with his apparatus, as well as to give specific instructions regarding it. As the exact thermometric value of the freezing-point of mercury has been previously determined by Mr. Stewart, it is expected that the apparatus will furnish the means of verifying thermo- meters at very low temperatures. At the request of the Meteorological Committee, several Aneroids have been obtained from the best-known makers of these instruments, and, by means of an apparatus constructed by Mr. Beckley for this purpose, they have been compared with a standard Barometer at different pressures, being ee ee ae REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. lvii meanwhile tapped so as to imitate as well as possible the tapping by the hand which these instruments are usually subjected to previously to the read- ings being taken. These experiments show that, while Aneroids cannot be considered equal in accuracy to standard Barometers, yet the best-constructed Aneroids, within certain limits, give reliable results. 3. Photoheliograph.—The Kew Heliograph, in charge of Mr. De la Rue, continues to be worked in a satisfactory manner. During the past year 204 negatives have been taken, on 144 days. Pictures of the Pagoda in Kew Gardens are regularly taken by this instrument, in the hope that by this means the angular diameter of the Sun may be satisfactorily determined. Since the last Meeting of the Association, a second series of solar researches, in continuation of the first series, has been published (the expense of print- ing having been defrayed by Mr. De la Rue), entitled “‘ Researches in Solar Physics, Second Series, Area Measurements of the Sun-spots observed by Mr. Carrington during the seven years 1854-1860 inclusive, and deduc- tions therefrom. By Messrs. De la Rue, Stewart, and Loewy.” The Heliographic latitudes and longitudes of all the spots recorded by the Kew Photoheliograph during the years 1862 and 1863 have been calculated, and it is hoped that the results may soon be published, forming a third series of Solar Researches. It is believed that these results will demon- strate the superiority of photographic pictures over all other methods of observation. The sum of £60 has been obtained from the Government Grant fund of the Royal Society, to be applied to the discussion of Hofrath Schwabe’s long and valuable series of Sun-spots, at present in the possession of Kew Observatory. These pictures are now being examined with this object. Sun-spots continued likewise to be numbered after the manner of Hofrath Schwabe, and a table exhibiting the monthly groups observed at Dessau and at Kew for the year 1866 has already appeared in the Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society, vol. xxvu. No. 3. 4. Apparatus for verifying Sextants—The apparatus constructed by Mr. Cooke, for verifying Sextants, has for some time been erected at the Observatory ; and a description of it has been communicated by Mr. Stewart to the Royal Society, and published in their ‘ Proceedings,’ vol. xvi. p. 2. Seven Sextants have been verified during the past year. 5. Miscellaneous work.—The preliminary observations with Captain Kater’s pendulum, alluded to in last year’s Report, have been made; but the reduc- tions are not yet quite finished. An account of certain experiments on the heating of a disk by rapid rota- tion in vacuo has been communicated to the Royal Society by Mr. Stewart in conjunction with Professor Tait, and has been published in the ‘ Pro- ceedings ’ of that body. The instrument devised by Mr. Broun for the purpose of estimating the _ magnetic dip by means of soft iron, remains at present at the Observatory, awaiting Mr. Broun’s return to England. During the past year two standard yards for opticians have been compared with the Kew standard. Several instruments, chiefly magnetic, have been sent to Kew by General Sabine from his office at Woolwich. The Superintendent has received grants from the Royal Society for special experiments ; and when these are completed an account will be rendered to that Society. viii REPORT—1867. (B) Worx pont at Kew As tHe Cenrrat OnsERVATORY OF THE MerroroLoGi0aL CoMMITTEE. Mr. Stewart, as Director of the Central Meteorological Observatory, having been called upon to arrange the self-recording instruments required by the Meteorological Committee, has obtained the cooperation of Mr. Beckley, me- chanical assistant at Kew, from whom he has derived very great aid, and in conjunction with*him has arranged the Self-recording Thermograph and Barograph which have been adopted by the Meteorological Committee. The following are the chief characteristics of these instruments ;— Thermograph.—tin this instrument an air-speck, formed by a break in the mercurial column of a thermometer, allows the light of a gas-lamp to pass through it, yielding an image that is obtained on a revolving cylinder coyered with photographic paper. As the cylinder revolves once in forty-eight hours, and as the thermometric column rises and falls, these motions delineate a curve, by means of which the temperature of the thermometer is denoted from moment to moment. There would be but one curve if there were only one thermometer; in practice there are two, the dry and wet bulb, the object of the first being to register the temperature of the air, and of the second to register that of evaporation. In this Thermograph the simultaneous records of these two thermometers are obtained, the one under the other, on the same sheet of paper. We have thus an under curve denoting the readings of the wet-bulb thermometer, and a curve above it denoting those of the dry-bulb thermo- meter, An arrangement connected with the clock of this instrument has been proposed and executed by Mr. Beckley, by means of which the light is cut off from the sensitive paper for four minutes every two hours, .» fea 100 0 O *Fairbairn, Mr. W.—Manufacture of Iron and Steel ........ 100 0 O Toth at 2200 0 0 eee * Reappointed. GENERAL STATEMENT. Ixvil General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for Scientific Purposes. Sap Sa, Gs £ s. a, 1834. Meteorology and Subterranean Tide Discussions ....seccserseeree 20 0 0 Temperature ...... Satieddasvecwe ay tO Vitrification Experiments......... 9 4 7 A ; a eo 62 0 0 Cast Iron Experiments......,..... 100 0 0 See eCUESEONS, eescetarisesseer.” 62 Railway Constants ......+6 Raceeteh oO, mids ee British Fossil Ichthyology nae ee Land and Sea Level.........+ area, Dl eet Ue £167 0 | Steam-vessels’ Engines.......++.. s LOG OF 0 1836 Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... Seis B i Wed lhe ats =A 5 . : Stars in Lacaille ..... Pas tuacicews'ss Ly oO 0 Tide ae ieasreerectissts) GG 1'0 0 Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue......... 616 6 British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0 Kntnall Seckatioua nee 10 10 0 Thermometric Observations, &. 50 0 0) goon encines in Casawall is i. 50 0 0 Bxperiments on long-continued Are mage SE re Sek as Cast and Wrought Iron...,....+... 40 0 0 Rain-Gauges ...sseseccsecsescseeers seGrtae 0 Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 3 0 0 Refraction Experiments Histon, Sree Oo Gases on Solar Spectrum......... 22 0 0 mes tenOTLAas5+43+55 akties: Re ake Hourly Meteorological Observa- Thermometers stersesesssaseeserree 15 6 0 tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 §& £434 14 0 | Fossil Reptiles ....s.cceseseeeeeeees 118 2 9 1837. Mining Statistics .....ssseeeees aecot ON One Tide Discussions ....csssseeeeeeeee 284 1 0 £1595 11 0 Chemical Constants .........00008. 2413 6 Lunar Nutation...........000068 BueezorO* 0 eee 1840 e braate Observations on Waves........4+5 - 100 12 O TISLOL LIGES vessseee steneeeenee freee Tides at Bristol..sssesssccsceeceees . 150 0 0 | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 Meteorology and Subterranean ee peat Weneutaencestes 4 19 4 Temperature ...scccccccccsssessss 89 & 0 | Lungs MxperimMents ......seerssees 3 Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0 pie Wee Te wa seeee i. r 4 Heart Experiments ......:.5.5. 8 4 6 ANG ANA GEA LEVE! seerseseserees Berinetric Observations ......... 30 0 0 a en ea ste eeees : ate i 3 Barometers wssisescssscsvesees veces 11 18 6 | StALS CLACALLE) serevesserereeeeseees £918 14. 6 | Stars (Catalogue) ......... Seasreehe 264 0 0 —= | Atmospheric Air .......... eecserse 15 15 0 1838. Water on Iron .......0. Sencha varere 10 0 0O Tide Discussions ....... sececessese 29 0 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ......... Uy 40 British Fossil Fishes ........0... 100 0 0 | Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6 Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... Pie le 6 Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 Working Population teens te teeeeees 100 0 0 Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... see 60 0 0 | School Statistics......csccscssecsseee 50 0 0 Animal and Vegetable Substances Forms of Vessels se ee eee eeeec neues 184° 7 0 (Preservation of) ........ cSttet 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Pheno- Fi aa es Railway Constants .......... susae 41 12-10 TMCTA so eseeeeecseesereresscensnenes Pofeitides........... eee. ae ot, 8 fa Meteorological Observations at Growth of Plants ......00.0.. 75 0 0} Plymouth ......... seseseseseeeees 80 0 0 Mud in Rivers .....sceesseeeeeseeee 3 G 6 | Magnetical Observations ....,.... 185 13 9 Education Committee ....008. 50 0 0 $1546 16 4 Heart Experiments wise. 5 8 0 es Land and Sea Level.....ssssees0s. 267 8 7 1841, Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 0 | Observations on Waves.......+000. 30 0 0 Steam-vessels.....ssss0008 sesessseeee 100 0 0} Meteorology and Subterranean Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5 Temperature ........sescsccessees 8 8 0 AMELMOMECLErS .esscvesceccecsscseoe 16 4 0 | Actinometers..sr.,:csccccscreceveee 10 0 0 $956 12 2 | Earthquake Shocks .......... acoavemliihae c. O SS | Acrid Poisons........ iets WE scoeaners 6 0 0 1839, Veins and Absorbents .....s.s00s ae oe CG Fossil Ichthyology........sssee08s. 110 0 0 | Mud in Rivers ...... keadssias pipes FU 2 0 Meteorological Observations at Marine Zoology...... cncvcesecens Sry papel im ef Plymouth vicccsseccceesesssevesse 63 10 0 | Skeleton Maps .....scsesseeseee cece eA SU KD Mechanism of Waves .,..se.s01.. 144 2 0} Mountain Barometers .......... 6 18 6 Bristol Tides ....sssesseesesvesreeess 30 18 6 | Stars (Histoire Céleste).seeee 185 0 0 Ixvili REPORT—1867. Bei.8, Ud. £ s. d. Stars (Lacaille) ....cssecssseeeeeeeee 79 5 0 | Meteorological Observations, Os- Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... feo 96 ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 Stars (Catalogue of) ......... Pacees 40 0 0 | Reduction of Meteorological Ob- Water on Tron ,.........csseeeeeeee DOO a0) SETVALIONS .....sceceeeees Speeesese) OO) 0-20 Meteorological Observations at Meteorological Instruments and IMVErNeSS © .....-0-ccnsesesereseens 20 0 0 Gratiities cic cccccenece ares oe. GaO Meteorological Observations (re- Construction of Anemometer at duction of) Se serecnweete a ie 1) INVEINeSS ...cecscsceseererereres ~ 5612.02 Fossil Reptiles seesssesseseseeeeeene 50 0 0] Magnetic Cooperation ............ 10 8 10 Foreign Memoirs ......0+0..+0008 .. 62 0 0] Meteorological Recorder for Kew Railway Sections .......++++ sacoesomect lds Observatory .cc.scocerersesecees 2 ro 0ia0) 510 Forms of Vessels ...sssseessseceeee 193 12 0} Action of Gases on Light. nance . SbS oGieed Meteorological Observations at Establishment at Kew Observa- Plymouth ...... “popaghasasoseaa 55 0 0 tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- Magnetical Observations ......... 61 18 8 ture and Sundries .....seeeeeeee . 133° 4 7 Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0 | Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 Wades tat Leith cosecsesscccceoeus-e 50 0 0] Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20 0 0 Anemometer at Edinburgh ..... . 69 1 10] Publication of Report on Fossil Tabulating Observations ......... De Ainge} Reptiles ....... seneomis woman ee an 40 0 0 Races Of Men .co..seceessecseseees 5 0 0] Coloured Drawings of Railway Radiate Animals ............e000+) 20. 0 NECEONS)<¢.cecosccacecsnasknecsenee 147 18 3 £1235 10 11 | Registration of Earthquake Se Shocks ...... eeenevece a asearateee 30 0 0 1842. Report on Zoological Nomencla- Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11 2 LUTE sereecsaeeetensesseseeesens +» 10 0 0 Anoplura Britannia ......+0+..+0+ 52 12 0 | Uncovering Lower Red Sand- Tides at Bristol............+0+0 ree DON BO eO stone near Manchester ...... etry (28 Gases on Light ..........c.esseeeees 30 14 7 | Vegetative Power of Seeds «2 5 3 8 Chronometers .......ssesseeeeeeeee 26 17 6 | Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0 Marine Zoology.......ssereseeeeees . 1 5 0 | Marine Zoology...........+. sveeeeee 10 0 0 British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology. ..s+++..+++++s+e0.0 214 11 Statistics of Education .........++. 20 0 0| Preparation of Report on British Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 Fossil Mammalia sereeeeseeesene 100 0 0 Stars (Histoire Céleste)..........+ 59 0 0 | Physiological Operations of Me- Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0 dicinal Agents scbaseesnnassesasdaon mm ane Railway Sections ........seeeeeeee- 161 10 | Vital Statistics .......se..seeee wee 86 5 8 British Belemnites.......++-.+e0e00 50 0 0 | Additional Experiments on the Fossil Reptiles (publication of Forms of Vessels ..sse+ssesereee 70 0 O Report) ......- Le CEE SE ca 210 0 | Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels wse.ssseeeeeeeeees 180 0 0 Forms of Vessels «+++. tense we 100 0 0 Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 Reduction of Experiments on the Meteorological Bog at Forms Of Vessels .scccooerecsene 100 0 0 Plymouth ........ccceeeeecseeeees 68 0 0 | Morin’s Instrument and Constant Constant Indicator and Dynamo- Indicator ssecsssscessesseecenrees 69 14 10 metric Instruments .......++++ . 90 0 © | Experiments on the ‘Strength of Force of Wind ...........- peceecees 10 0 0 Materials ...sesssseeseereesersees 60 0 0 Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 0 0 £1565 10 2 Vital Statistics ........sseeeseeeeees 50 0 0 Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... Se leit 1844. Questions on Human Race ...... 7 9 0} Meteorological Observations at £1449 17 8 Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 Completing Observations at Ply- 1843. mouth ...... cosoceeseeeeet payee too SOR nO Revision of the Nomenclature of - Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Stars v.coockesoscbesssrsrscesevese 2°30 20 operation .. cen seent 200-10 [eet Reduction of Stars, British Asso- Publication of ihe "British Asso- ciation Catalogue ...........+04+ 25 0 0 ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0 Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 | Observations on Tides on the Hourly Meteorological Observa- East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 & | Revision of the Nomenclature of Meteorological Observations at Stars, .sc..serssossesvcesssvsel Oaw 2 0) 16 Plymouth sovscecescsseeveeeneeees 55 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishmentin Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- Kew Observatory ..seseeeeeeeee 117 17 38 mometer at Plymouth seseseeee 10 0 0 | Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3 GENERAL STATEMENT, £8. de Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0| Subterraneous Temperature in WRCIAMG ccsrcscesscsesssccceccesece 9 0 +0 Coloured Drawings of Railway BELIGHS asescses-ececcdsaclesseves ve lor Lig 6 Investigation of Fossil Fishes of the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0 Registering the Shocks of Earth- quakes ...... Raden aseen oeee1842 23 11 10 Structure of Fossil Shells......... 20 0 0 Radiata and Mollusca of the ASgean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0 Geographical Distributions of Marine Zoology..........+. 1842 010 0 Marine Zoology of Devon and BIOMMWAN ccc. scaccssscncceseveeee 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Corfu......... 10 0 0 Experiments on the Vitality of BeCHdiadsascsdscecsssccasccscasccen, 9 OF 3 Experiments on the Vitality of EEOS cacsesccasccccoseceusses 1842 8 7 3 Exotic Anoplura ..........sesse00e 15 0 0 Strength of Materials .........+0- 100 0 0 Completing Experiments on the Forms of Ships ......seesseseneee 100 0 0 Inquiries into Asphyxia ..... Repel ek aa) Investigations on the Internal Constitution of Metals ..... rasarouy O_O Constant Indicator and Morin’s Instrument ...............1842 10 3 6 £981 12 8 1845. Publication of the British Associa- tion Catalogue of Stars...... «on GOL 14 G6 Meteorological Observations at PRIVEDMEES vescesssocconssecnecerss G0 18 11 Magnetic and Meteorological Co- GMELAMOM Secicccaseacarsssstieses 16 16 8 Meteorological Instruments at UMDUTEAD. vsoceccnsasceasescosece 18pik 9 Reduction of Anemometrical Ob- servations at Plymouth ......... 25 0 0 Electrical Experiments at Kew PURERVALOTYE cscsecssesvestacssexe, 4d 17. , 8 Maintaining the Establishment in Kew Observatory .........000¢ - 149 15 0 For Kreil’s Barometrograph..,... 25 0 0 Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0 The Actinograph ............000. we do 0” 0 Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0 Exotic Anoplura ............1843 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds...............18483 2 0 7 Vitality of Seeds............ 1844 7 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- tality in York ........0..s000.. 20 0 0 Earthquake Shocks ..........1843 15 14 8 £830 9 9 1846. British Association Catalogue of RILATS Wevceserscsesosscensenes .1844 211 15 0 lxix =p bee Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0 Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1859....... wasesese O00) 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ...... scsasoese L46) 16) 7 Strength of Materials.........s+0006 60 0 0 Researches in Asphyxia......... s »6 16° 2 Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds .....ss.s0 1844 215 10 Vitality of Seeds .......ee.0e 1845 712 38 Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 Exotic Anoplura .........00. 1844 25 0 0 Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6 Anemometers’ Repairs ........ saoel) ita oe O Atmospheric Waves ......00... 38 3 3 Captive Balloons ............ 1844 819 38 Varieties of the Human Race 1844 7 6 3 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- tality in York ......0.0......02- 12 0 O £685 16 0 1847. Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1839 .........0. 50 0 0 Habits of Marine Animals ...... LOS 0E 0 Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0 Atmospheric Waves ............. 6 9 38 WitalityofSeeds! <...c0.s.0ccdessee Aa Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ......ss0000. 107 8 6 £208 5 4 1848. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory .....sscecseeee 171 15 11 Atmospheric Waves ...csccesseeee - 3 10 9 Vitality of Seeds. cc.--cetcsvectecs 915 0 Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 On Colouring Matters .......... » 5 0 0 On Growth of Plants..........0004. 15 0 0 £275 1 8 1849. Electrical Observations at Kew Observatory ...... cccscccceesceee FO 0 O Maintaining Establishment at ditto ....... SPaesaceusaseeasn ne days Os Vitality of Seeds. te Secasderen Jit Oie L On Growth of Plants........... ae 5 0 0 Registration of Periodical Phe- NOMENA weesescsecececeeresceceess = 5 LOM ONe O Bill on account of Anemometrical Observations .........4. aeorececa, lee? WY) £159 19 6 1850. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ....... socsesee LOD 18 0 Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0 lxx Gags. 1d. Periodical Phenomena .........0+- 15 0 0 Meteorological Instrument, ING seo ee enmmretonnccthed dicate VERY £345 18 0 1851. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory (includes part of grant in 1849) ..eccseeeeeeees 309 2 Theory of Heat .....ccscecsseeseeees 20 el el Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Plants .......:5. Rietevaneectss 0 0 Vitality of Seeds ..sscesseseceeeeee Dr oO ae Influence of Solar Radiation.....- 30 0 0 Ethnological Inquiries .,..++++++++ 12 0 0 Researches on Annelida .....++++ 10 0 0 391 (90 4 1852. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory (including balance of grant for 1850) ... 283 17 8 Experiments on the Conduction Ol Heat schwaessutcoaiieseeeitevs es HD 789 Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0 Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0 Researches on the British Anne- Tid a.v..ccesccurcesseensecns Recon 10 gj 20 Vitality of Seeds .....064 amends LOG a2 Strength of Boiler Plates ...... peo tOp0.70 £304 6 7 1853. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ......sseeeeees 165. 70) 10 Experiments on the Influence of Solar Radiation ......sss-ssees ae5- te OE OW Researches on the British Anne- Matec... ccsedasuseecsavceconectaas wy LQ: 0-80 Dredging on the East Coast of Scotland...... davuaee ces cooueces soba L Oa OleaD Ethnological Queries wt 5 0 0 £205 0 0 1854. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory (including balance of former grant) ..... . 830 15 4 Investigations on Flax ..,.s0...00e 1170) 0 Effects of Temperature on Wrought [ron ceecceseseeeeveees 10' 0.0 Registration of Periodical Phe- nomena ..... eeeeeveevenvenecsess « 10 0 0 British Annelida ..........ee0 gece LOO! 70 Vitality of Seeds ......606- sececese 5 2 3 Conduction of Heat .........--0008 42> 0 £380 19 7 1855. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory .o...sccssevese 425 0 Earthquake Movements ......... 10 0 Physical Aspect of the Moon...... If 8& Vitality OfISCeds) 19. 5:0 July 8. 3-0 ETB O ee ey) sila) » 9. 40 These numbers appear to indicate that between 1866, Dec. 14, and 1867, Aug. 12, Linné increased in brightness as the altitude of the sun increased. The following are estimations of the brightness of y Posidonius contempo- ranecous with those of Linné. 1866, Dec. 19. 5-1 1867, July 8. 5:0 1867, July 13. 5:0 21. 45 oe Diet see Aug. 10. 3°9 1867, Jan. 15. 5:5 SPs EO » 12. 62 Observations were made on the evenings of Dec. 18 and 19, 1866, with the view of confirming the estimations by comparison with other objects. They were as follows :— Dee. 18. Dee. 19. Pro citis 2 geen ei 5-0 5:0 Censorinus 85 9-0 Dionysius ...... 8:0 8:5. \Gonon AA eee 7:0 7:0 Tanne)" 3 eee 5:5 5-0 y Posidonius.... 5-1 IBeSBel Fess ene 4-0 (ring) 4°5 The similarity of appearance under high illumination exhibited by Linné and y Posidonius [I E®*] is remarkable, especially as the two objects are so very dissimilar in character. The white spot on the site of Linné, so far as we know at present, differs, as we see it, very little, if any, in level from the surrounding surface of the Mare Serenitatis. Most of the former records place Linné on or very near a ridge crossing the Mure Serenitatis. Since October 16, 1866, the appearance of this ridge in the immediate neighbourhood of Linné has nor been recorded. On July 8, 1867, I have this note :—‘ The ridge between Linné and Sulpicius Gallus quite perceptible, ewcept a small portion near Linné.” This ridge is of variable height, the shadows distinct, § Indicates that Schmidt's observation was contemporaneous with mine.—W. R. B. ——— ee eee ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 11 especially of the highest part, a little south of Linné. I E** [y Posidonius], -when near the morning or evening terminator, shows: itself as a distinct mountain peak of 150 toises, or 959-2 English feet in height. It is only when the sun attains a considerable altitude on y that it presents the same appearance as Linné, viz. that of a white diffused cloudy patch. So far as I am aware, it is only recently that this similarity of appearance between these objects has been observed. Although many mountains and craters lose their distinguishing features, and appear as round white spots when the sun is at a great altitude above their respective horizons, there are numerous craters that present the characteristic appearance of having a dark interior, sur- rounded by a bright ring under the more direct rays of the sun, when most mountains are seen as bright spots. Connected with the similarity’of appearance under high illumination is another interesting feature characterizing Linné and y Posidonius [I E**], viz. the existence during the period of observation, of crater-openings 02 both. Of that on Linné I EY? we have numerous records. That on y [I E® = is certainly smaller than I EY”, and has been seen only on five occasions. It was discovered 1867, January 14, by Mr. Kyorr, with his 74-inch O. G. by Alvan Clark. His own words will best describe the nature of the disco- very. Writing under date of March 3, 1867, he says, “‘ While observing - Linné on the 14th of January, at about 10°30" G.M.T., I had myself a strong impression of a dark spot, as described by Schmidt, but definition was so poor, and I saw, or fancied I saw, traces of a similar appearance on Posi- donius y, that I regarded it as an illusion, and made no note of it at the time. I could not, however, free my mind from the idea that there might be something in it, and accordingly, two days afterwards, I added the following note, which I transcribe verbatim :— “Thad a very strong impression, with various eyepieces, of a small cen- tral dark spot on the diffused patch covering (?) Linné, so strong that I inclined to regard it as having a real existence ; as, however, I saw a similar appearance, though not nearly so strongly marked, on y [Posidonius], I can only regard it as a curious optical illusion.”—-Note added January 16, 1867, This dark spot on y Posidonius was next seen by Mr. Buckinenam on the 11th of April, 1867. His observation is thus recorded :— *« 1867, April 11, 6" to 10" 59", Air very steady, but slightly hazy, and found y Posidonius a fine crater, 0-5, seen well with 360 and higher, clearly with 250, but could not with 120.” 1867, May 11. Herr Scmmopr recorded as follows :—“ ~¢, above 17 knots. i ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 63 4. Groups that are very numerous to be divided into subgroups, according to displacement, viz. :— Subgroup A, below 125 tons aie By trom. 125. Mo: 250.tons 29 C, ”? 250 ” 500 ” Do i 500 ,, 1000 ,, » E, ,, 1000 ,, 2000 ,, F 2000 ,, 4000 ,, G, 5, 4000, ,, 8000..,, Bete Eley) (ian 4 BOOM 4 60007. » . 1, aboye 16000. 5. Results of trials at low speeds, or “ half-boiler power,” to be placed in the group proper to the speed. 6. In the following plan for the arrangement of a Table, each vessel of a group or subgroup occupies a column, and the several data for each vessel appear in a series of lines. The data consist of twelve essential items marked E (without which no vessel should be admitted) and twenty others, making thirty-two in all; so that octavo pages will hold the Tables. 7. Where trials of performance under sail have been recorded, supple- mentary Tables may be added. Arrangement of Table for a given group or subgroup. Group No. ...., speed between .... and .... knots. Subgroup No. ...., displacement between .... and .... tons. 1, E. Name of vessel (or reference number) | | VESSEL. 2. KE. Length on loadwater-line, in feet. 3. », Of fore-body (marked F., in tables). 4, », middle-body (marked M. in tables). 5. », after-body (marked A. in tables). 6. E. Breadth, extreme immersed, in feet. 7. KE. Depth of immersion, mean, in fee. 8. Immersed midship section in square feet. 9. E. Displacement, tons of 35 eubic feet. 10. Mean immersed girth, feet (from actual measurement, and not other- wise). 11. Material iy state of skin. 12. Coefficient of fineness of waterlines=displacement +(L x @). PROPELLER. 13. E. Description (paddle, common or feathering: screw, Smith’s, Wood- eroft’s, Mangin’s, Griffith’s, dc. : jet propeller). 14, E. Diameter (for common paddles, to outer edge; for feathering paddles, to journals ; for screw, to tips of blades), in feet. 15. Number of blades or paddles. 16. KE. Pitch of screw (if not uniform, state extreme and mean pitches), in feet. 17. Aggregate mean length of screw-biades (along axis). 18. Immersion (of upper and lower edges of paddle or screw), in feet. 64 REPORT—1867. 19. Area (pair of paddles ; screw disc, deducting boss; pair of jet-nozzles), in square feet. 20. E. Speed of vessel in nautical miles* per hour. ENGINES. 21. Description (single, double, treble; single-cylindered, double-cylin- dered; condensing, non-condensing, geared, not geared, &e.). 22. Final volume of steam per revolution of propeller, in cubic feet. 23. Steam cut off at (decimals of final volume). 24, E. Revolutions of propeller per minute (paddle or screw). 25. Effective pressure of steam, lbs. per inch. 26. E. Indicated horse-power. Boiters. 27. Total capacity, in cubic feet. 28. Heating surface, in square feet. 29. Firegrate area, in square feet (including dead-plate and bars). 30. Pressure during trial (Ibs. on the square inch). 31. KE. Fuel consumed; description and weight, in Ibs. per hour. 32. Remarks and cross references. In drawing up the preceding form of arrangement, the Committee have had in view not only the guidance of themselves and their calculators, but the in- formation of those who may hereafter furnish the British Association with data as to the performance of steamships. Paddle steamers, screw steamers, and men-of-war have been separately condensed and grouped. In condensing the Tables of the ships of war, there are vessels of which many trials were reported. The mean of the majority of trials with the same draught and the same propeller have been given in this Report. The diameter of the paddle-wheel, as given in the condensed Tables, is the diameter as returned in the printed Reports, and must not be confounded with the effective diameter of the wheel. In only a few cases the effective diameter has been returned, and even upon these quantities very small de- pendence can be placed. For example, in Table V., Report 1861, the diameter of paddle-wheel of the ‘ Delta’ is 26 feet, and the effective diameter is given as 22 feet; the ‘Lima’ has the same diameter of wheel, but the effective diameter is given as 25-16 feet. Both are feathering wheels, and there is only a difference of 1:5 feet in the width of the float, the ‘Delta haying a float 4:5 feet broad, and the ‘ Lima’ a float of 3 feet broad. * The length of the nautical mile is variously estimated. By the British Admiralty, it is defined to be one minute of the equator, which, according to the latest determinations, is 6086 feet. Another estimate is the mean length of a minute of latitude, or 6076 feet. Most of the speeds in the Tables are given in Admiralty knots. ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 65 Taste I—MERCHANT PADDLE-STEAMERS. = 3. NSronpRiof ayspecd ............:.....05.0000.- Eat 9 Ee II Between 11 and 13 knots. ee ee eee 0 F. Subgroups of Displacement.................. Between 2000 Bet Med t andbegcets ten ween 500 and 1000 tons. 2 GG Ca) a La Plata. Anglia. Admiral. Cambria. F=84 sength on load-water-line, in feet ........, 284 187°83 | M=54 | 210 197°75 A= 75 Beemer Meet sf). 7c. 00.0...0beeeidecessee 40°5 26°16 32 26°16 Mean draft of water, in feet.................. 19'09 75 8°87 of immersed midship section, sq. ft.| ......... 186°25 214 201°! Jisplacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet 3809 620 820 840 Seesed arth, in feet...) loses | cee... Bigs) ete Laos Meermband stateofskin 0...) ec OL Tron, pamited’:) | 22.:...0 Red clean. NGINES. UP ee Side lever. Doub. cyl. |Double cylinder.| Side lever. umber of cylinders ........................ 2 4 4 2 iameter of cylinders, in inches............ 103 43°5 ea \ 735 ength of stroke, in feet ...............0000.. 9 45 4°25 5 umber of revolutions, per minute ...... 12°31 25 24 23 fominal horse-power ............0cceecee002. 876 FG 2s anil SUL cane 392710 ndicated horse-power ................c00001 cecceees. 816°07 74.4, 995°35 PRopevieEr. PRM ey Oe. coven cesccllcsecsacs Radial, fixed. Modif.Morgan’s.| F eathering. Modif. Morgan’s. (8, TRS) 9 oa 36 24°5 20°05 to journals. 28 mgth of paddle, in fect..................... 10°5 9°5 7 Fi veadth of paddle, in feet .................. 3°16 3°67 3 4 limaber Of paddles’ ..................d.000-... 28 12 II 16 epth of immersion of lower edge, in feet; ... ..... Sean) let dotnet / 5:8" | d of vessel, in nautical miles per hour 10°79 12°96 12 12°2 Boiters. 0 Ee ee Tubular. Rubolarhe | Wee rrak Tubular, ressure of steam in boiler, lbs.on the sq.in. 14°82 14 25 14°5 jeam-room, in cubic feet..................... 4240 ZOO de = «sie IEE Saeed Bs Pere eedaen, fater-room in cubic feet .................. SEG vara =|: ol atdasrcictnone ts sla RST Ae nn) [lex Gy se pumber Of furnaces ................006...0000. 24 TD yay ih notes Jace | 12 TMMPGMIHOUETE.S... 25... 6.6... ceeds .sceee Bah ihedyltes haaasace oe ate surface, in square feet. ............... 616 160 100 165 tal heating surface ........................ 16947 AROS AA. | Wk ay Sete 6134 nsumption of coals, in Ibs. per hour ... 8149 5580 2206 5760 WEercuts. tal of engines, in tons ..................... CTO G AM) meereerpere 210, with boilers. | 117 205s esecec sans sstvbencce. B75 eat Pell at 2, eee et | 23°5 poetry. AuBerppecaeconece 219 40°97 Bae on Aa 66 Hop AE OBURSEY Pope Seneca tcc: 131 35 Waa soee 60 CPCOne Ren A asocackocees 1860. 1860. 1860. 1860 & 1861. 3 ada e pantera Royal Mail Co.) Admiral [Prof. Rankine& ......... log. Moorsom. J. R. Napier. 12 BA gia ennMn case Acer te A Aarer ane Moderate wind|Fairwind; fair Radeon Wind light. and tide. tide; mo- derate sea. 66 REPORT— 1867. Groups of a Speed ....-..-:s.sseereeersreeees D. Subgroups of Displacement..............++-- Between 500 and 1000 tons. Cambria Name of Vessel .........scssecseereeeeeeeeeeenes (lengthened). Length on load-water-line, in feet ......... 237 Breadth, in feet ........ecseeseeeeeeeer erences 26°16 Mean draft of water, in feet .........+-+.+. 9°31 Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft. 20003 Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ... 980 Mean immersed girth, in feet........00000-) © seseeenns | sennevnte UJ eamiltuins Winterialiand stateiOfSKIN s.isvsececccesonss|, | vomssrmece-» || | ¢ue=ebareeedecmmllll (a sehCnnae ENGINES. Description .......ccesseeeeeseeseeeeeenreesnnes Side lever. |Double cylinder. Number of cylinders .........::ssesseeeeeees 2 4 4 Diameter of cylinders, in inches............ 73°5 12 e a } { 5 f \ Length of stroke, in feet ........-...seeseee 5 5 5 Number of revolutions, per minute ...... 20°25 24 24 Nominal horse-power .....--sseeeeeseeeeeeees 392°10 320 320 Indicated horse-power ........seeeereeereeeees 837°34 1050 800 PROPELLER. Description .....ccesseeeeseeeeeereeneeeenneees Common. Feathering. | Feathering. Diameter, in feet .........scseceenerecneneenees 25 26 26 Length of paddle, in feet...........::+0000 8 8°5 8°33 Breacth of paddle, in feet ......:....-1.00+ 2°16 3°08 3716 Number of paddles +........:.:::2esseeeseseee 32 12 Io Depth of immersion of lower edge, in feet 3°33 4 3°5 Speed of vessel, in nautical miles per hour 1228 12°9 11°53 Boiers. Description .........sesseeeeceeseneeeeeeeeeeees Tubular. Tubular. Flue Pressure of steam in boiler, lbs. on thesq-in. 14 26 22 Steam-room, in cubic feet .......seeeeeeeees| 0 teen ee ees 1600 390 Water-room, in cubic feet .........eeceeeeee| ee eeeeeee 2000 720 Number of furnaces ..........:6cseeeeeeree eens 12 6 6 Number of boilers .........cceeeeeeeeneeeeees 4 2 2 Grate surface, in square feet ............+5- 450 140 130 Total heating surface .........:sseeeeeeeerees 6893 3340 2530 Consumption of coals, in Ibs. per hour ... 5241 2240 2464 WErGuts. Total of engines, in tons ..........6-+seeeeeee 117 220 200 Fach wheel .......csceceeseeee eee eeeseeeeesees 11°95 26 25 Boilers without water .........:eseseseeeeeees 83 60 34 Water in boilers ........cceceeeeneneeeeenenees 63 40 36 Reference to Reports ......1.ssesseeeeeeee ees 1860 & 1861. | 1860 & 1861. 1860. Information supplied by ........-:sseseseeeee] 0 veeeeeees Randolph, Elder| Randolph, & Co. Elder & Co. Roamans fs 20. cecopswekonveses eneperae sees Moderate breeze;|Light head wind;| Light wind ; variable tide;| variable tide;| alternate comparatively, light head sea.| tide ; no sea. smooth sea. ween nee wee teeeee shee eeee Hee teneee tee eeeees Double cylinder. 4 2 of go 2 of 52 5 23 320 1100 Feathering. 2 Tubular. 26 1600 2000 6 2 140 334° 2240 220 26 60 40 1860 & 1861. Wind abeam; variable tide; short beam sea. ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 67 5. Between 13 and 15 knots. B. : E. Between 125 and | Between 500 and | Between 1000 250 tons. Iooo tons. and 2000 tons, Vulcan. Scotia. Telegraph. F=8 Ange } 160 192°57 243'8 163 27 23°16 wonaadiee 4°5 8°83 9°67 Rogdneoce 56 188-78 224°7 Soceace 140 680 1173 aes oa= 14°75 ayaa ete 8 secede ots wataceees Tron painted, clean. roemuiadee Peat ene Side lever Oscillating. Double cylinder. Side lever. 2 2 4 2 73 36 52 | 77°25 6 3°5 4°5 5°5 SCCCOH ORE About 50. 24 | 25 BOOS, TAME SP Ors Cg Fe 379°92 448 1300 412 93418 1165°98 Ordinary. Feathering. Modif. Morgan’s. |Modif.Morgan’s, 27°5 122 to journals. 24°5 26°33 8°5 6 10 10 2°5 2°25 3°67 4 Ae pel Satetane te 12 14 caeccmeeee hie WM sc cstacee 6 4°42 12°75 14°5 13°61 13°23 Pobolarsee de ese coerce Tubular Tubular. oasis) MMW ns hocde a 12 14 TALOU PRS we o55504 325 406 ZEZOG ) ROSEY cocoon betplalls> 2c eet OER Teed CS Ne || aie g ae eee 12 12 See BI P sekierwae 2 2 215 2 NM SS Siocon 186 166°25 GE2Y eras = oe A 5390°91 8758°o1 C720) EN, alg ee 6240 7800 ZOD TEL |. nc Seicabicrwom i Apees (> drwyracac ce ite Pe ci gies oe ji re oh eR ee 23 23 Sommer ty Lo tae 47°17 7o pho) A tl epee 39 65 1860&1861, | ss. 1860. 1860. see eeeees and Jas. R. Napier. Professor Rankine,|Admiral Moorsom. Light wind; tide Admiral Moor- som. partly favourable. Light wind ; tide partly fayour- able. eee F2 68 REPORT—1867. Groups of a Speed ......---seeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeess E. Subgroup of Displacement .............+..++++- Between 1000 and 2000 tons. Name of Vessel ............cecceceereeeeereereneees Mersey. Delta. Length on load-water-line, in feet ........-..- 254°42 308 Breadth, in feet ........-.ecseeeeeeeceeceece eens 30 35°25 Mean draft of water, in feet...............2-0++ 10°25 15 Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft. ... 261 400 Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ...... 1300 2300 Mean immersed girth, in feet ...........20005-| 0 seeeee ees 39°7 WMiaterial and state Of SKIN Pressure of steam in boiler, in lbs................ Steam-room, in cubic feet ............sceeeee eee Water-room, in cubic feet ..............cceee eee ENT DET OF LULTIACES \..cs0s.cctlecde-cvnese-ccasussence UNM ber OMBOMELS: rs... 0-5--eserdeveseacececeswecees Grate surface, in square feet .............2.0204+- Total heating surface, in square feet ............ Consumption of coals, in lbs. per hour ......... WEIGHTS. Total of engines, in toms .........+ssseeeeeeeeee eee Total of boilers, in tOnS ........scseeseeeeeeeeeeees Total of water in boilers .........cs.s:seeeeeeeeenes Propeller ...seesececssecssrseeseaeeeeees SpdagnessonNac Reference to Reports ......:sccseeeseceeeneensen eens Information supplied by............ Reet eneocess Remarks .......... Leenane seh recee sma tetnassaesesea Under 12 5 tons. Midge. Penelope. 58°75 74°33 12°67 12°75 4 4°08 40 32 45 46°5 I 2 16 I1°5 1°33 I n60:. ) po't | ficcpsean 25 20 100 93 Adeulall| Gis 4°67 4°25 9 10°5 15 "67 3 3 96 X1'16 “70 5°24 4°67 10°53 10°85 160 146 Cyl mult. tub. Tubular. 60 45 7o 38°05 140 86°45 I I I I 19°8 13°062 3263 311°302 280 336 2°5 27 es si) 5°75 2°5 25 15 1861. 1861 T. W. Dudgeon.|Morrison & Co. GaleN.E.; heavy|Moderate wind; head-and beam-| no sea; withand sea. against tide. Duke of Suther andJ.ScottR beet eneee eeneeceee fen eeetee 1859 & 1860. ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, { SCREW-STEAMERS. and 11 knots. Lancefield. 27°64 Tron painted. ebb; favourable « Inverted. Inverted geared 2 2 28 62 2°5 3°16 84 34°9 50 200 200 550 Gaining pitch | ...,..... DO eee Li iD Dt.” i ear 3 we eeeceee oc “oe 9°6 95 gs ae GON soe Chamb. 2, uprt. Tubular. water-tubes. eae Sa « Average. Vea SN I 2 48 96 1278 4200 icc: ll ae 1861. 1862. fessor Rankine,/Royal African md Jas. R. Napier.) Mail Co. derate sea; quar-| —.,........ Between 2000 and 4000 tons. Macgregor Laird. wee eeeee George Rennie & Son. Candia. 1861. 71 Between 11 and 13 knots. Between 250 and 500 tons. Cc San Carlos, Double cylinder. 4 53 and 31. 2°92 13°33 Variable. 2 2G II 11°75 48 Spiral flue. 50 759° 800 I I 76 2276 1176 70 16 55 27 1860. Randolph, Elder & Co. Leonidas. 1861. Morrison & Co. Topsail breeze; mo- derate swell; last o: flood, first of ebb. 72 Groups of a Speed Subgroups of Displacement..................-.- Name of Vessel Length on load-water-line, in feet Breadth (extreme), in feet Mean draft of water, in feet Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft. ... Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet Mean immersed girth, in feet Material and state of skin ENGINES. Description Number of cylinders..................s.cesseeeees Diameter of cylinders, in inches Length of stroke, in feet Number of revolutions, per minute Nominal horse-power Indicated horse-power PROPELLER. Description Diameter, in feet Pitch, in feet Length in line of shaft...............:..::0seeee Number of blades Boss, diameter in feet ............sscesceseeseees Depth of immersion at bottom ............... Speed of vessel, in nautical miles per hour... Number of revolutions, per minute Borers. Description Pressure of steam in boiler, in lbs............. Steam-room, in cubic feet Water-room, in cubic feet Number of furnaces Iii benLOrPOWers: 5... 525 -creckacsssesesceuveans Grate surface, in square feet ................2- Total heating surface, in square feet Consumption of coals, in lbs. per hour WEIGHTS. Total of engines, in tons Total of boilers, in tons Total of water in boilers Propeller Reference to Reports ...........:seceeeseeeeeees Information supplied by Remarks REPORT—1867. Cc Between 250 and 500 tons. Double cylinder. 4 53 and 31 12 104, Patent spiral flue. 52 1000 1200 1861. West India Mail Company. Light wind ; heavy sea. Maurocordato. Tubular. 15 415 1165°4 6 2 1113 1861. Morrison & Co. Calm ; no sea; tide in favour. ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 73 ntinued.) 5. { 13 knots. Between 13 and 15 knots. Cc. 1000 tons. 2: are Between 500 and rooo tons. Above 16000 tons. Thunder. Ceylon. Tasmanian. Great Eastern. Let F= 330 240 yin ao 300 332 M=120 } 680 ae A=230 30 41 39 82°5 14 18°25 19°08 23°62 | 23°71 23°60 342 582 577 1678 168542 | 1676°35 1000 2940 3375 20250 20500 =| 20240 epee 52°4 Sodtassica 75°3 75°4 | 75°3 SPieiee Ot Mebwvedhoe tole cca cs Iron painted. Vertical dir. Iny. dir. Trunk inverted. Horizontal direct. 2 2 3 4 55 72 68 84 3 3 3°5 4 56°5 61°3 52 38°58 22 | 36°35 210 450 550 1600 924. 2040 2800 4656 4886 4886 re See ty eas - g sr a ie 21 24. 33°5 44 4 4 D7 SCE 1A wenuaatattues 2 3 3 + RTE ipa Mee Geter Sis pies > Fe Pe pat Seer eee DE OVe we sll Odea cya ae TOD Siey es Soh SARE RY LARS 14°5 13°34 14°25 14°28 | 13°40 13°13 56°5 61°3 52 38°58 37°45 36°35 Tubular. Lamb's sheet flue. Tubular. Tubular. 13 20 19 Average. Pocemts Hee NGS, Je BOF WY let, Fak ced na acne eee scars vse OAS «Wee Nii Ane ck ace tLe 3 20 26 72 2 4 6 6 214'6 450 SLO pala ely iain s a ee 4796 9450 ROSS IN he Aaa ort Be tee EA OW tag hfe cc cck iy 8400 15859 | 16161 ~— | 14186 96 ores 390 500 4 7 14 36 56 136 CS) 9 atl it Ment 2 Ao a a 49 64. BEOW ey itu Oh Saitetes. tae 1861, 1861, 1860, 1862. ie J. W. Dudgeon. Humphreys, Ten-'A. & J. Inglis, J. Scott Russell, and logs of G.B, nant & Co. @alns NO? feas|\2 ) vessccsee Fresh breeze; 1 mile against flood 2 runs; tide. ebb 2 runs. an REPORT—1867. ? Groups of a Speed ......-:....0.ssees B. D Subgroups of Displacement..... saoncnmee eee a 5 Between 500 and 1000 tons. INEIRIO OF WIESBGlin se lelelel eteieiseielels) oie ors y= 810! =i Minx. Plumper. Wasp. Cruiser. Length on waterline, in feet ............ 131'02 140 188°33 160 Breadth (extreme), in feet .............. 22°08 27°5 33°83 31°92 Tonnage, builder’s measurement.......... 303 490 970 753 Mean draft of water, in feet ............ 4°16 12°58 12 13°41 Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft. .. 59 252 302 328 Displacement; in tons of 35 cubic feet .... 145 679 970 998 ENGINES. ID Lei COWS | 85 Bid oUig sic, 46 cords ee aero. H.H: P. /V.o.geared.| V.os. | H. geared. Womber of.cyitaders” 2... scr. 2 50002 dee 2 2 2 2 Diameter of cylinders, in inches.......... g'18 27 34. 28°06 Liength of stroke, in feet ..............+% "15 2 2°75 2 Number of revolutions, per minute ...... 196 54. 58°58 49 Weight per sq. in. on safety valve, in lbs. .. 55 14 II 10 Nominal horse-power ..........4....-+- 10 60 100 60 Indicated horse-power’.......... licks cs 365 127°3 2362 123°7 PRorerer. Dinmeter-initeet! shaves. Se seta ve bees sc 08 4°08 8:69 It 9 PEL UCIMIIRTGEL icra an jaraasseteieyeretssteisie gece, See 3°56 G10 13°5 6°67 | ibengthiin: line: of:shatt.|. 25 sj.r0)s+.40 «0 gse8 57 1°16 ve rer Immersion of lower edge, in feet ........ 223 6°42 4°75 7°83 | Number of revolutions, per minute ...... 196 10908 58°58 98 Speed of ship, in knots per hour ........ 5°441 6°381 6°976 6°295 Speed of propeller, in knots per hour .... 6388 6°568 7°801 67445 Speed* x Dt$+indicated horse-power ....| ....-- 157°6 TAGS. glee terete IVRAITICL eter RMA EMR Ee er a cSs Bucee eevee Yom s whats No. 3 No. 4 Calm [S22 aia GA OAS DAG DU SABE EIR ERCO Oa | Dee CEE] OM | Me Geran |) Sodas ns Remarks. jvehiiwinies Finyioo yee its Sa aces COM OE, |mooomeries bet ac. Reference to Reports, ..°.. ena. as eans 03 1862. | 1862. | 1862. 1862. | : ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 7 AR (Group ]).. © and 2000 tons. Between 2000 and 4000 tons. latton, |- Massa- Amplhion. | Cornwallis.| Hastings. | Blenheim.| Hawke Ajax * | suchetts. shi wh : eo pee ‘ J q25 156°25 177 177°08 176°87 18123 176°08 176 45°20 32 43°16 49°08 48°5 48°5 43°46 48°54 - 2 OS eee 14.74. 1809 1763 1832 1753 1761 8°5 15°67 19 21°37 20°83 DIT, 21°37 22°21 79 495 546 736 25 738 757 79° 40 1361 2025 2718 2730 2790 2808 3013 iP.) D. Ae. Hor H. Tr.H. P.| H. H. P Hor. /|H.Tr.H.P Hor 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4. .5 24°875 48 = 30°02 30 52 =30 55 2 3 4 2°5 2°5 3 2°5 2°5 7 44°39 45 96 78 43 89 521 re 10 60 65 10 50 10 0S) | aieeore 300 200 200 450 200 450 34 162°54 592°2 5728 597°3 933°4 500 930°6 6°21 10'S 15 12 12 16 12 16 4 16, 21 9°5 12°29 20 9°5 18°42 2°27 2 2°5 1°57 192 3°33 57 3°08 516 RETA ed [Ds Saran ve ere 14°75 DAS Bil careers 14°08 12°57 7 44°39 45 96 78 43 89 52 45 5616 6°75 58 6:702 5°816 67525 6°83 7539 | vevreeees 9°321 8'996 9°457 8483 8340 9447 Ee oe No: 2 Light. Moderate] ...... Smoodies|) “shires o be 2 see ie) 3 Smooth. water; a little swell. Desf, ges Rigged and) ...... ‘Aros (Ripped andl ais... fully partially equipped. equipped. 1362. 1862 1862. 1862. 1862 1862. 1 Or 76 REPORT—1867. Groups of a Speed ...cccsessccsscesesecneesennes B. Subgroups of Displacement.........+:.1+00e008 Between 125 and 250 tons. Name of Vessel...... S pubonap Sooce sag OcubcconaeeD Teazer. Length in waterline, in fect............ Waerece 130 Breadth (extreme), in feet’ ............:sssee0e 21°79 Tonnage, builder’s measurement............-+- 296 Mean draft of water, in feet ..........0.2.0e 8 5°25 Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft. ... 82'9 Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ...... 205 ENGINES FERCMIpP OW aes. cvosqesemnderren ss! Ra Rocce V. os. Number of cylinders .........seceseeeneeeeeees 2 Diameter of cylinders, in inches ............-+ 27°06 Length of stroke, in feet ............s.eeeseeeeee 2°5 Number of revolutions, per minute ........... 51°5 Weight per sq. in. on safety-valve, in lbs....) - 9 Nominal horse-power .........:ssseseeene eeeeee 40 Indicated horse-power ..........-+ceeseeeneeneeee 123°2 PRropewLer. Diameters, 1n tech” ss. aceesedswsciwn wes owneuveaenes 5 IPiteh ein heel secs .seipe ta Be are ad ecoce 7 Length in line of shaft ...........0eeeeeeeeeeee 1°16 Immersion of lower ledge, in feet ..........66) seeeeeeee Number of revolutions, per minute ......... 192'09 Speed of ship, in knots per houv.............-. 7°685 Speed of propeller, in knots per hour......... 13263 Speed? x Dt} indicated horse-power ......-..) sreeesees RIVIERA acs caasctacevescwsnsearendeouccl| " “sendalecue SOD i dodensoaheB concede sont once ease De aBeEratcrocccc.o |aammoc pric PRGIMAEKS OG sce te csanecaenianvabeececseegrasaveinrsins Not rigged ; fine stern. Reference to Reports ....ccssscccrreeeesssneeeees 1862. * Half boiler power, Taste [LV.—MEN-O C. Between 250 and 500 tons. Cygnet*. | Swallow. 145'08 139 25°42 27°92 428 486 914 10°25 168 180 393 455 fete eenee seadaeees Between 7 D Between 500 and 1000 tons. ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, Torch. Hor. trunk. 2 —= 35:1 1°67 80 20 160 222°1 It 9°75 2°42 4°92 80 7033 7694. 109°7 No. 4. Moderate swell, Reynard. 147°67 27°33 516 10’92 222 604. Rigged and fully equipped. 1862. Lyra. 139 27°83 485 12°20 239 638 Rifleman. 150 26°57 486 EUS 230 678 34 275 Sey SW) Io 100 166°5 Fully rigged and ready for sea. 1862. Y. os. geared. 2 Pantaloon. No. 3. Hornet. 160 31°87 753 13°37 312 937 tet eeeeee teeter eee Bee eeeeee 78. , REPORT—1867. Groups of a Speed .........scesececnnseeerensee- Subgroups of Displacement........-...::00 INameiot Vessel jcccssiserdzceseristenas=-><>spreee Falcon. Supply. | Harrier. Length on waterline, in feet......,.....+-.+000+ 160 179'5 160 Breadth (extreme), in feet: .....,......00++-+09- 31°83 27°12 31°83 Tonnage, builder's measurement........-.....- 748 638 747 Mean draft of water, in feet ...,........06-44 14 14°25 14°75 Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft. ...| 330 324 356 Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ...... 1006 1070 =| 1097 TEnGINES. | ID) (GRE 18. espe eqod Bement erry PERE ory Pen | Hor. (|In.Sing.Tr.| Hor. H. geared. |H, Tr. Mamiper/O CylMdeyS.....pac-cs5ce-t-+esenersnese | 2 2 2. 2 Diameter of cylinders, in inches .............-. 2 Sob 34. 46°01 Length of stroke, in feet ..............s200000805 2 2°25 175 3 Number of revolutions, per minute ......... 81°5 45 93°83 42 Weight per sq. in. on safety-valve, inlbs....) 20 14 20 10 _| Nominal horse-power .......-.:sescseeseeeen eres 100 80 100 Indicated horse-PpoWer .....-.ssseececeecseeereees 312°2 265'2 323°5 PROPELLER. SDV Sreatayi 1, ahilg: (c°7\ eee enn eR oP eer Ser 10°02 10 Io fein hMaaaeteObLnttevouaseneccceaky gneorssty xis bac 11'77 12 II'l2 Treneth in line of shaft........06.:0.20scesesenes 1°98 1°67 1°92 Immersion of lower ledge, in feet ............ 7 8°57 8°33 Number of revolutions, per minute ......... S15 45 93°33 Speed of ship, in knots per hour............... 7°87 7655 Speed of propeller, in knots per hour......... 9°465 107653 10'297 Speed? x Dts+ indicated horse-power ......... 156°7 202 147°5 SVU IIe oer eM cure, s pagacib sen posggglncs $25 7°83 157 | 55 72 IIo 76 8°85 36 rpan ROSE 9°359 11°630 1o°85r Sasa bigasia UH. © katte ss 133 1165 ADrGeree Sota ne | Sal Severe cette Bl leRErEe ren No. 3 to | Fresh breeze. UN OrAS deanna hee eel Me Caste scr al REMERRRAR Indicated horse-power .............ssssscessevees 7013 $72 894'8 96376 I 199" PRopeLurr. : Diameter, in. FeGhoFe 6 Sr. eae oeeceamedbbedosewes 12 12 155 16 7 iteh wn feeb aes ..s come reddecaecuoeskteee scone 9°5 12 15°46 18°75 I Tength in line of shaft.............20020..0.0000- 1°57 2 2°42 3°08 3 Immersion of lower ledge, in feet ............ 10°46 12°08 10°16 11°71 (I Number of revolutions, per minute ......... 103 82 64°333 52 49) Speed of ship, in knots per hour............... 75 7'602 8°935 8498 g Speed of propeller, in knots per hour......... 9°652 9°706 9886 9618 10 Speed* x Dt§+ indicated horse-power......... O8i8 Tl iecakenkes 149°4 A TAR sc secens I 8 pa MNNR GET 48P ec ae yawns N aavede No. 2 Ho.'g. dae = CM rete ee deta dents cenae Ubekesdeees veveknenpacwente|’ Mavedtard . Ih Gecetuases 10 SSebeakes: dishtla Men caessvonvad) nds vpdubee a woinieas® OF Ginrr zea | 2°S5A3 Anan Reopen : Sea on... Gis elaibisTavE te alate e)evointg'pie'sinVgiaivio/eisle/n(via's 0\giwisiercre‘ehe.eforeih) = 8i2(e Riais.e/0ip teeeeneee seeeeeeee ve eeeeeee eoccevene ace e acai Remarks ......s0eeeee Peeeeeeaccateracsgnesso-EarG Not coducars -(hosaneaagad: | apgeaenGe Ul MiERSe pees aaa , rigged Reference to Reports ....-.:.:sesseseererreeeees 1862. | 1862. 1862. 1862. 1862. WAR (Grovr 3). ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 83 Mullet. | Hspoir, | Griffon. | Snake. | Shaxp- 145 TA5 160 150 F533 | 25°33 | 25°93 26°61 425. 425 477 593 9°45 9°46 9°62 9°25 176 176 179 196 416 416 482 518 Hor. Tor. |H. trunk Hor, 2 2 2 2 30 32°125 |=35°1 46 1°67 15 1°67 3 98 IOI 109°83 Al'S 20 20 20 fe) 80 80 160 200 3303 | 32599 | 459°8 365° 9 Ds 9 11°75 T2328 IO 9 2 233 5 4°33 5 CGT iy [pore ae 101 10983 124°5 10°05 IOII9] 10°303 9°189 11359} 12°287| 10°834 11052 177°2 LONG RE) (a ee EVAL aie So a hts ec No. 5. Ere Ne ctyacecs 4 oc cocaty,, teen scvaseves | cessaeccs Rigged and partially equipped. 1862. 1862. 1862, 1862, D. Between 500 and roo0 tons. Beagle. | Ranger. | Philomel.| Gannet. 160 145 145 IS1 45°39.) 2533] -25°39 29°08 Ane 425 425 | 577 IO'I25] 11°33 11°58 10°87 192 223 230 202 523 55° 570 583 Hor. |H.sing.T.| Hor, Hor. 2 2) 2 2 42°I25 |=30'2 32 39 1'75 MTs I's 2 72 95°5 108 90°6 20 20 20 20 160 80 80 150 295 283°6 354'2 616°6 II‘08 9 9 10 14°71 II's 12°18 14°5 2°29 1°83 Zrair 2°5 442 | 6 6-42 4°5 72 95°5 108 go°6 9'409| 9'006) 9'548 | 10°817 10°446| 10°833 13'032 12°958 183°3° | 1729 | 168'9 143°3 No. 1 to| No. 3 to} No. 3 to | Calm. No. 2 No. 4. No. 4. wae ci eel Meares aul aceon Smooth. BORSCEE Or | corhoence Rased se eee and stored. 1862, 1862. 1862. 1862, Cordelia. ISI 29°08 577 II 204 591 Serene 84 repoRrT—1867. Tasiy Ve i Groups of a Speed 2 34 p p seen ones eaeeereneeneees tevese Between 9 and ee Subgroups of Displacement D. WnaaRavoseiireins aan Between soo anil ee ——— & Name of Vessel......:scsecseeeeneeeeeeeeeneceerees Alacrity.| Icarus. | Eclipse. | Lily * ven |. aaa = ee a pale ere Length on waterline, in feet........-.-+++.0008++ 180 151i 185 185 180 Breadth (extreme), in feet .......--...sseeeeee 28°33 29°08 28°33 28°33 28°33 | Tonnage, builder’s measurement...........-.-- 670 577 695 695 670 | Mean draft of water, in feet ............00066 g'25 | I 9°33 9°33 9°57 | Area of immersed midship section, sq. feet...| 195 211 198 200 206 | Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ...... 605 618 625 634 645 ENGINES. @ Description .....cccceeeeeseerseeesseeseeenennerens Hor. |H.sin.Tr.) Hor. Hor Hor. Number of cylinders ...........-sseceeeeeeeeees 2 2 2 2 2 Diameter of cylinders, in inches.............. 45 =38°875| 45 45 45 Length of stroke, in feet ...........-:see 2 1°83 2 2 2 Number of revolutions, per minute ......... 85°5 92 96 76 88°5 Weight per sq. in. on safety-valve, in lbs....]_ 20 20 2.0 20 20 Nominal horse-power .....-.-+seseeeeeeeeeeeeees 200 150 200 200 200 Indicated horse-pOWer ......ssseseeeeseceesserees 587°2 602'8 $38°4 4741 62773 PRopE.yer. | Diameter, in feet ........sccseegeneee eee eee een eees 11 10 II II II | Pitch, in fect ......:..csesceeeceeeeeedeceeseeeeeees 16 14°42 16°5 Ly 16°54 Length in line of shaft............000:sseeeeee 2°5 219 2°42 3°25 2°67 Tmmersion of lower ledge, in feet ............ 3°42 5°67 3°92 4°83 75% Number of revolutions, per minute ......... 85°5 92 96 76 88-5 | Speed of ship, in knots per hors eee seer 10651} 0146] 11 Io 10°25 a Speed of propeller, in knots per HOUT aacceo 13°494.| 13°083) 15°625|) 12°744 14°440 Speed$ x Dt$+ indicated horse-power......... 147°2 125°7 116°E 155°7 1284 Thain lt nso, couhlcococn ant Gouge: GRRio ago ong tbsoectee, a9 fs eiaupoaa. i Mseauas cea Ile cscgacoo). | ccc “Cc No. 39 Re Matte eed. rtreiionsatse cA AV WAP en| tac Aeron Re snetes, | eR ensAaNR | abHoes or a TRA g, cae be ek ne a cbognus iar coone dre occaooe er eer angootk |)" agtooo ll RES SS Ieocce ug Reference to Reports ....s.sessseeeeeereneeesee> 1862. 1862. 1862. 1862. 1862 * Hall-boiler power. ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, Light. Smooth. Without masts or rigging. 1862. Lapwing. 180 23°33 670 10°83 240 781 seen ewnee 1862. Mohawk.} Vigilant. 180 28°33 670 10°87 242 785 sentewees 1862, 180 28°33 670 TI"'04 24.5°5 803°5 Steam main- tained at not more than 18 lbs, 1862, 86 ruPORtT—1867. Tanie V. Groups of a Speed 3. p feels (i araeecooecnnagcore Betwooti-y anil Fi D . Subgroups of Displacement......... Between 500 and 1000 tons. i Name of Vessel...i.sccccsceseeeeteseee Osprey. | Racer. | Victor. |Industry.| Zebra. |Intrepid.| Rattler, | Length on water-line, in feet ...... 180 151 200 179°5 185 200 1765 Breadth (extreme), in feet ......... 28°33 29°08 30°16 27°12 33°16 30°16 |_ 32°71 | Tonnage, builder's measurement... 670 elf 851 638 950 851 888 \ Mean draft of water, in feet ...... T1°20 13°37 10°04 12°66 11°83 11'29 13°79 | Area ofimmersed midship sect.sq.ft.| 250°5 272 233 281 277 270 338 Displacement, in tons of 35 cub. ft. 8265 829 875 993 giz 1040 1112 ENGINES. , Description s...civist...s..0talveess. Hor. | Hor. | Hor. | Oscil. | Hor. | Hor. |V. d.c.g Number of cylinders ..........-..+. 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 | Diameter of cylinders, in inches... 45°06 40 55 36°5 42°5 58°06 4O'I25 Length of stroke, in feet ..........-. 2 1°67 25 3 z'16 2°25 4 Number of revolutions, per minute] 80 96'5 84°5 42 112 70 25°43 Wt. per sq.in. on safety valve,inlbs.| 20 22 20 12 20 20 10 Nominal horse-power ..........+06++ 200 150 350 100 200 350 200 Indicated horse-power ...........56+ 593°4 522°2 9738 317'8 984'8 930°! 5192 PROPELLER. Diameter, in feet :..........sseedeeees II*O4 10 il 9 12 II 10 Pitehy da feet | sevttetec. sb oes 15°83 13°5 20°5 II 15 21°25 II Length in line of shaft............... 2°59 2°19 3 1°83 2°75 3°02 1°25 Immersion of lower ledge, in feet 4°5 6:92 4°16 6°92 4°25 5716 75 Number of revolutions, per minute} 80 96°5 84°5 97°548 | 112 70 101°72 Speed of ship, in knots per hour IO'1S 9°519 9'056 g12 Io'714| 10°25 g'I41 Speed of propeller,in knotsper hour) 12°495 12°85 17°087| 10°585| 167572) 14°673| 10°03 Speed? x Dt2+ indicated h.-p....... 1552 145°8 69°8 2231 117°4 118°9 159 Baka WE cshrsniis.stoadioh| sents ity j08l | cain | sie, c).0 Ga : DEB cqenens PoE cetaHEN iGo AL scOaTe|| MONODMIE Piece tee tl Msaanns a /nasreee. ll Maaeone Smooth.| ..... a EREIMET ICA wriers xanifdamansda iy etscaransaal (Mebaatae | |) assess Bottom.) isss3s. | Yaesby eal eh eo d foul. Reference to Reports ..........0006 1862. 1862. 1862. 1862. 1862. 1862. 1862, (continued.) 11 knots. ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. me- leon. 10°742 984 ight. Between 1000 and 2000 tons. Flying Fish. 173°5 No. 2. Grey- hound. 172°S 33°16 878 13°78 342 1175 Hor. 2 45 2 80'5 20 200 744-9 12°33 14°5 2°42 5°67 80°5 9°87 11448 143°7 Light. Smooth. seen Mutine. Hor. 2 45 2 82 20 200 786°4, Rinaldo. || Fox. |Miranda. 185 159°33 | 196'04 33°16 42°33 | 34 950 1131 1039 14°62 16°29 12°37 367°4 449 336 1286 1340 1350 Hor. Hor. |H.geared. 2 2 2 42°5 45 56°375 2°16 2 CBI] 92°083 | 93 28°5 20 20 13 200 200 250 752°4 7403 | 613°1 12 12'04 12 13°87 10°86 Las S12 2 1°92 733 9°42 5°25 Bee 2 >| 94 87°87 10°588 9°325| o0'75 12°60 10°884. 9°968 186°6 DaSiag | O46 ccosacee No. 3 No. 3 No. 5 abeam Bhaliiye Oi) ot aoe equipped for sea. 1862. 1862. 1362, | Tartar. —_—— | ___ wh) 38°5 1322 13°96 379) 1350 Brisk. En- counter. 190 43°20 953 13°70 382 esnele) H. trunk. Secece Fully rigged. 1862. 88 REPORT—1867. Groups of a Speed .....s.ceeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeees Subgroups of Displacement —«....---++++++++- | : - Despe- | Terma-| High- Name of Vesseli.ccccssscsccvsessssecscasesseesoees Niger. | Megera.| “to, eat cee Length on waterline, in feet.....----.sresereeres 194°33 | 207 192°33 | 210°08 | 192 Breadth (extreme), in fect .........--seeeeeees 34°67 37°83 34°35 40°5 36°33 Tonnage, builder’s measurement ........++-- 1072 1395 1037 1547 1153 Mean draft of water, in feet .......-..:.s0ee 15'79 13°29 15°96 14°05 16°5 Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft....) 437 383 452 436 476 Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ...... 1497 1554 1663 1670 1775 ENGINES. Description ......ccccccccceeeeetesseseeeeneneeeees Hor. Hor. |f. geared) Hor. Number of cylinders ..........:-s0eeeseesee eres 4 4 4 2 Diameter of cylinders, in inches .......+-++- 47°625| 49°5 55°01 62°5 Length of stroke, in feet .........:+-.sseeereeees 1°33 2 es Number of revolutions, per minute ......... 78 74/21 37 Weight per sq. in. on safety-valve, in Ibs... a2 8 TO. Cf | snc Ot Viper Nominal horse-power ....-..seesseeeeeeereeeees 400 350 400 Indicated horse-pOWeD ...-...sereseeessseeeeerees 1002'I 925°6 891°7 PROPELLER. Diameter, in feet .......ccecseerteneenen eee eeneens 12°5 14°46 13°08 Witchy; in feet si deevsc.svsceacse-seneecerenanene 17°25 16 13°83 Length in line of shaft .......--.ssseerreeee ee 2°45 2°73 2°25 Immersion of lower ledge, in feet ........-..- 8:25 6°67 8-42 Number of revolutions, per minute .......-- 78 74°21 80°727 Speed of ship, in knots per hour ........-++- 10°25 10241 ; Speed of propeller, in knots per hour......... 13'272| 1711] 11016 Speed’ x DtZ+indicated horse-power ...... TACIO® Vl) Cisse 1393 7 tee ber Rocce tg coc: VATE RRS sc sutioun Cece ebearweNesener| Wenvues, il \aiewde Light breeze. SEE or aduno so vgocer pe Le eerg ice Windeeeersccienateueeies Memes si\tueeknest Smooth.}| ...... PRem ark ch... csenereses hae ddettratev vies Fe Soho bac sel intaetlee faatite stnuae Reference to Reports s......0 Meaaa sol ean Rites Brae Peco ee nnn ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCRE. 89 tinued.) d rx knots. F. oo tons. Between 2000 and 4000 tons. Esk; Green- Pylades Chal- Pearl. |Racoon*. Satellite. | Satellite*.| Tribune. {Assistance . ock. y. a ls lenger. n i. a ei PR 2 le ° 92, 213 192'°75 200 200 200 200 200 192 282°87 36°25 37°40 38°42 40°33 40°33 40°33 40°33 40°33 43 36°39 39 1418 1278 1462 1462 1462 1462 1462 1570 1793 (6°87 14°20 Ty ats 17°43 17°92 17°96 18°08 18°08 18°5 16°62 38 419 522 522 538 540 546 546 578 440 5 1835 {1956 2018 2107 2115 2138 2138 2220 2260 Hi. trunk.) H. trunk. |H. trunk.) Hor. | H.trunk.! H.trunk.| Hor. |H.S. Tr. 2 2 2 2 2 2 z 4 =55 =581r |=5811 64. =5811 | =58'11 55 =45'16 3 3°25 3°25 3 3°25 3°25 2°5 5) 62°5 54°6 55°25 | 56 57 47°5 72 5- 45°083 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 12 350 400 400 400 400 400 300 400 1106 1190°8 10781 = |1485 1213°5 700°4. 1068 878°8 15°75 16 16 16 16 16 14°08 17°18 20 23°5 22°92 26 23°5 23°5 17°57 22°62 3 3 3 3 3 3 2°87 2°75 8°33 7°67 8°33 8°92 8°92 892 9°83 7°67 62°5 54°6 5525 | G6 57 47°5 72°5 54083 Io‘lIg 10°60! 10°988| ro'g18 10°S5 9°366 10°418 10°663 12°330 12°656 12°49 14°362 13°213 Il‘oll es yi 12°075 ase 1598 202°2 144°3 160°6 194°7 ee, 8 237°6 No.4. | No.5 to | No.2. |No.3 to} Fresh Fresh No.2. | No. 2 to No. 6 No. 4 breeze breeze. No. 3. Nee PReaser Tas cenes: |! senate Little Trbilexs eee celeb hccceee swell swell. seers teens * Walf-hoiler power. 90 REPORT—1867. Groups of a Speed Se Eee Subgroups of Displacement Ad- venture. Length on waterline, in feet Breadth (extreme), in feet .....-.....:s.0e2e0+ Tonnage, builder's measurement Mean draft of water, in feet Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft. ... Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ENNGINEs. Description Number of cylinders Diameter of cylinders, in inches Length of stroke, in feet .............ccsseeenees Number of revolutions, per minute Weight per sq. in. on safety-valve, in lbs. ... Nominal horse-power ............sseceenceneeee Indicated horse-power ..........sssesesseeeares ae Cae e eee e ere e ene nese ease eneneaetes 282°87 orn ae. 7.93 17°21 461 2388 PROPELLER. Diameter, in feet WIDOT OO a be sss occ" cane niceat cand cua viene Sse Weuothiaa line of Shafts, secs: xr. .susensecnensss Immersion of lower ledge, in feet ..........-- Number of revolutions, per minute Speed of ship, in knots per hour............... Speed of propeller, in knots per hour See ee Speed? x Dt2~+indicated horse-power .....- \WIHEDG | ig cocdbHoSainey Spree eer Doce eects eee oe ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 91 | In- c «| Windsor ton. ee péciguse: London*.) Aboukir.| Nelson*. Castle. | Czsar. George. | peake. = ———— See aes igo | 212 215'25 | 204 21625 | 204 207°33 205'57 212 57> -| “50 54°29 | 60 54°5 6or04 56°06 54°54 50 2590 2355 |2687 3C91 2736 3101 2767 2616 2356 21°04 20°49 19°83 20° 19°66 20°25 21°04 20°16 21°66 708 638 73559 |. 7408) | [7586 || 796 726 760 746 2855 (3044 3115 (3150 3158 3245 3259 3270 3334 he. Mu or. |H. trunk.|/H.trunk.! Hor. 4H. trunk. Hor. | H. trunk. | H. trunk. | H. trunk. Hor. Spe" 2 2 ae 2 2 2 2 2 = 5825 |=55 70°07 |=58'25 | 71 = 64°33 | =58 =58'11 64 325 3 3 | 96525 3 3°33 3°25 3°25 3 33 61-83 68 49 62°3 54°66 68°5 60 60°33 52 20 20 20 20 20 20 22 20 20 400 360 500 400 500 500 400 400 400 ‘2 (14206 =| 1199°8 8787 |1533°3. |1190°8 2052°3 1420 1397°9 T1592 | pre 15°96 18 17 18 17 17°12 17 17 18°46 17 20 Lgcs 20°16 185 18°89 18 22°5 2°89 2°61 gg ti, 48 3°75 3 2°96 3 3 10°42 1r25 9°83 | 1016 9°33 10°75 Ti"42 10 11'75 61°83 68 49 | 62°3 54°66 63°5 60 60°93}. ..§2 | 9°66 IO‘III 9508 9°55 10°363 | 10'955 | 10°274 9°568 9°658 °11258) 41403 9°667 | 16°754.| 10°875 T2°503 | 11°183 10°712 T1541 | 134°9 181 2086 | I22°5 | 201-2 poly, Neh Va 138 197474, > | i bags} No. 4 No. 4 No. 7 to | No ge No. 4. No.1 Calm. | No: 4 to | No. 8. | No. 5 1 ae Little | Heavy ocr Cie Sane ees Smooth. ote age swell. swell. | * Tlalf-boiler power. H 2 92 REPORT—1867, Groups of a Speed elas BCR ae Sub f Displacement F. ubgroups of Displacement.........+.+++++++++- Bétween 2000:and 4080 tons. Nar- Royal . «| Immor- | Tra- Name of Vessel ......cscseerececeeceeees seeeeee cissus. | William. Algier s*, talité*, falgar. Length on waterline, in feet......+.s1ee 228 216°75 | 218°57 | 251% 216 Breadth (extreme), in feet .......--.s6ee-s1ee++ 51°25 Soars 60 52°08 55°46 Tonnage, builder’s measurement .....----++- 2665 2849 3347 3059 2900 Mean draft of water, in feet ........-.-..s00+ 21°42 21°04 | 21 21°42 22°91 ‘Avea of immersed midship section, sq. ft....) 706 820 814 715 880 Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ...... 34.12 3520 3550 3625 3850 Encinrs. Description .....cccccccseeeeeeeceeenereeeeeeeenees Hor. Hor. Hor. Hor. Hor. Number of cylinders .......:....seeeeeeeeree ees 2 2 2 2 Diameter of cylinders, in inches.........-..+++ 64 65 76'125| 76 66 Length of stroke, in feet ........-...0.:seeeee0e 3 3 a5 3°5 Number of revolutions, per minute ........- 63°5 62°5 47°75 46 62 Weight per sq. in. on safety-valve, in lbs....| 20 20 20 20 20 Nominal horse-power .....-..+++seeeseeeeeeerees 400 500 600 600 500 Indicated horse-power —.....-sseeeeeeeeeeee eee rorr |1763°r = |1361°8 (13377 |2275°2 PROPELLER. Diameter, in feet ..-....stccsscecesenseeeceeceees 17 18 1812 19°42 18 Pitclwm tech , | stesscsod eseeadehu chem eeenmns— soos 13°5 20 26°08 25°5 19 Length in line Gr shatta ten eee vsvatennees es 3°57 3 3 3°39 ; Immersion of lower ledge, in feet ..........-. 11°67 10°42 10°75 9°5 11°33 Number of revolutions, per minute ......... 6375 62°5 47°75 46 62°166 Speed of ship, in knots per hour ........-.-+ 10°936| ro'581| 10'487| 10°94 10°908 Speed of propeller, in knots per HOULIwr 5. 11°588| 12°330| 12°286| ‘11°571 11°651 Speed? x Dt2~+ indicated horse-power ...... 174°3 155°5 156°6 231 140°! Wiibive |e 2 noo ete Heese SEORE Oe omg ono eer Licht | Light | No.4. | No.2 Calm : breeze. | breeze. SETS ue pop ocongdaaose Gaddotiak Uueceya oar noouboncar Little | Little | Slight | ..... Smooth swell. | swell. | wave. Remarks: ...iicsicceess-s. NSiardeseitaneawacitecnes | seaseae. jl meant. azaste, | 4 Wastes References to Reports ..s.cyeccvenerceesecsoresH cosenne: | oovete |: sebees i) deen * Tfalf-boiler power, _ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, 93 utinucd.) 11 knots. Between 4000 and 8000 tons. - Saint : Aga- Duke of | Victor | Victor | James Re- uth. | George. Orion. | Neptune. memnon. |Wellington./Emanuel*./Emanuel.| Watt. | nown*. 216°5 238 216°5 230 240°5 230 230 230 244°75 54°37 55°75 55°42 55°33 60 55°33 515933 55°42 55°33 2864 = 3232/2830 3°74 3759 3087 3087 3083 3318 37 23°95 24°12 24°96 23°04 23°62 24°12 24°12 24°33 23°67 966 894. 1018 1012 988 1065 1065 1085 1050 4313 4580 4589 4806 5080 5106 5106 5226 5320 Hor. |H.trunk. Hor. | H. trunk. H. geared.| Hor Hor. Hor. |H. trunk. 2 2 2 D 2 2 4 ve 70:75) | 72 79°75 93°87 76125 | 76°125| S225 |=82 3°5 3 3°5 4°5 3:5 355 3 4 59°5 54 63°5 60°58 29°5 45°75 SOT 52 43°5 zo 20 20 15 20 20 16 20 6co 500 600 700 600 6co 6co 8co 17304 |1956°7 |2002°5 | 1948°5 1979 12738 = 2423°8 [1531 1427 18 18 18 18 18°16 18°16 M7 19 23 19°75 21°33 16°25 26°16 26°16 24. 28 3°16 3 3°33 281 3°08 3°08 3 3°5 12°57 12°25 14°42 13°33 II'g2 12°83 12°83 13 11°16 59°5 54. 63°5 60°58 66°6 45°75 56°75 | 52 43°5 10°933 I0°1 10°897 10°717 IO'I5 9°072 10°874. 9°5 9°45 11738 | 12°251| 12°371 13 048 10°675 11°809 14°648| 12°310| 12-014 200°! 145°2 1734. DOO? “ihe Were 4.2 173°8 157°3 168°6 163°3 No.5. | Light | No.2 to! No. 4 to No. 4 No. 4. No.4. | Light. | No.4 breeze. | No. 3. INo:i5. oa en (ae Ce | Smooth. oes * Half-boiler power. 94. | REPORT— 1867. Taszu VI—MEN.O Groups of a Speed . Srevecccccevecevcvvecsscvesces : 2 Cc. Subgroups of Displacement.......++++:.01s++++ Between 259 and 500 tons. { Name of Vessel Cyenet. | Steady. | Penguin.| Arrow st a cecovecnsecesavecgscresnscessscsees ys | + y: § . ° hound a | i Length on waterline, im feet ...-..+ss+ee0+e 145708 | 145 145 160 180 185 Breadth (extreme), im feet ......+5---+ ree es 25°42 2.5733 25°33 2533 23°33 2 Tonnage, builder’s measurement.........++ + 428 42.5 425 A477 670 695 | Mean draft of water, in feet .......6.-.eseeees 914 9°33 9°37 10°83 917 ‘Area of immersed midship section, sq. ft. ...) 168 173 T74 209 194 201 Displacement, in tons of 35 cubic feet ...... 393 407 410 586 6o1 63: ENGINES. Description ........ccececccecceeeesteeees eee tnenes Hor. Hor. Hor. Hor. Tior. E Number of cylinders Reteety Seon ra encce|. meee 2 2 2 2 Diameter of cylinders, In Inches.......++--+-++| 3 32 32 42 | 42 ' Length of stroke, in fect ... ++ .+.s.seerereeees 1'5 rcs I's 1°75 2°16 Number of revolutions, per minute ........- IIo 106 107 93 94 Weight per sq. in. on safety-valve, in ibs....| 21 20 20 20 20 Nominal horse-powe? ...-s-seeessecseeseeeeete| 80 80 80 160 200 2 Indicated horse-pOwer ...sseceeeeeeensee eee ece es 3542 360°4 3646 594 | §99°5 7 PROPELLER. Diameter, in feet .........:ceeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeee eee 9 9 9 1104, It Pitch, in fect ......-c.ceecsesesenneen ere ces eeeeecees 12°01 12°33 12°33 13 15 Tength in line of shaft........-.----eeccereee 197 2 2 2°30 2°54 Tmmersion of lower ledge, in feet .........++- 4°96 45 4°5 4°57 3 Number of revolations, per minute .......-- 110 106 107 93 94 Speed of suip, in knots per HOWVce ccc sears 11°233| 11°053| 11'078| 1X 11°6 Speed of propeller, in knots per heur........- 13°032| 12°896) 313°017| 1 1'926| 13°908 | Speed* Dt? + indicated horse-power........- 214°7 205'3 205°S | ve davenes 185°4 WANG coco secscesteeloctdecdectecseecuacseteeshensigs Wor Zev \eacacdecs ct Rathices Peeieinses uiiReeree eras Sea Pee Meteo riets s aibra ahhh seas siomsle inwaiv sinnerman ign aia es Pehbasdek. [Pateweacots [uke uea Kelsie] es ema ne Ray Cones oe Reference to Reports ....-.-.:ssesesreeereereees 1862. 1862. 1862 1862. 1862 AR (Group 4). knots, Between 500 and roco tons. | Cormo- | Sparrow-/ EP sant. | hawk, 7 185 185 180 m33 | 28°33 | 28°33 | 28°33 | 895 695 670 "42 9°62 10'r6 10°83 + | 206 221 240 657 718 781 or. Hor. Hox. Hor. 2 z 2 45 45 42°25 2 2 2°16 102 85 92 20 20 20 200 200 200 3 892°3 722'8 725°6 II II II 16°5 16°5 14°25 46 2°42 2°46 2°58 67 3°92 4°42 4°33 } 102 85 92 56) rrr TH*05 5) pa S65 Gor} 16°601| 13°834] 12°932 : 1158 WEA cakes las bo ee No. 2. | No. 2 to No. 3 ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, Between 1000 and 2000 tons. E Assur Pelican. | Roebuck.| Pioneer. | Scout. rance. 180 185 200 200 200 28°33 | 33°16 30°16 30°33 40°33 670 950 851 868 1462 10°83 11°89 10°49 10°91 14°37 240 279 24.6 262 399 781 920 935 Io1o 1478 Hor. Hor. Hor, Hor. /|H. trunk. 2 2 2 2 2 45 45 55 55 = 58°11 2 2 2:5 | 2G 725 87 89°75 95°833] 82 66 20 pze) 20 20 20 200 200 350 350 400 744. 7538°5 12779 IIg0 14216 II 12 1108 Ir 15°94 16 14'13 20°42 20°5 23°5 2°5 2°42 3 3 3 425 467 4°42 5 5716 87 89°75 95°833| 82 66 1rr42| 11°666 IVI44. 11°332 116 13°731 | T2514 19°300 167582 15°299 agentes 198 103'6 sagittis 142°5 Calm. | Calm. | No. 4 to | No.6on| ,........ No. 5. | the beam. “1862, | 1862. | 1862. | “2862. | “1862. Pelorus. 96 REPORT—1867, Groups of a Speed .....-+++ apescigeanacnencanea Pe Se Subgroups of Displacement....-......011000+- ‘Sckeaoneeee seal eGcoNaane Name of Vessel ss... sceeeeceesereecnesterenenes Clio Cha- | Orpheus.| Orestes So eine' wu ojatiniaiae «disp wieleme nla © ic rybdis. Pp i : Length on waterline, PEL CRRCE Gears LEAL gL.1tL ZLeLL, VE.oL ov.1L 99.bL 5.9L 91.6L oF.0g 9S.09 ed 2 65.1— |SS.S2 | o1.6Z $6.94 L6.£2 $9.12 00.1Z z£.oL gt.1Z g9.bL of.gZ 30.6 76.64 £7.08 WV 9 ° ° re) ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° fo} *“UBaUT UOAT | uoenaag psuwoyy] “0 “AON 490 “ydag “any “Aine oun “ACT qudy | ‘yorpe | “qa ‘uRp "SAMO FT “OAISNPOUL TOC “OORT OF GOST Woz “YZUOPT Yowo Jo ysTZ oy} wo WoL} sSuowAdosqy ATIMOP wWosz postop ‘Av oy} JO Moy Yovo 4v ary oy} Jo oanzosodwoy, uvopy oy} Surmoyg—]] wavy, Or ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 12 Tare I1I.—Showing the Greatest Range of Temperature on any one Day in each Month, from 1862 to 1866, both inclusire. : 2 Month] Months. 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 18GB. | a ana | | | ° ° ° ° °o ° ATUALY: cnsce. 73°40| 72°40] 73°20| 71°18] 72°10| 72°60] 72°05] 72°52 August ...,.. 74°35 | 73°79| 73°75 | 73°00| 72°20] 72°75] 72"I0| 72°33 September | 75°55 | 73°10] 74°75| 74°05| 73°35| 73°60] 72°05] 74°16 October .,..) 76°30] 75°50] 76°50] 75°40] 76:90! 76°25] 73°65] 75°78 November ..| 80°00} 78°65 | 79°35 | 77°60} 79°35| 79°65| 79°95] 79°22 December,..| 81°05 | 81°25} 82°95| 80°45 | 81°60} 80°30| 82-45]. 81°44 Yearlymeans| 77°80] 77°00] 78:23| 77°93| 77°61] 77°97| 77°62| 77°80 Taste VITI.—Showing the Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature in the Sun’s Rays, obtained from Daily Observations of the Black Bulb Thermo- meter (im vacuo), from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Months. MOREY. 5.50 cca cn one4 eran October ..... AS REESE November .............6. December ............... 1860. | 1861. IIg'I 113°5 116°9} 112°4 I1g'I| 115'0 115°6| 114°3 108°3] 10475 To5"0} 102°9 103°0| ror8 108" | 10373 II1I*3| 106'9 113°38| 112°8 118'2| 115°5 DIZ | p73 II2°9| 110°4 1862. ° rI7'5 116°4 114'6 114°3 1059 103°4 102°7 1031 709"3 1124 11473 116°5 TI0°9 1863. ° 116°5 113°2 114°3 112°9 108'2 102°5 I00'0 104'2 106'6 T1i‘2 113°5 115°5 TO99 1864. ° r116°8 115°3 T14"5 Ir0'9 103°6 1014 99°8 103°3 106°2 112°2 114'6 116'0 EU) 1865. Foo'9 1866. IIo0’L Monthly means. o 117°6 1153 115°7 TUGex 106°! 102'°8 IoI‘2 I04°0 107°3 312°3 115‘ 115° 110°5 128 REPORT—1867, Tasrz IX.—Showing the Maximum and Minimum Temperature, and the Extreme Range of Temperature in each Month, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Monthly means. °o fe} Le) Le} Le} fo} ie] o Maximum] 88-1 | 88:0 | 880 | 88:0 | 87°5 | 890 | 88:0 88°07 January Minimum] 73:0 | 76°5 | 76:9 | 75°0 | 77°38 | 75°6 | 74°0 75°54 Range mee 15°3 | 1125 tars. | xgto evo ||| 13°4. ||“aaco 12°55 Months. 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. Maximum} 87:0 | 87°5 | 87°0 | 86:9 | 88:0 | goto | 88'2 87°80 February ) Minimum] 75:0 | 72°0 | 769 | 77°1 | 75°6 | 75°5 | 76°0 75°44 Range ...| 12°0 | 15°5 | 101 98 | 124 | 14°5 | 1272 12°36 { Maximum) 85-0 | 85-8 | 87°5 | 87°5 | 871 | 88:0 | 88-6 87°07 March ...4 Minimum] 73:0 } 75:0 | 75:0 | 77:2 | 74:1 | 76°5 | 75:0 75°24 I eae oes ele Ou TOS) a MeO |) LO | ESsO mi oes. a emaro 11°83 : | Maximum) 86-0 | 85"5 | 87:0 | 869 | 869 | 88:0 | 89:0 87°04 April..,.... Minimum] 71°5 | 74:0 | 74:9 | 75°4 | 73°9 | 760 | 740 74/24. | Range ...| 14°5 | 1375 | 12:1 | x1°5 | 13°0 | r2°0 | 15:0 12°80 Veh o een Minimum} 70°0 | 72°0 | 70°8 | 714 | 66°8 | 719 | 692 70°30 Maximum] 82°0 | 82:2 | 861 | 85:4 | 82:1 | 85:0 | 84'0 83°83 May Range ...| 12°0 | 102 | 15°3 | 14°0 | 15°3 | 1372 | 14°8 13°53 Maximum} 79°0 | 79°8 | 80:2 | 814 | 812 | 79°5 | 79°0 80°01 Minimum] 66°5 | 67:2 | 68:0 | 7o°0 | 66:4 | 67°8 | 65:5 67°34. Range ...) 12°5 | 12°6 | 12°2 | 11°4 | 14°8 | 11°7 | 13°5 12°67 Bhd008 Minimum} 68°5 | 68:2 | 682 | 659 | 66°5 | 67°6 | 661 67°29 Range ...| zo"5 | 7°83 | 11°3 | 12°3 | 11-9 94 | 12°3 10°78 Maximum] 79:0 | 76°0 | 79°5 | 78:2 | 784 | 7770 | 784 78°07 July ( Maximum 79°0 | 760 | 78°3 | 79°5 | 79°0 | 780 | 78:0 78°25 August ...) Minimum] 68:0 | 67:8 | 69:0 | 66°6 | 66:0 | 68:0 | 62°8 66°89 | ate oie | MAIO om Bre, 9°8 | 12°99 | 13°0 | Io‘o | 15°2 11°36 Maximum} 80°5 | 78:9 | 79°0 | 79°5 | 80'0 | 80°0 | 78°5 79°49 September Minimum} 690 | 67°0 | 70'0 | 680 | 67:2 | 680 | 64°6 67°69 peees -.| I1'§ | 11°9 HO errs) | 1258) || rez» ergo 11°80 { Maximum 82°0 | 8170 | 8074 | 81°0 | 83:4 | 81°5 | 80°0 81°29 October.. Prarie 67°5 | 70°5 | 74°0 | 69°9 | 71°0 | 69'0 | 6874 69°93 i ease pen) Aa) Ons Gey mre 274 e235) or r6 11°36 Maximum] 86:0 | 83°5 | 8570 | 85:2 | 88:0 | 86:0 | 86:9 85:80 November; Minimum] 73:5 | 73:0 | 73°6 | 719 | 700 | 73°6 | 73°4 72°71 Range ...| 12°5 } 10°5 | 1174 | 13°3 | 180 | 12°4 | 13°5 13°09 Maximum] 87:0 | 86°5 | 89°4 | 87°3 | 89°0 | 87:0 | 89°6 87°97 December } Minimum} 74°5 | 76:0 | 754 | 71°9 | 74°0 | 74°0 | 75°2 74/43 RATES wess|izus) | KOr6 I r4co Winea | eco | mero || AAT! 13°54. Veal ee 83°38) 82°56] 83°96] 83:90] 84°22| 84°09} 8401 83°74 oe Minimum] 70°82) 71°67] 72°73] 71°69} 70°78! 71°96| 70°35 71°43 “| Range ...| 12°56] 10°89| 11°23] 12°21 | 13°44] 12°13] 13°66 12°30 ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 129 Tarte X.—Showing the Highest and Lowest Readings of the Self-registering Thermometers, the Dates of occurrence, and the Range in each Year. Years ......... 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. | Means. ° e ° ° oO 7 ie) ie) ° Maximum ...; 388"1 83°0 89°4 88-0 89°0 go'o 89:0 | 88-77 lus | es D 31st 14th 27th 23rd 2nd 4th 1st 23rd Bes aes Jan. | Jan. | Dec. | Jan. | Dec. | Feb. | April. | Jan. Minimum 66°5 | 67°0 68°0 65°9 66°0 67°6 62°8 | 66:25 Dat 22nd | rith | 24th 8th and roth | 29th | 24th ale ses?) 1 June. | Sept. | June. July. | Aug. | July. | Aug. | July. Range......... 216 21°0 21°4 22°1 23°0 22°4, 262 22°52 Tarte XI.—Showing the Mean Vapour-pressure for each Observation Hour, obtained from Six-hourly Observations taken daily during seven years (1860-66). Months. 34 AM. JANUATY ........-02.00e08. "749 IRB RUALY A) s.0cc-crccssest 756 1 SN0 Se ae 736 J SUE ee: Seen ee aoe 706 INE a ian site ses - >< oxesecce 630 LUTE, cede Gea Ce aaaApe aa 564 SPU ea: sccatsesses0-. 547 70 Le 555 epbember <5... .22. 6.5. 553 October’. ...2.5.<.c0x 0s “591 November ............-.. "649 MEeeMbEr skis eesec ees 714 INERANS,. .oecsunasaveeseaes 646 Deviation from mean..| —-006 92 aM. | 33 P.M. 764. +767 “772 773 749 °752 “715 “719 *639 "639 °575 “580 555 “551 “562 *565 557 "562 "595 °599 "654. "659 716 725 "654 “658 +:'o02 | +:006 Monthly| Deviation means. wag “767 "744 “713 636 “572 (5° 561 "558 595 "654 wiLe) 652 from mean. -+-"107 eo LiES + "092 +'o61 —-'o16 —‘o80 —*I02 —‘ogl — "094. STS — ‘002 +:067 Z10.— V10.— oo. — goo. — Soo, — goo. — too.— £00. — 100. — 100. — Z00. — 100. 100. 100. + 600.+ + = REPORT—1867. TIO. TIO. 600. Oro. 600.+ Soo. Loo.-+ ZOO, — Loo. — “uBoul wmOay WOIeLAa Cy 130 tego. 949. Llo. Ogg. Lg9. 689. 669. 889. 889. 969. 889- Lek ofZ. orZ, iralia LEE. 6E2, obs ozZ. CEL. gil. 6zZ. EEL, f1Z. 20¢f of9. “AON ‘po Lor.— OCI. — $rS. CRIS £15. Z1S. 61S, CAT vzS. BIS. OS 6S. 61S. 77S, -Aqne £g0.— zo. vrs. SSS v9S. o$S. gtS. 2S. gos. 19S. £os. £5. gSs. EGS. SS. Sie 19S. LSS. 1vS. LYS. £95. €S$. SS. LES. egs. oun S+S. zbo.— £6S. 995. £95. nAS. SLS. HLS, vLS. fs. 16S, 009. 96S. £09. Sog. tog. 36s. 909. 719. Sog. Gog. 119. Sog. 109. Sog. 1gS. $gS. “AVP 960.+ me Le LeL. orl, ord. CEL. zi. ozZ. ozZ. ozZ, ved. eek, Pale: SzL. 1eZ, 1zL. gSL. SZ. fol. gSL. obZ. gzL. vel. 6£2. gil. 6rZ. ‘YOIR TL Ogi. Sig. S6L. L6L. tog. tog. Log. tr. ZIg. f1g. gig. Crg. o1g. rr. gig. gg. oz. 17g. QZ. zg. fz. zfg. gts. ofg. 6rg. Log. “qeuT O1r.+ SrZ. gf. VEL. ecL. bed. gz. frZ. Sel. 6rZ. Sue. LeL, fel. IZ, 652. zoL. Sol. 1gl, 69L. gLZ. fo. 1gl. VoL. tL. LEZ. LEL. “uRe “UROT WHO. UOTFVLAIy PoCEEDEOOOOT ST A AE st eeeweee “ wee eenane e “cc a mtu “cc ve SU a! “* 9USTOpLL “ee Ir a eeeeenee ween eeee 17 oL fon) eee tenes “ set eeeeee ce neat etone ce eee eeeee a a cst MO b-00 wet eeeeee stat enone 6c 6 seen eeeee “ce 8 stew eeeee “ L FOC STIIO Se a) *saNOFT *(99-G98T) stornvarosyg Avp-waoy, oy woaz ‘Avg oy} Jo IMoPT Yoo roy ornssord-rmode A wvoy oy} Surmoyg—' GTAV F {OQ Avp i 9 F He oUt H 4 J A ERO off surmoys— TTX L ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 131 Tanrz XITI.—Showing the Mean Vapour-pressure for each Month and Year, derived from Six-hourly Observations taken daily from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Deviation Months. | 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864, | 1865. | 1866, |Monthly) “" som means. TORY January...... 7a eee Aa Wet 773), 225 e754 749 1° 2759 +°107 February ...| °792| °757| °764) °773| .°739| °790| °752| °767 + 'r15 March ...... 709) °725 | :720| -767) °738\" 738! °743)|. °743 +*o91 APT i yesese- 698) 708) *73x || "711! -709| “Flo! °72e| "713 +061 May ........, °662] °663] *640}) °644| “600] *629| *621| :637 "015 AUMeheserass=. oes 8559) 503 *hSoill s Soy eto o ns Sarai Rs, —o80 pl Ul Vaiees sae +9s *605| °540} °585| 531] °547| °544] 498] ‘550 —"102 August ...... 628} °5571 °587! 554} *550| °549| *508 "562 —"ogo September...) °625| +536) '584] °558] °535| °558] ‘507| 558 —"094 October ...... *627| 613) °595] °579| “619| “607| °531] 596 —056 Noyember...| -649} °687] °689] °627| °681| °674| °575| 655 +:003 December... °747| °748) °722| °717| *710] °*741! ‘650| ‘719 +:'067 Yearlymeans| ‘680| *655} °663] *652| °643| °655| ‘619| *652 ean | +'028 |+-'003 |+'011} 07000 }—‘o0g de A He The above Table, as already remarked, indicates a gradual decrease of the yapour-pressure. ‘This becomes more evident when we take the means for consecutive periods of two years each. Thus :— Years. Vap.-pressure. Weare, 5a a WOU CoP 667 wer 0 (aed | i. 657 ae ta) wee: 649. The pressure for 1866 (-619) is so much lower than the greatest (-680) that it is very probable the mean pressure for 1866 and 1867 will be the least of all, It is possible that this diminution of vapour-pressure may be owing to the great extent to which the primeval forests have been cut down during the last twenty years. As the rains are evaporated and carried away sooner than they would be if protected from the sun’s rays, we may suppose that the mean annual amount of vapour in the air must be less than it was before the forests were cut down; and thatif this is the case at Port Louis, on the west coast, it must be still more so in the interior of the island, where the forests existed. 132 REPORT—1867, Taste XIV.—Showing the Maximum and Minimum Vapour-pressure, and its Extreme Range, for each Month, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Months. 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1868. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866, | Monthly Maximum} ‘914 | °896 | °903 | ‘955 | °827 | ‘910 | ‘925 "904. January Minimum) °657 | °659 | °638 | *659 | *638 | *617 | ‘607 639 Range ...) ‘257 | ‘237 | ‘265 | ‘296 | *189 | ‘293 | °318 "265 Maximum) °879 | 847 | “896 | -925 | °854| "940 | “940 897 February 4 Minimum] ‘707 | *620 | °643 | *715 | °597 | *628 | ‘617 647 Range ...| °172 | °227 | °253 | :210 | 257 | “312 | +323 "250 { Maximum *866 | *814 | ‘903 | *868 | *868 | ‘940 | “840 871 March ...) Minimum} *594 | °626 | ‘519 | *648 | °578 | *597 | *648 “601 | pete sa-|\ns272 || e108) || =384' | 220) || e200) aaaaulincrg2 270 Maximum} 872 | °847 | °847 | °854.] ‘840 | ‘827 | ‘854 849 PAP bemy ee Minimum) °542 | °586 | °622 | 578 | 607 | *559 | -578 581 Range ...| *330 | ‘261 | ‘225 | :276| ‘241 | ‘268 | ‘276 2.68 Maximum] ‘805 | °756 | *745 | °727 | °787 | ‘S40 | ‘840 786 May .L9 0.59 $.£9 £.£9 £.99 6.0L AT) 4.89 6.99 0.99 7.69 6.0L Lief Gil asia BE I.I— £.99 L.Lo £.19 9.19 Z.99 9-89 z.£9 z.£9 4.99 S.99 o.L9 6.€L Lip ge aie S50 £.2— 1.$9 8-59 8-85 0.09 L.£9 £.L9 S.£9 S.£9 0.59 %.£9 v.99 g.cL TENG mney SFG. 9.6— g.£9 9.59 1.25 v.gs Z.19 S.g9 L.z9 L.tg $.19 0.79 +.89 £.2L 3 CY GVM PE OE S.f— 6.£9 9.59 1.L$ $.%9 1.79 Z.99 L.09 L.og £.19 6.09 z.Lg Eck EASY Nee ie et 3 V.E— 0.9 3.59 ZLS 6.19 £.£9 9.L9 %.19 4.19 8-19 @.19 L.$9 g.1Z DIOG ae ee ke g.b— 9.£9 6.£9 £.95 0.79 0.79 Z.99 1.79 1.79 Z.79 4.09 0.99 S.1Z 9.59 ‘Wd 1 $.€— 6.£9 1.$9 $.3S v.19 $.09 7.89 9.£9 9.£9 6.29 8-09 9.59 g.z2 £.29 * WOON, v.2— 0.89 9.59 6.19 0.79 1.49 £.04 L.£9 L.f9 b.t9 9-19 6.£9 b.EL Hey Tiley || br — 0.99 %.99 £.£9 Z.79 g-r9 1.0L z.$9 z.$9 Z.S9 $.19 6.9 £.S2 LeLoe |ee soy z.0-+ 9.L9 8-99 S.Lo L.o9 $.99 +.69 3-89 z.lg 6.99 0.+9 6.99 OLE ELSTe yi CS ACERS 1.24 $.69 9.69 $.L9 v.79 1.49 f.2L b.oL 1.69 L.L9 g-L9 b.oL 6.3L roy Ane 10% ies iar) bet g.69 o.tL £.L9 6.£9 0.89 Ll 8.69 1.89 £.99 z.oL 9.1L S.gZ ZL ap eee, bot 3.69 £.12 6.49 $.S9 9-89 0.2L 6.69 0.89 $.L9 7.69 $.69 $.gL 210 Lael SP SeentV19 ey ‘sUvoT]] “loqttesay | “uteAo yy | -aq070Q | *ma}dog | -ysnsny | ‘Ayne *aune “AUT dy | -ysrepy | Aaenaqaq |-Arenuee} -smoyzy (99-2987) stoypwasesqg Sep-mx07, 43 Woz poattop ‘Kv(q oy} Jo mmoy youd azoy (NOT Sutoq uoyvanzes o40[dux00) Iry oy Jo Apiprunyy uvoyy oy SutaoygS—'TT AX ATV, ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 135 Taste XVIII.—Showing the Mean Humidity of the Air for each Month and Year, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. | Months. | 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. | Monthly, Deviation January ...... 74:6 | 704 | 74°5 | 71°6 | 69°3 | 70°2 | 73°% 719 +1'0 February ..... q7°0 | 76:2 | 7470 | 79°5 | 71°6 | 73°8 | 70°6 74-7 +33 March......... 7675 | 73:1 | 72°7 | 73:2 | 72°8 | 71°7 | 69°9 72°83 +1'9 APES heasezs: 72°6 | 72°4 | 73°0 | 69°9 | 72°8 | 69°6 | 70°7 716 +07 INV apetee sss 73°3 | 73°5 | 72°7 | 68°6 | 7o°0 | 692 | 69°8 710 o'r JUNE §... 000205 712 | 69°6 | 691 | 71°0 | 70°4 | 71°3 | 69°8 70°3 —o'6 July ........-| 75°6 | 69°9 | 73°5 | 69° | 71°9 | 70°8 | 634 70°6 —0%3 August........ 97°8 | 73:4 | 7t1 | 704 | 72°4 | 713 | 64:7 716 +07 September....} 75°7 | 67°7 | 69°5 | 69°6 | 68°0 | 7o"r | 64:2 69'2 —I'7 October ...... 72°3 | 70°3 | 66-7 | 68-7 | 7o°2 | 7o°5 | 63°8 68'9 —2°0 November....| 67°3 | 72°3 | 70°6 | 69'0 | 7o'2 | Jor | §7°0 68'1 —2'8 December.....| 72°2 | 71°8 | 67°6 | 72°4 | 70°0 | 75*9 | 60°72 70'O —o:9 aM } 73°6 | 71°7 | 712 | 71x | 708 | 712 | 66-4 70°9 means. from meen. ¢ [+27 +o°8 |+0'3 |+0°2 |—o'1 |+03 |—4'5 We have seen that Table XIII. indicates a decrease of vapour-pressure. We now see that Table XVIII. indicates a decrease} of humidity ; in other words, an increasing dryness of the air. This decrease is perhaps more ap- parent when we take the means for periods of two years each. Thus:— Years. Humidity. Mahan pee | ee dk aig ces 99 hls (ee eat art re POL tae Aan b faseya- nt The humidity for 1866 is so small as to render it almost certain that the mean for 1866 and 1867 will be the least of all. These results are interesting in connexion with the destruction of the fo- rests, and the diminishing sugar-crops. The year 1866 was remarkable not only for diminished humidity, but also for diminished vapour-pressure, diminished rainfall, absence of hurricanes, and a severe drought, which, after destroying a large portion of the young canes, was followed by a terrible fever, which has not yet disappeared. At the Observatory the Humidity was ...... od 6 OR AR aD 66:4 (100—0). V ARGUT—PRGESIRG (hte wy Sets ty sto nie > 0-619 inch. Painted o's sue ah ahabe it aetee pA ee 20:56 inches. 136 REPORT—1867. Tasrn XIX.—Showing the Maximum and Minimum Humidity, and the Ixtreme Range of Humidity, for each Month, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Months. January | February March ... August .., { September October... November Means for years... | December il “s(n Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum | Range ... Maximum Minimum Range . Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... 1860. 94-1 55°4 38°7 89°9 57°83 Bor 1861. 86°6 61°8 24'8 95°3 57°6 37°7 93°6 58°9 34°7 83°8 574 314 84°9 571 27°8 862 53°9 32°3 822 582 24°0 86°5 59°6 26°9 80°0 564 23°6 86-9 54°4 32°5 86°5 49°6 36°9 85°3 52°2 33° 86°9 5674 30°5 1862. 33°8 562 32°6 9°°9 53°38 3271 88°83 60°3 28°5 737 60°2 18°5 8274 5915 22°9 82°4 58°0 244 83°9 57°6 26°3 1863. 86°8 58'9 27°9 86-7 64°7 22°0 82°6 61°7 20°9 D2 55°8 34°9 82°3 58°6 237 82°3 58-2 24°1 824 580 244 1866. gI‘o 53°4 37°6 86°7 53°6 33°1 Monthly means. 88-1 57°2 30°9 89°8 579 319 869 579 29'0 854 538°6 26'8 1864. | 1865. 82°6 | 86°6 561 | 589 26°5 | 27°7 86°5 | go'9 561 | 53°6 3074 13753 86'7 | 866 553 | 55°9 SJonGy |) Choo 867 | 82°6 58°38 | 61°8 27°9 | 20°8 867 | 865 52°6 | 553 34:1 e312 8675 | 864 55°3| 61-0 32 | 254 86°5 | 85-4 52°5 | 527 34°90 |. 32°7 99°71} 9847 55°E | 52°5 35°6 | 38-2 81-0 | 78°4 552 | 581 25°38 | 203 84°3 | 8274 58:2 | 58:2 261 | 24°2 82°6 | 82°4 558 | 558 26°38 | 26°6 78°7 | 90°7 56:0 | 56'0 22°7 | 34°7 849 | 85°8 55°6 | 56°6 2953 | (2912 ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 137 Taste XX.—Showing the Greatest and Least Humidity, the Dates of occur- rence, and Range in each Year. WANS o005 0608 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. | Means. Maximum ...} 96°7 95°3 90°9 90'7 90°7 90'9 gro | 92°31 | ——- —___ ‘i ——_-— \——_ — — Date 2ist | 16th gth 5th 12th | 12th 4th 8th 5 Be Aug. | Feb. | Feb. | April. | Aug. | Feb. | Jan. | April. Minimum 503 46°3 533 52°8 igoae 52°5 48'0 | 50°81 Tata { 7th 1oth 17th Ist 11th | 12th 26th 29th 4 Oct. | June. | Nov. | Nov July. | Aug. | July. | Aug. Range......... 46°4. 49°0 37°6 379 38-2 33°4. APOu \" Aree Taste XXI.—Showing the Mean Height of the Barometer (corrected and reduced to 32°) for each Observation Hour, obtained from Six-hourly Observations, taken daily, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Months. 31 aa, | 9b act. | 3hzac, | Of poe. | Monthly means. in. in. in. in. in. MANUANY: Ah. ceotheseoscs te. 29°908 | 29°951 | 29°890 | 29°958 | 29'927 IMGHRUBRY tieceyacacorecsec 29°823 | 29°870 | 29°804 | 29°877 | 29°843 arabes tthe ts5.i 29°912 | 29°963 | 29895 | 29°968 | 297934 PALES Mowat etessesencsssass 29°977 | 30°026 | 29954 | 30°027 | 29°996 1057 To eecee Reece 30°050 | 30°105 | 30°030 | 30°097 | 30°070 PRU teesesact 2300s. 32-0. 30°138 | 30°190 | 3o0°121 | 307181 | 30°157 MLA ee. ctccwessceieos: 30°174 | 30°228 | 30°152 | 30°22 | 3o'Kg! NUE GaGa pa ee 30°176 | 30°228 | 30°150 | 307218 | 30°193 September .............2. 30°169 | 30°221 | 30°140 | 30218 | 307186 October. ..:c:cc- 25-2202 30°113 | 30°160 | 30°082 | 307158 | 307129 November ............06+ 30°045 | 30°084 | 30°017 | 30°094 | 307060 December ............00 29°967 | 30°007 | 29°947 | 30°017 | 297984 IMGAnG). deextsusens ser ones 30°038 | 30°086 | 3o°015 | 30°085 | 30°056 Deviation from mean..| —‘or8 | +’030 | —‘o4r | + 029 1867. L 1867. REPORT 188 v1o.— ozo. — gio, — o10.— zoo.-+ Sto. bzo.-+ 6z0.+4 Lzo.+ Lio.+ £0o,-+ f10o.— Lzo.— L£o.— oto. — zto,— gio. — Z00,-+ gto.+ of0,+ ££0.+ Szo.- tio,+ £00. “WROTE WOy WOTBIAR £90.— LSo.0€ | 66.62 fto.0f | £66.62 Lfo. $36. 6£0, 936. Lto, £66.62 650. £00. zLo. Sto, 1go. $zo, 980. gfo. tgo. gzo. tLo. Sr0.08 ogo. $66. tho. £26. ofo, 656. O7o, LY6. Lio. Lv6. $zo. 36. 6£0. zL6, 6S0. 986. Lo. 366.62 Lg0. Soo. 060, E10. “7230, goo. 1Zo, Loo.of 090.08 | 766.62 “UL “UL “SUROTL 09(T gto.— | Evo.t | LSr.4- | Eb1.4 610.08 | oor.0€ | viz.0€ | o0z.of ¥66.62 | zor.of | L61.0£ | zgr.of 986. obo, Lgr. gli. $96, go. £61. 1gt. +396.6¢ | 160. 00%. o6r. too. Lol. TZ. g6t. Lio. £71. ofz. Olt. Sfo, Lz. Léz. rz. S$£o. Ler. gtz. Luz. ofo, fr. gtz. Loos Lzo. tcl. Qzz. €1z. 610. err, 6oz. 661. I10.0£ | o60. 661. gr. 66. £90. ogt. eZt: 796. SSo. oLt. tgr. 186.62 | vSo. tor. ogi. 100, 190. SLi. 9gI. TTO, £Lo. z6I. ogt. 1£0, 260. Siz. oz. Sto, Lot. gic. 622. >So, Lil. gSz. fz. 6S0, fen. SSz. bbz. 6S0, OI. 6vz. rez. SO. | er. 6£z. Ott. bVO,0£ | Eor.0£ | gzz.of | 117.08 “UL “mL “UL “UL ‘ON "220 ‘qdeq | qsnsny (998T-G9RT) storArosqg Avp-UIAy, OY} MOI, pouTeyqo sv vEr.+ 161.0£ ZgI.0f£ ool. IgI. Li. 98t. z6r, g6r, voz, £oz, L6r, Sst. 69r. zgl. SSin. vr. zl. gLt. £oz, of%, 1vz. zabz. Sz. Tl Z 661.08 at “Ame glo. SE1.0£ gor.of gol. cum, gtt. git. gtr. Si. 6Sr. ool. Ltt. gtr. Io Ae +11. 360. S60. for: ZL: Dole Sst. Ae SLI. 6901. 1S. otr.of “Ur “oun pr zbo.+ 660.0£ 260.0£ 160. z6o, L6o0, Sor, VII. Cex. rer. clr. gz. Sor. Lg0. LLo, tgo. 9So, $So, 999°. $go, 601, gzt. Come @7I. Sor. 360.0 “UL ALT 090.— | 1g0.— 166.62 | 916.62 796.6% | 6£6.62 $L6. vE6. £36. 96. 266.62 | oS6, goo, 996. gio. £36.67 £zo, foo, Szo. ZI10. $zo. I10.0£ Lio. 666. 100,0£ | 196, gg6. | z96. VLG6s -- ||) “656; £96. Lt6. €S6. | g¥6. 656. | 956. 396. | 396. 166.62 | £96.62 600. | zoo, QZO. 110. ofo, ) uro, ozo. | 100.08 o10.0£ | Lg6. 966.62 | $L6.6z “Ur | “ur ‘Trady | “Youeyy SSz.— 703.67 661.62 £62. z6L. fog. 078. Sfg. 1tg. gts. ££. 17g. tog. Lgl. 39f. zgl. oh. Sol. zgl, L6L, o1g. 61g. 618. Irg. z6L, ELL 6% “Ur ‘Oe £60, — 496.62 996.62 356. £56. 796. oL6, £96. $66. $66. £36. glé. zL6, $96. 0S6.67 “UL “uve “UROT WOAT wolyeIAey senstecrs**SnGOTAT ween eens “ee wy eeeeee GUuSIUPIAL see eeenee c moe em} ww moo OVO & we eeeeeee eeaeeteee eaateeeee “ee rr ce tener eee ay i¢, WV 9 “SANOTT ‘Avq oy} Jo MOF yoo 10j (,gE 0} poonpor puv poyooa1o0o) cojouoavg oy} Jo WYStoFT uvoyy oy} Sursoyg—]TYY wavy, ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 139 Taste XXIII.—Showing the Mean Height of the Barometer (corrected and reduced to 32°) for each Month and Year, as derived from Six-hourly Observations taken daily from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Months. | 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1g66, | Monthly} Deviation means. /from mean. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. January ...| 29°846| 29°909| 29°899| 29°921| 29°950| 30°007| 29°952) 29'927 —"129 February ..| 29°842) 29°665| 29°890) 29°324| 29°937| 29°836| 29°914| 29°843 —'213 . March......] 29°859) 29°950) 29°944| 29°929| 29°923| 29°960| 29°969| 29°934. —"122 April is... 3.0°026| 30°035| 307018] 29°957/ 29°986) 29°990] 29°965| 29°996 —‘060 May ......| 30°048) 30°050) 307062! 30°102| 30°080| 30°080| 30°062| 30°070 +014 JUNE ...... 30°71] 30°127| 30°093) 30°170| 30°1g5] 30°190] 30°59] 30°157 +101 duly 2... 30°196| 307182) 30°151] 30°161| 30°21G]| 30°237| 30°195| 30°191 47135 August.....| 30°167| 30°87) 30°174) 30°184! 30°206| 30'221] 30°212] 30°193 +137 September.| 30°142) 30°193] 30°151) 30°147| 30°258] 30°196| 30°221] 30°186 +130 October-....| 30°102) 30°116) 30°139] 30°r15| 30°142| 30°136| 30°152| 30°129 +°073 November.| 30°088) 307026] 29'992| 30°057| 30°064| 30°085| 30°102| 30°060 +:004 December..| 29°994) 29°943| 29°921| 30°012) 30°017| 29°935] 30°072| 297984 —072 Yearly means, [ | 30049} 30°032| 307036 30°048] 30°081| 30°073] 30°081| 30°056 While Tables XIII. and XVIII. show a decreasing vapour-pressure and humidity, Table XXIII. shows an increasing atmospheric pressure. Hence the gaseous pressure has also been increasing. The gradual diminution both of the vapour-pressure and humidity may be due to the clearings which have been extensively carried on in the interior of the island during the last fifteen or twenty years. It would be easy to attribute the change to some general cause affecting the surrounding ocean, but there seems to be no necessity for having recourse to that supposition when we know that forests must act as preservers of moisture, and that the forests of Mauritius have been rapidly disappearing. If observations had been taken at localities where forests existed, before and after they were cut down, the change would doubtless be much more marked than at Port Louis. As to an increase of the atmospheric and gaseous pressures, with a de- erease of vapour-pressure, that is in accordance with a general law. The following are the means of the atmospheric and dry pressures for con- secutive periods of two years each :— Vande, Ser pret Dry ressure, Pressure. TSEGO-Glkiin: dei oe. eu'G SWOBG See, ea bob tr 29-369 WOG2—-GS ood. hc.cu ak OOM ee ere koe « 29-385 WOUEAGS cin a bch ae SRN Th fee toe wb bs 29-428 These results are no doubt partly due to the disturbing action of hurri- canes. L2 140 REPORT—1867. Taste XXIV.—Showing the Maximum and Minimum Readings and the Extreme Range of the Barometer for each Month, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Months. Maximum January Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum February Maximum Minimum Range . Maximum Minimum Range . Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum Minimum Range .. seenee Maximum Minimum Range .. Maximum Minimum August ... | Range ... Maximum Minimum Range ... September October... Maximum Minimum Range ... Maximum November + Mininum Range ... Maximum Minimum December Range ... Maximum Minimum Means for Range ... years ... 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. | Monthly means. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. 29°991| 30°011| 30°029| 30°081| 30°085| 30°142| 30°107| + 30°063 2.9°542| 29°544| 29°745| 29°231| 29°706| 29°875| 29°748| 29°627 0°449| 0°467| 0°284) 0850] 0°379) 0'267/ 9°359] 07436 29°996) 29°986] 30°039) 30°013| 30°107| 30°037| 30°044| 30°03 29°520] 29°009) 29°730) 29°329) 29°693 29°511| 29°746| 29°505 0°476| 0°977| 0°309, 0°684) 0-414) 0°526| 0°298) — 0°527 30°059| 30°083] 30°1 50) 30°065| 30096] 30°088] 30°072| 30'088 29°454| 29°282| 29°750) 29°734| 29°667| 29°757| 29°836] 29°640 0°605| o'801} O40] 0°331] 07429] 0°331| 0°236) 07448 3O°L31) 30°10) 30° 117) 30°123} 307094] 30°071] 30°132) 9 3orrrl 29°834| 29°897) 29°898) 29°755| 29°85q| 29°871| 29°820| 29348 0°297| 0°212| 0°'219| 0°368) 0°235| 0o'200] 0°312| 0'263 30°190| 30°127| 30°85) 30°229 30°209) 30°218/ 30°227/ 30"198 29°848| 29°893) 29°947| 29°953| 29°963, 29°941| 29°882) 2g"918 0°342| 0°234) 0°238] 0°276| 0°246) 0°277| 0°345| 0280 30°297| 30°2.46] 30°25 5) 30°282) 30°335| 30°400) 30°295/ 30°301 29°969| 29°94.5] 29°863] 30°048) 30°069! 29°971/ 29°988] 29°979 0°328] 0°301] 0°392| 0°234| 0°266| 0°429| 0°307| 0°322 30°384| 30°253/ 30°300| 30°31) 30°356) 30°382) 30°313) 30°328 30°05 1] 29°977| 30°025) 30°007| 30°077| 30°1I1| 30°15) 307038 0°333| 0°276] 0275] 0°303/ 0°279] 0°271/ 0°298! o'290 39'24.5} 30°304) 30°337) 30°323) 30°373| 30°355] 30°340), 307325 29°954| 307016) 30°065| 30°087| 30°063| 30°073| 30°004] - 30°037 0°291| 0°288] 0°272) 0'236| 0-310! 0°282) 0°336) 0288 30°240) 30°279] 30°259| 30°279| 30°385| 30°375| 30°358] 30°311 29°963| 30°006| 30°062| 29°983| 30°137| 29°964) 30°009] 30°018 0'277| 0°273] o*197| 0°291| 0'248] o'411]} 0°349] 0293 30°186) 30°208] 30°265| 30°273] 30°311) 30°288] 30°257| 30°255 29°930) 29°951| 30°053) 29°859 30°01 4) 29°823] 30°008| 29°948 0°256| 0°257] o'212| 0°414| 0°297| 0°465] 0249] 0°307 30°164] 30°076| 307124] 30°147| 30°199| 30°231| 30°230] 307167 29°938| 29°844| 29°$26| 29°925) 29°933/ 29°962|29°986, 29.916 0°226} 0°232] 0'298| 0°222] 0°266/ 0°269) 0°244) 07251 30°048) 30°018} 30°029) 30°111| 30°1 Ig] 30°081] 30°202) 30°087 29°878| 29°773| 29°564) 29°915) 29°936) 29°650| 29°709| 29°775 O'I70] 0°245] 0°465| 07196] 0°183] 07431] 07493] 07312 : 30°161| 30°142] 30°174| 30°186| 30°222] 30°222| 30°215| 307189 29°823| 29°765 29°377| 29°820] 29'926] 29°876| 29°896| 29°854 0°338| 0°377, 0°297/ 0°366) 0°296/ 07346 07319) 0°335 ; ee ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 141 Tantr XXV.—Showing the Greatest and Least Readings (corrected and reduced) of the Barometer, the Dates, and Range in each Year. Wears ne. ses 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. Means. Maximum ...| 30°327| 30°334| 30°337| 30°323) 30°385| 307400] 30°358| 30°352 | 25th | 26th | sth | 15th | 22nd | 3oth | gth | s2th June. | Aug. | Aug. | Aug. | Sept. | June. | Sept. | Aug. Minimum ...| 29°454| 29°009| 29°564! 29°2 1] 29°667| 29°511| 29°630| 29°438 9 O29 9°237; 955 9 9 Dat 24th | rsth | 2nd | 13th | ath | r2th | 7th | 28th ca March.| Feb. | Dec. | Jan. |March.| Feb. | Dec. | Jan. | Range......... 0°873| 1°325| 0°773| 1°092| 0°718| 0889] 0°728| o-g14! | Taste XXVI.—Showing the Number of times the Wind blew from the principal points of the Compass during each Year, from 1861 to 1865 inclusive. Direction. 1861. | 1862. 1863. 1864. Worth ves-.c0 iersese 26 14 12 5 North to N.E. ... 14 14 8 3 PINHIES | vanes denen ca 19 14 15 14 N.E. to East...... 173 88 95 66 LETS Lis espn parebcarbo 395 2.26 209 288 Hast to $.E. ......) 203 376 366 403 SHLD ore 136 227 281 2.68 8.E. to South...... yi 80 102 82 BORUNE eo .cee> sass 3 3 4 9 South to S.W. ... 5 3 6 5 isn, pegeeecd Soca. 6 5 4 7 S.W. to West...... 12 19 13 12 nee Se 28 31 21 22 est to N.W. ... 29 fo) ° 4 INE VPgpecser oeeeeares 14 a 38 He N.W. to North ... 19 21 32 18 Walihy ssaceens.ces ds: 233 271 207 181 Variable,........... 83 6 a I Hobals,< sc2. scorers 1460 1460 1460 14.60 142 REPORT—1867. Taste XXVII.—Showing the Mean Estimated Force of the Wind, in Pounds’ Pressure on the Square Foot, for each Observation Hour, derived from Six-hourly Observations, taken daily during Seven Years (1860-1866). Hours. 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. | Means. lb. Ib. lb. lb. Tb. lb. lb. lb. Sfape is tidor Congsraso-neee 0°74} 0°55 | 0°23 | 0°38 | 0°27 | O31 | 0°35 | O41 OER IES. neoatsdctoneeseaye 0°86 | 0°59 | 0°36 | 0°43 | 0°34 | 0°32 | 0°37 | 0748 Bee NM vireseeusauavas alas 0°76 |/0:53 || (0:31 | om7 | O89) oI ||| ovenieoals Oe RTNDIS = Bannon aaheadcrBane 0°72 | 0-49 | 0:29 | 0°37 | 0:25 | 0°33 | 0°30} 0°39 Yearly means ......... 0°77 | 0754.| 0°30] ot | 0:30 | 0°32 | 0°36] 0°43 Taste XXVIII.—Showing the Mean Estimated Force of the Wind for each Month, in Pounds’ Pressure on the Square Foot, as derived from Six- hourly Observations, taken daily during Seven Years (1860-1866). Months. 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. | Monthly means. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. VANUBIY siocsssevenoasny I'rz |0757 | oa | 048) | 0127 |) 0°92 || oa niio an Hebruary: <.-..0sc+cns-iee 1:25)|. 0°72 | 0799 | 1°72 | 0°25-| 0°57-} Otag } e182 Mar Chig hts. eeregarceen? o-7t | 1:72 | 0°56 | 018 | 0°24 | 0°32 | o72% 0°56 PANQUI resnscicagernasee shat 0°62 | o750 | O12 | 0°27 | 0129 | 0°20 | 0°64 | 0°38 INE Ry padeedobaanpscnin yc occ E121 (0729 | O75] 6:34) "or23 || owen oenamo es RNUTLO “Boss sen see sy omen 0°82 | 0°63 | o14 | o'50 | 0°42 | 047 | 0°45 | O49 “UJ Buesarpeneeeepocresocc 0°77 | 0°46°| o18 | 0°34 | 0°33 | 0°36 | 0742] or JV EVE) Baer coer eaecrting 0°60 | 0°68 | 0:20] o4o |] 0°35 | 0°35 | O42 | 0°43 September ............... 0°54. | 0°29 | 0116 | 0°24 | 0°45 | 0°27 | 0°48 | 0°35 OGiOPEr)..<.sceegeensrares 0°69 | O17 | O19] O19 | 0°28 | 0°26 | 0°33 0°30 November .,.....,....:. 0°53 | 0-24 | ox | O13 | o'21 | 0°24 | 0°26] 0726 DECeMbED yes sg0ee->-+ ss 0°35 | 0°26 | 0123 | 016] O72 0°295| COZ 7a mares Yearly means ......... 0°76 | 0°54} 0729 | 041 | 0°30 | 0°33 | 0°36] 0°43 The general accordance of the results in Tables XXVIII. and XXIX. is evident, both showing two maxima in February and June, and two minima in April and November. The discrepancy in the amount of force is due to the results in the former Table having been derived from four daily obser- vations of the estimated force during seven years, while the results in the latter have been obtained by taking the means of the daily maximum force recorded by Osler’s anemometer during six years. ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 143 Taste XXIX,—Showing the Mean Maximum Force of the Wind for each Month, during Six Years, in Pounds’ Pressure on the Square Foot, as obtained by Osler’s Anemometer. Months. | 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. | 1866. | Monthly lbs. | lbs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | lbs. lbs. January ...... Azoon|| | 20) || aig3) || 2320/0774. xer0y|) 1203) 1°69 February 3700 | 106g | 2°85 | 4°46 | 0°93 | 1°88} 0°63 2°29 March ,:.<.- 200 : 2:28 | 0°38 | 0753 | 1°59 | 0°63 1°23 April \..c4:+43° r85| § o2g | 1°35 | ot51 | 0178 | 2°49] 125 IVPangNS <2 2-2, - 344.| ‘So o'99 | 1°79 | 0°66 | 3°34 | 1°31 1°59 June ,........ 4:70) & Og) 2:34) 2148 |, 2752 | 2748 2°48 divi “Sercaeeee 260} E54}. 2!08 || 232g | 2°28 | 2°05 2rk3 August ...... 2°50 | © 115 | 1°96 | 2°34 | 2°60 | 2°20 2°12 September 2°50 eB o50 | o'85 | 2°50 | 1°79 | 2°06 1°70 October ...... 2°34.| # 0°68 | o'50 | 0°95 | 0°83 | 0°84 10% November ...} 1°95 q ogi | 0:27 | 0°94. | O771 | 0°42 0°87 December ...| 2°35 < | 0°65 | 040} O85 | 1°03 | 049 0°96 Yearly means} 2°77 | ...... LTO. VSG eoEiG De a54 |) or So, 161 Taste XX X.—Showing the Greatest Force of the Wind, in Pounds’ Pressure on the Square Foot, and the Dates, in each Year. Maximum force seeeee 1860. Tosee |) Ubss) |) Toss...) Tbs. 3) Tbs: 180 | 4o'o0 | 12°5 | 36:0 | 8-7 21st | 15th | 26th | 20th | 2nd June. | Feb. | Feb. | Feb. | July 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. 1865. 1866. lbs. 13°5 16th April. Means. lbs. 20°3 5th April. Tantr XXXIJ.—Showing the Mean Estimated Extent of Cloud for each Ob- servation Hour, as derived from Six-hourly Observations taken daily during Seven Years (1860-66), 10 being taken for an entirely overcast sky, and 0 for an entirely cloudless sky. Hours. 1860. | 1861. 41 4°0 6'0 5°7 6°7 61 4°0 as 52 | 48 1862. 1863. | 1864. Ror fle 55 | 5:6 (il eg ZO) 3°5 Eee. || Ry 1865. 5°O 1866. ao Means. 144 REPORT—1867. Taste XXXI1I.—Showing the Mean Extent of Cloud, in each Month and Year, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive, 10 being taken for an entirely overcast sky, and 0 for an entirely cloudless sky. Months. JANUATY sees ces seweseerseacees| NeDruany) \.cecrcnareeease ses March See ey ee cece e nee ne en eaeeeenes November December 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863. | 1864. | 1865. Glog)? 5:8’ Oss 9) Ria ae aaa SAB Gr 720! $69 Hees 3 Ayes ae SN 55 AiG O] 25°31 Ut ea 1'8 518 GlgeazO a= 5 °0 44 | 5:0 | 34 | 40 | 572 | 38 49 | 52 | 39 | 2°99 | 40 | 43 4°6 42 2°8 31 38 51 59 | 41 | 35 | 42 | 457) ax 46 | 43 | 42 | 35 | 49 | 54 4919) 2 3795) 3°87). 3°9 1 aig a eer SBR S 207M Sez) aS de 48 | 42 | 42 | 32 | 52 | 43 <7 ga (oie eat We ee I a eV 52 | 48 | 42 ) 43 | 47 | So 1866. Monthly means. Taste XX XIII.—Showing the Amount of Rainfall, in inches, for each Month and Year, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Months. 1860. | 1861. | 1862. in. in. in. January ...... 14°65 5°37 | 4°02 February ...| 13°55| 46°57| 4°69 March ...... 7°58 2°48| 5°97 2A Soageoaee 1°25 3°23) 184 May ~......06 1°33 3°73) 6°76 UE. Pess<-s. 0°45 0°87| o'58 DULY psccssces 0°85 045] 060 August ...... 2°18 1°84.| I'og September 0°38 o'00| 0°31 October ...... 0°53 0°03| 0°59 November ...| 0°16 2°74! Ota December ...! 2°27 2°04.| 1°13 Fall for year | 45°18] 68°76| 28-39 Deviation 3 : . from mean } Pai ese 2) 9°48 1863. | 1864. | 1865. in. in. in. 948) 2°32) 3°27 10°95 Di 2) a1 5% 3°43 2199 "|= 5312 7) 1°49 Re Si o'71 o'51| o'22 Tayi o'31] o78 0°73 147) 2°35 0729} 3°94} 3°28 o'72 0°37] 0o'60 118 0°83] o82 O35 x90 sed 2°37 1°83 | 12°09 SIG LE les Sea) Ge AS —4°46 |—13°73 |+6'86 1866. in, 543 25% 3°81 478 1°16 C7 0°36 O73 PEN o'24 0°00 o'79 i Ui fait 20°56 | Monthly means. in. 6°36 14/23 4°20 2°18 2°06 o'72 OOF, I'gI 0°39 o'60 3°16 Deviation from mean. The rain-gauge is 40 feet above the ground; the mouth of the receiver is 20 by 10 inches; and the rain is conducted by a leaden tube to a room in the Observatory. ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS, 145 Taste XXXIV.—Showing the Greatest Rainfall, in inches, on any one day, in each Year, with the Date. Years. 1860. | 1861. | 1862. j in. in. in. Greatest rainfall | 582 | 10'00.| 3°25 in 24hours J 26th | r5th | 25th f UO A ctecen ce ces | Jan: Feb. May 1863. | 1864. | 1865. Means. Taste XXXV.—Showing the Annual Rainfall, in inches, at different Stations in Mauritius, from 1862 to 1866, both inclusive. Stations. 1862. in. Flat Island ......... 28°02 Gros-Cailloux ...... 25°35 Port Louis............ 28°39 Mont Choisy ......... 41°56 Les Rochers ......... 41°84 Botanical Gardens...) ...... Labourdonnais ...... 52°23 LDV ECET Rae | 60°71 Croft-an-Righ ......] ...... Beau Séjour ......... 69°07 ESTEE) 0 Reape grece cass) | posers HiNey Brace ..-.....<.5- | 59°51 IAN CGUaiTIS Sete Pine soneede | upeecna IMISMERANCE)cs..cecaecs |) 0-55 Wa Gaieté& ............ aero CHT 79 paeeecnce pcre | 122°54 (ELORPROIS 2c-ceesccece] ts «ase Beau Vallon ......... osteo CP ATDIM 2cc eee. cos eset 1864. 1865. in in 24°17 | 36°57 24°14 | 44°73 48°89 | 67°53 42°65 60°95 SESS: ile ona 57°94. | 101°56 56°61 | 79°44 56*60 87°12 48°58 SI'Ig ZOS9 Ns FE7Z eecoee 147°74. Aen 97°55 Raa. 192°45 3°36 | 135-21 100°85§ coated 115°61 1866. Means. It may be proper to mention that, with the exception of Port Louis, Mont Choisy, Les Rochers, the Botanical Gardens, Labourdonnais, Mesnil, and La Gaieté, all the stations are supplied with rain-gauges of the same form and size, viz., Glaisher’s rain-gauge as made by Negretti and Zambra. Except at Port Louis and La Gaieté the gauges are placed on the ground. 146 REPORT—1867. Taste XXXVI.—Showing the number of Days on which Lightning was seen, or Thunder heard, in each Month and Year, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive. Months. 1860. January ........-... 9 Hebruary .....-... I Marg st igsccg Ken * pady Youn TAL oe Lewnaqoyy seeees Kern “STFUO PY “OAISNTOUT Y}OF “QOST OF OOST Wory ATrep UOC} SMOYVAIOSYG ATMOY-XIg Wo] poAttop ‘s}UOWMOTT [VoLsooroozo PY oy Jo suvoyy ATYJUOPL oy} SuLAOYYG—NINNY LMA, ON THE METEOROLOGY OF PORT LOUIS. 149 Taste XLI.—Showing the Highest and Lowest Values, and the Extreme Ranges, of the principal Meteorological Elements for each Year, from 1860 to 1866, both inclusive, with the Epochs of Maximum and Minimum. Observations. 2 ( Highest ... ra} Dates A. ee 2 34 Lowest . 5S E Date .. g Range...... 2 { Highest BS | Date vane a z 4 Lowest Ba | Date 4 l | Range. { Highest us Date 3% 2.24 Lowest Zo Pe | Date | Range...... { Highest Humidity. — a S a B cr Maximum force } of wind in pounds press- ure on square BDOU asecscs << in _ twenty- four hours... Date ... i 4 Greatest rainfall } { 1860. 881 31st Jan. 66°5 22nd June 21°6 30°327 25th June. 29°4.54 24th Mar. 0873 o'914. 29th Jan. 07446 20th June. 0467 96°7 21st Aug. 50°3 7th Oct. 46°4 18'0 21st June. 5°82 26th Jan. 1861. 880 14th Jan. 67°0 11th Sept. 21°0 30°334 26th Aug. 29°009 15th Feb. 1-925 0°896 gist Jan. 0°449 1gth June. 0°447 95°3 16th Feb. 4.6°3 roth June. 49°0 40°O 15th Feb. 10°00 15th Feb. 1862. 1863. 88°0 23rd Jan. 65°9 Sth July. 22°5 30°323 15th Aug. 29°231 13th Jan. 1'092 21955 19th Jan. 2oth Feb. By 13th Jan. 1864. 890 2nd Dee. 66'0 2nd Aug. 23°0 30°385 22nd Sept. 29°667 4th Mar. 0718 0°868 6th Mar. 0408 gist July. 04.60 9°°7 12th Aug. 52°5 1ith July. 38°2 87 and July. 2°45 11th Feb. 1865. goo 4th Feb. 67°6 roth July. 22°4 30°4.00 30th June. 29°51 12th Feb. 0889 0°940 19th Feb. 0°435 12th Aug. 0°505 9°°9 12th Feb. 52°5 12th Aug. 38"4. 1866. 16th April. 1 pd 24th Mar. & 3rd Apr. Annual means. 88°77 23rd Jan. 66°25 24th July. 22°52 30°352 12th Aug. 29438 28th Jan. o'914 0'916 8th Feb. 4°34. 26th Feb. 1867. REPORT— 150 Ot tz *sfep jo aequinu ‘tepuntyy 10 Suruyysyy £g.L£ 95.07 tL.vy bi.bz 1y.£f 6£.gz 94.89 gi.sy “ut “SOYOUL aL ‘[peyUreyy ‘oO—o1 pnoyo jo qunoury “(peyeurtse ) 90.L0F URI “ODLOF TONUUTX BU uRayL “PULAA ‘OATSNPOUL YOY “QORT OF OOST wosz ATep usyR} suotArsq¢ *o—oor Ayprany ‘aamsseard Aa -aanssord -anode A 9$0.0£ 1g0.0£ £Lo.0f£ 1g0.0£ gto.of gfo.0£ z£o0.0€ obo.o£ “Ul ‘oanssa.rd ortayds “OUT ‘sfva suns Ul amgra -odumay, “118 Jo omngea -oduoy, seen e eee eeee ery err Sorry suvout Ayavo x 9981 Sogt togt £ogr ZOQI I98I Ogg ‘SIO A[MOY-X1IG WOIJ poaatiop “IvoX Ovo LoF s}WMOWT | [VoLsoposoojoy Tedroutd oy} Jo suvayy oy} SuLAOYY—]]TX TIAVI, ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHLAND RAILWAY. 151 On the Construction and Works of the Highland Railway. By Josnru Mircuett, F.R.S.L., F.G.S., CE. and Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Tus title represents the union of several Companies in the north of Scotland, amalgamated three years ago under the name of the Highland Railway Company. The works consist of a main line from a point near Perth, extending northward 117 miles to the town of Forres, and a base- line running nearly at right angles to the other, extending westwards from the town of Keith by Elgin and Forres along the shores of the Moray Firth to Inverness, and thence along the Beauly, Dingwall, and Dornoch Firths, northwards to Bonar Bridge, measuring from Keith to Inverness 55 miles, and from Inverness to Bonar Bridge 55 miles, and making together a base= line of 113 miles. These railways traverse the northern part of Perthshire, and are the main lines of communication through part of Banffshire and the counties of Inverness, Nairn, Moray, and Ross, the whole including three branches—two to the ports of Burghead and Findhorn in Morayshire, and the other to the village of Aberfeldy in Perthshire—and extending to 246 miles length. The country is fertile and comparatively flat for a distance of about 40 miles north of Perth, and also along the shores of the Moray, Dingwall, and Dornoch Firths ; but between Perthshire and Morayshire the line crosses two ranges of the Grampian Mountains, the one separating the valley of the Tay from that of the Spey, and the northern range separating the Spey from the valley of the Findhorn. The large rivers which drain these mountain-regions debouch into the Tay, the Moray, the Dingwall, and the Dornoch Firths, and as the railway in most cases crosses these rivers near the sea, bridges of considerable magnitude were required. Besides the crossing of these rivers, other difficulties of a formidable character arose in crossing the mountains at so great an eleva- tion, and in passing the rocky and precipitous defiles through which portions of the line had to run. The northern counties traversed by these railways, except along the shores of the Firths, are chiefly pastoral, exporting large numbers of sheep and cattle. The fisheries also are on an extensive scale; besides the salmon fisheries in the rivers, the annual take of white fish in the Moray Firth amounts to about 60,000 tons. The object of the promoters, therefore, was to sweep the fertile shores of the Moray Firth, and to send the produce of the country by the most direct route to Perth, across the mountains, thus saving a detour by Aberdeen of nearly 60 miles. In laying out the main line and crossing the Grampians between Perth and Forres, long and steep inclines could not be avoided, but there is no steeper gradient than 1 in 70 throughout. The line to Blair, 36 miles from Perth, rises only 443 feet above the level of the sea, but from Blair to the summit of the southern range of the Grampians, a distance of 17 miles, the line rises 1045 feet, making the extreme summit 1488 feet above the sea. In this distance there are gradients for 10 continuous miles of 1 in 72 and 1 in 70, and in the remaining 7 miles the inclines vary from 1 in 78 to lin 110. After passing this summit the line descends into the valley of the Spey, falling 747 feet in 18 miles, the steepest gradient being 1 in 80. On crossing the Spey, the line is comparatively level for a distance of 24 miles, when it again ascends by gradients of 1 in 84, 80, and 100, in order to pass the northern ridge which separates the valley of the Spey from that of the 152 REPORT—1867. Findhorn. This summit is 1046 feet above the sea-level. It afterwards de- scends to Forres (the point of junction with the base-line) by gradients, the steepest of which are 1 in 70 for 8 miles, and 1 in 76 for 4 miles. In this length of the main direct line of 104 miles, there are two small tunnels, one of 350 yards near Dunkeld, and the other in the Pass of Killie- crankie of 110 yards in length, both constructed very much with the view of avoiding injury to the adjoining scenery. The principal difficulties that arose in laying out the line were in passing through the narrow defile at Dunkeld, the beautiful demesne of the Duke of Athole, and again in penetrating through the picturesque Pass of Killiecrankie, where the mountains, as it were, close in upon each other for a great height ; likewise in passing along the narrow, precipitous, and rocky valley of the Garry, close to a large and rapid mountain-stream ; also the Park at Castle Grant, and the defile at Huntley's Cave near Grantown. These points in particular required much study, with repeated trial and contour levels, so as to obtain a knowledge of the precise formation of the ground, and to choose the best direction at the lowest possible cost. At the Pass of Killiecrankie the banks were so precipitous and steep that the line had to be supported by breast or retaining walls to the extent of 690 lineal yards, and to the average height of 26 feet, the extreme height of one being 55 feet; and in order to carry the railway at the narrowest point in the Pass where the precipices close in, as it were, on either side, and afford scarcely any ad- ditional space beyond that occupied by the channel of the river, instead of supporting the line by breastwalls, it was deemed prudent to construct a viaduct of 10 arches, 60 feet above the river, which with a tunnel at the north end carries it successively through the Pass. At two other points on the line, in running up the sides of the Garry, breastwalls had to be formed, respectively 94 and 35 yards in length, and 15 feet in average height. All these breastwalls, extending to 1650 lineal yards, are built with lime, and set on a solid foundation of dry gravel or rock, at right angles to the face of the wall, which batters at the rate of 13 inch to the foot. The spaces behind the walls are filled with rubble stones, set by hand for 10 feet wide, and further back with dry gravel, it being important that all earth or clayey substances should be excluded. The writer prefers the curved to the straight batter, as it gives more effectual resistance if well built; but breastwalls are to be avoided wherever earth embankments can be substi- tuted, as, in his experience, there are subtle influences in the Scottish climate of alternate frost and wet in winter, which operate imperceptibly to their destruction, and they require careful and constant inspection. Except where those breastwalls became necessary, the whole of the lines were formed in cuttings and embankments, and for considerable distances along the slopes of valleys. Where the ground was precipitous or irregular in the cross section, level benchings were formed, 10 feet in width, immediately under- neath the permanent way, in order that the sleepers should have an equal and solid bearing throughout. In running through so large an extent of mountainous country, the line, as might be expected, had to pass over some lengths of soft ground and morass. The principal of these were for two miles near the town of Nairn, also for about two miles near Keith, one mile on Daya Moor, and about a mile in crossing through a hollow at Drumochter on the summit of the Grampians. In all places where the ground was particularly soft, a uniform mode of treatment was adopted. Two parallel drains were first cut outside the fences, about 50 feet apart, from 4 to 6 feet deep, and with slopes of 1 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHLAND RAILWAY, 153 to 1. This drained off the surface-water; and, after making up the holes and other irregularities of the surface with turf, the space for the railway to a breadth of about 15 feet was covered with two or three layers of swarded or heather turf, having the sward side of the lower layer undermost, and that of the top layer up, the joints breaking band, In this way a good sus- taining surface has uniformly been obtained*. On this bed of turf the ballast was laid for 2 or 3 feetin depth. This was quite sufficient to support the traffic, but as in some cases the bed of moss was from 20 to 30 feet in depth, the railway merely floated on the surface, and was in the first instance undulating, and yielded in some parts from 3 to 4 inches under the weight of the engines passing over. ‘To obviate this undulation longitudinal beams of timber were tried at one place, 30 to 40 feet long, below the sleepers, but this was found objectionable, as rendering it more difficult to raise or repair the surface of the road; and an additional sleeper (making the sleepers 2 feet 6 inches from centre to centre, instead of 3 feet) was found preferable. There was nothing for it, at the worst, but to lift the road every other week as it sunk, until it had acquired a solid bearing. In many places we had to lay on 4, 5, or 6 feet in depth of additional gravel, and in one place no less than 27 feet, before the road became solid. In the course of two or three years, however, with due attention, the rails being fished, the lines through these mosses were all that could be desired for solidity and permanence. As the writer has said, in crossing so many mountain-rivers, bridges of magnitude had to be constructed, involving considerable varieties of execution. The principal of these bridges may now be described, and any peculiarity will be noticed which may have arisen during the progress of the works. It will be observed that the beds of the rivers in the north of Scotland differ in many respects from what is common in England, consisting frequently of depths of 10 or 12 feet of gravel and boulders, the solid and compacted débris of successive floods, below which, if the country is of rocky formation, there is usually hard clay, and then rock, or, as in one case at the mouth of the River Ness, after penetrating 12 feet of shingle and boulders, a sort of ad- mixture of whitish clay and sand was obtained. In some cases we had to deal with soft clay and mud of great depth, but these were exceptions. Nor was it possible in general to ascertain, by boring, the precise nature of the foundations, because many df the boulders in the gravel were of large size, and were often mistaken for rock. The only way in which an approximate knowledge of the foundations could be obtained was by driving iron rods at various places, and, when the bed of the river admitted of it, wooden piles. Still we worked very much in the dark; but the writer’s long experience of these rivers, and of the nature of their floods, was of great advantage in enabling him to fix the depth of the foundations and the precise description of works, to secure the necessary stability of construction. In only two or three cases was there any fear of sinking. What had chiefly to be guarded against was sudden and impetuous floods, sometimes accompanied with floating ice and trees, undermining the foundations and damaging the piers ; it was therefore important to provide ample waterway. The construction of these bridges ranged over twelve years, and during that time there has been considerable changes in bridge building, by the adoption of iron cylinders for piers, and lattice girders in spanning the waterways, so that, as the works progressed, these improvements were adopted where found suitable. * Had this plan, which the writer has found to answer so well both for roads and railways, been adopted in the clayey ground at Balaklava in the Crimea, a good road might have been formed. 67, M 154 REPORT—1867. In planning these works, the writer, while having every regard to economy, felt the importance of their being of the most substantial character, seeing that they were exposed in these districts to every vicissitude of climate and flood; but indeed he feels that all permanent public works involving the safety of the lives of the community should be of undoubted stability. On the whole system there are only three timber bridges, which he was forced to adopt, chiefly with a view to save time, but these are very substantial of their kind. All the other bridges are constructed of stone, and where iron is adopted the piers are in general constructed of masonry. The iron work of the bridges on all these lines were constructed by Messrs. Fairbairn and Sons of Manchester, for about £20 per ton on the average, and are admirable specimens of workmanship in this department. Accompanying this paper, the writer furnished the working drawings of fourteen of these bridges, with the sections and dimensions in detail. They exhibit a variety of forms suited to the localities in which they are built. No. 1 is an iron-girder bridge across the Tay, 6 miles north of Dunkeld, with stone abutments and pier, constructed on platforms and piles in the usual way. The banks are low, and the river is spanned by two openings, one of 210 feet, and the other of 141 feet. The cost of this work was £20,395. Extreme length 515 feet; height above the bed of the river 67 feet ; cost per lineal foot £39 12s. Nos. 2 and 3 are the most recent bridges erected by the writer; and here he has taken advantage of the modern plan of using cylinder piers to carry the girders. Both bridges are constructed in the same manner, and on the same principle. The cylinders form the piers in the centre and abutments. Each cylinder is 8 feet in diameter, and has been sunk into the bed of the river 274 feet in their extreme depth, by means of divers. When these cy- linders were adjusted and brought to the full depth, about 3 feet of cement concrete was lowered into the bottom. On the concrete setting, the water was pumped out, and the interior filled in with rubble masonry, laid with Portland cement. To provide for extreme floods, two side openings were made, 412 and 35 feet span, of plate girders, one end resting on the masonry in the cast-iron cylinders, and the other on a stone abutment landward, secured on a platform and piles. These bridges answer their purpose very satisfactorily. The cost of No. 2 bridge, which consists of two openings of 122 feet, and two side openings of 35 feet span, was £11,156. Total length of No. 2 350 feet ; cost per lineal foot £31 17s. 6d.; height above the bed of the river 36 feet. The cost of No. 3 bridge, consisting of two openings of 137 feet span, and two side openings of 414 feet span, the cylinders being sunk into the bed of the river 25 feet, amounted to £13,772. Length of No. 3, 4193 feet; cost £32 16s. 7d. per lineal foot; height above the bed of the river 49 feet. No. 4 is the viaduct in the Pass of Killiecrankie already alluded to. It consists of 10 arches of 35 feet span, with an extreme height from the foun- dations to the top of the parapet of 54 feet, and is built with a curve of 20 chains radius. The Pass of Killiecrankie is a well-known object of picturesque beauty, and it is generally admitted that the railway, now that the slopes have attained their proper verdure, has in no way diminished its attractions. Indeed this viaduct is thought to give it additional interest. The cost was £5720. It is adapted to the single line, and is 17 feet in width over parapets. Length 508 feet ; cost per lineal foot £11 5s. No. 5 is a viaduct across the River Tilt, near Blair Athole, spanning the river by one wrought-iron girder of 150 feet. The abutments are of stone, laid three feet below the bed of the river on a platform of timber 6 inches 155 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHLAND RAILWAY. 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As it is situated close to Blair Castle, it has been made somewhat more ornate than was otherwise necessary. The cost of this bridge is £6500, being for a single line. Length 256 feet; cost £25 7s. 9d. per lineal foot; height above the bed of the river 40 feet. No. 6 is a bridge across the River Garry at Calvine of 3 spans, one of 80 and two of 40 feet, and is 55 feet from the bed of the river to the top of the parapet. There was considerable difficulty in fixing the crossing of the river at this place. The Garry is here a large and rapid mountain-stream, on a rocky bed, with several falls immediately adjoining, running through an ornamental plantation, and as this was a spot of interest in the grounds of Blair Castle, we were precluded from crossing the river at any other point within the demesne. It occurred to the writer, however, as the road-bridge passed over about the narrowest part of the river, the object aimed at could be effected both economically and unobjectionably byspanning both road and river, thus forming an object of additional interest in this peculiar locality. The cost of this bridge was £5100. Length 274 feet ; cost per lineal foot £18 12s. 3d. No. 7 is a bridge of no particular interest, 80 feet span, crossing the River Dulnain, a mountain-stream near Grantown, but is given as a specimen of a substantial bridge of this size. The cost was :—Masonry £2238 ; iron work £1060. Total £3298. Length 148 feet; height 27 feet; cost per lineal foot £22 5s. 6d. No. 8 is a viaduct crossing a picturesque ravine and stream called the Divie, 10 miles south of Forres. Its length is 477 feet, constructed for a single line, and the cost amounted to £10,231. Itis 106 feet in height from the river-bed to the top of the parapet, and 16 feet in width; all the piers within the limits of the stream are founded on rock. It consists of seyen arches of 45 feet span each. Cost per lineal foot £21 9s. These viaducts constitute the principal works on the through line between Perth and Forres. The writer will now proceed to allude briefly to the principal works on the coast-line between Keith and Bonar Bridge. The portion from Keith to Inverness being one-half the distance of the railway from Aberdeen to Inverness, the capital of the Highlands, extends to 55 miles in length. It may be stated that this portion from Inverness to Keith originally formed part of the Great North of Scotland Railway, the act for which was obtained in 1846, but pecuniary difficulties prevented the promoters from constructing this part of their scheme, involving, as it was then supposed, the construction of very heavy work in the neighbourhood of the River Spey, and it was eventually left to the Highland Companies to carry it out. There is a deep and precipitous ravine on the south side of the Spey, with flat meadows on the north side, and the original plan of the Great North of Scotland Company was to cross the river at a gradient of 1 in 90 with a high viaduct, with expensive works in the ravine, at a cost of about £100,000, the bridge being estimated at £60,000. After much careful survey and consideration, and consultation with Messrs. Locke and Errington regarding this work, it was fixed to pass through the ravine by a gradient of 1 in 60 for 24 miles, which is the steepest gradient on the Highland system, and span the river by a box girder of 230 feet, with six side arches of masonry, each of 30 feet span, to meet the contingency of flood waters, which are on this river very sudden and very rapid, and the work has been carried out successfully. It may be mentioned that this was about the greatest single span of an open girder at the time built (1856), The propriety of a stone bridge at this place, with a gradient of 1 in 70, was considered by the Directors, but it was found to be too expensive. The present line, however, answers quite sufficiently for the traffic of the country, ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHLAND RAILWAY. 157 which is now chiefly local since the opening of the Highland line. The cost of the bridge, which is 660 feet long and 74 feet high from the foundations to the top of the towers, constructed for a double line, was £34,480; cost per lineal foot £525s. The east abutment of this bridge is founded on rock, and it was provided that the west abutment should be sunk and founded on piles and a platform, the first imperfect trials having led to the conclusion that there was nothing beyond indurated shingle at this place. On sinking 14 feet from the surface, however, through a conglomerate of boulders 2 to 3 feet in diameter, hard mountain clay appeared, and on penetrating this for about 3 feet, rock was found, thus securing for this structure a rock foundation on either side. Immediately at the east end of this viaduct, the line, as already said, runs through a narrow and precipitous ravine, the stream of which had to be diverted for the railway, by a new channel cut out of the solid gravel 30 feet wide, sloping longitudinally 1 in 40, and pitched with stones from 12 to 18 inches deep, This pitching, which consists of squared stones, had to a small extent broken up several times since the line was opened ten years ago, from the floods bringing down stones and trees, and we found that the most effectual way of securing it was by insertingywalings of timber 40 feet apart, 12 inches by 4 inches, across the channel, secured at every 3 feet by iron piles, and grouting the joints of the pitching in dry weather with liime-grout so as to prevent the lodgment of air and water, which under the pressure of floods has a tendency to dislocate the stone work. No. 10 is a viaduct crossing the Findhorn, a dangerous and rapid river. It sometimes comes down in great flood, almost in a body of 2 or 3 feet of perpendicular height at a time, notwithstanding that in summer it is a very moderate-sized stream. This bridge consists of three spans of 150 feet each, with stone abutments and piers of solid ashlar, and is constructed for a single line. There was no appearance of rock in the immediate neighbour- hood of the site, although rock appeared on one side of the river about half a mile above; and the channel, as far as could be ascertained, consisted of shingle and gravel. It was provided, therefore, that the foundation should be sunk 6 feet below the deepest part of the bed of the river on a platform and piles. The east abutment was so sunk, and the piles were driven through the gravel to a depth of 10 feet, making 16 feet below the bed of the river. It was observed that at that depth the piles uniformly would drive no further, and this suggested the possibility of rock. Rock was accordingly searched for, and it was found that about 18 feet under the bed of and across the river, rock existed. Cofferdams were therefore formed, and rock foundations were secured for the remaining piers and abutment. The cost of the bridge, including a pitched embankment on the east side, the bottom of which was secured by piles and a waling of timber, amounted—masonry to £11,170 ; ironwork £10,260, making a total of £21,430. Extreme length 6082 feet ; height above foundations 463 feet ; cost per lineal foot £35 4s. 4d. No. 11 ts a bridge across the River Nairn, consisting of four arches of 55 feet span, and is an admirable piece of masonry. An incident connected with the foundations of this bridge deserves to be mentioned. The contractor, when instructed to ascertain the nature of the foundations, insisted that it was unnecessary to take any trouble about them, as rock cropped out on either bank; the turnpike-road bridge across the river a quarter of a mile below was founded on rock, and he said there could be no doubt that rock would be got in the centre 3 or 4 feet below the bed of the river. Rock, however, was not reached until we sunk from 13 to 14 feet, showing that experienced persons may be misled even under the most convincing circumstances. The structure, however, is founded on the solid rock throughout, and the cost for 158 REPORT—1867. a double line was £8620. Length 371 feet; height 56 feet; cost per lineal foot £23 4s. 8d. No. 12 is a viaduct across the Ness, consisting of five arches of 73 feet span over the river, 4 land arches of 20 feet span, and 2 cast-iron openings of 27 and 35 feet span over roads. The foundations of this bridge, as in many others, consisted of shingle for 20 feet down, but at the north abut- ment and pier the iron rods driven in appeared to penetrate considerably easier than at other points of the channel, and it was deemed prudent to construct this abutment and pier upon bearing piles and a platform, and they were accordingly so done, as exhibited in the drawings. The total length of this bridge, including the side arches, is 669 feet, and the total height from the bed of the river to the top of the parapet is 40 feet. It is constructed for a single line, and cost £13,410. Cost per lineal foot £20. No. 13 is a good example of a swing bridge built across the Caledonian Canal, which the line spans on a skew of 65 degrees. It consists of 2 girders of 126 feet in length, 78 feet of which, from the centre of the turn- table, spans the canal, and the remaining 48 feet forms the balance weight. Advantage was taken of the canal being emptied for repairs to lay the foun- dations of the masonry, which are on aplatform and piles in the solid gravel, 9 feet below the surface of the water. The depth of the canal is 18 feet, and the width of the locks 40 feet, the canal banks being 120 feet apart. Some difficulty occurred at first during hot weather from the expansion of the iron affecting the adjustment and closing of the bridge, which was remedied by means of a powerful screw, and the bridge has been worked with satisfaction and safety for the last five years. This bridge, with its machinery, timber, wharves for protection from vessels, distant and station signals, &c., complete, cost £4718. No. 14 spans the River Conon in Ross-shire. From peculiar circumstances it was necessary that this bridge should cross the river on a skew of 45 degrees to the stream, and as there were rock foundations, there was no difficulty to contend with beyond that of 4 or 5 feet of water in the channel of the river to reach the rock, which was successfully accomplished. The peculiarity of the skew with the river at this place would have been more easily provided for by the adoption of iron girders from pier to pier, but as the writer found at that time that iron girders would be fully as expen- sive, and not so permanent as a stone bridge, and as there were admirable quarries in the neighbourhood, he resolved to construct this bridge, as already said, on a skew of 45 degrees with the river, by a series of right-angled ribs or arches spanning from pier to pier. This is no new arrangement; but the writer is not aware of the plan being adopted for a series of arches of so large a span in any previous instance. The bridge consists of 5 arches of 73 feet span each, the arches being constructed of four ribs, each 3 feet 9 inches wide; the arch-stones are 4 feet deep at the springing, and 3 feet deep at the crown. The keystones of the centre part of each arch were made to connect with each other, as were the stones in the haunchings of the arches, and some cramps of iron were inserted at the joints to connect the ribs. The work was successfully accomplished, and constitutes a very perfect piece of bridge masonry. The total length of the bridge is 540 feet, and the height 45 feet from the bed of the river. The north abutment is founded 304 feet lower down the river than the south, and the whole structure, when the centres were removed, was found so accurately built that no joint in it showed any indication of setting. The cost of this bridge for a single line was £11,391. Cost per lineal foot £21 2s. There are many other bridges, as may be supposed, over so great an extent ee A aw a ee ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHLAND RAILWAY. 159 of country, and a country so much exposed to floods, but those above de- scribed are the principal ; the entire waterway spanned over the entire system being 9828 feet. On the Central Railway from Dunkeld to Forres, 104 miles, being a single line, there are 8 viaducts, 126 bridges over streams, 119 public and ac- commodation road-bridges, and 8100 yards of covered drains, varying in size from 18 to 36 inches square. There are 1650 lineal yards of breastwalls, 304,700 cubic yards of rock cutting, and 3,416,000 cubic yards of earth- work, being, including rock and earth, at the rate of 35,776 cubic yards to the mile. The largest embankment was at Rafford near Forres, which con- tained 308,000 cubic yards. The permanent way consists of larch and natural-grown Scotch fir sleepers of the usual size, 3 feet apart; the chairs are 22 lbs. in weight; the rails weigh 75 lbs. to the lineal yard, are in lengths of 24 feet, and are fished at the joints. The total cost of the works, including all extra and accommodation works, amounted for the 104 miles, to £798,311; the land, including severance, to £70,000 ; and the preliminary, parliamentary, engineering, and law expenses to £50,893, making the cost of this portion of the Company’s lines £919,204, or £8860 per mile*, The contracts were entered into immediately after the passing of the Bill in July 1861 ; the first turf of the railway was cut on the 17th of October of the same year, and the whole line was passed by the Government Inspector, and opened for public traffic on the 9th of September 1863, being one year and ten months, an unprecedentedly short time for works of such magnitude. The works between Forres and Dunkeld were divided into nine contracts let by public competition, and were undertaken £15,705 below the Engineer’s estimate, and were completed at 12 per cent. over the Engineer’s estimate, including 4 per cent. for accommodation works ordered by land yaluators. The traffic has been worked successfully and without accident for four years. The mail trains perform the journey between Inverness and Perth (144 miles) in 5} hours. It was proposed to the Post Office, but not agreed to, on account of the expense, to run them in four hours. An ordinary goods train of 20 waggons, or 200 tons gross load, is drawn up the steepest inclines by one engine, having 17-inch cylinders and 24- inch stroke. The traffic is rapidly increasing. The sheep and cattle, which used to reach the southern markets by a toilsome journey of a month or six weeks, are now conyeniently transported in a day at less cost, the Company having carried in one week upwards of 21,000 sheep. In passing over the mountain-ridges already described, it was feared that serious interruptions would arise from snow during the winter, but as the writer had a knowledge of the whole country for many years, he did not anticipate any difficulty on this head which might not be overcome. The summit is about 500 feet higher than that of the Caledonian line, or some 1500 feet in all above sea-level, and is no doubt more exposed. The first winter, viz. 1863-64, it was wholly open and the traffic uninterrupted ; in February of the second winter, viz, 1865, a very heavy snow-storm occurred all over the north of Scotland, impeding the traffic of almost all the northern railways, and stopping the traffic on the Highland line for four or five days, which was only restored with great difficulty by the labour of large bodies of * The extra work claimed by one Contractor is still unsettled, but is valued and paid at tee at which the extra works on 160 miles of this system of railways have been amicably settled. 160 REPORT—1867. men. It was evident, therefore, that some decided steps must be adopted to overcome the snow difficulty, and in the beginning of 1866 the road was kept pretty well open by the application of snow-ploughs ; and the expe- rience of that winter made it quite clear that this difficulty might, with proper appliances, be effectually overcome, and means were accordingly adopted for that purpose. In these elevated regions, when a snow-storm occurs, it is accompanied with high wind, and the snow is consequently drifted with great rapidity into the hollows and cuttings. With the view of obviating this, screen fences of light timber, or of decayed sleepers, or earthen mounds were erected a few yards from each side of the cuttings where the line was exposed. These were found very effective for intercepting the drifts. There was then provided snow ploughs of three descriptions, viz :—One, a light plough fixed to all the engines running on the line, and capable of clearing 12 to 24 inches of new snow. The second was a more formidable snow plough, which was fixed to a pilot engine, and was found capable of clearing 2 to 5 feet of snow. This pilot engine was attached to goods or passenger trains. The third, and largest class of plough was found to clear snow 10 or 11 feet deep, with the aid of four or five goods engines. These appliances, notwith- standing the very serious snow-storms which were encountered on the line in January last, were capable of keeping the line almost wholly clear. This I consider a great triumph, inasmuch as the Highland line, over such high elevations, was kept clear, while, by the same storm, the lines throughout Scotland, England, and France were more or less blocked up ; the lines in the north of Scotland being stopped entirely five or six days— the mails for Aberdeen being delayed three days from London, and two from Edinburgh. The Norfolk line was blocked up for some days; the Holyhead mail detained from 12 to 16 hours ; the London, Chatham, and Dover blocked up for two days, as well as the trains in France to Marseilles. Much credit is due to the activity and attention of the Highland Company’s officers—Mr. Stroudley, the Locomotive Superintendent, and Mr. Buttle, Su- perintendent of Permanent Way—Mr. Stroudley having planned and con- structed the snow-ploughs. As a specimen of a cheaply constructed line of railway, the writer annexes a note of the details of the northern portion of the Highland Railway, from Invergordon to Bonar Bridge, 26} miles in length. ‘The country through which this section of the line passes is comparatively level, and several parts skirt and run through the sea, where the works had to be protected at con- siderable cost. The cuttings amounted to 549,000 cubic yards, of which about 20,000 were rock. There are 27 bridges over streams, 4 of them 40 to 50 feet span, 26 public and accommodation road-bridges, and 2942 lineal yards of drains, varying from 18 to 36 inches square. ‘The rails are double-headed and weigh 70 lbs. to the yard, and are fished at the joints ; 2 of the chairs are 203 lbs., and 3 28 Ibs. in weight. There are ten stations, with permanent dwelling-houses for the agents and porters. The total cost of this portion of the line, the works being of the very best quality, and the masonry all of stone, amounted to £5018 per mile, or in- cluding parliamentary and law expenses and land, £5888 per mile. Commercially, these lines, extending over 246 miles, have not as yet been quite successful, from the fact of too great an extent of line having been undertaken at once, it requiring in an agricultural country considerable time to develope the traffic. Under the whole circumstances, however, the traffic is satisfactory. The works are of the most substantial character. The capital account, ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 161 which is under £2,800,000, is about closed as far as new works are concerned, while the revenue is rapidly increasing. For the half-year just ended, the Company will be able to pay its preference and debenture stocks, 5 per cent. on its floating liabilities, and about 2 per cent. on its ordinary stock of £740,000. It will thus be seen that if the revenue increases in the same ratio that it has hitherto done, viz. from £15,000 to £20,000 per annum, the Company will be able to pay in two or three years a satisfactory dividend of 5 per cent. When that event occurs, the Directors may with propriety give some moderate aid to the further extension of the main lines of communication to Caithness and Skye, both of which must prove valuable feeders to the Highland system. These lines were promoted chiefly by the great landed proprietors in the country, among the most prominent of which were the Earl of Seafield, Lord Fyfe, Mr. Matheson of Ardross, M.P., Mr. Merry of Belladrum, M.P., Mr. M‘Intosh of Raigmore, Col. Fraser Tytler, the Duke of Sutherland, &c. Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel. By W. Farrsairn, LL.D., F.R.S., &e. Tuerz is probably no description of material that has undergone greater changes in its manufacture than iron; and, judging from the attempts that are now making, and have been made, to improve its quality and to enlarge its sphere of application, we may reasonably conclude that it is destined to attain still greater advances in its chemical and mechanical properties. The earliest improvements in the process of the manufacture of iron may be attributed to Cort, who introduced the process of boiling and puddling in the reverberatory furnace, and those of more recent date to Bessemer, who first used a separate vessel for the reduction of the metals, and thus effected more important changes in the manufacture of iron and steel than had been introduced at any former period in metallurgic history. To the latter system we owe most of the improvements that have taken place ; for by the compara- tively new and interesting process of burning out the carbon in a separate vessel almost every description of steel and refined iron may be produced. The same results may be obtained by the puddling furnace,—but not to the same extent, since the artificial blast of the Bessemer principle acts with much greater force in depriving the metal of its carbon, and in reducing it to the state of refined iron. By this new process increased facilities are afforded for attaining new combinations by the introduction of measured quantities of carbon into the converting vessel, and this may be so regulated as to form steel or iron of the homogeneous state, of any known quality. By the boiling and puddling processes, steel of similar combinations may be produced, but with less certainty as regards quality, as everything depends on the skill of the operator in closing the furnace at the precise moment of time. This precaution is necessary in order to retain the exact quantity of carbon in the mass so as to produce by combination the requisite quality of steel. It will be observed that in the Bessemer process this un- certainty does not exist, as the whole of the carbon is volatilized or burnt out in the first instance; and by pouring into the vessel a certain quantity of crude metal containing carbon, any percentage of that element may be obtained in combination with the iron, possessing qualities best adapted to the varied forms of construction to which the metal may be applied. Thus the Bessemer system is not only more perfect in itself, but admits of a greater pat certainty in the results than could possibly be attained from the 1868. N 162 REPORT—1867. mere employment of the eyes and hands of the most experienced puddler. Thus it appears that the Bessemer process enables us to manufacture steel with any given proportion of carbon, or other eligible element, and thus to describe the compound metal in terms of its chemical constituents. Important changes have been made since Mr. Bessemer first announced his new principle of conversion, and the results obtained from various quarters bid fair to establish a new epoch in metallurgic manipulation, by the pro- duction of a material of much greater general value than that which was pro- duced by the old process, and in most cases of double the strength of iron. These improvements are not exclusively confined to the Bessemer process, for a great variety of processes are now in operation producing the same results, and hence we have now in the market homogeneous, and every other description of iron, inclusive of steel of such density, ductility, &c., as to meet all the requirements of the varied forms of construction. The chemical properties of these different kinds of steel have been satis- factorily established ; but we have no reliable knowledge of the mechanical properties of the different kinds of homogeneous iron and steel that are now being produced. To supply this desideratum, I have endeavoured, by a series of laborious experiments, to determine the comparative values of the different kinds of steel, as regards their powers of resistance to transverse, tensile, and compressive strain. These experiments have been instituted not only for those engaged in the constructive arts, but also to enable the engineer to make such selections of the material as will best suit his purpose in any proposed construction. In order to arrive at correct results, I have applied to the first houses for the specimens experimented upon, and judging from the results of these experi- ments, I venture to hope that new and important data have been obtained, which may safely be relied upon in the selection of the material for the different forms of construction. For several years past attempts have been made to substitute steel for iron, on account of its superior tenacity and increased security in the con- struction of boilers, bridges, &c.; and assuredly there can be no doubt as to the desirability of employing a material of the same weight and of double the strength, provided it can at all times be relied upon. Some difficulties, how- ever, exist, and until they are removed it would not be safe to make the transfer from iron to steel. These difficulties may be summed up in a few words, viz. the want of uniformity in the manufacture, in cases of rolled plates and other articles which require perfect resemblance in character, and the uncertainty which pervades its production. Time and close observation of facts in connexion with the different processes will, however, surmount these difficulties, and will enable the manufacturer to produce steel in all its varieties with the same certainty as he formerly attained in the manu- facture of iron. In the selection of the different specimens of steel, I have endeavoured to obtain such information about the ores, fuel, and process of manufacture as the parties supplying the specimens were disposed to furnish. To a series of questions, answers were, in most cases, cheerfully given, the particulars of which will be found in the Tables. I have intimated that the specimens have been submitted to transverse, tensile, and compressive strain, and the summaries of results will indicate the uses to which the different specimens may be applied. Table I. gives for each specimen the modulus of elasticity and the modulus of resistance to impact, together with the deflection for unity of pressure; from these experi- ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 168 mental data the engineer and architect may select the steel possessing the actual quality required for any particular structure. This will be found especially requisite in the construction of boilers, ships, bridges, and other structures subjected to severe strains; where safety, strength, and economy should be kept in view. In the case of transverse strain some difficulties presented themselves in the course of the experiments, arising from the ductile nature of some part of the material, and from its tendency to bend or deflect to a considerable depth without fracture. But this is always the case with tough bars whether of iron or steel, and hence the necessity of fixing upon some unit of measure of the deflections, in order to compare the flexibility of the bars with one another, and, from the mean value of this unit of deflection, to obtain a mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) for the different bars. This unit or measure of flexibility given in the Table is the mean value of all the deflections corre- sponding to unity of pressure and section. The modulus of elasticity has also been calculated from the deflection produced by 112 Ibs., in order that it may be compared with the results of experiments on cast iron, given at pages 73 and 74 in my work ‘On the Application of Iron to Building Pur- poses.’ In order to determine the resistance of the bars to a force analogous to that of impact, the work in deflecting each bar up to its limit of elasticity has been calculated. These results differ considerably from each other, showing the different degrees of hardness, ductility, dc. of the material of which the bars are composed. The transverse strength of the different bars _ up to their limit of elasticity is shown by the amount of the modulus of strength or the unit of strength calculated for each bar. Table I1., on tensile strain, gives the breaking strain of each bar per square inch of section, and the corresponding elongation of the bar per unit of length, together with the ultimate resistance of each bar to a force analo- gous to that of impact. Table III., on compression, gives the force per square inch of section requisite to crush short columns of the different specimens, with the corre- sponding compression of the column per unit of length, together with the work expended in producing this compression. Having selected the requisite number of specimens from different works, the experiments commenced with the transverse strains, which were con- ducted as on former occasions, by suspending dead weights from the middle of the bar, which was supported at its extremities, the supports being 4 feet 6 inches apart. The apparatus for this class of experiments consisted of the 164 REPORT—1867. wooden frame A, to which were bolted two iron brackets, BB, on which the bars were laid. Immediately over the centre of the bar, at a point equi- distant between the supports, the wheel and screw C was attached to the scale D on which the weights were placed, 56 lbs. at a time; after each weight was laid on, the deflections were taken, and the experiment was con- tinued until a large permanent set was obtained. The permanent set was observed at intervals in the following manner :—After the deflection pro- duced by the load had been ascertained, the screw C was turned so as to raise the scale and relieve the bar of the load, thus enabling the experimenter to ascertain the effects of the load upon the bar and to register the permanent set. This operation was conducted with great precision, as may be seen on consulting the Tables in the experiments which follow. Each of the bars have been treated in this way, care having been taken to secure portions of each bar for the experiments on tension and compression. In addition to these distinct tests, I have the advantage of my friend Mr. Tate’s assistance in the reduction of formule as follows :— Formvunz or Repvucrion. For the reduction of the Experiments on Transverse Strain.— When a bar is supported at the extremities and loaded in the middle, wh ~ Beka?’ . . . . (1) where 7 is the distance between the supports, K the area of the section of the bar, d its depth, w the weight laid on added to 3ths of the weight of the bar, 6 the corresponding deflection, and E the modulus of elasticity. When the section of a bar is a square, wl er a These formule show that the deflection, taken within the elastic limit, for unity of pressure is a constant, that is, £ =p, a constant. 4, : LE ; on be a series of values of D, determined by experiment w,° w, Wn in a given bar, then Let 17 @, AD, é gD es (ee ae ee ee eer ae +=), (3) which gives the mean value of this constant for a given bar. Now, for the same material and length, 6 d. ,r Dora (4) and when the section re : bar is square, 6 1 py rea: So te 8 oe! oe If D, be put for the value of D when d=1, then D,= Dd* eed 5, Oo 4 &n L 6 Si(Gtet te )e- +. ++ © which expresses the mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section, This mean value, therefore, may be taken as the measure of the . ect ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 165 flexibility of the bar, or as the modulus of flexure, since it measures the amount of deflection produced by a unit of pressure for a unit of section. Substituting this value in equation (2), we get he a Bees etch eam a Aged 3°.) which gives the mean value of the modulus of elasticity, where D, is deter- mined from equation (6). The work U of deflection is expressed by the formula 1 6 wo US5XWXs5=57 Bete cet Se Be a eee (3) where 6 is the deflection in inches corresponding to the pressure (w) in lbs. If w and 6 be taken at, or near to the elastic limit, then this formula gives the work, or resistance analogous to impact, which the bar may undergo, without suffering any injury in its material. This formula, reduced to unity of section, becomes Uae ys ) cs pepile Ballehmatte> Vee) Mea. "(O) If C be a constant, determined by experiment for the weight (W) straining the bar up to the limit of elasticity, so that the bar may be able to sustain the load without injury, then ESM Shei Cube a a etdire 2 eNO) where C=15, or 1 of the corresponding resistance of the material per square inch at the upper and lower edges of the section, _ Wi oO eke 2 Bs 1) When the section of the bar is a square, ce Ww! = which gives the value of C, the modulus of strength, or the unit of working strength, W being the load, determined by experiment, which strains the bar up to its elastic limit: this value of C gives the comparative permanent or working strength of the bar. Up to the elastic limit the deflections wre proportional to their corresponding strains, but beyond this point the deflections increase in a much higher ratio. Hence the deflection corresponding to the elastic limit is the greatest deflec- tion which is found to follow the elastic law just explained. Tensile Strain, §¢e.—The work u expended in the elongation of a uniform bar, 1 foot in length and 1 inch in section, is expressed by Re roe. 0 . (12) . (13) where P, = F =the strain in lbs. reduced to unity of section, and ioe =the corresponding elongation reduced to unity of length. This value of wu, determined for the different bars subjected to experiment, gives a comparative measure of their powers of resistance to a strain analogous to that of impact. By taking P, to represent the crushing pressure per unity of section, and J, the corresponding compression per unity of length, the foregoing formula will express the work expended in crushing the bar. 166 REPORT—1867. FIRST SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exprrtment I.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co,, Sheffield. Dimension of bar ‘97 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ B1,” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 50 088 Mast Specimen of best cast steel 2 100 148 from Russian and Swedish 3 150 219 iron. Used for turning- 4 200 283 ‘004 tools. 5 250 *353 ‘006 6 300 -415 ‘008 v4 350 1433 009 8 400 "DDD 9 450 ‘616 ‘011 10 500 -690 7012 an 550 “760. 12 600 °837 13 650 ‘927 14 700 O77: 15 750 1:047 16 800 1117 :012 ive 850 1:187 -015 18 900 1:237 19 950 1-307 7016 20 1150 1:747 101 21 1400 Zac gs Sunk with this weight. Results of Exp. I. Here the weight (w) corresponding to the limit of elasticity is 960 Ibs., and the corresponding deflection (8) is 1:307. See formule of reduction, p. 165. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = 0012048. By formula (7).—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 32,672,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (EZ) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 33,047,000. _ By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 52:280. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (uv) for unity of section = 55-563. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6:326 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 167 TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exp, I1.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co., Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar ‘97 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. - Mark on bar, “‘ B 2.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No, of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 088 AS tat Specimen of best cast steel 2 100 166 from Russian and Swedish 3 150 236 iron, of milder quality than 4 200 310 No.1. Used for chisels &c. 5 250 393 6 300 462 7 350 537 8 400 614 9 450 692 10 500 LL 11 550 "852 12 600 932 13 650 1-012 14 700 1-082 001 15 750 1-172 16 800 1:242 17 850 1-312 001 18 900 1-402 005 19 950 1-482 012 20 1150 2-642 327, Gradually sinking with this weight. Results of Exp. II. Here the weight (w) corresponding to the limit of elasticity is 960 Ibs., and the corresponding deflection (6) 1°482. By formula (6).—The mean yalue of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = :0013377. By formula (7)—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,415,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 29,465,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 59-280. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 63-003. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6:326 tons. 168 REPoRT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exe, I1I.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co., Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar 1:001 inch square. Mark on bar, “B 3.” 6 inches. No. of ibe Ry Exp. Ibs, il 50 2 100 3 150 4 200 5 250 6 300 7 350 8 400 9 450 10 500 11 550 te 600 13 650 14 700 15 750 16 800 17 850 18 900 19 950 20 1150 21 1400 sponding deflection (0) is 1°507. Deflection, 1:507 1:887 Permanent set, in inches. ‘000 ‘0166 “0420 Length between supports 4 feet Remarks. Specimen of cast steel from Swedish iron. Employed in the construction of tools, &e. Sinking with this weight. Results of Exp. II. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1160 Ibs., and the corre- By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = :0012891. By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,550,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 32,171,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 72°838. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 72-690. tons. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-958 ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 169 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. [Y.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co., Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar ‘98 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “B 4.” Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 “082 ers: Specimen of cast steel from 2 100 “160 Swedish iron, of milder 3 150 214 quality than No.3. Used 4 200 282 for chisels. 5 250 “348 6 300 +423 000 ff 350 “494 004 8 400 *556 007 9 450 618 -008 10 500 “691 11 550 Oy (515) ‘009 12 600 “820 13 650 “908 -011 14 700 ‘978 012 15 750 1-048 ‘008 16 800 1-113 as 850 1:178 18 900 1-258 19 950 1-318 ‘008 20 1150 1-708 “095 21 1400 Spine -... | Sunk with this weight. i Results of Exp. IV. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 960 Ibs., and the corre- ponding deflection (5) is 1°318. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0012581. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,463,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 29,370,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 52-720. By formula (9).— Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 54-893. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-134 tons. 170 REPORT—1867, TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr, Y.—Bar of Steel from Messrs, John Brown & Co., Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar ‘98 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ B 5.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks, Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 083 ine Specimen of steel cast from 2 100 149 Swedish iron, of mild qua- 3 150 209 lity for welding. 4 200 277 5 250 349 6 300 427 7 350 497 8 400 527 9 450 631 10 500 “702 11 550 aT Sieaals This specimen is consider- 12 600 "845 ably more ductile than any 13 650 927 of the previous bars expe- 14 700 ‘997 rimented upon. It is simi- 15 750 1:057 000 lar in character to that in 16 800 1:127 003 Exp. I. ay. 850 1:197 18 900 1267 004 19 950 1:337 ‘014 20 1150 2:402 664 The deflection continues to increase with this weight. Resulis of Exp. V. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 960 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection (0) is 1-337. By formula (6),—The mean value of the deflection for the unity of pressure and section (D,) = :0012673. By formula (7).—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,248,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 31,510,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 53-480. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (u) for unity of section = 55-685. By formula (12),—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6:134 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 171 TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exe. V1.—Bar of Steel from Messrs, John Brown & Co., Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar ‘992 inch square, Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ B 6,’ No. of Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent on, in in set, in Remarks, Exp. lbs, inches. inches, 1 50 :076 Paeere Bar of Bessemer steel. 2 100 188 3 150 +208 4 200 +280 5 250 ‘346 6 300 414 7 350 "486 8 400 “554 9 450 624 10 500 “694 11 550 “757 12 600 +824 13 650 894 14 700 964 15 750 1:024 16 800 1:094 ‘000 aly é 850 1:174 7008 18 900 1/284 7044. 19 950 1-434 133 Experiment discontinued, Results of Exp. VI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 860 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1-174. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = ‘0013024. By formula (7),—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,224,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 32,361,000. By es (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 42-068. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 42749. : By formula (12).—Value of OC, the unit of working strength = 5:297 ons. 172 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. VIJ.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co., Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar ‘978 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ B7.”’ Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 50 073 ore Specimen of double shear 2 100 141 steel from Swedish bar. 3 150 *215 4 200 281 5 250 *355 6 300 “425 fe 350 493 8 400 “565 9 450 630 10 500 -703 11 550 775 12 600 *855 13 650 "925 14 700 1-015 15 750 1:065 ie The experiments in this and 16 800 1:145 ‘000 the two next Tables were 17 850 1-225 “005 made for comparison with 18 900 1-325 -031 Exp. VI. 19 950 1:535 “142 Results of Exp. VII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 860 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection (é) is 1:225. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = 0012643. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 31,135,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 33,523,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 43-900. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 45-897. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-527 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 173 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp, VIL[I.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co., Sheffield. Di- mension of bar ‘986 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ B 8.”, Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 069 Fae Specimen of “ Foreign Bar,” 2 100 143 not melted, but tilted direct 3 150 204 from the ingot. 4 200 273 5 250 *340 6 300 418 7 350 “485 8 400 550 9 450 623 10 500 -700 Bi 550 WAC 12 600 850 13 650 930 14 700 “990 i) 750 1-050 16 800 1-130 17 850 1-210 “000 18 900 1:310 017 19 950 1-430 059 Results of Exp. VIII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 860 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1-210. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = °0012863. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,335,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 30,686,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 43°358. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 44-598. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5394 tons. 174 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exe. [X.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co., Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar 1 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ B 9.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 076 Bes, 3 Specimen of (JB) bar. Eng- 2 100 136 lish tilted steel made from 3 150 206 English and foreign pigs. 4 200 270 5 250 318 6 300 380 if 350 450 8 400 516 9 450 ‘570 10 500 -640 ‘lg! 550 “700 12 600 “780 13 650 *840 14 700 ‘900 vee. It will be observed that the 15 750 “960 value of C, formula (12) of 16 800 1:020 “008 this experiment, is lower 7 850 1-100 than those of Exp. VL, 18 900 1:180 024 VIL., and VIII. 19 950 1:300 083 Results of Kup. UX. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 860 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1:100. By formula (6).—The mean yalue of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=-001258. By formula (7).—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (EZ) = 31,292,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 31,833,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 39-416. By formula (9).—-Work of deflection (1) for unity of section = 39-416. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-170 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 175 Expr. X—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Charles Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:054 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “1.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks, Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 50 064 aeons Specimen of cast steel, termed 2 100 ‘UG ‘Diamond Steel.” 3 150 172 + 200 "225 5 250 273 6 300 333 7 350 382 8 400 427 9 450 476 ~ +000 10 500 534 006 ial 550 “585 12 600 632 13 650 “687 14 700 “TAL 15 750 801 16 800 “860 Tare This is a remarkably fine a 850 932 specimen of flexible steel ; 18 900 982 006 highly elastic. 19 950 1:042 O11 20 1000 1-092 019 21 1050 1:162 22 1100 1-192 23 1150 1-242 24 1200 1-302 022 25 1250 1-362 26 1300 1:372 27 1350 1-452 28 1400 1-512 29 1450 1-562 023 30 1500 1-662 028 31 1550 1-742 059 32 1600 1-832 065 33 1654 1-922 120 34 1710 2-062 189 35 1766 2-302 356 36 1822 2-662 546 37 1878 3042 “800 38 1934 3°732 1:302 | Sinking with this load. Jo Resulis of Lup. X. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1460 lbs., and the corresponding deflec- tion (8) is 1-562.-——By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pres- sure and section (D;) == -0013081.——By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (BE) = 30,088,000. By formula (2)—The modulus of elasticity (E) corre- sponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 29,996,000. By formula (8).—Work of defiection (U) for unity of section = 95000. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of sec- tion=85'515.——By formula (12).—Value of ©, the unit of working strength= 7:04 tons. 176 REPORT—1867. Exe. XI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Charles Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:104 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ 2.” No. of Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent Th. G on, in in set, in Remarks. 1g lbs. inches. inches. il 50 064 rie - Specimen of steel termed 2 100 120 « Tool Steel.” 3 150 ‘174 4 200 232 5 250 287 6 300 324 a 350 396 8 400 437 9 450 500 10 500 563 11 550 “624 12 600 665 13 650 ‘718 14 700 sir 15 750 834 16 800 “884 17 850 944 18 860 “964 Bee This appears to be a supe- 19 890 "994 rior quality of steel, well 20 920 1:024 adapted for the purpose 21 950 1-054 for which it was manufac- 22 990 1:094 tured. 23 1010 1-134 24 1040 1-164 25 1070 1:194 26 1100 1:224 27 - 1130 1-254 28 1160 1:284 29 1200 1:314 30 1230 1:374 31 1260 1:404 32 1300 1-414 33 1350 1524 34 1400 1614 000 35 1450 1:684 010 36 1500 1:784 -019 37 1550 1:854 “059 38 1600 1:864 137 39 1654 1:964 306 Results of Exp. XI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1460 lbs., and the corresponding deflection (6) is 1-684. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -001637.—-By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elas- ticity (E) = 22,965,000.— By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 24,288,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 102-443. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of sec- tion = 84-048, —By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-904 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 177 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exe. XII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs, Charles Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Dimension of bar -994 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “3.” Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent te. of on, in in set, in Remarks. xp: lbs. inches. inches. A 50 076 eae Specimen of cast steel, termed 2 100 141 “Chisel Steel.’ 3 150 202 4 200 268 5 250 330 6 300 398 y 350 464 8 400 522 9 450 634 10 500 653 11 550 °726 12 600 804 13 650 *864 14 700 924 ates This is a description of steel 15 750 1-004 similar to that in Exp. 16 800 1:064 XI., but more ductile. 17 850 1-104 18 900 1-194 000 19 950 1244 001 20 1000 1-274 21 1050 1-347 002 22 1100 1-454 007 23 1150 1:504 014 24 1200 1-594 022 25 1300 1:924 165 26 1380 2484 589 27 1400 2-884 898 28 1430 3-114 1-076 29 1450 3:294 1-285 Results of Exp, XII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1210 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1°594. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = 0012612. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 31,212,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure =31,474,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 77-864. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 78-825. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 7-413 tons. 867. 0 178 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. XIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Charles Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1-04 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “4.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 068 oe Specimen of cast steel, termed 2 100 +125 “Double Shear Steel.” 3 150 179 4 200 -239 5 250 -298 6 300 *346 7 350 “389 8 400 -456 9 450 “508 10 500 -568 ‘fh 550 *626 12 600 693 13 650 “740 -000 14 700 797 ‘001 15 750 *850 16 800 -936 “002 iby 850 ‘996 003 18 900 1-056 19 950 1-106 ‘003 20 1150 1:946 ‘106 Bal 1400 3°536 1:695 Sunk with this weight. Results of Exp, XIII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 960 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1-106. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0013254. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) “= 29,700,000. By formula.(2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 30,126,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 44-240. By formula (9),—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 40-903. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-182 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL, 179 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp, XIV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Charles Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:02 inch square, Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ 5.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 50 ‘060 asia Bar of hard Bessemer steel. 2 100 120 3 150 169 4 200 228 5 250 288 6 300 *350 ib 350 “425 8 400 ‘487 9 450 550 oR This metal is of nearly the 10 500 604 same quality as that in ‘lal 550 ‘664 Exp. VI. 12 600 ‘733 13 650 ‘780 ‘000 14 700 *880 “004 15 750 -940 ‘O11 16 800 1-000 ‘O11 ile 850 1-060 -018 18 900 1:140 028 19 950 1:270 083 Results of Exp. XIV. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 810 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1-000. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = :0012805. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,742,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 33,205,000. By aga (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 33°750. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (x) for unity of section = 32-439, By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4-588 tons. 02 180 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. XV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Charles Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Dimension of bar -992 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “6.” No.of Weight laid Deflection, Permanent Ex on, in Sa set, in Remarks. 1 Ibs. inches. inches. 1 50 ‘O77 ees Bar of soft Bessemer steel. 2 100 142 3 150 *208 A 200 *280 5 250 +343 6 300 427 ai 350 “481 8 400 “544 9 450 615 10 500 673 ‘000 11 550 *739 ‘001 This bar is much more duc- 12 600 818 tile than those previously 13 650 888 experimented upon, 14 770 1:052 001 15 800 1-098 16 850 1:188 094 17 860 1:228 18 890 1-248 104 19 900 1-318 20 920 1:358 160 21 950 2:898 1-588 Results of Exp. XV. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 810 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection, (8) is 1-098, By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=:0012995, By formula (7).—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (E) pressure = 30,291,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure=31,056,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity =37:057. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section =37-657. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength=4-988 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL, 181 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XVI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor & Vickers, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ Axle Steel.” No, of Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent Exp. on, in _ in set, in Remarks. Ibs. inches. inches. vi 50 072 meats Specimen of cast steel, con- 2 100 140 verted in the crucible 3 150 200 from bar-iron with the 4 200 261 “000 addition of manganese. 5 250 340 6 300 404 i 350 460 8 400 *522 9 450 580 10 500 648 010 11 550 -700 12 600 -780 13 650 *840 From this experiment it 14 700 900 would appear that man- 15 750 *950 ganese has a considerable 16 800 1-020 016 effect in combination with lf 850 1:090 the other constituents of 18 900 1:180 ‘018 steel. 19 950 1:250 046 20 1000 1:370 21 1050 1-620 22 1100 3°380 1:915 | Sunk with this weight. Results of Exp. XVI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 910 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1-180. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=-001273. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) =30,923,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure=30,940,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity =44-741, By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section =44-741. By formula (12).—Yalue of C, the unit of working strength=5-472 tons. 183 REPORT—1867, TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. XVII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor & Vickers, Sheffield. Di- mension of bar ‘998 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ Tyre Steel.” No. of Weight laid Deflection, Permanent Exp. cen, in i ‘set, in Remarks. lbs. inches. inches. if 50 087 pate Specimen of cast steel, con- 2 100 "157 verted in the crucible from 3 150 ‘219 bar-iron with the addi- 4 200 287 “002 tion of manganese. 5 250 “342 6 300 “412 7 350 A75 8 400 547 9 450 591 10 500 ‘667 015 11 550 “732 12 600 “197 13 650 *857 14 700 ‘927 15 750 ‘987 023 16 800 1-057 il7e 850 ale lilr™ 18 900 1:197 ‘027 19 950 1:287 038 20 1000 1:367 O74 21 1050 1:537 22 1100 2-697 1:192 Results of Exp. XVII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 910 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1:197. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=-0013124. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) =29,994,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure= 27,847,000. By formula (8)—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 40-025. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section=40-184. By formula (12),—Value of C, the unit of working strength=5:505 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 183 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XVIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor & Vickers, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:026 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet Ginches. Mark on bar, “ Vickers’ Cast Steel, Special.” Wa. of Weight laid Deflection, Permanent on, in in set, in Remarks. Epp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 100 133 nes Specimen of cast steel, con- 2 200 *253 verted in the crucible from 3 300 363 bar-iron with the addition 4 400 485 of manganese. 5 500 599 6 600 fa. 7 700 *828 8 800 983 9 900 1163 “000 10 950 1-213 ‘000 |The bar in this and the 11 1150 1:393 following experiment in- 12 1250 1:523 dicate a fine quality of 13 1400 1:693 ‘016 metal, and great powers 14 1500 1:183 of resistance to a trans- 15 1600 1:973 verse strain, 16 1712 2:133 072 Results of Exp. XVIII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1410 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (0) is 1:693. By formula (6).—The mean yalue of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=:0013386. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (EK) = 29,407,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 29,385,000, al oe (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity =99-463. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section= 94-485. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength =7-856 tons. 184 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp, XIX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor & Vickers, Sheffield. Di- mensions of bar 1:01 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ Naylor & Vickers’ Cast Steel, 2-66.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent ie of on, in in set, in Remarks. ee lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 ‘076 Sits Specimen of cast steel, con- 2 100 -140 verted in the crucible 3 150 +195 from bar-iron with the 4 200 "257 000 addition of manganese.’ 5 250 +313 6 300 372 tf 350 -440 8 400 +500 9 450 -560 10 500 *620 008 11 550 ' +678 12 600 ‘737 13 650 *800 14 700 *870 15 750 940 16 800 1-000 ‘010 17 850 1-050 18 900 1:120 ‘014 +| This bar is similar to the | 19 950 1/190 017 foregoing, but less rigid. 20 1000 1-250 21 1050 1-310 2D 1100 1:370 23 1150 1-440 24. 1200 1:500 25 1250 1-570 ‘017 26 1400 1:850 J 27 1500 2-310 *353 28 1585 2:650 29 1637 3°350 1-020 Results of Hap. XIX. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1260 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (0) is 1-570. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=:0012789. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) =30,788,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (EZ) corresponding to 112 lbs, pressure = 29,752,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 82-412. By formula (9).— Work of deflection (w) for unity of section=80°788. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength=7:358 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 185 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exr. XX.—Bar of Steel from Mr. 8. Osborn, Clyde Works, Sheffield. Di- mension of bar 1-038 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “1. Best Tool Cast Steel, C=.” : Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent ee of on, in in set, In Remarks. alee lbs. inches. inches. a 100 140 pee Specimen of turning - tool 2 200 -252 -010 cast steel. 3 300 364 4 350 424 5 400 "482 ‘017 6 450 *540 7 500 ‘600 -020 8 550 -666 9 600 727 10 650 “787 11 700 *844 12 750 “904 13 800 ‘964 034 14 850 1:044 15 900 1:094 16 950 1:144 *035 17 1000 1-204 18 1050 1:274 19 1100 1-324 ‘059 20 1200 1-474 ‘076 21 1300 1:684. 22 1350 2°044. 343 23 1400 2°344 24 1450 2°654 25 1500 3034 1-001 Sinking under this load. Results of Exp. XX. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1010 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1:204. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=:0013886. By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 28,353,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 26,689,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity =50°668. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section =48°813. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength=5-432 tons, 186 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp, XXI.—-Bar of Steel from Mr. 8, Osborn, Clyde Works, Sheffield. Di- mension of bar 1:01 x1:014 inch. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ 2. Best Chisel Cast Steel.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. 0 on, in in set, in Remarks. Esp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 100 136 ae Specimen of best cast steel 2 200 260 002 for cold-chipping chisels. 3 300 382 4 400 508 5 500 628 "009 6 600 712 7 700 836 8 800 ‘978 010 9 850 1:068 10 900 1-138 ‘008 11 950 1:198 013 12 1000 1-248 13 1050 1318 agen This bar is close ground and 14 1100 1-388 029 well adapted for tools. 15 1150 1-448 16 1200 1:538 17 1250 1:648 18 1300 1:808 19 1350 2:028 20 1400 2-328 ‘471 21 1450 2-588 22 1500 3:058 ‘970 | Sunk under this weight. Results of Exp. XXI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1110 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1°388. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and seetion (D,)=-001278. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,802,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (Z) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure =30,523,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 64195. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 62-684. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength =6-400 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 187 TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Expr, XXII.—Bar of Steel from Mr. 8. Osborn, Clyde Works, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:09 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “3. Silver Steel, GS.” Wnt Af Weight {laid | Deflection, | Permanent on, in in set, In Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. i 100 139 Specimen of best cast steel 2 200 +266 007 for hot and cold sates- 3 300 ‘387 cups, shear-blades, and 4 350 458 boiler-makers’ steel. 5 400 +520 ‘014 6 450 ‘576 uf 500 636 ‘014 8 550 ‘TOL 9 600 *760 10 650 “840 11 700 ‘910 014 12 750 ‘950 13 800 1-010 019 14 850 1:090 15 900 1:150 16 950 1:230 019 17 1000 1-290 18 1050 1-370 19 1100 1-500 ‘075 20 1150 1:660 21 1200 1/910 314 22 1250 2-210 23 1300 2-760 931 Yielded with this weight. Results of Exp. XXII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1010 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1°290. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0017814. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 22,098,000. By ‘formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 22,072,000. oes ee (8). Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity By formula (9).— Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 47-845. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4-691 tons, 188 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exp. XXIII.—Bar of Steel from Mr. 8. Osborn, Clyde Works, Sheffield. Dimension of bar -994 x 1:006 inch. Length between supports 4 feet Ginches. Mark on bar, “4, Improved Die Steel, @==.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in t, i Exp. lbs. inches. fiction. -—~ 1 100 144 Specimen of best cast steel 2 200 284 010 for taps and dies, 3 300 408 4 350 "472 5 400 538 O11 6 450 600 i 500 672 8 550 748 9 600 “804 10 650 894 id” 700 ‘954 012 12 800 1-074 016 Specimen of steel similar to 13 850 1:154 the last. 14 900 1:214 7018 15 950 1-264 025 16 1000 1-344 Ly 1050 1-434 18 1100 1-544 091 19 1150 1-694 20 1200 1:934 21 1250 2°474 688 Sunk with this weight. Results of Exp. XXIII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1010 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1°344. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = *0013409. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,368,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 29,718,000. By formula (8)—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 56°433. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 56-435. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-037 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 189 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. XXIV.—Bar of Steel from Mr. 8S. Osborn, Clyde Works, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:03 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “5. Toughened Cast Steel for Shafts, &c.” Weight laid Deflection, Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Esp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 50 072 Specimen of toughened cast 2 100 130 steel for shafts, piston- 3 150 185 rods, and machinery pur- 4 200 238 010 poses. 5 250 298 6 300 358 | 350 414 8 400 "474 9 450 532 10 500 586 014 11 550 642 12 600 -700 An ayerage quality, suitable 13 650 764 for general purposes. 14 700 818 15 750 900 16 800 "940 17 850 1-030 18 900 1-080 “009? 19 950 1-140 "009? 20 1000 1:190 21 1050 1:270 22 1100 1/330 23 1150 1-420 24 1200 1-560 152 25 1300 2-880 1-259 Results of Exp. XXIV. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1010 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1-190. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0013112. By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 26,398,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 29,610,000. fy a (8)—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity By formula (9).—Work of deflection (uw) for unity of section = 53-194. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-559 tons, 190 REPORT—1867, TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp, XXV.—Bar of Steel from Mr. 8. Osborn, Clyde Works, Sheffield. Di- mension of bar 1-04 inch square in centre. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “‘ 6. Double Shear Steel, C=.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 300 346 007 Specimen of best double 2 500 572 ‘020? shear steel. 3 550 *625 4+ 600 "682 018 5 650 °737 6 700 *802 7 750 872 8 800 “942 *030 9 850 1-012 10 900 1:072 051 iti 950 1-152 O74 12 1000 1:272 13 1050 1:432 14 1100 1:562 321 15 1150 1:892 BAT 16 1200 2°362 *920 Results of Exp. XXY. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 860 lbs, and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1:012. By formula (6).—The mean yalue of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = *0016881, By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 23,319,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 23,948,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 31°792. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 29-393. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4-329 tons. ——— a ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 191 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. XXVI.—Bar of Steel from Mr. 8. Osborn, Clyde Works, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1-02 inch in middle. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “‘ 7. Extra Best Tool Cast Steel, = Ey? ———— No. of Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. : inches. inches. t 100 143 eae Specimen of extra best cast 2 200 265 007 steel for turning-tools, S 300 388 wheel-axles, &c. + 400 503 010 5 450 576 6 500 627 i 550 683 8 600 ‘748 9 650 823 10 700 883 dia 750 943 RG fi: This is a superior quality, 12 800 1:013 well adapted for axles, 13 850 1-083 14 900 1:143 ‘009 15 950 1-203 ‘009 16 1000 1:263 17 1050 1:313 18 1100 1:363 029 19 1150 1-443 20 1200 1-503 025 21 1250 1-553 22 1300 1-643 23 1350 1-743 24 1400 1-803 055 25 1450 1-913 26 1500 2-103 27 1550 2°323 28 1600 2-653 29 1650 3°153 824 Sunk with this weight. Results of Exp. XXVI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1210 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1-503. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -001348. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (BE) = 29,188,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 28,013,000. ol aaa (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 75776. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 72826. By formula (12),—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-860 tons. 192 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. XXVII.—Bar of Steel from Mr. 8S. Osborn, Clyde Works, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:006 inch square in centre. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “8. Cast Steel for Boiler Plates, G=3-” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 100 143 Shee Specimen of cast steel for 2 200 266 °012? boiler plates. 3 300 390 4 400 500 5 500 *630 6 550 693 c 600 “751 010 8 650 823 9 700 ‘900 10 750 -960 eee It is assumed that this bar 11 800 1-020 ‘016 has been taken from the 12 850 1:120 ingot intended for boiler 13 900 1:180 013? plates. 14 950 1-250 021 15 1000 1°320 16 1050 1-390 Af 1100 1-450 063 18 1150 1:550 19 1200 2-000 430 20 1250 2-240 21 1300 3-160 1:399 Disabled with this weight. Results of Exp. XXYVII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1010 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (é) is 1:320. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = *0013007. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,335,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 29,585,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 50-000. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 49-406, By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5°671 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 193 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. XXVIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer & Co., Sheffield. Di- mension of bar ‘99 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches, Mark on bar, “BS 1.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of i in set, in Remarks. Exp. inches. inches. 1 155 Wine Specimen of hard Bessemer | 2 294 010 steel. 3 434 4 570 5 ‘710 012 6 840 7 “980 010 8 1:050 9 1:090 10 1-170 eis This is a valuable quality of 11 1-250 metal. 12 1-320 010 13 1390 14 1:450 15 1:530 023 16 1-690 060 17 1-990 165 18 2-180 19 2-520 519 20 3660 1-450 Disabled with this weight. Results of Exp. XXVIII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1110 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1-530. . By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0021814. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,652,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 29,104,000. cA gens (8)—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = (02. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 72-199. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-882 tons. 194 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XXIX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer & Co,, Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar 1x1:02 inch. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “BS 2.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. it 100 144 ees Specimen of milder Besse- 2 200 274 ‘021 mer steel than No. 1. 3 300 *305 4 400 ‘466 “029 5 500. *590 ‘030 6 600 ‘716 a 700 *850 ‘030 8 750 910 9 800 :970 ‘030 10 850 1:020 ial! 900 1:110 ‘034 12 950 1:270 047 13 1000 1-340 14 1050 1:540 15 1100 2:98 1-565 Results of Exp. XXIX. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 910 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1:110. By formula (6).—-The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0012946. By formula (7)——The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (2) = 30,478,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (EZ) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 28,379,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 42:087. By formula (9),—Work of deflection (7) for unity of section = 41-261. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5:317 tons, aes ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 195 TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exp, XXX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer & Co., Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar -957x-966 inch. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “BS 3.” No of | Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent Exp. on, in in set, in Remarks. Ibs. inches. inches. i 100 176 See Specimen of soft Bessemer 2 200 +328 ‘006 steel. 3 300 “479 4 400 628 ‘009 5 450 *704 6 500 ‘788 ‘014 Ui 600 “944 8 650 1:034 9 700 1-094. 026 10 750 1-204 ial 800 1°454. 237 This bar is much inferior to the two preceding ones, Results of Exp. XXX. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 710 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1-094. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=-0015293, By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,310,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure= 28,536,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity =32'364, By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section =35:008. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength=4-778 tons. P2 196. REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exe. XXXI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson Brothers, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:048 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “S$ 1.” No of Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent Exp. on, in ia set, in Remarks. uy lbs. inches. inches. 1 100 114 ae Specimen of bar of cast 2 200 216 “002 steel, from K. B., a Rus- 3 300 "322 slan iron, suitable for 4 400 424 welding. 5 500 530 002 6 600 -640 * 700 *740 “002 8 800 *856 *002 9 900 “990 “004 10 950 1:050 -006 ait 1000 1-130 12 1050 1-180 18 1100 1-240 057 14 1150 1-340 15 1200 1-440 16 1250 1:500 17 1300 1-590 “409 18 1350 2-100 19 1400 2-790 20 1450 3-480 1-720 Results of Exp, XXXI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1060 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (¢) is 1-180. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=-0012822. By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,700,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure =31,482,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 52-116. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section =47-452. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength=5-539 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 197 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exr. XXXII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson Brothers, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1-044 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “8S 2.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. of 100 130 Specimen of double shear 2 200 238 010 steel, from G Swedish 3 300 342 iron. 4 400 448 5 500 568 010 6 600 682 fi 700 “794 8 800 "920 ‘010 9 900 1:040 018 10 950 1-110 “054 11 1000 1-190 ‘O75 12 1100 1:680 427 13 1200 2-110 14 1250 2-470 15 1300 2-740 954 | 16 1350 3°130 1:450 Results of Exp. XXXII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 910 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (0) is 1-040. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0013412. By formula (7)—-The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,351,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure= 28,074,000. By formula (8).—The work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity =39-433. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section =37-022. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength=4-808 tons. 198 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exr. XX XIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson Brothers, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1-024 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “8S 3.” N Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent ie of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 100 132 Pasi Specimen of single shear 2 200 *250 004 steel from Ga Swedish 3 300 364 iron. 4 400 ‘478 5 500 596 “004 6 600 ‘716 a 700 “832 004 8 800 “956 “004 9 900 1:076 ‘004 10 950 1:136 ‘007 | A fine flexible metal, not cut 1000 1/186 subject to fracture. 12 1050 1-256 13 1100 1:306 021 14 1200 1-416 15 1300 1:586 045 16 1500 2°546 647 17 1600 3:°576 1:883 Results of Exp. XXXII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1210 lbs., and the cor- responding deflection (8) is 1-416. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = '0012963. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity () = 30,368,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (Z) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 29,858,000. By formula (8)—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 71390. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 68-082. ‘By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength=6-780 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 199 TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exe, XXXIV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson Brothers, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1-046 inch square. Length between supports A feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “8 4.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 100 124 eae Bar of faggot-steel drawn 2 200 "235 008 from G bar-steel, simply 3 300 “341 welded to make it sound. 4 400 | 446 5 500 550 ‘008 6 600 *657 if 700 ‘768 8 800 “890 “008 9 900 1:000 10 950 1-050 “O11 11 1000 1:120 ie 1050 1-170 13 1100 1-240 “045 14 1150 1:320 15 1200 1-460 16 1300 2-300 ‘763 lv 1400 3:190 1-479 | Sinking with this load. Results of Exp. XXXTY. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1060 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (d) is 1-170. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0013616, By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,922,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 29,184,000. By oo (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 51:675. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 47-230. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5:572 tons. 200 REPORT—1867, TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Expr, XXXV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs, Sanderson Brothers, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:037 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “85 extra CS.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent ne: f on, in in set, in Remarks, Ps Ibs. inches. inches, 1 100 133 sae Specimen of drawn bar from 2 200 "245 “O11 G steel, not welded. 3 300 “309 4 400 459 +5) 500 573 015 6 600 “691 7 700 ‘807 8 800 927 016 9 900 1-057 “019 10 950 1:137 034 11 1000 1-217 12 1100 1:737 420 13 1200 2-757 1-237 Results of Exp. XXXY. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 910 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1057. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = :0013333. By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (Ey = 29,524,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (K) corresponding to 112 Ibs, pressure = 28,179,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity => 40-078. ua By formula (9).--Work of deflection (u) for unity of section = 37-269. By formula (12).-—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4907 tons, ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL, 201 TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exr. XXXVI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1:023 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ A.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 100 128 ree Specimen of steel employed 2 200 ‘246 007 in the manufacture of 3 250 300 cups. + 300 360 5 400 476 007 6 500 “596 006 i 600 ‘714 8 700 “850 O04, 9 800 970 -005 10 900 1-090 009 11 950 1:160 013 12 1000 1-230 13 1050 1-370 14 1100 1-910 574 15 1150 2°660 1187 | This steel is very soft. Results of Exp. XXXVI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 960 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (é) is 1-160. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = :0018033. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) z= 30,204,000, By formula (2)—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 30,895,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 46°400, By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 45-369. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-392 tons, 202 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp, XXX VII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Di- mension of bar 1-032 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ B.” Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Exp. lbs. inches. inches. tay i 100 122 were Specimen of steel used in 2 200 ‘933 “002 the manufacture of drills. 3 3600 *B58 4 400 “460 003 5 500 “580 6 600 *690 7 700 *830 “004 8 800 -930 9 950 1-100 ‘004 10 1050 1:220 ‘O11 Useful tool steel. al ey 1100 1-280 12 1150 1:340 ‘O14 13 1200 1-410 14 1250 1:480 ‘030 15 1300 1:540 16 1350 1:630 037 17 1400 1-700 18 1450 1-870 19 1500 2-140 20 1600 2-810 ‘748 Disabled. - | Results of Exp. XX XVII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1210 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1-410. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = °0012958. By formula. (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (£) = 30,590,000. By ‘formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 31,297,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity — 71-087. By formula (9)..-Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 66-748. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6°625 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 2038 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XXXVIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton and Sons, Sheffield. Dimension of bar +998 inch square. 6 inches. No. of ae Exp. Ibs. 1 100 2 200 3 300 4 400 5 500 6 600 7 700 8 800 9 950 10 1050 11 1100 2) 1150 its 1200 14 1250 15 1300 16 1350 ee 1400 Deflection, Permanent in set, in inches. inches. 137 +259 “395 “527 )24 *645 “Ha IGL5 025 1-035 1°225 025 1:335 1:415 ‘031 ment. 1:495 ‘034 1-575 1-685 077 1:805 2305 2:935 “968 Sunk, Mark on bar, “ C.” Length between supports 4 feet Remarks. manufacture of cutters. The same in quality as that in the previous experi- responding deflection (6) is 1°415. Results of Exp. XXXYVIII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1100 lbs., and the cor- By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -0012598. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 31,247,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 31,859,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 65:443. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 65-705. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-718 tons. 204 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exr. XXXIX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton and Sons, Sheffield. Dimension of bar :986 inch square. 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ D.” Taal hes Exp. Ibs il 100 2 200 3 300 4 400. 5 500 6 600 ff 700 8 800 9 950 10 1000 11 1050 12 1100 13 1150 14 1200 15 1250 Deflection, in inches. 141 278 417 *5d8 693 828 ‘978 1-078 1348 1:408 1:488 1:578 1-828 2-078 2:538 Permanent set, in inches. ‘001 “002 ‘009 055 "185 619 Length between supports 4 feet Remarks, Specimen of steel used in the construction of turn- ing tools. The same quality as before. responding deflection (6) is 1:408. Results of Exp. XXXIX. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1010 lbs., and the cor- By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = °001287. By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,887,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 32,462,000. By formula (8).— Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 59-253. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 60-949. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-337 tons. OU ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 20 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XL.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1-02 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ E.” No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent on, in in set, in Remarks. es lbs. inches. inches. £ 100 130 roa Specimen of steel used in 2 200 254 the manufacture of ma- 3 300 373 chinery. + 400 484 “004 5 500 593 “006 6 600 ‘718 ff 700 842 8 800 982 007 9 950 1:172 “O11 The whole of these specimens 10 1050 1-262 (CUR XVE. 4) 9 RAV, 11 1100 1342 “014 XXXVITI., XXXIX., 12 1150 1:402 015 and XL.) are remarkable 13 1200 1-472 for uniformity in strength 14 1300 1:722 138 and texture. 15 1350 1:942 16 1400 2°162 ‘7 1450 2-472 18 1500 2°842 818 Results of Exp. XL. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1160 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1°402. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) =-001303. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) =30,211,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 30,764,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 65°131. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6:576 tons, 206 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. fxr. XLI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheftield. Dimension of bar 1:02 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ F.” No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent Exp. on, in : in set, in Remarks. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 100 123 eats Specimen of steel used in the 2 200 "242 manufacture of punches. 3 300 +396 4 400 A87 5) 500 *605 6 600 *735 th 700 ‘866 ‘000 8 800 ‘976 “000 9 950 1:156 “015 10 1100 1:426 “099 11 1150 1:616 “169 12 1300 2-266 5) 55) 13 1400 2°876 “982 Disabled. Results of Exp. XI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 960 lbs,, and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1:156. By formula (6).—The mean yalue of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = :001302. By formula (7).—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (1) = 30,218,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 32,480,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 46-240, By formula (9),—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 44-444. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-440 tons. ee ee ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 207 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XLII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Dimension of bar -995 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ G.” No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent Exp. on, in _in ‘set, in Remarks. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 100 141 Specimen of steel used in the 2 200 +280 manufacture of Mint dies. 3 300 ‘410 4 400 541 “009 5 500 672 ‘010 6 600 “805 a. 700 -950 8 800 1-070 ‘009 9 900 1:210 10 950 1-290 ‘O11 el 1050 1-520 12 1100 2-250 ‘735 13 1150 3:280 1:627 Sunk under load. Results of Exp, XLII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 960 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (¢) is 1:290. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = *001295. By formula (7)—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,398,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 31,525,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 51-600. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 527120. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-161 tons. 208 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN, Exe. XLITI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Dimension of bar 1-012 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ H.” No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent Exp. on, in . in set, in Remarks. lbs. inches. inches. 1 100 150 eset Specimen of steel used in the 2 200 "282 manufacture of dies. 3 300 406 4 400 533 ‘O11 5 500 *653 ‘016 6 600 *782 i 700 -910 ‘021 8 800 1-050 9 900 1-190 10 950 1:270 ‘021 11 1000 1:350 12 1050 1-470 ‘099 13 1100 1-720 “249 14 1150 2-000 +432 15 1200 2°390 16 1250 2:820 “995 Disabled. Results of Exp, XLIII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 960 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection 1:270. By formula (6),—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = °001382. By formula (7).—The mean yalue of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 28,484,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 27,542,000. ey formula (8).—The work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 50-800. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 49-602. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-570 tons, ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 209 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XLIV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar -98 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “I.” Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 100 “17 QO. eet Specimen of steel used in 2 200 310 the manufacture of taps. 3 300 455 4 400 604 012 5 500 746 013 6 600 -900 7 700 1-040 012 8 800 1-190 018 9 900 1:390 030 10 950 1-530 094 11 1000 1-900 349 12 1050 2-460 ‘TAT Disabled. Results of Exp. XLIV. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 910 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1-390 By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -001368. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 31,198,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 27,646,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 52-704. ; By formula (9).—Work of deflection (u) for unity of section = 54877. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 5-788 tons. 1867, Q 210 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. XLV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Dimen- sion of bar 1:022 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ U.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. ch 100 127 ete Specimen of double shear 2, 200 *256 : steel. 3 300 Ol 4 400 -A92 007 ‘55 500 604 010 6 600 730 ff 700 -866 010 8 800 “986 011 9 950 1-216 034 10 1000 1:316 itil 1050 1:436 113 12 1100 1-696 277 13 1150 2-186 601 14 1200 2°506 15 1250 3°216 1:420 Results of Exp. XLV. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 810 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is -986. By formula (6),—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -001325. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,710,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 31,232,000. By ae ee (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity ‘= 33:277, By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 31:859. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4:561 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 211 Exp. XLVI.—Bar of Steel from the Titanic Steel Co., Worcester. Di- mension of bar 1:004 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “A X.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No, of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 065 pe This steel is intended for 2 7 "095 rods, plates, and girders. 3 100 133 4 125 163 5 150 195 6 175 231 vg 200 258 8 225 292 9 250 313 10 300 383 Eh, 350 -449 12 400 “508 We have no particulars of 13 450 569 the properties of this 14 500 "632 metal.* It is one of our 15 550 *692 best specimens. 16 600 “754 vs 650 839 18 700 “889 19 750 969 20 800 “999 21 850 1-079 22 900 1-129 23 950 1-199 24 1000 1-279 25 1050 1-369 26 1100 1-389 27 1150 1-449 28 1200 1-509 29 1250 1-589 30 1300 1-669 000 31 1350 1°739 ‘000 32 1400 1-809 000 33 1450 1-899 012 34 1500 1-969 025 35 1600 2-319 206 36 1712 3°289 “855 Experiment discontinued. Results of Exp. XLVI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1460 lbs., and the corresponding de- flection (6) is 1-899, By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of ' pressure and section (D,) = -001265.——By formula (7).—The mean value of the modu- lus of elasticity (E) = 31,119,000.— By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 32,120,000. By formula (8)—The work of de- flection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 115-522. By formula (9).—Work of deflec- _ tion (w) for unity of section = 114-600. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 8-682 tons. a2 212 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr, XLVII.—Bar of Steel from the Titanic Steel Co., Worcester. Dimen- sion of bar ‘99 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ BX.” Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent No. of on, in in set, in Remarks. Exp. Ibs. inches. inches. 1 ap | O62 a Steel intended for “ Wheel 2 100 129 Tyres.” 3 150 182 4 200 “247 5 250 “Boe 6 300 376 ff 350 -440 8 400 *500 9 450 "559 10 HOO 628 iil 550 “692 12 600 S57 13 650 +832 14 700 +892 15 750 "952 16 800 1°012 ie 850 1:092 18 900 1-152 19 950 1-212 -000 20 1000 1-232 ‘008 21 1050 1:382 027 22 1100 1-482 ‘078 23 1150 1-612 "142 24 1200 2-172 596 25 1250 3°042 1-446 Experiment discontinued. Results of Exp. XLVII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1010 Ibs., and the cor- responding deflection (6) is 1-232. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = :001177. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 33,446,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 34,935,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 51°846. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 52:892. By formula (12),—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-621 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 213 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XLVIII.—Bar of Steel from the Titanic Steel Co., Worcester. Dimen- sion of bar 1:002 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “‘ C X.” No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent Exp on, in ‘ in set, in Remarks. Ibs. inches. inches. it 50 "062 te Steel intended for general 2 100 123 purposes. 3 150 185 4 200 "256 5 250 “319 6 300 “376 7 359 443 8 400 “005 9 450 “O72 10 500 631 11 550 692 12 600 “752 13 650 *829 14 700 “889 15 750 “959 16 800 1-029 17 850 1:119 18 900 1-169 ‘000 19 950 1-249 “004 20 1000 1:329 032 21 1050 1-459 099 22 1100 1-719 "282 23 1150 1899 1-296 Experiment discontinued. Results of Exp, XLVIIU. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 960 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1-249. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -001237. By formula (7)—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 31,823,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure = 34,879,000. By formula (8)—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 49-960. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 49-76. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength =5:739 tons. 214. REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Expr. XLIX.-—Bar of Steel from the Titanic Steel Co., Worcester. Dimen- sion of bar 1-008 inch square. Length between supports 4feet 6inches. Mark on bar, “D X.” No. of | Weight laid | Deflection, | Permanent Exp. on, in ei set, in Remarks. lbs. inches. inches. di 50 ‘059 bine Steel intended for “ Wheel 2 100 138 Tyres.” 3 150 ‘178 4 200 "248 5) 250 “316 6 300 O84 Z 350 440 8 400 “500 9 450 ‘559 10 500 *621 11 550 “687 12 600 “748 13 650 808 14 700 878 15 750 938 16 800 1:018 “000 17 850 1-098 ‘018 18 900 1:188 “O46 19 950 1:348 “159 20 1000 3°308 i997 Experiment discontinued. iiesults of Exp. XLIX. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 860 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1:098. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = -001261. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 31,218,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 30,418,000, By formula (8).—The work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 39°345, By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 36-915. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 4-699 tons. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 215 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. L.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Co., Furness. Dimension of bar 1:02 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “H 1.” eight laid | Deflection, Permanent ge aig on in in set, in Remarks. . Ibs. inches. inches. il 50 065 AT ihe Hard steel. 2 100 118 3 150 179 4 200 -240 5 250 “309 6 300 *364 ‘a 350 426 8 400 491 9 450 Dap 500 *611 550 ‘676 600 “742 650 -803 700 -866 750 “946 800 1-006 850 1:076 900 1:146 950 1:206 1000 1-266 1050 1:346 1100 1-406 “000 1150 1-476 “000 1200 1-546 ‘016 1250 1-646 “055 1300 1-796 "133 1350 2-156 *429 1400 2:746 883 Experiment discontinued. Results of Exp. L. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 1210 Ibs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is 1-546. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,) = 001308. By formula (7)——The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 30,096,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (E) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 33,830,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity 7944, By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section = 77-917. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength = 6-860 tons. 216 REPORT—1867. TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp, LI.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Co., Furness. Dimen- sion of bar -995 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ H 2.” No. of Weight laid Deflection, Permanent Exp on, in es set,in - Remarks. _ lbs. inches. inches. 1 50 -065 Sahat Soft steel. 2 100 128 3 150 201 4 200 -266 5 250 +330 6 300 “396 | 7 350 -466 8 400 “534 9 450 “601 10 500 “682 “000 1a 550 -760 ‘027 12 600 “886 “052 13 650 1:020 “415 14 700 2-040 1-068 15 750 opis a Destroyed. Results of Exp. LI. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 510 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (6) is ‘682. By formula (6).—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=-001280. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (I) =30,754,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (IE) corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure=34,443,000. By formula (8).—Work of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity = 14-242 By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section =14°385. By formula (12),—Value of (C), the unit of working strength=3-108 tons, ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 217 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. Exp. LII.—Bar of Steel from the Barrow Hematite Co., Furness. Dimen- sion of bar 1:01 inch square. Length between supports 4 feet 6 inches. Mark on bar, “ H 3.” Roof Weight laid | Deflection, Permanent Tx on, in in set, in . Remarks. es Ibs. inches. inches. 1 50 ‘O74 Sato Soft steel. 2 100 127 3 150 195 ae 200 -262 5 250 *330 6 300 395 fh 350 453 8 400 515 9 450 ‘O77 “000 10 500 645 -007 11 550 ‘716 018 12 600 ‘793 “019 13 650 873 032 14 700 1-029 118 15 750 1279 287 16 800 2-709 1:625 | Experiment discontinued. Results of Hap. LII. Here the weight (w) at the limit of elasticity is 610 lbs., and the corre- sponding deflection (¢) is 793. By formula (6)—The mean value of the deflection for unity of pressure and section (D,)=-001319. By formula (7).—The mean value of the modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,717,000. By formula (2).—The modulus of elasticity (EZ) corresponding to 112 Ibs. pressure = 32,717,000. By formula (8).—Work’ of deflection (U) up to the limit of elasticity =20°155. By formula (9).—Work of deflection (w) for unity of section=19-757. By formula (12).—Value of C, the unit of working strength=3-540 tons. ‘sqL Off TIM yung *sq] OSTI TIM Yung “ce sq] 086 Gy yum 336. ggs.v ZEr.§ €xrb.L 406.5 voS.Z 1867. oLt.$ V6E.S L2S.S L6z.S VEr.9 bE1.9 356.9 “ ‘sq 0S6 TIM yung REPORT “ce “ce “e “Sq] OS TI ITM Yung ‘be kg “Wysueq4s SUTYIOM jo frum. ot} ‘D enqeA “sy {eutoyy Stg.Ly +g9.z9 £19.90 ggZ.og Sgv.+6 ¥gr.oF IvL.vy LS9.LE 6£v.2£ 206.04 $zg.gL gbo.rg $1$.Sg g1v.6£ g6S.br L63.S¢ 6bL.cb $98.58 £69.15 069.24 £00.£9 £95.56 *(6)'ba kg “moTo0s jo Ajram. roy (7) uoroapep Lgz.vS $61.t9 399.08 Z1¥.zg £9+.66 $z0.0¥ Ivl.vy LSo.LE oSZL.Ef obz.by %9g.LL £vb.zor 000.56 g1v.6€ gSt.ev 006.£¢ 890.24 ogt.t$ ozl.cS gfg.cL 0gz.6$ 0gz.z$ “(g) ‘bo kg +4410 -1yse Jo Peery 04 du (q) toMoayep JOPTIOAN 218 oo0'zLo‘zz ooo‘ 2S ‘of 000‘6g9 ‘gz 000'z$ L‘6z 000'S gf 6z ooo‘ Lbg‘lz 000‘ob6 ‘o£ | O00'9S 0‘ oooSoz‘eé | COO'QZ1‘O£ ooo PLY‘1E o00'ggz‘tz 000'966‘6z ooo E9‘r£ 000'9 gg ‘of oof 7S EE oo0o'rgf‘*zF ooofor$‘1€ 0000 £‘6z ooo'rZ1°zF o00'Sgh‘6z ooo lvoe & *(z) ‘bo kg ‘ams -soad *sqy ZII 0} SUL -puodsa.a.t09 Ayrorseya JO SOAK. jo sn—npoy, | 000'g60'zz o000‘zog‘o€£ oof S$ E'gz ooo'ggl‘of 000 ‘Lov'6z 000'F66‘6z 000‘£26‘0£ 000‘1t 6z‘o£ oo0zpLio£ 000‘00L‘6z ooo'ziz‘ rf 000'$ 96‘zz o00‘ggofoft o00'z6z‘1 oo0'S ££'6z aoo'S Er'rf oo0'tzz'o£ 000! ehz'6z 000‘£gb6z 000'0S$‘of ooo S1h'6z o00'zlg‘zF ‘(L) ‘ba fq -(q) Ayonseya jo snjnp -OUl ot} Jo anyeA Urey) t1gLtoo. ogLzioo, 98gE 100. 6gLz100. 98EEIOO, bz1£100, ofLz100. $66z100. 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Sq] OSZI IIA yung ‘sql OSOr ITM yung ‘Sq OSTI YIM yung sq] OST I WTA yung ‘Sq, OS7I YJLM yung Sq] oSi1 TIM yung "Sq[ COTI WIM HUNG ‘sq, OS £1 yyIMm yung *Sq[ OOTT TIM yung sq] OOfT UIIM yung RECT OS@ I-A TAC aTUMS "Sq] COLT YIM yung *sq[ OStI TIM yung sq] OS 3 Ty yung ovS.€ gor. 098-9 669.4 6£1.S5 179.9 789-8 19S.V ggl.s oLS.$ 198.5 ot. 945.9 Lit.g gil.g $z9.9 76£.S L06.¥ zLS.S ogl.g g08.F 6£S.5 gll.r LrE.S 788-9 1L9.5 298.9 6cE.P 655.5 Lfo.9 LSL.61 | SSt.0z Egt.br | cher £16.42 | $76.42 $16.9 | SwE.6E 09L.6b | 096.67 z6g.zS | gbg.1S 009.b11 | ez$.Sr1 6Sg.1& | LLz.£€ LLg.vS | bol.zS zog.6b | 00g.0S oz1.z$ | 009.18 bbr.by | obz.or 1£1.$9 | £92.49 676.09 | £52.65 Sol.Sq | Ebb.S9 gbl.gg | Leo.xl 69£.5% | oob.gt 692.LE | glo.ob ofz.ly | SLo.1S Zg0.g9 | o6f.12 zzo.L& | &bb.6€ zSt.ly | o11.2$ goo.SE | Hof.cf 19z.zb | Lgo.zh 661.22 | 29.02 90.6% | 000,05 gzg.cL | gLL.GL £6£.6z | z6L.1€ $61.€5 | 6Lo.0$ SEv.9S | EEb.oS ooo SLi L‘zt ooo'f phe ooo fg “EE 00g rb‘of 0006 Le"bt 00'S £6bE lololoWey 5 art ooo'cEz‘ rt c00gtg‘Lz o00'ztS ‘Lz ooo'S z£‘1€ ooofogh'z£ oo00'tgL‘o£ o00'zgh‘zt 00065 91 000‘L6z‘r£ o00'S 6g‘of£ 000‘6L1‘9z ooo'ber'6z 000'gS 9‘6z oooh Lo‘gz ooo zgh1e 000g £S ‘gz 0006 LE ‘gz ooofvor'6z 0009'S 9S ‘6z o00'£ 10‘gz o00'gh6‘Ez 000019 ‘6z ooo'gr L‘6z ooo L1L‘6z o00'rS Lfof 000'960‘0£ ooo'grz‘1t ooo fzg‘1t oooghhE€ ooof61r1‘1£ cooforl‘6z o00‘g6r'r€ ooo rgh'gz 000'g6£ ‘of o00'g1z‘o£ oo0'r1 z‘0£ 000‘ g3‘of ooo lbz'1£ co0'o6E ‘o£ oo0o'toz‘o£ 0007S ‘6z 000'tz6‘6z o00%ggf ‘o£ 000'1$ £‘6z 000 ‘oo L‘o£ ooofor’ 6z o00gLh‘o£ 000'zS9‘6z oo00'S £££ Coogee 6z ooo61£‘Ez 000'g6£‘gz 000'ggf‘6z 61£100. 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ZIILI0CO, 60vE 100. i len l(c senweedes Titers gH IO AA MOMIRE OT] THO 2S CH qoorp sivq Mow wo pozreder oq T[TM syuautedxo 1S lH aT, ‘sivq esoyy gnoqe Ayureytaoun outos st cast, } | OF ‘ANVENOD TWOLY GIL RW ET EO bed ae sdiaiemeaalae ar sO srereeees gar) TOTEM 0 6+ . . trteterreereees gogodand yeaoues ‘od gh stevens eeeeee we eee omnes souky oot Ya Ly “"" slapdts pue ‘seyuid ‘spor zoy papuazut poazg | 9P "ANVANO() TUALY OINVENT, a ar ate “oes To9]g auays a[qnop Jo uounoadg| S+ TI sheen tenet enees sdvy ‘op ‘OL by BO ft sanp ‘op “OE ey 3) me 0 ee0's wie sorp jurtT ‘op 0g ab a “+ soround ‘op 0g Iv m fot * £rouryoeut ‘op 0g ov Q = |" 8700} Surmmy ‘op Od, 6£ ‘0b all csi $40}9n0 ‘op ‘od gt L * SqTEIp ‘op ‘od Lg Vo oypouccress sdno zo aangoyynuvur ay} «of papuaqut yaaqyg | 9f "SNOG GNV NOMUAT, ‘Sassoyl eg * pepyaa you ‘aq wavap Jo uouttaedg | $f #9 STi dels Sea's eas ean TO aN ‘Tooqs yossey jo reg ve eg sigan’ ‘op outs. «og cE Ze |rrcrsesseseeeeee Trreeeeeseeres T9QQIS BAYS BTGNOp Jo ueumtoadg a3 LQ Surpyos sz0F opqryzms ‘uoat UeIssnyy ULOAT [9048 Jsvo JO avg | IE SUTHLOUG NOSUTENVE ip FO OG) of ‘op Jap] Tat 0 | 6z wep trresseesecceseeree Toone TaUTOsSAg PAV Jo uoumaadg | gz | “UMNaASSaET “FT | 8 | wwe ececeeeeeererseee soe seeseseenes soyujd-aopioq «oj y209s 48k) | Lz J rrertirteeeeesserereeseseneraeeonenss Tagg agp TOO} 4804 BIIRA | 97 9 seen e tee nner een eteee Jeaqs avoys a[qnop aseq jo woumtoodg Sz Fe hee “"* “oop ‘SYFLYS Loy Joo}s ysvo pouoysnoy, | bz Fo ocuuteseeeeees soup puw sdeq xoy Jo04s yswo ysaq fz 220 REPORT—1867. From the above Summary of Results may be taken almost every descrip- tion of steel manufactured for the purposes of construction, when subjected to a transverse strain. The utmost care has been taken to work out the con- ditions and properties of the specimens; and assuming that these conditions would be fulfilled by the manufacturer, the engineer, the architect, or the builder, he could have no difficulty in selecting such material as he may require in the varied forms of constructions and uses for which it is in- tended. It will be observed that in every description of manufacture, and in every description of each manufacture, the whole of the transverse properties have been determined, both as regards the modulus of elasticity and de- flection, and the measure of work done (as indicated by the unit of working strength, which will be found in the last column). The deflections up to the limit of weights laid on, as also for unity of section, will be found in the fourth and fifth columns. It might have been desirable to have received from the makers more ex- tended information as regards the different processes of conversion, and the quality of the ores, crude iron, &c. from which the specimens were obtained ; these with the chemical constituents of the material would have been highly valuable. But in my endeavours to arrive at correct results, much had to be left to the discretion“ of those who selected the samples, and to the honesty of purpose by which they were guided in the selection. It is only natural that the manufacturer should select samples from which the best results would be obtained, in order that he might in every test stand high in the scale of utility. On the other hand, it must be observed that it is not the material of the greatest density and strength that is required on all occasions ; on the contrary, it is quite the reverse for many purposes, as in some cases it is essential to have the metal soft and ductile, easily worked, and convertible into shapes where its flexibility would be important. Again, any hard brittle steel capable of retaining a fine edge is of inestimable use for tools, but it is totally inapplicable to structural purposes, where elasticity and strength is required for endurance. All these are points which I have en- deavoured to attain and simplify in the experiments, and having indicated their properties in the above Summary on Transverse Strain, we now proceed to those which refer to tension. In submitting wrought iron or steel bars to a transverse strain, the same resul{s are not obtained as in cast iron, as bars 4 feet 6 inches long of the former material will bend or deflect through a depth of some feet before fracture ensues, the deflections in this case being equivalent to a permanent set nearly equal to the deflection. Under these conditions, when the per- manent set arrives at one-half the amount of the deflection, I have considered the resisting powers of the bars so much injured as to render any additional strain of no practical value. In the case of steel bars of greater density and hardness, the same law between the deflection and the permanent set does not exist, and hence the difference of elasticity in the different kinds of steel of which the bars are composed. To remedy these discrepancies and effect a comparison between the different qualities of the material, it was necessary to fix some limitation to the weights laid on, and to ascertain the point of strain corresponding to the elastic limit,—which in the calculations is that point where the deflection is not in excess of what the law of deflection (viz. in proportion to the strain) would indicate, whilst the next greater strain gives a deflection decidedly in excess of that law. This is, however, clearly explained in the abstract of results. eS ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 221 A very slight variation in the observed deflection at the commencement of the experiments before the bar had got its natural set would increase the difficulty of ascertaining the correct permanent set corresponding to very limited strains. We all know when a bar is a little bent we can make it straight by hammering or by pressure, but the probability is that the first form is the natural disposition of the material. This principle is adopted in the calculations, as the elasticity of a bar is impaired when the deflection decidedly exceeds what the law of deflection would give. After the elastic limit is passed the deflections increase in a geometric progression, whereas up to that limit the deflections are in propor- tion to the strain. One of the marked peculiarities of steel as compared with iron is, that the strain corresponding to the elastic limit approaches more nearly the breaking strain. Hence will be found the comparative high value of the constant C, or the unit of pressure determined for the bars. A load of one-third the breaking weight has always been considered a safe rule, but it is only con- ventional; but there is something still wanting relative to the point of strain corresponding to the injury done to the material, as the inference drawn from the Tables indicates that the strain producing the permanent set had not seriously affected the soundness of the bars. This is a question of con- siderable importance, and requires further investigation, which I hope to accomplish at some future time. SECOND SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS. TENSILE STRAIN, Exp. I.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “B1.” Diameter of specimen ‘77inch. Area -4656 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘77 inch. Area -4656 square inch. Per unit of length. a Weight | Breaking strain per Bentarka. Exp. laid on. | square inch of section. flanietdon: Bent lbs. lbs. tons. | 1 | 22009 ora mae ee 0018 .... | Specimen of best m2os69 | .... Hie) 0018. | cast steel from 3 | 28729 Bi soe ‘iol ‘0031 Russian and Swe- 4 | 30304 ae mes “0056 dish iron. Used for turning-tools. 5 31849 68404 30°53 gang *0025 | Broke in neck. Resulés—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 68,404 Ibs., or 30-53 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0056. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 191. : 222 REPORT—1867. Exp, I].—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “B 2.” Diameter of speci- men ‘744 inch. Area °43847 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -74 inch, Area -43 square inch. ee ee Le a No. a : : : Per unit of length. of Weight | Breaking strain per. Exp. laid on. | square inch of section. Wignietica’ Permepege Remarks. set. lbs. lbs. tons. 1 | 10249 oe Sa ae ; Specimen of best 2} 18609 oe Bs sage cast steel from go ede Russian and 4} 18649 Be te erat Swedish iron, Fol) GBOBBI hoes si of milder qua- 6 | 23689 ees i di lity than No. 1. 7 | 25369 ahidots ei 0012 Used for chisels 8 | 27049 es oe ies -0012 &e. 9 | 28729 th: Severs ‘0012 10 | 30304 ear Gt 0012 11 | 31879 sGieh arc “0012 12 | 33439 se nye “0087 13 | 36664 face ee “0118 14 | 38224 a ake Hh: *0275 15 | 39784 | 91520 | 40°85 oe ‘0150 | Broke in neck. Resulis—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 91,520 lbs., or 40°85 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0275. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture=686. Exp. I1.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ B 3.” Diameter of specimen -602inch. Area 2846 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -602 inch. Area *2846 square inch. I be) 10451.) os nee Sot .... | Specimen of cast 2) A2131 apet' joey 0006 steel from Swe- Zyl disisilt mikiete a 0012 dish iron; for 4 | 15494 fave see “0012 tools, &e. ‘5 feat bra ge eae Bernie 0031 6 | 18851 Ae ree “0031 7 | 20531 Hoes Rpt 0037 8 | 22211 pe be 70044 9 | 23891 Pee Pe ae 0044 10 | 25571 BS eee 70044 TY Wo eee) bea se 0050 12 | 28796 see ane 0143 13 | 30371 .| 106714 | 47-64 5 Petes -0100 | Broke in neck. Results-—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 106,714 lbs., or 47°64 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is -0143. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in produ- cing rupture=763. | ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 223 Exe. IV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “B4.’” Diameter of speci- men °737 inch. Area *4266 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *726 inch. Area ‘4139 square inch. a Weight Exp. aid on. lbs. 1 | 25369 21 28729 3 | 31849 4 | 33439 5 | 35014 6 | 36664 7 | 38224 8 | 39784 9| 41344 10 | 42904 11 | 44464 12 | 46249 13 | 47959 14 | 49564 Breaking strain per square inch of section. Ibs. 116183 tons. 51-86 Per unit of length. Elongation. “0001 0012 “0025 0037 0118 0125 “0150 0181 0193 0231 “0262 0293 0337 Remarks. Permanent set. Specimen of cast steel from Swe- dishiron, of mild- er quality than No.3. Used for chisels. -0362 | Broke in neck. Resulis.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 116,183 lbs., or 51:86 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is ‘0337, By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 1957: Exp. V.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ B 5.” Diameter of spe- cimen -608 inch. Area -29 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘60 inch. Area -2827 square inch. 10249 11929 13609 15289 16969 18649 20329 22009 23689 10 | 25369 11 | 27049 12 | 28729 13 | 30371 14 | 31916 Nolo ois Ror) i: aS \2 aes 110055 49-13 “0006 ‘0060 ° “0087 0137 0168 0187 0250 “0300 0375 Specimen of steel cast from Swe- dish iron, of mild quality for weld- ing. ‘0331 | Broke in neck. Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 110,055 Ibs., or 49-13 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is -0375. By ormula (13).—The work (~) expended in producing rupture = 2063. 224 rEPortT— 1867. Expr. VI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ B6.” Diameter of specimen ‘742 inch. Area -4324 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture 525 inch. Area ‘2164 square inch. No Per unit of length. of Weiee Breaking strain per nae. Big, aid on. | square inch of section. Hieueuron’ Pas lbs. Ibs. tons. 1 | 10249 aan “0012 Bar of Bessemer 2 | 18649 -0025 steel. 3 | 25369 -0043 4 | 27049 ‘0187 5 | 28729 ‘0275 6 | 30304 0325 7 | 31849 ‘0387 8 | 33439 “0475 9 | 35014 -0612 10 | 36664 “0650 11 | 38224 Rong sone 0837 12 | 39764 91972 41:05 *1962 Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 91,972 lbs., or 41-05 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0837. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 4522. Exp. VII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown and Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, ‘B7.” Diameter of specimen ‘74 inch. Area *43 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘72 inch. Area *4071 square inch. 1 | 22009 “0012 Specimen of dou- 2 | 25369 ‘0018 ble shear steel 3 | 28729 °0143 from Swedish 4 | 30304 ‘0175 par. 5 | 31849 0200 6 | 334389 0218 7 | 35014 -0268 8 | 36664 “0300 9 | 38224 Bert Hales -0406 10 | 39799 92555 41°31 ‘0543 | Broke in neck. Results——Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 92,555 Ibs., or 41°31 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0406. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 1878. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 225 Exe. VIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ B 8.” Diameter of specimen “607 inch. Area=*2893 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘555 inch. Area ‘242 square inch. Per unit of length. x P Weight Breaking strain per Rowinks. Exp. laid on. | square inch of section. Blongation. Br lbs. Ibs. tons. 1 | 10451 eae peer: ‘0000 .... | Specimen of “ fo- 2] 12131 ote HAs: “0000 reign bar” not 3 | 13811 prenere eee 0087 melted, but tilted 4 | 15491 5 Rog te 0250 direct. 5 | 17171 ee ate Bibee ‘0362 6 | 18851 aG0¢ S50 0518 7 | 20531 ets vas 0968 [neck. 8 | 22211 76774 34:27 oeteus ‘1356 | Broke 1 inch from Results——Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 76,774 lbs., or 34:27 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is ‘0968. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =3715. Exp, [X.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Brown & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ B 9.” Diameter of specimen 606 inch. Area ‘2884 square inch. Reduced diameter after frac- ture 41 inch. Area ‘132 square inch. 1 | 10451 ess Ait 0143 o. | Speeimen’’ of (B) 2} 12131 Sue aves | "0275 bar. English 3 | 13811 eas A Ses 0412 tilted steel, 4} 15494 ore: Secs ‘0762 made from En- glish and fo- reign pigs. 5 | 17171 | 59588 26:57 eae ‘2106 | Broke in the cen- tre. Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 59,538 lbs., or 26°57 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0762. By formula (13)—The work («) expended in producing rupture = 2268. 1867, R 226 REPORT—1867. Exp, X.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Elonga- tions taken on 85 inches length. Mark on bar, “1.” Diameter of specimen 608 inch. Area -29 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘606 inch. Area :2884 square inch, neers Od ete il beeen li No Per unit of length. ‘| Weight Breaking strain per Ep. laid on. | square inch of section. Hlonpaiian. Penance Remarks. lbs. lbs. tons 1 | 10451 Pest arch eo Pide ot ae Specimen of cast 2} 12131 steel, termed 3 | 13811 “Diamond 4] 15491 Stitt Beer “0000 Steel.” 5 | 17171 aoe s ae 0005 6 | 18851 0005 7 | 20531 0005 8 | 22211 0005 9 | 23891 +e. sera 0005 10 | 25571 coe San ‘0011 11). 27146 ono ee ‘0118 12 | 28796 rag nes ‘0160 ees, FRE a aa eee ee Te Hiald hiemnighe a. 14 | 31916 | 110055 | 49-138 nae) |< ORES 22 ioe hoes cee Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 110,055 lbs., or 49:13 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is ‘0177, By formula (13),—The work (u) expended in producing rupture =974, Exp. XI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “2.” Diameter of specimen ‘61 inch. Area +2922 square inch. Reduced diameter after frac- ture ‘605 inch. Area 2874 square inch. 1 | 10451 stati Pee ees .... | Specimen of steel 2 12151 termed “ Tool 3 | 138811 Steel.’’ 4 | 15491 5) ie abalyal 6 | 18851 Ae St ache 0025 fel Sesal atte eg 0025 8 | 22211 Tides Pek. "0025 9 | 23891 6 Fe a 0025 10 | 25571 Beats mee -0025 | Sas Ais alee -0150 12 | 28706 Lae eae -0150 138 | 30281 bie Larne -0206 14 | 31871 | 109072 | 48:69 a oe ‘0150 | Broke in neck. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 109,072 Ibs., or 48-69 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (7,) per unit of length is ‘0206. By formula (18)—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture=1123, ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 227 Expr. XII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Elonga- tions taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “3.” Diameter of specimen ‘609 inch. Area -2912 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘605 inch, Area ‘2874 square inch. Per unit of length. ef r Weight | Breaking strain per Ticceaslli Exp. laid on. |square inch of section. Hieeaoe poe lbs. lbs. tons. 1 | 10451 Trak . a 0018 .... | Specimen of cast 2} 12131 bene eaoy ‘0018 steel, termed 3 | 18811 Sao wae -0018 « Chisel Steel.” 4} 15494 Scart ee tO °0018 eee |... |. ye aif O0L8 6 | 18851 5 fae boas 0025 7 | 20581 Reon ire Aone 0025 8 | 22211 ier aire 0037 9} 238891 Tate tows -0050 10 | 25571 Patty's Foret 0143 11 | 27221 donc Yous “0162 12 | 28796 SCRE Roa ere 0194 13 | 30371 sane ao aye ‘0217 14 | 31916 ShKe paiks 0243 15 | 33506 Sess geet 0281 16 | 35066 | 120398 | 53°75 cin oe “0250 | Broke in neck. Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 120,398 Ibs., or 53°75 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (7,) per unit of length is ‘0281. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =1691. Exp. XIIJ.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Elonga- tions taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “4.” Diameter of specimen *738inch. Area-4277 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -729 inch. Area °4173 square inch. 1 | 25369 caer Jy 0025 .... | Specimen of cast 2 | 28729 Sate bs at 0081 steel, termed 3 | 30304 renee bse “0100 * Double Shear 4 | 31849 ce bees 0137 Steel.” 5 | 33439 ome 3s “0150 6 | 35014 ana bie 0162 7 | 36664 bate bhes 0187 8 | 38224 oy eee 0218 9| 39784 arr eve 0250 10 | 41344 | 96665 | 43-15 ee ‘0237 | Broke in neck, Results ——Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 96,665 lbs., or 43°15 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0250. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =1208. R2 228 REPORT—1867. Exp, XIV.—Bar of Stecl from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Elonga- tions taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “5.” Diameter of spe- cimen ‘739 inch. Area ‘4289 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *511 inch. Area °2042 square inch. No Per unit of length. ‘| Weight Breaking siram pey | —<—<— ae low square inti of ss ty . | Permanent Remarks. xp. Elongation. see. Ibs. Ibs. tons. 1 | 25369 A reer ee "0206 ...+ | Bar of hard Bes- 2| 27049 aes ie ot 0268 semer steel, 3 | 28729 Se sone 0337 4 | 30304 aanuecs Siettvas -05438 5 | 31849 Ascalie Sbsats -0687 6 | 383439 bye Re :0700 7 | 35014 ANA Sone 0937 8 36664 Nee asta 1437 9 | 38224 89121 39°78 ee ‘2087 | Broke near centre. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 89,121 Ibs., or 39°78 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is -1437. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 6403. Exp, XV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “6.” Diameter of specimen ‘611 inch. Area +2932 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *391 inch. Area +12 square inch. 1] 10451 Sare wee aw, f ban Bar of soft Bes- Atal HERE her SEE semer steel, 3 | 13811 Paes a 4 | 15491 Asa Lie -0000 5 | 17171 Ne: AR ‘0056 6 18851 A Sestak ‘0331 7 | 2esal oe es, ‘0743 8 | 22911 Leer eS +1200 9 | 28891 81483 36°37 AP Face -2043 | Broke near centre. Results——Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 81,483 lbs., or 36°37 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of length is -1200. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 4888. PP Ari ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL, Exp. 229 XVI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor, Vickers & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ Axle Steel.” Diameter of specimen *606 inch. Area :2884 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -44 inch. Area ‘152 square inch. Weight laid on, lbs. 10451 12131 13811 15491 17171 18851 20531 22211 23891 25571 SOMONDUE WHrH an Breaking strain per square inch of section. Ibs. tons. 88665 | 39-58 Per unit of length. Elongation. 0031 ‘0031 0031 0031 ‘0031 “0218 0300 “0412 "0625 Permanent set. "1625 Remarks. Specimen of cast steel, converted in the crucible, from __ bar-iron with the addition of manganese. Broke in centre. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 88,665 Ibs., or 39°58 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0625. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in, producing rupture = 2270. Exe, XVII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor, Vickers & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ V T.” Diameter of specimen *744 inch. 18649 25369 27049 28729 30304 31849 33439 35014 36664 38224 39784 FOOD ONOOUrRWNHH He 91520 | 40-85 0031 0068 "0100 *0150 "0225 0287 0362 ‘0475 “0900 Area ‘4547 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘53 inch. Area *2206 square inch. Specimen of cast steel, converted in the crucible, from _ bar-iron with the addition of manganese. Broke 23 in. from neck. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 91,520 lbs., or 40°85 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of By formula (13)—The work (wv) expended in producing length is :0475. rupture = 2173. 230 REPORT—1867. Exp, XVIIL.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor, Vickers & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “V8.” Dia- meter of specimen *738 inch. Area ‘4277 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *734 inch. Area ‘4231 square inch. No.’ Per unit of length. ae Weight Breaking strain per Renieks Exp. laid on. | square inch of section. Elongation. Aupissaie Ibs. lbs. tons. 1 25369 Tera thee See? 3 Biers 2a3- Specimen of cast 2 27049 steel, converted in 3 28729 the’ crucible, from 4 30304 par-iron with the 5 31849 addition of man- 6 33439 ganese. 7 35014 8 36664 9 38224 re ee sph 0006 10 39784 Ais see “0012 11 41344 ids KS 0014 12 42904 ath be 0018 13 44464 sea ce 0020 14 46054 ie aa “0025 15 47764 ctnk 2€;,% ‘0087 16 49549 pm vehi vers 17 51619 cee ee “006 18 53525 jade Arran (eats (05 33 Held this weight 19 55414 eis Poe “0100 15 seconds, and 20 57374 184145 59°87 AnoS “O100 then broke. Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 134,145 Ibs., or 59°87 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0100. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 670. Exp. XIX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor, Vickers & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ 2°66 Cast Steel.” Diameter of specimen °615 inch, Area ‘297 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -609 inch. Area -2912 square inch. 1 10451 seit. wetaye 0000 gets Specimen of cast 2 121381 eicias «the “0016 steel, converted in 3 18811 eae eee te aeRO the crucible, from 4 15491 iatiate aes 0016 bar-iron with the 5 17171 Bae 3 ORR 0016 addition of man- 6 18851 pievete oaks 0016 ganese. 7 20531 ie ets “0016 8 22211 Bisicvs Re s:3 0016 9 23891 Rees ie 0093 10 25571 ieee oes “0093 11 27221 Sona Cas “0131 12 28796 aie sisi “0150 13 380371 OO ees ‘O175 14 31960 A Ga seh ec a5) 15 33506 estes aot 0287 16 35066 118066 52°70 ote 0175 _Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 118,066 Ibs., or 5270 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is ‘0287. By formula (13).—The work (7) expended in producing rupture = 1694. Se ee ee ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 231 Exp, XX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Osborn & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “‘O1.” Diameter of specimen ‘745 inch, Area ‘4359 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -739 inch. Area ‘4289 square inch. Per unit of length. No.| Weight | Breaking strain per jan laid on | square inch of section. Wichita Permanent Remarks. Ibs. Ibs. tons 1 | 18649 Ss. eo rot .... | Specimen of best 2 | 22009 bravike | was “0012 cast turning-tool 3 | 253869 Pelee ba as ‘0012 steel, 4} 27049 | tase 0012 5 | 28729 0012 6 | 380304 ‘ 0018 7 | 31849 0025 8 | 385014 0060 9 | 36664 0160 10 | 38224 0160 11 | 389784 0118 12 | 41344 sone bows 0156 13 | 43129 98942 44-17 Fae ‘0093 | Broke in neck. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 98,942 lbs., or 44°17 tons; and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of length i is 0156. By formula (13),—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 771. Exp, XXI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Osborn & Co., Sheffield, Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “0 2.” Diameter of specimen ‘731 inch. Area+4196 squareinch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘721 inch. Area -4082 square inch. 1 | 25369 aw nee 0018 .... | Specimen of best 2 | 28729 ates eis 0031 cast steel for 3 | 31849 mitt 2 ES 0068 cold-chipping 4 | 35014 Binete aa} "0106 chisels, 5 | 38224 sac 1) 0143 6 | 41344 creas nak 0193 7 | 44464 bata ase 0238 8 | 46054 vee: a 0256 9 | 47764 ees =a 0275 10 | 49694 Selo sat 0318 11 | 51899 | 123686 | 55:21 a, t?. °0318 | Broke in neck. Results —Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 123,686 lbs., or 55°21 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length i is -0318. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 1966, 232 ; REPORT—1867. Expr, XXII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Osborn & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “03.” Diameter of specimen ‘738 inch. Area ‘4277 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *728 inch. Area ‘4162 square inch. No a ant gs Per unit of length. : eig reaking strain per ep. laid on. | square inch of section. Tl eipation: Permanent Remarks. Ibs. Ibs. tons. 1 | 22009 eis ane 0018 .... | Specimen of best 2) 25369 Large soe -0025 cast steel for hot 3 | 28729 Liars Ns ded ly, BCODO and cold sates- 4 | 31849 Re Aesop ‘0081 cups, shear 5 | 33439 Boch ie 0093 blades, and 6 | 35014 ewe fated ‘0118 boiler - maker’s 7 | 36664 ree eee ‘0156 steel. 8 | 39784 Sree? eee -0193 9 | 42904 Bd bee °0225 10 | 44464 ee ae es 0237 11 | 46054 Bue Speed “0268 12 | 47764 eee Pete ‘0298 13 | 49549 | 115849 | 51-71 Ses ‘0212 | Broke in neck. Resulis—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 115,849 Ibs., or 51°71 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is -0298. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 1726, Expr, XXIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Osborn & Co., Sheffield. Elonga- tions taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “O04. Diameter of specimen *73 inch. Area’4185 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *725 inch. Area ‘4128 square inch. 1 | 25369 Bitlet pci 0037 .... | Specimen of best 2 | 27049 Sea's 7, 0050 cast steel for taps 3 | 28729 Be ae he ane “0062 and dies. 4 | 30304 es ee 0075 5 | 31849 baste ~aee 0100 6 | 33439 ree vio 0118 7 | 35014 Sore see 0131 8 | 36664 tae. eae 0143 9 | 38224 ews ores ‘0168 10 | 39784 5 oat bi aes 0181 11 | 41344 | 98790 | 44-10 a 0168 | Broke in neck. Resulis——Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 98,790 Ibs., or 44:10 tons; and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of length is ‘0181. By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture = 894. i ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 233 Exr, XXIV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Osborn & Co., Sheffield. Elonga- tions taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “05.” Diameter of specimen -714 inch. Area ‘4312 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *72 inch. Area ‘4071 square inch. Per unit of length. No. Weight Breaking strain per Exp | laid on. | square inch of section. niga ceca Permanent Remarks, Ibs. Ibs. tons. 1 | 28729 ae 5 ages 0125 .... {Specimen of tough- 2 31849 Bese < ect -0168 ened cast steel 3 | 33439 ie aie 0200 for shafts, piston- 4 | 35014 Poet Ee 0231 rods, and machi- 5 | 38224 a ss be tok 0312 nery purposes. 6 | 41344 He Maas 0431 7 | 44464 | 103116 | 46-03 staheg ‘0525 | Broke in neck. | Results —Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 103,116 Ibs., or 46-03 tons; and the corresponding elongation (7,) per unit of length is ‘0431. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 2222, Exp. XXV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Osborn & Co., Sheffield. Elonga- tions taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “06.” Diameter of specimen -744 inch. Area ‘4347 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘734 inch. Area ‘4231 square inch. 1 | 22009 Roe Peaks ‘0031 .... |Specimen of best 2 | 25369 eee Fe “0062 double shear on 28729 Lee shee *0125 steel. 4 | 30304 Sra Fae 0143 5 | 31849 5 hee Rc ‘0168 6 | 33439 coer Pha: ‘0187 7 | 35014 3 A Woe “0206 8 | 36664 feet rae 0243 9 | 38224 7931 | 39:25 Ae ‘0243 | Broke in neck. Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 87,931 Ibs., or 39:25 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (7,) per unit of length is 0243. By formula (13).—The work (uw) expended in producing rupture = 1068. 234 REPORT—1867. Exp, XX VI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Osborn & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 incheslength. Mark on bar, “07.” Diameter of specimen 738 inch, Area ‘4277 square inch, Reduced diameter after fracture -736 inch. Area *4254 square inch. Per unit of length. nD Weight Breaking strain cule iia seas Te RG, Remarks. Hxp. laid on. | square inch of section. Bongélton: a lbs. lbs. tons. 1 | 28729 Pee. het 0037 .... | Specimen of extra 2 | 31849 a Baie ae ak 0037 best cast steel 3 | 35014 é hele sad 0037 forturning-tools, cast steel wheel axles, &e. 4 | 36664 | 85724 | 38-26 | See -0043 | Broke in neck. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 85,724 lbs., or 38-26 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is -0037. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 158. Exe. XXVII.—-Bar of Steel from Messrs. Osborn & Co., Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “08.” Diameter of bar -738 inch. Area -4277 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘596 inch. Area *2789 square inch. 1 | 28729 Ps.s sabend 0131 .... | Specimen of cast 2} 31849 baw A scan ‘0162 steel for boiler- 3 | 385014 BNE cir Se 0231 plates. ZWoif GASP I Pe ke pots 0312 5 | 41344 Sees 5 ea *0456 6 | 44464 5 or Pout 0625 7 | 46054 eee Mee 1062 8 | 47764 | 111676 | 49-85 5 oe ‘1350 | Broke in centre. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 111,676 lbs., or 49°85 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (1,) per unit of length is ‘1062. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 5930. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 235 Exp. XX VIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer & Co., Sheffield. Elon- gations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “BS1.” Diameter of specimen ‘728 inch. Area ‘4162 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *719 inch. Area -406 square inch, N Per unit of length. a Weight | Breaking pe per Palas Exp. laid on. | square inch of section. lon gatitin: se eye Ibs. Ibs. tons. 1} 18649 5 eG tise ava .... | Bar of hard Bes- 2 | 25369 ee Be 0018 semer steel, 3 | 28729 Bs fia -0068 4 | 30304 See 5s ee ‘0081 5 | 31849 ae ais aie 0093 6 | 35014 Saves “iu we 0131 7 | 38224 ee Savi 0168 8 | 41344 Aer | Seiak 0187 9 | 42904 | 103085 | 46-02 ae ‘0187 | Brokeintwoplaces. Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 103,085 lbs., or 46-02 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of length is -0187, By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 963. i Exp, XXIX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer & Co., Sheffield. Elon- gations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “BS2.” Diameter of specimen *743 inch. Area *4335 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture 531 inch, Area +2214 square inch, 1; 18649 Seat ywas- ft 0012 >... | Specimenof milder | 2) 22009 SES Bey -0017 , Bessemer steel 3 | 25369 tine Shea: 0237 than No. 1. 4 | 27049 dias BRE | 0300 5 | 28729 5 Pe 4k 0332 6 | 30304 ae Ate “0362 7 | 31849 ee fae *O462 8 | 33439 Age BBB A -0600 9 | 35014 ee ate ‘0818 10 | 36664 at Tee 1093 } 11 | 88224 88175 | 39-36 5 awk *2000 | Broke near centre. an RE EUs oe OG een. ES ok aN ee Oe ON Re EY Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 88,175 lbs., or 39-36 tons; and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of length is 1093. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 4818. 236 REPORT—1867,. Exp. XXX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer & Co., Sheffield. Elonga- tions taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “BS 3.” Diameter of specimen *736 inch. Area -4254 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -486 inch. Area °1885 square inch. Per unit of length. No. | Weight | Breaking strain per Esp. laid on. | square inch of section. Mloeestiran: ener a Ibs. Ibs. tons. 1 | 22009 BE ic ee 0025 .... | Specimen of soft 2 | 253869 ROae at 0293 Bessemer steel. 3 | 27049 ate cei Mik “0418 4 | 28729 sfeicis Bae 0593 5 | 30304 seen Sees 0718 6 | 31849 tie AS “0981 7 | 33439 | 78606 35:09 3 a ‘1912. | Broke in centre. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 78,606. lbs., or 35°09 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is 0981. By formula (18).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =3855., Expr. XXXI.—Bar of Steel from Mr. Sanderson, Sharrow Vale Works. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “S$ 1.” Dia- meter of specimen ‘697 inch. Area’ *3815 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -694 inch. Area ‘3782 square inch. 1 | 22009 kits eres 0050 Specimen of bar of 2) 25369 Sid = pe ‘0087 cast steel, from 3 | 28729 Stee spies “0162 K. B., a Russian 4} 30304 she ctis Bee ‘0187 iron, suitable for welding. 5 | 381849 | 83484 | 37-26 2 ie ‘0225 | Broke in neck. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 83,484 Ibs., or 37°26 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is -0187. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture=780. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 237 Exp, XXXIJI.—Bar of Steel from Mr. Sanderson, Sharrow Vale Works. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “$ 2.’’ Diameter of specimen ‘737 inch. Area ‘4266 square inch. Reduced dia- meter after fracture ‘723 inch. Area 4105 square inch. a Per unit of length. o- | Weight | Breaking strain per Tap. laid on. / square inch of section. Mlongatiar, Sieger Remarks, Ibs. lbs. tons. 1 | 22009 Pe oe 0018 .... | Specimenof double 2 | 253869 Renae ics “0050 shear steel, from 3 | 27049 ee joa 0075 Gi, a Swedish 4 | 28729 Sete Be “0093 rene 5 | 31849 Ne jae “0100 7 6 | 33439 ovat stor ote ‘0131 7 | 36664 cashoke yea 0875 8 | 39784 Lae seontees ‘0231 9 | 41344 aye saspege -0256 10 | 42904 ares Bs 0293 Rs) 11 | 44464 | .... ie Bo { Heed ie yee seconds, an 12 | 46054 | 107940 | 48-18 TAFE 0331 (i ieokeay neck Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 107,940 Ibs., or 48°18 tons; and the corresponding elongation (7,) per unit of length is :0318. By formula (13),—The work (wu) expended in produ- cing rupture=1716. Exe. XXXIII.—Bar of Steel from Mr. Sanderson, Sharrow Vale Works, Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “§ 3.”” Diameter of specimen *714 inch. Area 4003 square inch. Reduced dia- meter after fracture *693 inch. Area ‘3771 square inch. 1 | 22009 Hees: bai 0037 .... | Specimen of single 21 253869 Base i -0100 shear steel from 3 | 28729 Stic Sa aes -0156 G., a Swedish 4} 31849 ae 2, -0212 ig ma5014 | .... Pole. 0295 ek 6 | 38224 Sie as -0250 7 | 41344 eye es, *0275 8} 42904 | 107182 | 47-84 Rs. Fe -0281 | Broke in neck. Results.—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 107,182 Ibs., or 47-84 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of length is 0275. By formula (13),—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture 238 REPORT—1867. Exp. XXXIV.—Bar of Steel from Mr. Sanderson, Sharrow Vale Works. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “8 4,” Diameter of specimen +744 inch. Area 4374 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘737 inch. Area *4266 square inch. Per unit of length. ne Weight | Breaking strain per |—————_——___ Remarks He, laid on. | square inch of section. Mlowpation. ale ow ESS lbs. lbs. tons 1 | 22009 Sere Bar of faggot steel 2 | 25369 drawn from G 3 | 27049 bar steel, simply 4 | 28729 welded to make 5 | 30304 it sound. 6 | 31849 weet Bh 7 | 382689 75199 33°57 ae ‘0125 | Broke in neck. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 75,199 lbs., or 33°57 tons; and the corresponding elongation (/,) per unit of length is ‘0137. By formula (13),—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 515, Expr, XXXV.—Bar of Steel from Mr. Sanderson, Sharrow Vale Works. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “85.” Diameter of specimen *738 inch. Area 4277 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture *723 inch. Area 4105 square inch. 1 | 25369 sig joie eats 0037 .... | Specimen of drawn 4| 30304 | .... gt hg T Be nok welded. 5) sie79 |", LO sig 6| 33489 | |... IPO) 0187 72 eon ae ee ia Re Por s| 36664 | .... “eee | 902438 9| 39784 | .... -... | 0262 10 | 41344 14) 49002")... 8 12| 44464 | 1038960 | 46-41 | .... | -0343. | Broke dn neck. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 103,960 Ibs., or 46-41 tons; and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of length is 0262. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 1782. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 239 Exp. XXXVI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “A.” Diameter of specimen -725 inch. Area -4128 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture ‘709 inch. Area *3948 square inch. Per unit of length. Weight | Breaking strain per laid oa square inch of section. longation. Penn anent Remarks. lbs. Ibs. tons. 1 | 22009 ore eS 0025 .... | Specimen of steel 2 | 25369 Ae apd 0043 employed in the 3 | 28729 5 eee Belch -0100 manufacture of + 31849 Boi oe ae 0143 cups. 5 35014 aoe sieeve 0187 6 38224 bs Gh inna 0250 7 39784 aavsys Ftc k 0312 8 41344 | 100155 | 44-71 Bor ‘0275 | Broke in neck. Results—Here the breaking strain (P,) per square inch of section is 100,155 Ibs., or 4471 tons; and the corresponding elongation (1,) per unit of length is -0312. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 1562. Exp, XXXVII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Elongations taken on 8 inches length. Mark on bar, “ B.” Diameter of specimen *745 inch. Area ‘4359 square inch. Reduced diameter after fracture -74 inch. Area ‘43 square inch. 1 | 22009 ee yas 0018 .... | Specimen of steel 2 | 25369 win Oo bo ___ Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression G ) per unit of length is $263. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 29592. 248 REPORT—1867. * Exp, I1.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co. Mark on bar, “ B3.” Before experiment. After experiment, Height of specimen........ 1-002 inch, eee. °832 inch. Diameter of specimen...... -72 inch. -s he ao iment. Area of specimen.......... ‘40715 sq.in. .... °43943 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Compres- of on on per square inch sion, in Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. inches. Ibs. tons. lbs. tons. 37438 16°713 91951 | 41-049 -010 Bee ck TPG BH, 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303] -015 - 52166 93-288 | 128124 | 57-198 023 58950 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 ‘029 66022 29-474 | 162516 | 72-391 “038 73134 32°649 | 179722 | 80-233 067 80214 35:809 | 197023 | 87-952 096 i 88134 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 155 aI. iE 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 ‘183. | One very slight crack of outside skin. C COTS Or Ww be Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding elongation (J,) per unit of length is 183. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 20591. Exe. [V.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co. Mark on bar, “ B 4.” Before experiment, After experiment. Height of specimen .......... 1-01 inch. eves “Loo Se Diameter of specimen ........ “72 inch. vues FOL tiene Area Of SPECIMEN... . . wees ‘40715 sq. in. .... *47783 sq. in. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049 | -030 “pee 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303] -035 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -053 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -079 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72391 | +108 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | +157 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | 206 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 97-636] -955 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 |100-700 | goa OMONIADNF Whe No cracks. Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is‘293. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =32968. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 249 Exp. V.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co. Mark on bar, “B5.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... “99 inch. .».. *743 inch, Diameter of specimen ........ “72inch. —....*776 inch, Area of specimen............ ‘40715 sq.in. .... 47299 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch pression, Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. in inches lbs. tons. lbs. tons. 37438 | 16°713 | 91951 | 41-049 | -010 | ---— 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -015 | i 52166 | 23°288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -023 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -039 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -068 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -107 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -166 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -215 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -243 | No cracks. OOD OB WOH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (Z,) per unit of length is -243. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 27342, Exp. VI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co. Mark on bar, “B 6.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen .......... ‘987 inch. ns on) SR eindh. Diameter of specimen ........ ‘72 inch. nous | OSineh. Area of specimen ............ ‘40715 sq.in. .... °55417 sq. in. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41:049 | -050 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -075 52166 | 23°288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -123 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -179 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -238 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -297 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -346 | WH 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -385 | © 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -403 | No cracks, 6 COmT OD Ort GH bO rR Results ——Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (Z,) per unit of length is -403. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =45345. 950 REPORT—1867. Exr, VII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co. Mark‘on bar, “ B 7.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......:.. 101 inch, .i:. ‘659 inch. Diameter of specimen ........ *72 inch. 2:23 4886 inch. Area of Spetimen....2...:.%3 ‘40715 sq.in. ...+. *61653 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch _ |pression, Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. iminches. lbs. tons. lbs. tons. 37438 | 16-7138 91951 | 41:049 | -030 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -065 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57:198 | -103 58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64:637 | -169 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72:391 | -238 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -297 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -366 | AN 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -425 | ¥ “me 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | 443 | Three large cracks, with several smaller ones. © MH ~ Woo Gu & bor Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -443. By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture=49846. Exe. VIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Co, Mark on bar, “B8.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... 989 inch. i..s “497 Jaen, Diameter of specimen ........ °72 inch. +36 OOO MmeH. Afea. OF SPECIMEN... 2. secs ‘40715sq.in. .... *61653sq. in. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049 | 040 | oy 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -os5 | i 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -143| | 58950 | 26:316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -219 | _| 66022 | 29:474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -298 78134 | 32:649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -347 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -426 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -475 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -493 | Much cracked. Om Wa or Ww or Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -493. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 55472. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 251 Exp. IX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. John Brown & Oo., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ BY.” ; Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ ‘985 inch. .... ‘430 inch. Diameter of specimen ...... “(2 inens “**** *s.3/ 9g inehs Area of specimen’.......... ‘40715 sq.in. .... 75429 sq. in. No.| Weight laid Weight laid Com- | of on on per square inch | pression, Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. ininches. lbs. tons. lbs. tons. 1 | 37488} 16-713 91951 | 41-049 | -150 2 | 44966} 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -215 | Commenced to crack. 3 |52166| 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -273 oe Seta 4 |58950| 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -359 : i 5 | 66022! 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -418 H 6 | 73134 | 32°649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -457 7 | 80214} 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -486 | Three large cracks. 8 | 88134} 39:°345 | 216465 | 96-636 | +535 9 | 91840} 41:000 | 225568 | 100-700 | ‘553 | Much cracked. Atesults—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 553. By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture = 62223. Expr. X.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “1.” ' ; Before experiment, After experiment, Height of specimen ........ ‘971 inch. 2:3: “749 inch. Diameter of specimen ...... “72 inch. veos "172 inth: Area of specimen.......... ‘40715 sq. in. .:.: -46808 sq: in. prem enn nena eeeecee---, 37438 | 16-713 91951 | 41-049 | -010 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -015 52166| 23288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -023 58950 | 26316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -029 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -058 73134 | 32°649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -087 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | +146 88134 | 39:345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -205 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -233 | No cracks. Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ‘233. a formula (13).—The work (uv) expended in producing rupture = 26217. 252 REPORT—1867, Expr. XI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, * 2.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ 1-005 inch. > 2 shia kee eee Diameter of specimen ...... -72 inch. >> sage de ange Area of specimen.......... ‘40715 sq.in. .... °46808 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Compres- of on on per square inch sion, in Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. inches. lbs. tons. lbs. LODS. fie. 7. yl) | Se 1 | 37438 | 16-713 91951 | 41:049 020 ve 2} 44966 | 20:074 | 110440 | 49-303 "025 3 | 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 033 4 | 58950 | 26:°316 | 144786 | 64:637 | -049 5 | 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72°391 068 6 | 73134 | 32:649 | 179722 | 80°:2383 | +117 7 | 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 176 8 | 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 235 E i 9 | 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 263 No cracks. Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 263. By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture = 29592. Exp. XII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Mark on har, 37: Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ 1:00 inch. w+» “FOG Thieme Diameter of specimen ...... -72 inch. .. te *fe eee Area of specimen. ........> ‘40715 sq.in. .... °49016 sq. in. 374388 | 16°713 91951 | 41:049 | -020 WEB: GF. 44966 | 20:074 | 110440 | 49:303 | -0385 : i 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -053 58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -089 66022 | 29:-474 | 162156 | 72:391 138 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | °187 80214 | 35:809 | 197023 7°952 | +236 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96°636 | +285 : 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 |100-700 | -313 | No cracks. WONDUSWhHH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 313. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 35218. —_—_” ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 253 Exp. XIUI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, ‘‘ 4.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen .......... 1-001 inch. vee! “704 inch. Diameter of specimen ........ *72 inch. Joe) OO inele! Area of specimen ............ -40715sq.in. .... 50265 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch | pression, Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. in inches. lbs. tons. lbs. tons. 37438 | 16:713 | 91951 | 41:049 | -030 ie Sag ee rg ae 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -045 ; 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -053 58950 | 26:316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -079 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | :128 73134 | 32°649 | 179722 | 80-233 | ‘177 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | :236 : 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96°636 | -285 : 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | 303 | Very slight cracks. COIS Ue Whe Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 303. By formula (13).—The work (uw) expended in producing rupture = 34171. Exe, XIV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “5.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen............ “996 inch. Jute) iS inehe Diameter of specimen.......... *72 inch. eo BGR meh. Area of specimen ...........- 40715sq.in. .... °58765 sq. in. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049 | -060 a 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -095 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -143 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -199 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -268 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -317 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -406 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -415 i 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 |100-700 | -433 | No cracks. COONADUPWNrH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -433. By formula (13).—The work («) expended in producing rupture =48721. 254 REPORT—1867. Expr. XV,—Bar of Steel from Messrs, Cammell & Co,, Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ 6,” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......,.... -997 inch. ...: 514 inch, Diameter of specimen...,..,... *72 inch. v:er *SOL ingh. Arga ofippscimen ..5% pa yeisade ‘40715sq.in. ..., °63334 sq. in. No. Weigut laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch | pression, Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. in inches. lbs. tons. lbs. tons. 37438 | 16°713 91951 | 41:049 | -080 Pv" aed 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -185 52166 | 23:288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -203 H 58950 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -269 i 66022 99-474 | 162156 | 72-391 7328 73134 | 32:649 | 179722 | 80-233 | :387 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -426 88134 | 89°345 | 216465 | 96°636 | -465 | 91840 | 41:000 | 225568 |100-700 | :493 | No cracks. ' i i H i OMT OO De Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 493. By formula (13)—The work (uw) expended in producing rupture = 55472. Exp. XVI,—Bar of Steel from Messrs, Naylor, Vickers & Co, Mark on bar, ‘* V. A.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of gpecimen.. .. yey cs: ‘983 inch. ver: 1969 inch, Diameter of specimen.......... -72 inch. ++: °865 inch, Area pF apeGiMen . 2p, ; vege pals ‘40715 sq.in. .... *58765 sq. in. 37438 | 16°713 91951 | 41-049 | -050 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -075 52166 | 23°288 | 128124 |} 57-198 | -123 58950 | 26:°316 | 144786 | 64:637 | -179 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72:391 | -248 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -307 80214 | 35:809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -356 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -395 ue ! 91840 41:000 | 225568 |100:700 | -423 | No cracks. OM Took Wwe Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs,, or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 423. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 47596 - ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 255 Exr. XVII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor, Vickers & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar “ Y.T.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... -992 inch. ..., 605 inch, Diameter of specimen........ ‘72 inch. — .... *840 inch. — Area of specimen” .....,;--- -40715 sq. in. .... *55417 sq. in, : : eight laid Com- a Weight lant ae on bh eaten inch | pression, Remarks. Exp. apopmen. of section. in inches lbs. tons. Ibs. tons. jeter Se 1 | 37488 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41:049| -050 H i 2 |- 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303) -075 3 | 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198] :113 TF 4} 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637] :169 § | 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391) :228 6 | 73134 | 32:°649 | 179722 | 80:233]| :257 7 | 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952) :326 8] 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636| -365 9 | 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700] -388 | No cracks, Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568]bs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (J,) per unit of length is 388. By formula (13).—The work (uw) expended in producing rupture = 43758. Exe. XVIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor, Vickers & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar “ Y.S.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... ‘989 inch. +e 3, 3 Oe Ag. Diameter of specimen........ Hie meh. "see eG, tea of ppegimen’ 22... 5... 2). ‘40715 sq. in. .... 43241 sq. in. a(438..| 16h! O1951 | 49-049) -010.).. PF tow. i j 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303] -015 re 52166 | 23:288 | 128124 | 57-198! -023 4 58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64-637] -029 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72:391] :038 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233] -047 80214 ; 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952] -076 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96:636| -125 cA 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700| :153 | No cracks. COON OOF WWF Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (7,) per unit of length is Tee: By formula (13),—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 17255. 256 REPORT— 1867. Exe. XTX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Naylor, Vickers & €o., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ Y.2.” . ; Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... ‘998 inch. » boo "OLS inches Diameter of specimen........ ‘72 inch. -» esl, 10 anEE. Afes Of APeeimen |"... oj. <1.) ‘40715 sq. in. .... *45364 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch __|pression, Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section in inches lbs. tons. Ibs. tons. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049] -010 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303] -015 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198] -023 58950 | 26:316 | 144786 | 64-637} -029 66022 | 29:474 | 162156 | 72°391} -0388 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233] -057 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952] -096 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96-636) +155 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700| -183 | No cracks. OO TIM|EIOPWwrH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P, ) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (1,) per unit of length is 183. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 20591. Exp, XX.—Bar of Steel from Samuel Osborn, Esq., Sheffield. Mark on bar Gay” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.........-. ‘999 inch. .sse),.°100 INCH Diameter of specimen........ “72 inch. + +0 pe ioe ames Area of specimen .......... ‘40715 sq.in. .... °45843 sq. in. 37438 | 16°7138 | 91951 | 41°049) -020 ry ee i 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49°303| -025 i 52166 | 23:288 | 128124 | 57-198] -033 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64:637| -039 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72°391! -058 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233) -077 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952] -126 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636) 185 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 Bh 0 203 | No cracks. Results.—-Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ‘203. By formula (13).—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture = 22841. COIM|DOaSWhrH ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL, 257 Exe. XXI.—Bar of Steel from Samuel Osborn, Esq., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “02.” Before experiment, After experiment, Height of specimen ........ -991 inch. .... 766 inch, Diameter of specimen ...... *72 inch. pate oH Ghinche Area of specimen.......... ‘40715 sq.in. .... -45364 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Compres- of on on per square inch sion, in Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. inches. Ibs. tons. lbs. tons. 1 | 37438 16:713 91951 | 41-049 -030 Bo re ae Sak ee i 2 | 44966 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 ‘035 i 3 | 52166 23:288 | 128124 | 57-198 043 4 | 58950 26°316 | 144786 | 64-637 ‘069 5 | 66022 29°474 | 162156 | 72-391 “088 6 | 73134 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 127 7 | 80214 35:809 | 197023 | 87-952 "176 8 | 88134 39°345 | 216465 | 96-636 “225 9} 91840 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 °243 Results.—Here the strain per square inch(P,) causing ruptureis 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (J,) per unit of length is -243. By formula (13).—The work (wu) expended in producing rupture =27342. Exe. XXII.—Bar of Steel from Samuel Osborn, Esq., Sheffield. Mark on bar; “O32” Before experiment, After experiment. Height of specimen ........ “986 inch. ate erie, Diameter of specimen ...... -72 inch, ie Sl -7eeermen: Area of specimen.....:.... ‘40715 sq. in. .... °46324 sq. in. 37438 | 16-713] 91951 | 41-049 | -030 pee 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -035 : 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -043 58950 | 26:316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -059 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72391 | -078 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -117 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -166 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | +225 E 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 |100-700 | +253. | No cracks. OONAMNIEWhHH Results.—Here thestrain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -253. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture t= 28467, 1867, 1 258 REPORT—1867. Exp. XXIII.—Bar of Steel from Samuel Osborn, Esq., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “04.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ -993 inch. «s.00 “fda nich: Diameter of specimen ...... -72 inch. . <7.) S76Sanelt Area of specimen.......... -40715 sq. in. .... 746824 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Compres- or on on per square inch sion, in Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. inches. Ibs. tons. Ibs. tons. 37438 | 16-713 91951 | 41:049 | -020 ponnmrtcennenencnnnny 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49°303 | -035 : : 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57°198 | -043 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | 059 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72°391 ‘078 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | °117 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952 | +186 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96°636 | -235 i il 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 "263 No cracks. COI}.AP.MAPWNHre Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100:7 tons; and the corresponding compression (J,) per unit of length is -263. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =29592. Exe. XXIV.—Bar of Steel from Samuel Osborn, Esq., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “05.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ 1:01 inch. os 0) [G97 ingk, Diameter of specimen ...... -72 inch. cee, 9 nehe Area of specimen.......... ‘40715 sq.in. .... *49016 sq. in. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049 | -030 0 | pee i i 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -045 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57:198 | -083 58950 | 26°316 |.144786 | 64-637 | -109 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72:391 | -:158 73134 | 32-649 |.179722 | 80-233 | °197 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | °266 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96°636 | °295 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -323 | N : HL ODM IAMEWNHeE o cracks. Results.—Here the strain persquare inch (P,) causing rupture is225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 323. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =36344 ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 259 Exr. XXV.—Bar of Steel from Samuel Osborn, Esq., Sheffield. Mark on Height of specimen Diameter of specimen Area of specimen eee aicie’ 6) @) ete WMS aes 6 ev oe bar, “0 6.” Before experiment. 982 inch “72 inch. Jas 40715 sq. in. . After experiment, *669 inch. ‘80 inch. 50265 sq. in. No.| Weight laid Weight laid | Com- | of on on per square inch pression Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. in ins, Ibs. tons. Ibs. tons. 1) ates 16-713; 91951 | 41-049 |-030)}..0 re 2 | 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -045 i 3 | 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -073 a 4 | 58950 | 26:316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -099 | 5 | 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -148 ill 6 | 73134 | 32°640 | 179722 | 80-233 | -207 MIE 7 | 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -266 \ | | i 8 | 88134 | 39:345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -305 jE AU 9 | 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -323 | No eracks. Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (J,) per unit of length is “323. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =36344. Exp. XXVI.—Bar of Steel from Samuel Osborn, Esq., Sheffield. Mark on hax, “OF? Before experiment, After experiment. Height of specimen .......,.. 1-011 inch. *826 inch. Diameter of specimen ........ “72 inch. *748 inch. INFOS OL APEELMED, . 5 0... cs ee 40715 sq.m. .... 43943 sq. in. Peiease| 16713 | 91951 | 41-049 | 010) 1 2 | 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -015 3 | 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -023 4 | 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -029 5 | 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -038 6 | 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -077 7 | 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -106 i 8 | 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -165 MH 9 | 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -193 | No cracks. Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (2,) per unit of length is -193, By formula (13).—The work (u) expended in producing rupture= 21716, tr 2 260 REPORT—1867. Exp. XX VII.—Bar of Steel from Samuel Osborn, Esq., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “O 8.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... -984 inch. +. o» .*652 inehs Diameter of specimen........ “72 inch. ry poll htric 7 Area of specimen ..\......... ‘40715 sq. in. .... °51784 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on ou per square inch _ |pression, Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. in ins. Ibs. tons. lbs. tons. govvnseenersennenenennns 37438 | 16°713 91951 | 41:049 | -030 E 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -035 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | :063 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64:°637 | -099 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72°391 | -158 73134 | 32°649 | 179722 | 80°233 | :217 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -266 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96°636 | °315 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -333 | No cracks. CO OTS OF Whe Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compession (/,) per unit of length is *333. By formula (13).—The work (uw) expended in producing rupture = 37469. Expr, XXVIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer and Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “BS 1.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... ‘993 inch. Lees (Oho miei Diameter of specimen........ ‘72 inch. 7. | GE aineh: Awea of Specimen’ "5... 2605 ‘40715 sq. in. .... *45843 sq. in. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049 | -0380 H 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -035 : 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -043 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -049 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -068 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -097 80214 | 35-809 | 197028 | 87-952 | -146 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -195 : 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -223 | No cracks. COONS OR WNW H Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100°7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -223. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing. rupture = 25092. ON THE*MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 261 Expr. XXIX.——Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “BS 2.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ...... 1-01 inch. < apera = Inehte Diameter of specimen *.... +72 inch. 56) SOO ich, Area of specimen....’.... ‘40715 sq. in. .... + *57549 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Compres- of on on per square inch sion, in Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. inches. lbs. tons. lbs. tons. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049 ‘060 Foca orretatrenscneonnn 1 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 "095 i 52166 | 23°288 | 128124 | 57-198 143 56950 | 26:316 | 144786 | 64-637 219 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 27 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 337 80214 | 35:809 | 197023 | 87-952 386 88134 | 39:345 | 216465 | 96-636 425 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 443 COMO WDB wWdeH No cracks. Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ‘445. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 49846, Exp. XXX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Bessemer & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “BS 3.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ...... 1-002 inch. ~ wee) *SS2inehe Diameter of specimen .... *72 inch. .... °894 inch. Area-of specimen........ A015 dq. 4... “6207 Pag. in: 1} 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049 | +080. | jrenrrreenneeeenne 2! 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303] -125 | | 3 | 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198| -183 | | 4| 56950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -249 5 | 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -318 6 | 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233] -367 7 | 80214 | 35:809 | 197023 | 87-952| -416 8 | 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -445 | 9 | 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 |100-700 | -473. | No cracks. . Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ‘473. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 53222. 262 REPORT— 1867. Exp. XXXI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “5.1.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ...... -98 inch. .... *576 inch. Diameter of specimen .... °72 inch. — .... 7850 inch, — Area of specimen........ ‘40715 sq.in. .... °56745 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Compres- of on on per square inch sion, in Remarks, Exp. specimen. of section. inches. eecnnenmnecasesnesery lbs. tons. Ibs. tons. r 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049 030 : 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 “045 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 073 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64:637 139 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 198 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 *257 | 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 316 AS 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 ‘375 | 'Two large cracks 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 398 and a small one. OMNIA WhWrH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ‘398. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 44783. Exp, XX XII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “8. 2.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ...... *992 inch. »» ss “698 ament Diameter of specimen .... *72 inch. aoe Gatien: Area of specimen....,... 40715 sq. in. .... *48398 sq. in. 37438 | 16°713 | 91951 | 41:049 030 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 035 52166 | 23:288 | 128124 | 57-198 053 58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64-637 079 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 118 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 BELT 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 236 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 275 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 *303 | Very slight crack. C CTO Or WDE | Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ae By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 34093. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 263 Exe. XX XIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “8 3.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ “99 inch. ieee “710 ines Diameter of specimen ...... *72 inch. owe 768 nel. Area of specimen .......... 40715 sq.in. .... *46324 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Compres- of on on per square inch sion, in Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. inches. lbs. tons. Ibs. tons. 37438 | 16-713 91951 | 41-049 °020 fe easigr otras i 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -025 i H 52166 | 23-288. | 128124 | 57-198 | -033 i : 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -049 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72:391 |] -078 73134 | 32:649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -147 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -206 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -255 il 91840 | 41:000 | 225568 | 100-700 | +283 | No eracks. © ONT So Ot He CO DO Results——Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -283. By formula (13)—The work (wv) expended in producing rupture =31843. Exp. XXXIV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “8S 4.” : Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ ‘977 inch. i «0, “OOo Inen, Diameter of specimen ...... -72 inch. sc, Sheen. Area of specimen .......... 40715 sq.in. .... °49514 sq. in. 37438 | 16-713 91951 | 41:049 | -030 iy aa ote 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | +035 : i 52166 | 23:288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -0538 : i 58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -079 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -128 73134 | 32:649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -187 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952 | -246 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 | -295 < HWE 91840 | 41:000 | 225568 |100-700 | -323 _ | Several slight cracks. Ooo Ob OO hoe Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100°7 tons; and the corresponding compression (i ) per unit of length is -323. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing 2a =36344, 264 REPORT—1867. Exp. XXXV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Sanderson & Co., Sheffield. Mark on bar, “8 5.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ 1-01 inch. ..+. 7678 inch. Diameter of specimen ...... *72 inch. ..+- 790 inch. — Area of specimen .......... ‘40715 sq. in. .... °*49016 sq. im. No. Weight laid Weight laid Compres- Renanks. of on on per square inch | sion, in eS Exp. specimen. of section. inches. : : lbs. tons. lbs. tons. Hl 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41:049 | -030 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 | -045 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198 | -063 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637 | -079 SNM 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391 | -138 4 a 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233 | -187 | Commence to 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 | +246 crack. 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96:636 | -305 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -333 | Cracks widened. CeoIHSOKWWrH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length: is ‘333. By formula (13)—The work (uw) expended in producing rupture =37469. Exp. XXXVI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark Onpar, eA Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen ........ -988-inch. * \ .... .°71 inch. Diameter of specimen ...... *72 inch. eee Lee Area of specimen’..:....... -40715 inch. .... °47783 sq. in. 7438 | 16-713 91951 | 41-049 020 3 ar i 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303 -035 : i 52166 | 23:288 | 128124 | 57-198 043 58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64-637 ‘069 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72°391 108 73134 | 32°649 | 179722 | 80-233 °157 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 7:952 +206 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636 "265 d 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700 +283 No cracks. OCmISaI-wWWwrH Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is *283. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =31843. Ee ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 265 Exr, XXXVII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ B.” : Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... *986 inch. -~t« °804 inch. Diameter of specimen........ 72 inch. swasené40 Ineh, Area of specimen .......... 40715 sq. in. .... 43943 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch _|pression, hance Exp. specimen. of section. in inches { lbs. tons. Ibs. tons. 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049] -020 | | [9 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303) -025 | 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198) -033 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637| -039 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391] -048 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233| -077 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952) -116 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636| -175| © 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700) -193 | No cracks. OMIAM AP wWhH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ‘193. By formula (13).—The work (wu) expended in producing rupture =21716. Expr, XXXVIII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ C.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... 96 inch. 3 eye, Sake eek: Diameter of specimen........ -72 inch. ee cia ee Area of specimen .......... 40715 sq.in. ..... “47783'sq.. in. 87438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41-049] -030 | © fo 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303] -035| | 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198] -043 | pi at 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637] -049 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391) -078 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233| -127 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952 -166 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636| -225 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700| -243 | Wo eracks. OOS] OP WH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P_) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (1,) per unit of length is -243. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =27342. 266 REPORT—1867, Exp, XX XIX.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ D.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... *982 inch, £275 anos Diameter of specimen........ -72 inch. vie! eee ad Area of specimen ....:..... ‘40715 sq.in. .... ‘47051 sq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch /pression, iMeransiep Exp. specimen. of section. iminches. lbs. tons. lbs. CONS. Meme ee ced. aan 37438 | 16°713 91951 41:049| -030 { as kat 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303) -035 : 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198} -043 \ 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637] :059 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391} :078 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233] 117 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87:952| -186 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96°636] +235 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700] +263 | No eracks. COonaw»roehwore Results.—Here the strain per square inch(P, ) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -263. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 29592. Exp. XL.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on bare abe? Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... 1-00 inch. i (its: Diameter of specimen........ ‘72 inch. Joa of/Ginehy Avea Of Specimen: 5 0.4.3" ‘40715 sq.in. .... 45364 sq. in. 374388 | 16-713 91951 41-049} -020 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 49-303) -025 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 57:198| -033 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 64:637| -049 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 72°391| -068 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 80:233| -107 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 87:°952| -156 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 96°636| +205 91840 41-000 225568 100-700 -233 No cracks. © ONTO Or B® OO DOr Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ‘233. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 26217, ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 267 Exe, XLI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ F.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......--- 1:0 inch. aribidd ftom lite iy Diameter of specimen........ 72 inch. See? SOO Wich. Area of specimen .........- 40715 sq.in. .... °48398 sq. in. No, Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch _ [pression, Remarks, Expt. specimen. of section. ininches. Ibs. tons. lbs. tons. 37488 | 16°713 | 91951 | 41-049) -020 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49:303) -025 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198] -033 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64:637| -049 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391] -078 73134 | 32°649 | 179722 | 80:233| :127 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87:952| -176 88134 | 39:345 | 216465 | 96:636| -225 Mi 91840 | 41:000 | 225568 | 100-700} +253 | No cracks. OONIMSP. ME WH Results—Here the strain per square inch(P,) causing rupture is 225,568 lbs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -253. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture = 28467, Expr, XLII.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on bar, *SG2” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... -998 inch, woe, 2leinchrs Diameter of specimen Be Sas ore -72 inch. Seae uO Inch Area of specimen .....-.+.. ‘40715 sq. in, .... °49016 sq. in. 37438 | 16-718 | 91951 | 41-049) -030 cn ae: 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303) -035 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198| -053| ¢ st 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64:637| 079 | ff TN 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72:391| -118 | i i i 73134 | 32:649 | 179722 | 80°233| -167 80214 | 35-809 | 197023 | 87-952| -216 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636| -265 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700! -293 ir Ge / I i Hill OM WM| UF WWF Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100°7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is 293. By formula (13).—The work (uw) expended in producing rupture =32968, 268 REPORT—1867. Exp. XLITI.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ H.” 2 Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... ‘993 inch. . + se Shel IBGRE Diameter of specimen........ °72 inch. s» oni eee Area of specimen .......... 40715 sq.in. ....., 4729480. am No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch (pression, - Remarks. Exp. specimen. of section. in inches. lbs. tons. lbs. tons. ee : 37488 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41:049| -020 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303] -025 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198] -043 58950 | 26-316 | 144786 | 64-637] -059 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | 72-391| -088 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233! +137 80214 | 35:809 | 197023 | 87-952]: -196 88134 | 39-345 | 216465 | 96-636] °245 : : 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700! -273 | No cracks. CONIDUEWHH Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is ‘273. By formula (13)—The work (wu) expended in producing rupture =30718. Exp. XLIV.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on Ibamse6* oie Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... ‘988 inch. ++. *722 inch. Diameter of specimen........ “72 inch. oe 7781 nel Area of specimen .......... ‘40715 sq. in. .... °47783 8q. in. o1458..\. 16°713 | 91951 | 41-049 |. -0205). Jy ae H 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303} -025 | ; i 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198] -043 58950 | 26316 | 144786 | 64-637] -059 66022 | 29:474 | 162156 | 72-391] -108 73134 | 32:649 | 179722 | 80-233] +157 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952) -206 88134 | 39:345 | 216465 | 96-636| +255 91840 | 41:000 | 225568 | 100-700 | -273 6 OO TO Ore WO DOH Very slightly cracked. Results.—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (J,) per unit of length is *273. By formula (13)—The work (w) expended in producing rupture ~ =30718. a Th ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL, 269 Exp. XLY.—Bar of Steel from Messrs. Turton & Sons, Sheffield. Mark on bar, “ U.” Before experiment. After experiment. Height of specimen.......... ‘984 inch. oleae sO Ten: Diameter of specimen......., *72 inch. Bor, exis a gucie Area of specimen............ 40715 sq. in. .... *48398 aq. in. No. Weight laid Weight laid Com- of on on per square inch pression, eamarkes Exp. specimen. of section. In inches, Ibs. tons. Ibs. tons. cee se ee 37438 | 16-713 | 91951 | 41:049| -030 44966 | 20-074 | 110440 | 49-303| -035 52166 | 23-288 | 128124 | 57-198) -053 58950 | 26°316 | 144786 | 64:637| -069 66022 | 29-474 | 162156 | . 72:391| -118 73134 | 32-649 | 179722 | 80-233] -167 80214 | 35°809 | 197023 | 87-952] -226 88134 | 39°345 | 216465 | 96-636| -275 91840 | 41-000 | 225568 | 100-700| -293 | No cracks. COOnNnok Whe Results—Here the strain per square inch (P,) causing rupture is 225,568 Ibs., or 100-7 tons ; and the corresponding compression (/,) per unit of length is -293. By formula (13).—The work (w) expended in producing rupture =32968. 1867. REPORT 270 — us 16S0z fg. ooL.oo1 ggsSzz | 949 cTOOS 188) 8,840H01A PUL IopARNY 5, ‘op ‘oq | 61 bs SSzlr eS. ool.oor ggSSzz g - Tejoodg * ‘19048 4SU) S,S1OHOLA 5, ‘op ‘oq! gt v6 gi lib sgt. ooL.oor ggsSzz aT > || ae aeeectcereabacnssisces «(9949 O4AT, 5, ‘op ‘oq | Zr ‘syorto on | 9 6SL fcr. ooL.oor ggsszz Yo [riritettteeessssseeeseress Ta09G OTXW ,, PoT[BO [9998 8M | 91 ‘OF ANY SUTMOTA ‘MOTAVNT “Susse]{l Wy zLyss £64. ooL.001 ggSSzz GQ [ttttttrttesectescsssercresseee Togas courassog? Jos Jo aegr| $1 “syorto ON | =IeLey £fr. ooL.0or gos Sz (6 PO FL “ees T9918 JOUMOSsegT pavy Joavg | 1 ‘syowao qysis Aton | rL1bt fof. 00,001 ggSSzz F |, JooQavoyqgoerqnoc ,, poutao} ‘[eo4s 4svo 0d fr Ob gizse fr. ooL.001 ggsSzz G [ttt (.Ja049 estyO ,, pourtoy Toe qseo od, ca ae 26S 6z £97. 00.001 ggsSzz GZ |r Joojg TOO, ,, pourte, ‘Taos 4svo OL II ‘syowto ON | LIQ Efz. 004.001 ggsSzz I |'**,10019 puoureicy ,, pouttey ‘[oays ysvo Jo uommtoodg | of 09 GNV TIANNVY ‘Stssoy\, “ fzzz9 €SS. 0oL.001 ggSSzz Ga see eeeerenssece saesceeecsseccecees eeecceres seeceeee es Std ws 19103 pure YsIpsugy wo. opeUt [e048 poy[ty ystpsuq | = 6 ‘poyovao yonyy| 72S £ 6+. ooL.oor ROSS ee. | Cie || rnnemanene sreeeeeseees Hoarty ‘Bq USIOLOZ “OP ‘oq | 8 *soul0 TOT[BUIS [BAOAOS TYLA ‘SYOVIO od.Ley OILY I, gtg6r tr. 004,001 ggsSzz | ¥q juoar ystpamg uToaz joos Iwoys giqnop jo uounoedg | ss SbESb for. 00.001 ggssez | OG Joos toumessogy | 9 “ zbile Cz. ool.oo1 ggsSzz eg Seo enenntnny se eeeesecascens wees Sutpjom IOy “pprut ‘OWL g ‘syouto ONT | 9 g6zt £6<. o0L.001 SOSGIeS, iN Gigi. jetneasepenessieneec ok eeee eace s[ostyo Loy ‘xopyrur ‘ote | ¥ “ULYS OpIsNO Jo youso Wyss Atoa ouQ | 16S0z gr. 00.001 Rossen. \eia™ | ipansstine "5"* 87009 LOF ‘MOAT YsTpeag WO} Joos qsug | £ ‘syouso on, | = 76S62 £9z. 00.001 gossez | aq | dopyrm ‘oytq¢ | z ‘powwodde youso yy srs Auoa ouQ | FESgz Sz. 00.001 ggsszz | Tq “ sT00}-SUTTANY *SULOY "Sq IO} ‘UOAL YSIPOMY PUL UISSNY UTOAT [oo}8 ysvo ysogr | I 09 ANY NMOUG “Sassoy{T (£1) ‘ba Aq|"qySuoy Jo “req o tun aed arated ul : mors fusbie on *SyIVULOY papuadxa |-soadit09 “youl pombe sad 0 uo "SLOIMJORINUBIN, ae yao 10 | Surpuods PIB] FY oto Ysoyworpy | YCBIAL oN ‘nN JO oNTVA | -91L0D ‘uorssaudwog uo spwoumadur ayy fo synsayy fo hunuung 271 ~ Lie ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEE — *sORIO ON *poyoeso AY sT[S At0 A “ ay ee ee “cs ec “SOWA ONT “poyorro PONT “SOBA JUILSITS [RAAIG "syORIO ON *yorao qystis Aro 4 *syORIO OFALT OAT, “ee "Syoulo ON “ *syoudo ON ooLl.oor ooL.001 ool.oor 00.001 ooLl.oor ooLl.oor ool.oor ooL.0cor 004.001 ooL.oo1 00.001 004.001 00.001 ooL.001 ooLl.oo1 o0oL.oor ooL.oor 00.001 ooL.oo1 ooLl.oor OoL.Oor ooZ.oor ooL.0o0r o00L.oo1 ooZl.oor 00.001 SRORERORHpP rt QU 6D SH 19 RANRM | mao MRR AAA OD See eee ee eeeeeeresees eee e ee eeeeee Left a short sparkling), LOS 10° eee Direction ; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Inclined. seenee beeen ee ee earn ee eeeneneee Nearly horizontal ...... Directed at first from 6 Aurige. ( FORO O EDRF eer eeeneeeeenee y Horizontal ....scecssseees fe Directed from 3 (8, y) Ursze Minoris. PO e eee ee nest ehesenoeee Remarks, Sky clear; astrict watch kept; none seen. Appeared from behind a cloud whose edge it slightly illuminated. Path distinctly curved, as shown by the arrow. Sees eaeeeeeeereeereeenee during the evening. .|From 72 40™ to 72 55™;/A. on the morning of the} and J. E. Clark. 7th watched for me- teors, but none seen. f norum. sseeeee eee ee eee eerereeereee Ursa Major. | Directed from Cassiopeia From Cassiopeia ...+++++. in twilight. Reauitasss Sacosaanacnapamececse| ECs 325 —————— Onna, Observer. J. E. Clark. J. E. Clark and A. C. Marriage. J. E. Clark. .. [Perpendicular .....s000...|sseeceeesereeeeeesseeeeeeeees! TH, Backhouse. seeelJ. E. Clark. Four other meteors seen|T. W. Backhouse. C. Marriage Directed from 2 Gemi-]......00.sssssseesseseseeseee| Ls We Backhouse. ,..|Only a few stars visible|J. E. Clark. 826 , REPORT—1867. Plage af Position, or Date.| Hour. Observation Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and : Azimuth. 1866.;h m s Dec. 8} 8 4 p.m./York wei... =2nd magix «.../Blue - sisssss..¢ SeC., rapid... a= d=] From 18° +262° to 124 +384 8} 8 24 pm. Ibid ..isis.iee0e..| = 2nd mage .....:/Yellow ....../3 sec., rapid.,.] From 25°-++63° to 836 +58 8| 8 27 p.m. Ibid ..........06...,= 1st mag.x .... i]Green ..i....../¢ SEcoHd ...... From 70°+663° | to 20 +984 818/28 30) | [bid ....:..0.0..0e. =2nd mag.* ...... Red ..... peogs: + sec., rapid...| From 90°+60° p.m. to 105 +40 SINS OU) MUD. es nencosese se = 1 apparent dia-|Red ..... beseoes 1 second ......| From 323°-+70° p.m. meter of full to 245 +623 moon. 8/9 4 p.m.|Ibid...... idedeonss =Ist mag.* 2.4... Yellow ss. 4 sec., rapid,..| From 348°+ 272° | to 350412 © 8/9 12) pim.|[bid ....3....-0050. =3rd mag.* ...... Blue sse.seeee } sec., rapid... From 11° +16° to 103 +11 Bl 1B pati TBH c28s cs. sssc |S Ob ccvcselecccitveces Yellow ...... 1 second while] From 310°+45° | in sight. to 318 +30 8| 9 28 p.m.|Birmingham .../=2nd mag.x, then/Ruby - red, j........eeeees From 0 Draconis to}. ' =Sirius. then orange- R.A. 290°, Ny colour. Decl. 35°. 8] 9 35°pim:|/ York * shore SaswescessbetovcceveclLO® Was not very bright, but|18° emitted sparks which disappeared with the nucleus; the latter separated into small fragments at disappear- ance. Left a slight train eroesenes ee Left a bright green train during its whole course. sight. Left a train 25° in length ween eeew eens Extremely rapid, rather faint. ANGLES tevevees 20° while in|From Cassiopeia ... Direction ; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Inclined. eben ee eet ee ee er er tesaeetetees <— .|From Cassiopeia ....++... .|Perpendicular from Cas- siopeia. : .|From Cassiopeia ......+..|-++- J .|Directed from 7 Leonis .|From Cassiopeia .......++ f Remarks. setters Perera wereeeseees eee Coe edeeeersseeeseeteranetitens (The north declination| at disappearance is apparently in error.] eee ebereeteteaereneerreseee eee Soe b ee ee seen eer eeeeeeeeasenee seen eesercessee Came into view from behind a house and gradually disappeared. Increased from a 2nd mag.* to larger than Sirius; drew a smoke- like tail which disap- peared with the me- teor. Preece TOO Ceeee ist eee e es fees Observer. J. E. Clark. Id, Id. S. Thomson. J. E. Clark and A. C. Marriage. J. E. Clark. J. E. Clark and} A. C. Marriage. W. H. Wood. J. E. Clark and C. Barclay. 328 REPORT—1867,. Placeint . / Position, or Date. Hour. Ob F Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and servation. re zimuth, 1866./h m s Dec. 8) 9 37 p.m.|York ........0++2|=1st mag.x........./ Yellow .,....|One-tenth sec. a= b= : while in sight.) From 23°+50° to 25 +47 8/10 43 p.m.|Birmingham .../=Ist mag.* ...... Ruby-red_.../1°5 second ...| From 95°— 1° | to y Canis Ma- : joris. | 10} 5 28 p.m.|York sscssseeeeee =3rd mag.x ......|Bright yellow |1 second ...... a= 6= @ From 313°+47° to 48 +483 10} 5 28 3 |Ibid....... hiveden’ =8rd mag. stars...|Dull red ...... 1 second ...,..| From 313°+47 p-m. to 48 +484 MOS 42 SO) Mids... ssecsesc0se =Ist mag.*,........| Yellow.,......./4 second ......| From 166°+633° p-m. to 2104465 10) 6 49 p.m.|[bid ..........0e...(= one-eighth dia- meter of full to 5 +20 moon. 10} 7 1 p.m.|[bid...... aropestes Dl iecscateenmependoes Bright yellow13 sec., very} From 115°+33° | slow. to 142 +73 | LOY DO. pam Whid sicssaover.oe0e =Ist mag.¥.....e0¢/Yellow oss. 3 second ......| From 54°+20° | to 38 +12 10) 8 41 p.m |Ibid ....... cee .| = Ist mag.%......... Yellowish l second ...... From 72°+46° to 54 +50 10) 9 20 p.m.|[bid .....sc00..000. =3rd mag.x ....../Yellow ......|One- tenth | From 26°++623° | second ; to 32+461 | almost in- stantaneous. Pale yellow .../ second ......) From 7°+433° A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 3829 Direction ; noting also | ppearance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal, : and its Duration. ' Path. Perpendicular, or Rema Observer. Inclined. ft a slight train ...... wee[Ooassceeeeees-(ETOM CasSiOpeid ......cce|eceecesseesscceceeseescrsseese J. E. Clark. APE AVERAUR cecncsscccobseclcnssessdeccescs|cocsecscencseeavecncesacsecars|sovecuseccsuueccenceoses seoeee |W. H. Wood, Meee ecer ee sccwanct-ccsnccsee|4O% scocccace|ssseersssacaveonscaseeressas Crossed the zenith ......|J. E. Clark. his meteor appeared|45° ......... madea=cs eC eupso oBadoccaaeoca Crossed the zenith ...... Id. to consist of 5 meteors very close together ; so that a circle of 20’ of diameter would have enclosed all of them. It moved in just the same path as the last. ft a slight train .........[12° .........| Directed from CastOr...|.....s.sssssserrssssecererene(Ld, SM Mcectaeeressseensssrt|O oven crass see[eeceeee daedesiveaseyevesssicents|suasasseseessreteesresueeerres| es Cn) MOLTIAges eft a green train for|40° .........|Directed from Castor...|Moyed in a curve ...... J. E. Clark and 1 second. A. C, Marriage. eft a slight train which|12° ..,...,..{From the Pleiades ......|secersesssesseseeeereeseeld Be Clark, disappeared with the meteor, i MIS EUT Ess ie cccscsccesesseess|(Goacecees .s.e-(£rom Castor ......0+.+e.|Clouded view ........ PPA Gb ioe Rete seeeeceeconsenssescsseee[O cesseseesees(LLOM CASSIOPELA ......50.|ececeesereseeeeeerersssseeereslAs C, Marriage, Ss 330 REPORT—1867. D Place of ‘ \ ‘ ate.| Hour. Obsaevation Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. 1866.| h m s Dec.10| 9 20 15 |York ...sse...0./=ord mag.x ....«./Yellow ....../Same as the p-m. last. 10| 9 21 pim,Ibid ........es.ss6./=3rd mag. ......|Yellow ....../One - eighth ag second ; moderate speed. 10/11 25 pim.|Ibid .........0..00 te rceepesrcenacdsnes Bluish white...1 second, very slow. 10|11 37 p.m.|Ibid .........00 veo|= St MAZ.Keearseeee Wihite citecccze 1 second, slow 11/12 48 aim. |Ibid .......ccceceee = 3rd magee ws. Yellow ...... + second ...... 11] 5 48 p.m.Ibid.......00.0 Fee eecssvabiteasy s.|Yellow ......{14 sec., very slow. 11) 6 27 p.m.\Ibid...... sessceega| = L8t mag.x ....../Yellow ......{One - eighth sec., rapid. Wy 2 pims hid sessecsncs: = I .sissccsseetscses./ Yellowish .../1 second, slow 11} 7 14. pom|Tbid ..........0....! =2nd mag.* ....../ Yellow ......00 4 sec. rapid... 1l| 7 29 p.m. Ibid ......... sauees SS Tet magi eiccsieesellst.ttsbi.:.vevenelf SECON wees | Position, or | Altitude and Azimuth, e= d= From 26°+623° to 32 +61 i | : | an From 32°+61° |: to 45 +53 From 112°+32° to 114 435 From 141°+24° to 150 +424 From 131°— 3° to 121 —19 From 340°+33° |) to 325 +30 | : i From 45° +65° | to 464 +47 From 45°-+20° to 38+ 5 a From 105°+60° | to 322 +703 From 332° +33° to 333% +11 | A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 881 Direction ; noting also Appearance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal, and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. Inclined. Tesbdsecessccesiesvetsscssaeeeess(O evesecssses|FYOM CAaSSIOPClh ...s5006/s.csscsecesbacssbesscosssssses[A. @, Marriage. POURS ee SST ee EEESSSEES eeeeeeeeeee Drapes COsecslevcabesdseddbeanaccobrevecesecees FOC e eee eeee eee teeeseseines Id. seasiceesstensrcedeecrssconsstsbelD cesccevcccesleccssscssesescesscsessssesse(Eifteem meteors seen|T.H. Waller. between 11 and 12 o'clock, mostly radi- ating from Castor. Me ebecehetvccctttscdeccscescce(L IL? cdsiass selbtecsecsd RBsts, sasteccecrerers seetbesecsssesssssserssceseoes| Le ~HEBESPEEEE EEE Bri sbdtscccensss WS? cheisac walirierakds Rides Hele Ss Blea be eeessereceseeeeseseees+|D. Marriage. rew a red tail at the end|13° ......... cian Rautlatebiehinsssceeers sald dseceascaxs sos kscee |S. a: GEER of its course, which dis- appeared with it. ae MEMES cawUN SS iseooeeese=|LS” sbecess. |, .cccecesedbsnsecissessscceses|scochsnseseceesccosocsset duce Id. J BEERS sessvancsccccesbsccwsccccelLO” sdsascoeslsscceccescdtieaceccssascsecese Very misty sky with|J. E. Clark and cirri, which it illumi-| A. J. Crossfield. nated to the breadth : of 2° or 3°. Bh airs} Fev eed 2 bebe era 5 Se eer seeeeees/A. Js Crossfield. J. E. Clark. 332 REPORT—1867. Placelof : Position, or Date.| Hour. Obseeyatiah. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and Azimuth. 1866.) h ms Dec.12|Morning ...|Kishnaghur, Bright meteor......|.. Diatewedeeagneaslte picteweciusaiete Shot across Gemini India, from « Hydre to @ Urse Ma- joris. 12) 5 41 p.m.|York ssecosseesss| = 18t Mag.x.eeeeeee./YEllOw ..00. + second, very o— : rapid. From 17°+47° to 30 +26 12} 7 29 30 |Ibid..... AOOAEEEIIC =2nd mag.x ...... White ......... 3 sec., quick} From 30°+22° p.m. motion. to 8 +30 12) 7 33 p.m.|Ibid ........ net = Ist mag.*.....+00.| White ....s0./4 sec., Slow...| From 98 +48° to 87 +50 12} 7 38 p.m.|Ibid........ Seetaue =3rd mag.x ......{Light yellow...|2 S€¢-» rapid...! From 240°+467° to 250 +45 12| 7 42 p.m.|Ibid...... Robern =8rd mag.* ...... Yellow ......|4 sec., rapid...| From 210°+65° © to 240 +27 12} 7 47 p.m.|[bid soosceccceeesee| = 18 MAZ.#.sceeeree] WHILE «...0.0.. 3 second ......| From 98°+25° to 112+432 | 12/7 48 pimlEbid ....seseeeeseee 2xXCapella ....0-...|White ......0. 4 second ...... From 79°+28° to 65 +183 12} 8 4 p.m.|Ibid ....... scuvaves =3rd mag.x ..... Yellow. ......|L second, slow} From 132°+40% to 163 +473 12} 8 5 p.m.|Ibid...... seeeestes|—NIATS, tmesewee sass: INES aconpeces 13 second ...| From 20°+488° to 318 +62 12} 8 10 p.m. |Lbid ...secceesseese = Ist mag.x......06 Yellow ......+--/L second ...... From 309° +44° to 300 +15 12| 8 10 p.m.|Ibid......... seoes.[= 3rd mag.x ......|Reddish ...... 3 second ...... From 76°+28° to 67 +16 A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Direction ; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Inclined. Length of ppearance ; Train, if any, Path. and its Duration. sees to N.3 quite across Left a long train.......00+00|.ccseeeee the principal radiant region for the night. SERCH ERE E EHH eee HE EEE HH eee 15 SOR e ee HEHEHE Hee Eee eeeeeeree = eft a red TLAIN sevceeseceee oraccnusesess SOO Hee Oe eer e reese ee eeeeeeee ie CORPO rere ee erenenee v Cee e renee eee eeeeeorereeees 18° SEEPS eH er ee tener etseseanterneenes Oeee renee leearereee PO eee Oe eeeeeereeseeeeersreetoee 40° Pe ee eeeneleees SREP CERO eee ee ee eeeeeteeereeere CE CARCCRCCET SOOO Rete ee teres eeeeeeetereees MERE sn cocececscaces|LU'> -osaane From 72°+460° }| to 135 +68 — 12) 9 12 p.m.\Ibid ,.,.seseeeeeeee]= 2nd mag.x ...... Red irevschsessee 3 sec., rapid.../From 118°+29° | to 140 +60 12] 9 14 p.m.|Ibid .......s00c000 ae ae Beigsteseet ellie areseanees 1 second ...... From 240°+39° | if to 268 +52 | 12) 9 24 p.m,|Ibid .,........,...-|= one-sixth appa-|Dull red ...... 1} sec., very/From 220°+28° | rent diameter of slow. to 230 +20 the moon. 12) 9 27 pim.Ibid .......-02 ....|Apparent diameter|Dull yellow .../¢ second ....../From 249°+423° ] 4’, to 254 +214 L249 (58 pimalbidineeeeess este: =I1st mag.x....... ap lROG cscs sbseeses 4 sec., rapid.../From 70°+ 5° | to 83 +15 12/10 53 p.m.|Birmingham ~ .,.!=4th mag. .,.... Blue ..,....../0°5 second ...|From a Tauri —— 64° +6° A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 8385 Direction ; noting also Appearance; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarky, Shscrvan, ; Inclined. MMAR NG tTAIN, U1 GHE|LO2 srecsarlersesbarstcsacese++ssguacds chlassdapecnsaadecgpeaseneeag ses W. Malone and middle of its course. A. K. Brown. n the first half Of its|....cccsseoseeelsscsssesecaseessseeeeeeeeeess.(Path slightly curved .../J- E, Clark. course equal 4th mag- nitude star, then sud- denly brightened up and disappeared sud- denly. seeseveeuescsssavessssssepeeseee(4Q” While in|Almost perpendicular.,.|........ sight. R. G, Barclay. PE Deere reese ee setceseeeeerees ees 10° seereeees Perpendicular Poon e server seer eee neeneneser ee Rete ngees Id. Brew 2 yellowish tail,|14° ..,...004]...cesssrcsnscecesseeeeseseeeeleos sssesessscesessseveeeeseeee| fee G. Barclay and which disappeared with A. C, Marriage. it. Je COPE SRP a eee ern sateen eeesseeeens 10° eee eoerleeeeeesereessesesces Sevacencnal, —- Sl SoPenecvveasderaenvasgs's R. G, Barclay. ° eft a slight train .,....... GO Rees Paw. be Pea oe ee a ea Bei sta we cceenest oor ae SEES ce ssesespyeceasscss| Uo? gepaanaas|.ohetsocchres seresepeeeeeeeeee(Although large in appa-|J. E. Clark. rent size, it gave very a little light, MEET TG UOTE brpyy ccs aes|AOataproocnpual.ossceesseeameagns eis seakacgs|spetteosesgsvesssossggagatens| b> fy Barclay. See see 15° ..escnnee|escdccsccsccoorecccepecesseee(seeD through pretty|J. EB. Clark, dense clouds. RMMMEE EES ccacvesns sy. eiacuasuses|ecaeepseyseoece|sentcsealcsepsecsvacecsdsseess/5ky Clouded sat 110:80,/W..H. Wpod. clearing; at 10.50, half cloudy. 336 Date. 1866. Dec.12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 Plagease Position, or Hour Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. ae hem 8 10 54 p.m./Birmingham ...|=1st mag.* ...... Blue .........(0°5 second ...;Commenced at a = 105° —3° LONSGs p-rn:|LD1d coss.cceose cece Brighter than Ist/White ........./0°5 second ...|Commenced at mag.*. 2—) 314° +48° MPA Z pi UB fess cates esses] = SITIUS cos eces sen es White ........- 0°5 second ...|From a= d= 97° +70° to Polaris. 12 5 3 (|Ibid...............|Brighter than Ist/White ......... 0°25 second...|Commenced at a.m. mag.*. [= b= 122° +61°| UAT 24 Seema ss ,ceesoscsene Brighter than IstOrange ....../1°5 second ...|\Commenced at mag.*. Orionis. B09 mpamil|Vork s.sctssceees =8rd mag.x ....+./White .....0.- 4 sec., rapid... [= = From 13°+58° to 40 +45 DAA SOA Did esesccossacvess =8rd mag.x .se0e-|White ser...00 4 second ...... From 210°+ 75° p-m. to 200 +70 dine, BPG DIG wees seoneaeee = Ist Mag.x.ersseeee WWE! gs-ncoene 1 second ...... From 288° +67° to 287 +38 7 8 p.m.|Near York ...... = Ist mag.%.........| White ......++-|3 sec., rapid.../From a point to th eastward of t moon to a poii near the moon. 7 43 30 {Ibid .........00 ...[=2nd mag.x ...... Yellow ws... 4 second ...... a= 0=— p-m. From 290°+73° to 300 +52 7 59 p.m.|[bId voc... vove(= 3rd Magex veeeee| White wo... J SECON «sees. From 73°+41° to 84°+37 8 9 p.m.|[bid ..........00+6./=2nd mag.x ....0.|White ......../1 second ...... From 165°+63 to 240 +59 8) 13.30) | Ebidlcceeseeneea =2nd mag.% sore. WHItG: osseecnes 4 second ...... From 60°+40 p.m. to 50 +47 REPORT—1867. « A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Direction; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Inclined. Appearance; Train, if any, Length of and its Duration. Path. Directed from « Gemi- norum. ERUDIOWULAIN .cspewsrecosses(LO°® ceveccss Left no train .......esse000e/L0° ......e-|Directed from Castor... Directed from 0 Gemi- norum. POP e eee rere eee FORE P eee re ee eeneelsseeesseeaeenes Left no train ....... -|Directed from Pollux... ..|Directed from Pollux... PERTH HERO eee eee ereneesrereteD tee POCCECH OTHE Seer er eneerene POPE Re eee eee eee ee rereseneesreeeeene ° JORDoeseecaranetesneecccccccnenes |S seen Feeeeerereeenes 25° SUP OUISUUIOSESUCEUCOC TIT Try SOOO Hee CORT OO TERRES Eee eeeeeeeeeter yi FO OAE TORO HEHEHE SE TE“ SOF OReES \ seveeereevevenrerssctenesessseer| LO” seaeeenes SERRE OPE OOH OE Peers terene +/10° Mm » Pater eeeeenee é Ce ARE SOOO E er er eRe ree eee rert et seeeas Feet eee reeeererees eft 4 slight train .,.......{20° PPE PP EP Reet ee ee reer eesSOOeeeens rr 1867, SOOO POO Oe cere ee eeer deere eObeseeeeeeeres) ** seeeveees TVe cece ee | COePOOPOCenereseneeeernsegeeael|*** Shee FOPOCO TC eee EPO esereeeeroneeerie*® Remarks. Meteors very frequent. One per minute. Un- assisted observer. View clouded : sky four- fifths cloudy; over- cast at 115 p.m. Sky four-fifths cloudy ; clear in zenith only; overcast at 11) 55™. Sky one-fourth cloudy, with fine rain. Sky three-fourths cloudy COED REO eee ee ee neneeeeeetere SOO eRe rere eer ereeeeeeeeteenene POOP O EOF e reser enenEreeeseeeeD eee ee tearene tee eenene hee an eeeeerene eens ER eee eee Her ee ete e rset etene Bede ee eee POP Oe eereneeeeore 837 Observer. en W. H. Wood. Id. Id. J. E. Clark. A. K. Brown. J. E. Clark. C. Brightwen. A. K. Brown. Id. J. E. Clark and A. K, Brown. F. Bewley. 338 ee Place of ; , Position, or Date. Hour. Obscevation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Aifiaude and 1866.| h m Dee.13) 8 18 p.m,York ....... seove| = OFA MAQH seoees White ......:..|4 second ...... a= b= From 87°+40° | to 74442 | 13) 8 23 p,m.|Ibid ......- Misvest =2nd mag.* v.00 Vellow sees. 2 see,, rapid...| From 135°+48° | to 135 +45 13) 8 35 p,m.|[bid .......0s = 22 MAag.# orcs White ,......../4 second ...... From 207°-++65° to 57 +55 13} 9 30 to [Birmingham .../.cesssecseseeseeeeeees Pee. Wane 9 50 p.m. 13|11 45 p.m.|[bid .......seeeeeee| = 2d Mag.x sees Nucleus dark..|1°5 second ...| From 119°+27° to a Canis M noris. 14|11 55 p.m.jAlderley Edge, |Very large ...+++++./Rainbow cesesaegeseeeeeeee}Commenced wit Cheshire. colours. 4° or 5° of P laris. 15) 6 80 p.m.|Brest, France .,. Large fireball ..++6+)....000- feyvcute About 2 secs...|Disappeared in constellation Ly. . | 16] 5 23 prm.|York ....ce.0000- = Ist mag.%.,s00004+/ Yellow speveeese 4 sec, rapid... a= b= From 296°+ 8° to 299+ 4 16| 5 26 p.m.Ibid...... rousseten = Ist MAG.%.sseeeee+| YELLOW .yseeeee-/L SCCONA «44. From 300°+80° to 330 +60 1S| 6 27 p.m.jIbid....... seeecees =2nd mag.x sso Yellow | !) puncsnaes lsecheeseetescehes soeeecenen lacs BNexasesnerasnesmes avers LG ———— 340 nErort—1867. Pigccuge Position, or Date. Hour. Observati Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and pservation. re zimuth, 1866.| h m Dec.19| 6 30 p.m./Strect =| Openers vies Yellow ...... 2 seconds ... z= d=9 (Somerset). From 5 +60° | to 0 —10 19] 6 48 pam] York .s0...s00064] = 18t MAH. 000s ws/Yellow s..+e./4 second ......| From 151°+14° to 149 +10 22} 6 30 am.|/Falmouth ....../=2nd mag.* ...... Reddish 3 seconds ...| From 200°—10° | yellow. to 220 —16 23| 7 14 p.m.|West Hendon, |As bright as Venus|Pale yellow...|1 second .,..../Passed 3° above Sunderland. at its brightest. Arietis; disap. pearing aboul midway betweel a Arietis and 4 Pegasi. | 24) 7 27 p.m lIbid ...ccccoocseeee|=2nd magek soe. (Orange ..se.fesrsesreereeeeeeee/Disappeared at (6, ) Draconis. | 28) 5 48 p.m./Street = Ist mag.*.....000+| White ss... % S€C., SOW... a= OF (Somerset). From 290°+50° to 278 +70 29] 7 57 p.m.|West Hendon, |=3rd mag.x .+..|Bluish seve, secsssseseeesesees[ Appeared near Sunderland. Cygni. 29} 8 15 p.m.|Street = Ist mag.t......004|GTEEN sesseeee, 1 second ...++. a= o= (Somerset). From 30°+444° to 51 +63 29 9 30 p.m.|/Birmingham .../=2nd mag.x ...... Pale blue ....+. 15 second ...| From 51° + 7° to 44 — 5 31) 8 30 p.m.|[bid ......ceseeee ..|=2nd mag.x ve. White (OmOyLCamE num Venatico-}) rum to % (%, y Urs Majoris. | sanadevesc sesevess[0°7D SCCONG ss. Red .....sss..+.{1 second ......|Near the southern} horizon. White ..:..s...(L second ...... From Capella to Tauri. White .........{4 second ......{{m the S.By ceed 8) 8 2 p.m.|[bid.....seeee./ = 2nd mage ...066/White .......s.|¢ Second .,..../Near the zenith .. 16) 7 25 am.|Falmouth ......,=2hd mag.x .,,.../Yellow ......{L second, very £= j=5 rapid. From 150°+65° to 108 +26 { 24/8 46 p.m./West Hendon, |=2nd mag. ......\Orange colour veceaceaceseseeee|Disappeared at Sunderland. (0, a) Piscium. 24] 8 52 p.m.[[bid .....600.se0ee)=2Nd MAg.x ....|Deep OLANgel.se..seseeeseeees Disappeared at colour. R.Av 125 40,3 iS . Decl. 37°. 30) 7 45 p-m. Voth. Sasdscasasen SHS Magek.....seee+| White sccoccce 12 second e — = From 20°+66° to 40 +40 l A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 343 Appearance ; Train, if any, Length of and its Duration. Path. Inclined. evr CEEOL seseeeees|soeeceseseceeee/FrO Radiant Ky Pubs ecnsensescscdeséescssorseese-[10° sss.s00.[from Radiant K, seceeveedseeess[Er0M Radiant K, PPT R eee etme eet att enebeereneens Wisi Wvesrad-stcelsecsitscc..s0..|-ceveseodess.-/Erom Radiant K, Direction; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. Sbb ewes dee eteserteteebesstesoebituer ie be Greg. Pee Oe lamer abeweree saaltes|o48e Bt epee ctOGce AUCSErOL see i Ld. The display on thisj[d. night very inferior to that of the 2nd of January 1863, from 115 p.m, to 12 30™ a.m. seeenec|*OOeeeeoeees seer eeeeeeneeedens J. E. Clark. wee bebeeetbbadettanes bette POF eee eOeR ee ee etbaeeeweees From Radiant K, eeP PSPS PPPS SRI STE LEE 10° Sete ee meal ones eee teres eraraneree Left a fine train .16........./15° wehbe nee ee eeeee se eee tte e eee eee reeeereereeeeebons Id. a Weeteteartdliersésticssererce|L WO). QlMOSt \/ V n Ss. sHebt aber casi be eebeeeeteererecees 10° ebeseeees simulta- MPa seeedetccs se coets. VHRSLNEsERCSIA ) ngaceeces|=se=noasdahatneccataedseqss cine From 8.30 to 8.45 p.m.,|J. E. Clark and eight meteors seen| T. Stevens. vs at Bridport. pebebas cere set eb dete eeetdanenies 40° Eeoeeeede |e tee Re eeseeeenenneeetenennsagslsereserscsecaseseneusasareases E. Barclay. | From the Pleiades secsss|sssssccsseveceeeessessessseeee| Ls We Backhouse, SBEUEOR aS edCS CNET ti cee set eoaey 12° teeeesees FPR ER RET OO Hee ere esse be OOH Eeeearisees Peed eeecoerreeerersnseees feces Id. Heb eames eel eer cree seeeeebereseeres eeeee Left no train sscsescssecess(25° sed tersdgevesecccsootanteesesa/Ae Ke BOW es deeeaee ene eeeeeenane eeeee B44 REPORT—1867. Date. 1867. Feb. 3 6 6 6 6 22 24 28 28 Positior. or Place of ‘ vide é Hour @bscrvtiom Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. eens hm 5 } 7 34 p.m.|West Hendon [=Ist mag.x, then|...ccssseeeeele soe4diagetebwanee At first seen near] (Sunderland).| gradually __ less B Tauri. After} until it disap- the head dis-| | peared. appeared, _ the | tail still moved} on; and 8 14 30 |York...... iieedetys =Ist mag.% ...... Yellow ....../0°5 second ... a= O= | p-m. From 212°+ 584° | to 220453 | 818 p.m.|[bid ...,.....00 eee) =Ist mag.x..... .+../Dull red ....../l second, very] From 17°+51° slow. to 38 +57 ORI9 20) UTbidtssccc sazens ...|From Procyon......... ve MIMEIGALIIN o's ccna e'saSene|Ois co aeea ess < TOPO awe eteeeiaee Steen eee eeeree POO rem eseae Left no train ....,...-...... 122 Left no train ............ «ih? MMMPEEED EVAL iW ses costeeseeces|os Peer eter eeeeee seat cer eernes TEPER E ETT R Errore ests eee eeOteas eer iseerasennnee nee Pros .|From Radiant A, Drew a train of red sparks|15° ...,,...«.|Directed from Lacerta..|Disappeared gradually... POEM eter eRe eM mere reget ereeeees Oe P eee tate ee eeeeeeees lating at last. phini, Directed from Altair ... From Radiant A, From Radiant A, seleee POPP deme eee meer eeeee een earnee ,.,.[{n strong twilight; none eee cee eer re? Peewee ee vageareer Path crooked and oscil-|:. Directed from e Del- Poe eee eee ee neers eecneres of the brighter stars yet visible. peer eecaseer In one hour no meteors seen. sunset; seen in full daylight. The streak R. P, Greg. Td. T. Crumplen. R. P. Greg. id. Id. J. J. Silbermann. was seen for an hour at Basle and else-|: where. (See Ap- pendix.) POR D vere er ee avers PO aranannye |A.S. Herschel. id. eS Pere once Sane Id. OF h sas ETE? ore Botte agaake vpacuphoatt atlas eins celia ubhacnantane vetda tle Ser APRS tater cee eca-ikds We pet enswuias sarees sesapega-(lGs ‘ eaten gaesel dpievese(UGe Pe cia ree Sep eee CRN aE Sixteen meteors in two hours and ten mi- nutes; perfectly clear sky ; no mocn; one observer. sre teeeee R. P. Greg, Id, Id. 352 REPORT—1867. Pincelok g Position, or Date.| Hour. Observation Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and ~ : Azimuth. 1867.| h m up. Glissccveccescnne Prestwich, Man-|=3rd mag.* ......| White ......4.. 0-2 second ...\From a | chester. to 2 (7, gasi. T\secssssesceeees{LDIG sesseeveeeeveeef= 2nd mag.x ......|Bright white.../0°25 second .../From 7 pentis. \wenvebiveleeceol LDC cecssvesss cas se =S3rd mag.% «eese/Dull .......4 0°3 second ...|From p Aquilz t 18 Aquilz. dlecsesessecesvss|LDi@i cscataves.¢ccee SEA AGe Veress| DULL eneeeeem ss (0:3 second ...|From jp Delphini three-quarters the way to Aquilze. dlsceevestoetses|LOIG) ses cecteus vaste [== 1% MAB.x ve.cev0ee] WHILE! oc 5vres 0:4 second .,.|Close to «, Capri Corni. 7Nesoanicd specs |LDIG\ssescceosescves|—=2NG MAP: wease- White ........./0°75 second .../From 4 (g, e) P gasi to A H FA Goss seconvece[LDIG secsessesceeeee|== 14 MAL.% seeevvvee| WhItE ...c0000-/0°75 Second .../From y Triang 7|10 30 to {Ibid...... Retake: =Brd MAQ.t assoreleceee asaasavestaes 0:2 sec., rapid|From e Cephei t 12 0 pm. a Sagitte. dl troesteclsteess| DIG orccescvekvetes =Ist Magex ceoeee Bluish white...!1 second ...... From I Aquile t v Andromede. dl eet cttnbevens Ebid'328, «<% avebseor =14 mag.% sseeee Reddish white|1*5 second ...|From 7 Pegasi to Andromede. W\ ceteeeterese Ubi Satin: Steet =Srd mag.x si. sasstaceceeseseees/O°2 sec., very|From (3 B, A) P rapid. gasi to A Ion 8/10 42 p.m./Birmingham ..,/=2nd mag.x ....../White ......+../0°5 second ... 2= = From 103°+77° to X Draconis. BAY AROS =3rd mag.x ......Blue ....sse+-/0°5 second ...|From ¢ Ursee Mi joris to Cor Ci roli. S|L2) 10) pims|[bid' ccccccsacvers =Istmag.x ..... NWWIDLEC: Susssess 0-5 second ... o— 0-4 From 270°+15° to 263 — 3 noe) SOC CIDE =3rd mag.x ....../Blue .,,....4./0°5 second .,./From ¢ Aquilz to Serpentis. seaiviWesseeses =Ist mag.* ....../Yellow ......]0°3 second .../From @ Draco to y Urse noris. 9/12 30 am.iIbid ........ secoees[=2nd mag. se.../Blue ...0000|0°75 second ... a= 0= From 124°+61° to 6 Urse joris. O23) fasms\bidverenscet sn. ras =2nd mag.* ws... White : ¢coc BASRA Be sooccesseeee[Directed from C Came-|.....:...0sssseeessescessccec(1dy lopardi. eft a pale green train ...|.......... ».... Directed from y Cas-)At 1" 30™ am. rate 14/Id, siopeiz. meteors per hour, MMESROsEs ew nencencueraceacess|socc0tsscenanes|ssescescesuscedcessascsnsccnss[sesescnssaessnosecseoece see.) T. Crumplen. cos Soc Niscvasecs Ba ontacetace tnt: [satinvccoresta anath< eee Followed by another'[q, with bright streak more to the right. BMEertrnedes Ses sossicecccsves ROG REP OSE REE oe COCOSC UD EEE EER y: seein: [sactanaareateetesosneas BSE Id. Git a short train Which]...-<...-.00...|ss0seceesees Se Poo Recent Ended beyond _ the Id. faded quickly. boundary of the map. Two bright globular meteors remarkably alike, eft a short train WHICH |...sscccccesse|sccessseessenseccnascece miescnn|=0*seseseeursioesss cea teseeeee Id. faded quickly. no feared Bcneniee: Brom Radiant, enear |*.-accsc sen aascseeaeus Foe otic! Lyre. Meee tsvecsccsscceccucs Redan eaeie meeeelontesae sok face avcuawensaxet. A 2nd mag. meteor pre-i[d. ceded this one from near a Lyre. _ 940 See pel Pasocteceosccee jEromi Radiant, neat! (al--.=s+m-rescsssssoerosece..-\1d. Lyre. Ea ae eseceesecescs.| sco cee hassecwentaacedanisravess’essoaraues ese ed)eassenshine sce sarcasdaseswes| Id. Saaasseanesslnaduhi-Weshnnaaalanesa-sceiacct a(n ses scesey see |scetesaneees dense osecescucves Id. Rescate Biabnit | ecrsiacldact-Wisinaisie ins sie seis siaicliae segie\se\nsin'as's's sls veisiestecjon cas LCL oo Breast Ceebrano tends tans esiensedecscs Imperfect view. Identi-|Id. cal with the next. (See Appendix I, 8.) ME ioor6 ais sis vx sis Sav] ecw cree nse fon Directed from ¢ Cassio-/Tortuous path; sky|W. H. Wood. peiz. eight-tenths clouded. RP OA Kessenaechecee |Directed from Pclaris...|From 98 to 10® p.m. no/Id. 1 meteors seen; clear sky. l 358 REPORT—1867, y Pienaar ; : eee Position, or Date.| Hour. Obsenaan: Apparent Size. Colour. uration. mien ane 1866.|h m Aug.10)11 36 p.m.|/Birmingham ...)=Ist mag.*.....+4+ Bue hxgssceae2: \0°5 second ...| a= p= \From 57° + 45° to 90 + 62 10)11 45 p.m. Vbid .........eeeees =SId MAg.t ...... JBI). einsnasoe 0-5 second ...|From (£ Andro- mede to 3 Pi- scium. JOVI 55 p.m-|Tbid ........-.00+0. Brighterthan Sirius| Yellow ../......,1°5 second .../From y Cephei to t Draconis. | 1011 56 p.m. Ibid.......... sooo] =2Nd MAG seeeee iBlue ......+..|0°5 second ... i 0 From 25°+71° to ve Cephci. TO|LL 58 p.m. |Ibid ........ceeeees =3rd mMag.% «+004 OTT eae soee 0°5 second .,./From 25°+71° to y Cephei. MOU LG. ala Ebid' 63.2... ese. Brighter than 1st Orange-colour0°5 second .../from @ to p An- mag.%. | dromede. 11/12 45 a.m.lIbid ..............- =2nd mag.x ....../Yellow ...... 9°5 second ...\From @ Andro- mede to y Pi- | scium. 11/12 48 a.m.|Ibid ..........0006 |= 2nd mag.* ....., Yellow. .......0°5 second ...|From 6 Andromede | e= C= to 11° + 14° 1112 54 am./Ihid ............... =Ist mag. ...... (Blue ......... /1'25 second .../From » Persei to | @ Aurige. 11/12 55 a.m.Tbid...... drsevere| sxlstmag.% ...-0 [Ney etasnane® \1:25 second ...|From Pleiades to C= o= | 70) gate 93° 11/12 59 a.m.jIbid...... os eactiee =Ist mage ...... le Hae eee con 9:75 second ....From y Pegasi to c= (=a 350° — 6° LS aca hide cn. sseceeane |=2nd mag.x ...... Blue «s....... \0°5 second ...|/From p to ¢ Persei UL 38 Ps UDG cere. p ogee |=3rd mag-x ...... BIW; .sdace> ../0°5 second .../From 7 to @ Her- culis. 1111 14 p.m.|Mbid ...........e ee |= Ist mag. ...... |Blue_ ........./0°75 second... co | From 70°-+60° | | to 100 +64 TAWA ise: Sy or LD ey lie aeeeesninenee = 2nd mag.* ...... Orange colour|9°75 second...|From 67 +66 | to 78 +69 PAS RD AMADA. cccses ess 06: Brighter than Ist/Blue ......... 0:75 second...|From (6 Persei to mag. | | fie | 41° 4°32° 12\From 10 to|Prestwich, Man-|=2nd mag. ....... White ......6. ‘94 second .../Erom 6 Cassio 11 p.m. chester. | peiz to 2 Ce | phei. THR RH ea Apcsitcs| |i cite Maspanocee aaeesa [dere nads soon eee nptnede [Dull reddish....0°S second ...|From g Cephei t m Custodis. WA) eseseic seassper| LDL beanstarenceest: =2nd mag.x ...... INOUE {8 TI 042 | 2¢ 68 O16 | #2 SL Ogee 2G O42 |" 18 ; LG OF GOL | 06 98 (F cg) ae SF os Z8 oO Ee (LT OF) * 8 IP fo} ‘ °o Q be eelet ts | 53 S| ‘epnygry ‘SS 5) payepmoyeg : 3 = ay a\-4e 2 0G rs” — Y& — Pe cS) aero LI 18 b Ee iD g 66 9G Gr Ig iL g TaroL LE 08 ot D 8 8EE L6G L g 0G #8 IG 8G iD k 1g ggg OF 9G iL g ¥Z G6 | FE GS me A FL &6 9 6 iL 9 OF S&S | 94 Ai g (8¢ 628) € Gee | & Bs e “ G 9G 96 61 L d Go FE ¥ SI L g ae Ne reratay iD » Coney Go GI D g € .Glz rae iL g 8% 19 FG GI SS D OF 0z Looe 5 =, 68 & gg 6 i g 6F 66S GF 8 L g € OL ped ny g eis. Gs & nF A 9¢ 928 | BEG iD » 1g 9¢ yt L S) 91 6G La OneG i ¢ ro 6c8. | TF LG-IL “a ¢ 1g ese | ge EG en D 6F SIs ef EG L g 08 LIZ Li oF iL 9g (Og Of) OT O&T Ch OF = aft 1G CGI GE 68 iL J (0@ Lg) 68 18 9g LE IT 5 5 cams s mw i! “EL Ysno.ay ‘uorywasasqojo| 5 e N WoqF | owt, uv || FZ 5 qinuyzV | yormueasy 5 S poyemmoyep : . a “‘BUIPvaYT aouryst(y ~yyuaz, “BUIPRAYT “GQQULIZy IT See 1 (OO; TOPOULO MOAT, *soldag 9} JOON 365 A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. ‘snqnsay “OY, ‘ON “THBT} TTBS “89 “ON (quonbeaz ssoy Tonur 019M 8.100} -OUr of} OMNI} SIG FV) g,, PLM ONT, “C9 “ON ‘UIeT} ON “FO “ON ‘med, ON “EO “ONT ‘uofoorg sea qoalqo oyy, “G9 ‘ON, SO IUTO Nala ON! 6 « PBF SUT» 09 “ON “urRdy ON “GG ‘ON ‘quiod-juerpey ou} eAoqy “LG ‘ON ‘yurod-querpey ory Mopsg “9G “ON (soovrd yuo1eytp ye paadosqo oq pynom Ioajout ommes oy} yeyy AqrIqeqoad 97441, OY PUL SIO9}OUT JO TaqUINU yro.L8 OTT FO JUNO. TO paevoypeys OM SUOTZRATOSqO oY T,) ‘Appna svar TOIJOUT OY} {UALS LO ONT svar UBT} ONT, “ZG ‘ONT ‘snqnsey sem qoalqo ey, “TG ‘ON ‘4xoU oY] pUL OUT SIT] SurqQ00dse.c Soq0 NT ONY dg “THFIqQnop st oury oy} £ out, oes oy 4e ATAROTL aed pue ‘Areuo1yeys yuRysur ue 10F poavodde YIM OAXg Jo suor}isod or} Jo Urow ey, “OG “ON “paydnadozUt 010M SUOTZVALOS -q0 ot} pure ‘aTOT[A ot} 19A0 proads pnojo “10478 Aytoyg “papnozo sv sueavoy otf} Fo Javed u.10 -Y}LOU Ot} OULY SI] FY “UTeAy WYSITS YP ‘GF “ON “LOJSVD sv Joolqo oy, “OF ‘ON ‘qurod-querpeyy or sp.comoz ATyo0.u1p paaout HUIAVY SlOoJaUI PaAdesqo orf} JO ouoU ‘EQ «OZ DYLISIUL B OG YSNUI MOY-UOOoIIpoyy, “EF “ON “FG ON 999 + “yuomMAYsUT aT} JO Towa.t orf} JO JNO SBM pu OY JO soULYSIpP WjItozeyT, “osano0d9T]} JooTppruroyyIW “Zh ON “ssR[d pmooes IO 4SA OY} JO SVAA JI AoNJOYM [NFWQnop svar ql Woy gf ‘M payvo st opnyruseut oy, ‘OF ‘ON ae Paou jou von “Gg ‘ON ied ee te — + & P} F — *§H0 TWN) (4% GS) 1G FG FL 66 LG GI GZ 69 0% IG OF GF 9¢ 81 IT (¢ 28) &1 98 9¢ 8 OF FE &¢ ST Fh 9G ZI 6E gE LT ZI GG LF 98 91 09 €@ 61 (1@ 41) Ge LT 8g Lg cg FE 0 ¢9 (&% Te) 8¢ 1g CZ GE GG SF 91 Ge +81 69 LL GF GE FE (6 $e I 1g G01) ZOL 8 OOL GI SI FI 0 GL OL OL 6G kL FL GF G FE 1 &F 6 66 89 OL 9G IG ¥¢ Gg €¢ Go 6F 8 lf €¢ HF 6F GP SI GP 69 OF IT 86 GF LI GF OT GG GG GT &¢ FG IG 0G OG IL 8F Ig OF GG GF OG &F IL &F 0G GP 96 IF LE OF FS 66 GE 8& cP 61 P te € G I I T I BREASHAeHHH8he cht ten) SO mt OD SH cH rei & ales ist ont ooh eavale 69 $1 06 &T 8¢ GI ‘OL ‘69 89 “LO ‘99 Se) *9 69 ws) “T9 ‘O09 ‘6G "ge “Le ‘9g “GG Fe “a eg akg ‘0¢ ‘67 ‘SP LY ‘OF CF FF ‘Ch 366 REPORT—1867. error of pointing, as already explained. The altitudes and azimuths of the stars were calculated by the same formule, and are placed in the foregoing Table, to- gether with their altitudes and azimuths calculated from their known R. A. and N.P.D., in order to give the means of judging of the degree of accuracy to be ascribed to the cbservations. (The latter are put in brackets.) I made an observation of the mean of the positions of two stationary meteors (No. 50) soon after the clouds had cleared off, and before counting from the chro- nometer had recommenced. The time was taken roughly by my watch, which was found by subsequent comparison to be seven minutes slower than the ehro- nometer. The recorded time, 1" 20", takes into account this difference. The time of observing Regulus (No. 51) was not noted; but as this observation fol- lowed immediately after No. 50, it was conjectured from other similar cases that the interval between them was about one minute. The times for Nos, 50 and 51 are, consequently, quite uncertain; but as the place of Regulus, calculated from the observation, agrees well enough with its true place, it is not likely that they are much in error. By caleulation of the R. A. and Deel. of the mean stationary point from the azimuth 83° 24’ and the altitude 25° 12’, it is found that the R. A. =150° 58’, and Decl. = +23° 36’. Soon after secing the stationary meteors, I noted down the mean position with reference to neighbouring stars, by mapping the stars and the estimated position on a piece of paper, from which the annexed diagram has been transferred by punctures through the paper. Ay (It should be observed that the two meteors had about the same altitude, and the move northward one was ex much fainter than the other.) By making use of the star-map in Johnston’s ‘ Atlas of Astronomy,’ I estimated the place of the meteors to be R. A.= 148° 45', and Decl.=22°50', The date °* of the map being 1850, if allowance be made for an- Mean position © i: the meteors, nual variations, the place for 1867-0 will be R. A.= pik 148° 59’, Decl. =22° 47", This determination I consider to be more trust- 1% worthy than the other, the R. A. of the former being probably too much in excess of that of Regulus. Lf % Regndus double weight be given to the second determination of R. A., and equal weights be given to the declinations, the radiant point comes out R. A. =149° 39/, Decl. = + 23° 12), Cambridge, January 3rd, 1867, J, CHALLIS. Meteors, 1866, November 13th to 14th. Noy. 13th, 11» 28”, Noy. 13th, 16 49™, Noy. 15th, 14" 10", nem as hm s s F3312=11 27 33:5 F 3312=16 49 415 Sid. T., H slow 34:26 H= 2 55 30:0 H= 8 18 30:0 Daily losing rate= 1-68 sa DE an ED 256 3:47 819 3:85 15 29 29°31 15 29 29:31 11 26 84-16 16 49 84-54 = 15248 = 2 45:39 11 24 41-68 16 46 49°15 © - — 2 61:82 — 2 52:35 Hourly rate of Chronometer= — 0-69, 8 °. fe} oO / Procyon ..11 43 40 62 45 20138 287 26 Polaris ....11 45 6 380416 5348 178 47 Aldebaran..11 4610 9720 5210 332 8 51 25 S Arcturus ..16 24 13 9 Sirus ....1695 6 14545 20 0 19 48 Aldebaran, .16 25.48 195 0 38610 69 2 Polaris ....16 26 48 304 0 8212 177 47 51 55 A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 367 Stars for Instrumental Corrections. Observed Observed ‘True True Meantime. Azimuth. Altitude. Azimuth. Altitude. h m Meteors, 1866, November 15th to 14th. Corr. of | Corr. of Observed Observed Azimuth, Altitude. 234 3] —0 18 234 48 —O 45 Spe iae =O) 8 284 3 —0 46 234 2 —0O 42 Observed at the Observatory at Cambridge, by Professor ADAMS. (Error of Chronometer —2™ 52s.) ~ Mean - Solar — i ee| F iss) He bo Co Ore ° —_ e on on en DO ATEThO HM OO BS ot BAS om? o n True og oe |Sord | Bes | 8 a & Mean Se a Pas ae eS = ze Not Fs Time. om | OF [O28 /5O48/H8] A oF hm s OMe! are on Cie h 11 49 12 | 321 0} 10 O} 195 16 9 3B | ass Qe pasedtadecceates G. 52 26 4 30} 39 O|} 2388 46| 38 33) y Oke | cdpabetoaas ss has G. 56 0] 349 O} 23 0} 223 16) 23 27) B Qala hsigdtsadcctge ’ G. 58 43 | 806 0 1 0 | 180 16 0 33 | « ir it | testa sescce daa fut Gi RRDO VSG ciattdea: bi daceted, 9 Pse.bcdeh Wh aneted B 10 |Across@Ursee Majoris} G. 12 255/297 0} 18 O} 171 16} 17383) B 8 SeadeE cea ccctal G. 4 11 | 230 3 24 30 | 104 46) 2 3] B 5 sed G. 5 44 | 325 0] 68 30| 199 16] 68 3] 2 Qe!) seioaat-cssiaee ‘ G. 6 50 | 247 O| 23 30| 121 16] 23 3) » 3 diedtlivescoted G. 8 26} 125 0| 39 O 916} 38 33 | a« 4k |Train .......6. iecsecaes} G 9 41 | 1385 30 | 31 O 9 46| 38033] Bp Bot) decebe Reececs $8 G. 10 40 | 111 30} 27 O| 3845 46 | 26 33] 2 4 Pers Sere tee G. 11 44 | 102 30| 23 O| 836 46| 22 33] B 4 HAR chez G. 15 52] 54 0} 25 O| 289 16| 2 33) « 3 [Shower ....s.dscededp G 18°37 | Lis 0} 63) 0 |, AT 1G, |) 62 33) |e 5 |Fine train .....écecee| G. 19 25 | 197 80| 86 O| 71 46| 35 33]! « 54 |Fine train ...... aaeseay Gy 21 32 | 100 80 | 27 80 | 334 46] 27 38] 2 Be) eh ae eiaes apes G. 23 5 rage het Bete all hace eet (eke ee & 2} |Finetrain ; from Mars) G. 24 5| 54 O| 24 80| 28816] 24 38] « 3 |Fine train ...j.,......) G. 25 26 | 129 O0| 22 O 316 | 21 33) 6 4, \Train ssc... .ccaeddeoces| G. 28 1) 122 ©} 48 0} 356 16) 47 3 a AG PAD OD Api ssac otes G. 23.58 | LOGrSONp ee.aes 10) 46 |). gsscca a“ ... |Horizon wh Ge. 29 50 | 124 0] 85 O| 358 16| 34 33| B EW. These desccavseds G. 31 5 | 356 0] 24 O| 230 16| 23 33 | « 9 Hextnsdeediaed G. SEs itis) |p isedsee . Wakte sats {|e aseadd & 9 Je Urse Majoris ..... ) G. 32 16.) aden SO) WO We secacger easiest @ Gol OU sesdanecseccae G. 33 27 9 0} 21 30 | 245 16) 21 3] B Qh vali by evedeanedesetes G. 34 26} 10 O| 16 80 | 24416] 16 3] «@ Gr ollie | bazegtacsccccazs G SO LD wacked Metewsaedae (etasseaa & 2 |From Castor eet G. 35 32.| 85 0] 32 30:|.269 16} 32 3) 6 2 Sache eppeoet er G. 36°32) |) Saddev®: | end eae ine lie sete a ... |Across Castor ... e500. G. 36 59 |} 7 OO} sl O} 30716) 30:3 y Zibihe A | steds decenessea G. ol & 23.0 )) SL (0) 257 16s 50: 3 B OF | wesddievceset id G. 38 16] 355 0} 27 OO} 22916) 26 33 | B 83 oer, ad G. 3868 sosasig 20. REPORT—=1867~i5 us BESGILTAS ; DANE oe tea ee nm True Grd. | 36 Sat | Bey Bole Be] 2g ig 3 Mean | Mean [.sesi-|- 2S | ESS | ESS | abuses ee ac Solar Solar |< S:5 Bf | $88 | SSS | Ss lee ga] Time. ss =2'5 r= ane lees a Sale mish sa 28 Time. Og | OF (O48 [O48 | SaMArle: vas OA hmsj|hwms ea; he wt Pe | eS fee 12 41 41 38 49| 25 0| 64 0] 25916] 6333] « G. 42 18 39 26 | 43 30] 37 30| 277 46] 37 3] « G. 43 10 ADutealas... eg Oly eae Scan ata a G. 43 52 41 0] 356 01° 28 30] 23016] 28 3] « G. 44 34 Al 42} 313 01-21 0] 18716] 2033] « G. 45 15 42 93! 16 01 32:0} 25016! 31 33] B G. 46 0 43 81 45 01 25 30] 27916] 25 3] « G. 46 37 43 45 | 11 0] 28-0] 24516) 2733] « G. 47 30 44 38 230! 23 0| 236 46] 22 33] « G. 48 28 45 36 | 353 0] 40 0] 22716] 39 38] « G. 49 6 46 14] 91 0] 29 0} 32516] 28 33] « G. 50 22 47 30 9 0| 44 30| 24316] 44 3] @ | 10 |Clouding over ...... G. 51 26 AB 4-8 Merhncs 70] Wetter eonmeaeste) 1S Zeeacs a 9 8, e Urse Majoris ...| G. 52 40 49 48] 36 0| 41 0O| 27016] 40 33] « 1d |S heer es G. 53 16 50 24| 70 O| 34 30| 30416] 34 3] « CY eae Se G. 53 52 510] 85 30| 22 0] 319 46] 21 33] 6b 5 ||" aoe ad G. 54 24 51 32] 5230] 44 0] 28646] 43 33] « 8 rain aeereien scare ..| G 55 18 5226] 10 0| 45 0O| 24416] 4433] «| Il i G. 56 4 53 12] 99 0O| 22 30 | 33316] 22 3] «@ 4 G. 56 45 53853 | 14 0] 49 0] 24816] 4833] «]} 11 G. 57 40 54 48] 96 0] 25 0] 33016! 24 33] « 4 G. 12 58 48/12 5556] 46 0] 22 0} 28016] 21 33] « 4 G. 13 33 35 | 13 30 43 6 0] 38 30] 24016] 38 3] 86 5 G. 34 36 31 44 | 4130] 29 0] 275 46] 28 33] 6 3 G. 35 18 32:26 | 59 0] 20 0] 29316] 19 33] B& 44 G. 35 46 32 54 | 22 0] 27 0}| 25616] 26 33] » 9 G. 36 8 33:16 | 74 0] 81 0] 80816] 3033] « 3d G. 37 38 34.46 | 59 30| 27 0 | 29346] 26 33] « 4 G. | 38 2 35.10'|- 60.30 | 21 30 | 294 46] 21 3] 6 43 G. 38 30 35-88-| 84-30] 20 0] 318 46] 19 38] 2 Dy) G. 38 50 35-58;|-61° 0} 36 0] 295 16] 35 33/| B 33 G. 39 15 36-23-| -26:30'| 69 0 | 26046] 6833) «| 11 .| Ge. 39 48 36-56 |. 70:3 51 30 | 304 46] 51 3|-2 14 G. 40 27 37 35 |-59°0| 50 0] 29316] 4933 | «¢ |.-a— G. 40 56 38.4 | 29°30] 51°30 | 253.46) 51-37 e | 11 G. 41 38 38 46 | 67-30] 76 O| 301 46] 7533) @ 1 G. 42 5 39 13 | 74°30] 87 0] 308 46 | 36 33] 33 G. 42, 27 39 35 | - 333 53 30 | 267 46 |. 53 3-|'2 | ‘OE G. 43 29 40°87 | 5430] 23 O| 288 46| 22 33] « 3 G. 43 42 40 50| 22 0| 389 0| 25616] 3833] 6B | 103 G. 44 8 41:16 | 77-0] 15 0] 311.16) 14 33]-2« 2 G. 44 48 41 56 5 30] 61 0O| 239 46] 6033.) « | 102 G. 45 24 42 32! 73 30| 28 0| 307 46] 27 33] B 34 G. 45 57 43 5| 70 0| 43 0O| 30416] 4233] 3 G. 46 30 43 38| 39 0] 20 30] 27316] 20 3] B 52 G. 46 55 44 3/ 63 0] 29 O| 297.16] 28 33] a 6 G. 47 28 44 36 | 67 30] 40 0] 301 46| 39 33] B 23 Ga. | 48 21 4529] 84 0| 42 30] 31816] 42 3] 6 QR G. 4 49 0 46 8] 56 0| 28 30] 29016] 28 3] «@ 4 G. 49 29 46 387 | 66 0} 33 30] 29016]: 33 3] 32 G. 49 58 47 6| 70 0} 18 0O| 30416] 1733] > 42 G. 50 27 47 35 | 74 0| 38 30| 30816] 38 3] » 3 G. 51 16 48 94! 48 0| 17 30| 28216] 17 31] B 41 Gg. 52 8 49 16| 96 0| 28 0} 32016 )| 27 33 |-« 4 G. | 52 52 50 (0/127 01) 57 0 116] 5633] B 32 G: 54 3 51 39 | 164 0/] 6630] 8816] 66 3] @ 41 G. 5o 10 5218! 89 0| 55 0O| 32316] 5433] » Bis| ok ie Sa. @ 5D 53 53 1/151 30! 62 0| 2546] 61 33] « BA) cee Be eae G. 56 39 53 47| 85 O| 86 0]| 31916] 85 33] « Ba ee G. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 369 uy a : re : : a) S mn Mean Sok 34 3 eae dh #5 = $8 “| 3 io S Bor | Sor | go | ge | gee | SSe:| | E Nots. 5 § ‘ 3 25 S-e oe 3| oe a |S | 8 at aa a Time. | O69 |.O5 (OSS | OS S|] A- . Ow hm s hms os (2 ag | be] Ow She, |e h.» 13 57 12 | 13 54 20 88 30 44 0°} 322 46 43 33°|-B 33 G. 57 42 54 50 | 133 .0 42 30 7 16 42-3] B 4°? G. 58 10 55 18 93° 03) edl 102): 327°16 30 33 | 41° G. 58 49 5a Oa 80 30 0} 314 16 29.33'|*y |? 44 G. 13 59 25 56 33 72°30 | 42 0 | 306 46 41 33.) y 3 G. 14 0 54 58 2 20 0 25 0 | 254.16 94 33.| 'e | °10 G. 2. 2 59 10 76 O 25 0] 310 16 24 33 | 6B 14 G. 2 37 | 13 59 45 | 105 O 21 0} 339 16 20 33° |.<6 a G. 3 20 | 14 0O 28 95.0 28 0} 259 16 QE 88.\-+a es G. 4 1 ‘Tee 9 26 0] 38 30 | 260 16 38° 3.| £ Pi VEE G. 4 36 14 81 0] 29 30} 315 16 29 3} a] +4 G. 5 25 2 33 65 0 45 0 | 299 16 | .44 33./.6 2s G. G& 0 3.8 42 30 42 0 | 276 46 4} 33° |e nab G. 6 48 3 56 14 30 42 0} 248 46 4 33. oF G. 7 33 4 41 76 0 29 0} 310 16 28 33 | «@ 43 G. 8 11 5.19 27 30 18 0 | 261 46 17 33.) 2 7s G. 8 44 5 52 20 0 37 (0 | 254 16 36 33 | « a a. 9 25 6 33 22 0} .18 0] 256 16 17 33 | > 4 G. 9 36 6.447). 74. 0 24 0 | 308 16 23.3. | @ 43 G. 10 44 7:52:| 78. 0} 29 0:|.312-16)|. 28:33 |p] 4 G. me 8 8 .16:| .83:30 | 42 0.|'317 46°} 141, 33 | B 3 G. 11 37 | = 846°|'197' 0.) -34:0:|: 361 16: |) 83°33] B | 4 G. 13 10 | 10) 48%| 124:90.j]! 24 (0']’358 46 | 723 33 | @ |.) 43 G. 13 21 10°29 ‘817-0 A6:°0°| 315 '16 |: 45 33:| « 3 G. 14 52 12 .O-|: }58is-04) --53 <0") 292 16 52-33 | @ me G. 15 27 12 35 Hadtee S| Seeccseas fa pacemec te” wyeece a 4 G. 16 52 14 0/115 0 60 0} 349 16 59 33 | B 4 G. 17 44 ee Ola ee Gee. ill Meas Me a csak fimeeasaes ues ... |Across Pleiades; 263) G. 19 36 16 44 91 O} .11 30 | 325 16 LY ee ee, 3 visible. G. 20 29 ion | iG? 0) -39' O 344 16 38 33) az 4} G. 22 26 19 34 2 0 39 0 | 259 16 38 33 | «@ 9 G. 23 11 20 19 59. O 65 0 | 293 16 64 33 | 12 G. 23 41 20 49} 101 0} .29 0] 335 16| 28 33) B 4 G. 24 30 21 38 32) 0 50 0 6 16 49 33 | «@ 4¥ G. 25 20 22 98 | 121 O 37 0 | 355 16 36 33 | @ 4 a. 25 44 22 52 42 0 48 0 | 276 16 47 33 | B 12 G. 26 50 23 58 99 O 12 0 | 333 16 11 33 | B 44 G. 31 38 28 46 | 102 O 23 0 | 336 16 22 33 | B ay G. 32 9 29 17 53) O 33 30 | 287 16 38) Us! he 5 G. 53 35 30 43 | 112 0 24 30 |.346 16 24 3/ ax G 34 56 32 4 69 30 45 0 | 303 46 44 33] « 33 G. 35 27 382 35 25 0] :36 <0 |:259 16 35. 83 | 6B 8k G. 355 50 32 58 61 30 56 0 | 295 46 DO every vec 7 be Ga. 36 28 33 36 | 49 0} 21 0 | 283 16 20 33 | « GRAS CR eee cies G. 37 18 34 26 5 ) 16 0 | 239 16 tb 33 | 6 Megat ah bceas.Seewestas G. 38 4 35 12 | 358 30 27 0 | 232 46 26 83 loa SEEN: meets te G. 39 14 36 22} 20 0] 387 0 | 254 16 | 86 33 | & | + 82.|Greenish colour...... G. 39 49 36 57 | 349 30 | 47 0 | 223 46| 46 33 | B SiS? Oe aR ee Se G. 41 8 388 16} 92 0] 33 30 | 326 16 30 3] 4 PR) Ves G. 42 6 39 14 63 0 34 30 | 297 16 34 3) B ae G. 43 52 41 0] 3851 0 32 O | 225 16 31 33 | > BP) || a hs es eetens G. 44 28 41 36 | 285 30 8 0] 159 46 733) Ales Bak |Hlagh:) eceeaceeee ee G. 46 3 43 11 72 0} 65 O | 306 16 64 33 | > TORS |, eee RS G. 47 19 44 27 17 0 58 O |} 251 16 57 33. | B IGE, 5S Ga. 48 44 45 52] 104 O 35 0 | 338 16 34 33 | B TELS. © iccaeeseeneases G. 49 38 46 46 58 30 17 0 | 292 46 NG Sart a 5 |Little more than a} G. 50 38 47 46 | 2030] 43 0 | 254 46] 42 33] > 9 flash. G. 14 52 2/)144910] 52 0} 25 O| 28616] 2433! « Gi. |e aR eetetedeed G. 1867. 370 REPORT—1867,. ™ a . ES ra] nm Mean ee Sa Fe cS) Fy 23 3 {3 £ nS e k Solar eee 5 5 BE 5 ae] 3 B 2 B, 3 Notes E I 5 C nD = ag Bee a 2S 3 5 a DQ =| Hime Time | O94 | 63 [SS8/598/H81 Sz hms/]}hms sat oh a rah h 14 53 45 | 14 50 53 | 341 0} 62 0] 21516] 61 83] « 9 G. 54 49 bl 57 | 885 0 59 O | 209 16 58 33 | a ona G. 55 35 52 438 6 0 44 0 | 240 16 43 83 | « S G. 58 40 55 48 60 O 53 O | 294 16 52.33 | » 1 G. 14 59 32 56 40 | 95 OO} 47 O| 82916] 46 83] « 3 G. 1 U5 Sr aa 58 9 | 355 0} 32 O| 22916] 81 33] « 8 Ga. 2 32 | 14 59 40 | 308 O 68 0} 172 16 67 33 | « 8 G. 3 341}15 042] 39 O| 37 O| 273 16| 3683] « 7 G. 4 54 Re Betdtes wil) Mrocaveeniaccckos © \ilmease a eae, DS teehee ee eeys G. 4 54 eS Reed i Pesgeser Wetisscvvelis Nees eae a To. the "We .ssesssss aes G. 6 8 316] 60 0} 387 O|} 29416] 36 33] B veal Uh ob Mitepaederees G. 8 4 Dealer eees. ||, beceseate eects [Mies oc B 4 |From Procyon west- G. 8 25 5 33 | 127 0 32 0 1 16 31 33 | B 5 ward. G. 9 28 6 36 | 14 30] 25 30 | 24846] 25 38] « 74 |Lasted 58°; green ...| G. 11 48 ee ae ier ea ee ap ea e | 4 G. 14 11 11 19 | 322 0} 17 30/196 16) 17 8] 'e 8 G. 14 54 12 2}| 296 0| 62 80|17016) 62 3] « 74 G. 15 47 12 55 | 349 O 64 30 | 223 16 64 3! « 9 G. 16 40 13 48} 15 0] 33 30] 24916] 33 38] B 74 G. 17 16 14 24 1 0} 31 80 | 23516) 31 3] Bg 74 a. 18 15 15 23-| 291 30 37 0} 165 46 36 33 | 6B 74 G. 19 15 16 23 | 262 O|] 24 0} 18616] 23 338] e« ves G. 20 09 18 7} 300 0} 28 0/| 17416] 27 33] B ves G. 21 34 18 42 | 337 80] 42 O| 211 46] 41 33] « 8 G. 22 28 19 36 0 O| 38 30 | 23416] 88 3] 5 G. 25 0 22 8/141 0} 238 OO} 1516] 2233] « 42 G. 25 11 2219] 1230] 34 O| 24646! 33 33] RB 74 G. 26 13 23 21 | 354 0] 21 O]} 22816] 2033) B 74 G. 27 13 24 21 17 0 36 0 | 251 16 35 a3 | @ 74 G, 28 14 25 22 | 3832 0] 56 0} 20616] 55 33] e& 74 G. 28 23 25 31 | 261 0] 63 0] 138516] 62 33] « 63 G. 29 2 26 10 | 381 0) 40 30] 20516] 40 8)... 8 G. 31 29 28 37 3 30] 55 30 | 237 46/ 55 38! e 8 G. 33 19 30 27! 62 0} 66 O|} 29616] 65 33] « 11 G. 34 10 31 18 | 324 80] 42 80| 198 46| 42 38] « 73 G. 37 (7 34 15 | 339 0| 24 0] 213 16} 23 33] » 74 G. 387 45 34 53 | 59 30] 72 0} 293 46] 71 338] « 11 G. 38) 2 35 10} 6430] 27 80| 298 46] 27 3) .e4 5 G 39 42 36 50} 46 0} 25 0/| 28016] 2433] » ls a. 40 26 37 34 | 93 0} 20 0] 82716] 1938] « 44 G. 40 38 SURAG | RRA, ses et adenae ale Mee chia'e a .... |Ran across Leo in a} G. 41 36 38 44 67 30! 49 30] 301 46] 49 3] « 13} curved direction. | G. 43 44 40 52 | 359 3 23 0} 238 46} 22 33] « 7S |Fime train ......,.ce2+ G. 44 40 41 48 16 21 0} 250 16 20 33} B 7 G. 45 33 42 41 | 326 30 39 O | 200 46 38 33 | 8 G. 46 24 43 32 | 293 0| 28 0O| 26716] 22 83] a 74 G. 47 4 44 12} 352 0| 37 0] 22616] 36 33] 2 73 Ga. 49 27 46 35 | 295 30} 18 30 | 269 46} 18 3] « 7 -| G. 51 19 48 27 | 322 0 53 0 | 196 16 52 383 | B 8 G. 53 28 50 386 5. 0 26 30 | 239 16 26 3) B 74 G. 55 30 52 38 4 30 14 O |} 238 46 13 33 | «@ 74 G. 15 58 18 55) 26420707). 5a 20/9276 16 |. 52983 |i a | 407 G. 16 012/ 15 57 20) 25 0} 34 O| 25916) 33 33] gp 73 G. 2 21 | 15 59 29 9 0}; 54 0} 24316] 53 83] pg 8 G. 356]16 1 4 331 30} 41 30 | 205 46 41 3] ea 7s G. 4 31 1 39 | 331 30 | 28 30 | 205 46] 28 8] « 74 G. 5 26 2 34 | 298 30 6 30 | 172 46 6 B81 tz G. TUS Sy thea Oe: 9) la |G eo a a“ G. tenons 10 Between a, B Urse. 4 ; A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 371 q 5 £ si a oir} so | Soc Ss ss he Solar Solar omr| op ogo a5 0 5 Ss Notes. ag Time. ae a5 SS | SRR | SSRIS | 3 Ba Time. or Oa peas (O48 /8]/ a Og 16 848/16 5 56] 223 80} 28 0} 9746) 27 33) e 53 G. 9 4 6 12 | 290 0} 31 30 | 164 16 oo woiiez ie G. 11 29 8 37 | 22 0 60 O | 256 16 59 33 | «@ 9 G. 12 48 9 56 74 0 59 O |} 508 16 58 33 | @ 11 G. 14 29 11 37 69 0} 380 O| 303 16 29.33 | « 43 G. 15 2 12101116 0} 48 80} 35016) 48 3] @ di G. 16 8 1316] 6730] 53 O|} 3801 46 52 33 | «@ 103 G. 16 53 {ee 29 0} 61 O} 263 16 60 38 | @ 9 G. 20 3 7 bt | spi 0 14 30 | 225 16 14 3 | te ve G. 20 47 17 55 | 327 0] 21 30/| 20116] 21 3] y 7 G. 22 22 19 30 | 231 0 57 O |} 105 16 56 33 | @ V4 Ga. 30 4 27 12 | 214 0 56 O 88 16 55 383 | a 53 G. 31 18 28 26 bie Oo} sl OF) 285 16 30 3] ¥ 7 a. 32 1 99 9| 12 0| 4030) 24616| 40 3| «@ 724 Ga. 34 33 31 41 | 341 30 | 65 O| 215 46 64 38 | a 8 G. 38 47 35 55 | 23 0| 86 0} 257 16) 35 33] » 74 G. 89 52 387 0 | 322 0) 59 380} 196 16| 59 3] » 74 G. 42 6 39 14| 43°70 |, 65 0 | 277.16 64 33 | B 9 G. 16 44 46 | 16 41 54] 56 0} 81 O/} 29016! 8033! » 11 G. Number of meteors observed, 229. 11 46 32 | 11 43 40} 2013) 52 45 | 254 16 | 52 18 | ... }, PP roayonssdece.eiss wei || Ale 11 59 56 57 4] 4830} 51 O| 27746) 5033 | e@ 2 miaddata tee svete A. 12 1 35 | 11 58 43 5 O| 42 O| 2389 16] 41 33] « CTSA ol inchs ae a eee A. 437|12 145] 46 0} 15 30| 27016| 15 3| > 3 A. 6 138 321 | 48 0| 22 Oj 282 16| 21 33| » 3 A. 9 44 6 52| 47 0} 21 30 | 281 16 es |h\ ee 33 A. 12 41 949} 34 30 13 O | 268 46 12 335 | @ -t A. 13-0 1031-28: 0 16 0 | 262 16 Pape: | 2 4 A. 14 30 ie se) bt 0) 30 305) 28b 1G) 30h 3°) 2 2. A. 15 35 12 43 | 21 30] 34 30 | 25546] 34 3] @ 14 A. 16 37 13 45| 42 0O| 25 30 | 276 16 25 3] 6 3 ‘A. 17 37 14 45 46 0} 25 30} 280 16 25 3| » 3 A. 18 2 1p AO 55 0} 23 O | 289 16 22 33 | «@ 3t A. 18 33 15 41 54 0) 24 30 | 288 16 2 Ble 3 A. 19 59 Whats 41 30 19 O | 275 46 18 33 | @ 34 A. 26 15 23 23 8 0| 48 0) 237 16 42 33 | « il A. 27 36 9A 44!) 46 0} 21 30) 280 16| 21 3] 6 3 A. 28 26 Sy) ote (eee mero) ateeecaps.” atecosean |p (ssaese a 34 .| A. 29 51 9659 | 83 O| 48 80| 31716] 48 3] 2 23 A. 30 44 27 52| 90 0} 45 O| 224 16| 44 33 | « 3 A. 31 16 98 244.) 39 0} 25 0) 273 16) 2438) 6 3 A. 32 38 29 46 7 O| 25 O| 241 16| 24 33| « 10 A. 33 29 80 37 | 52 0] 26 80) 286 16| 26 3] « 33 A. 34 5 8113| 21 O| & O} 255 16] 383 33 | e& 12 A. 34 57 32) Ds scsspia lMiacecerere acreeds! «|! Us Becks a“ 9 A. 36 34 33 42 | 1384 0) 28 30 816} 28 3} 4 42 A. 46 42 43 50 | 215 0} 57 30] 8916) 57 3| a 6 A. 48 25 45 33 | 209 80 | 52 0} 7846) 51 33| @ Gabel: tke ee A. 49 48 46,56 1. cctv, letaceste’s, lian ccacsty MM texsecd a 4 |Across the Nebula in} A. 5O 1 47 91 132 0 15 30 6 16 Ney ee 4 Orion. A. ‘yy 48 13| 74 0} 27 380 | 238 16| 27 3] @ yall PE CCE cere ve 54 29 51 87 | 104 0} 26 30} 338816} 26 3] « GOD TNS Gt iidecowaeeran 3 A. 56 45 53 53 | 62 30] 34 0} 296 46} 33 33 | « SLD ry be eheehintias anaes A. 57 24 54 3821 32 0} 48 O| 266 16 42 33 | B sl vuacmecenages a A. 12 58 18 55 261} 57 O]} 29 O| 291 16| 28 33] @ as scekaadounenees A. iS) 155 | 1259 3/133 0} 18 0 elGuh es Ue a3) |. 24 |Flash; began to rain} A. Sermrtrpaeals |) 14 AA Orb ie eiseioe lB seasac eit ceduen atlll pieaaris a 42 | Across mid.xin Orion] A. PA 372 REPORT—1867. oO . n True iS tS i sgeg lagen |B = os Mean os on oso | P52] s ae So Solar Sa He ae 28 ae ° | & 8 Notes. fb z - = Bm pape sh] SSH |e | 8 a Time Time | 69 | OF [OAS |SOSS |S] A oye hms|hwms i nS h BE 0.) salagieee | x Ml Yael ee a | 4 |A little above y| A. 55 10 Del Reet |= he eec ban! Gacesenss sl Ubseone 43 | Orionis. A. 14 56 9 Pies liia|imeeseaste |||) yete Grant’s description. 6° “At 14" 41", G. M. T., my attention a iN was directed to an extraordinary blaze oe wy of light in the constellation Ursa Ma- = 3 os, v jor. When first seen it presented the GMiad < or : fh 2 Ya "4 appearance of a slightly curyed broad © Ne Se re band of light, indicative of the train of Sey cal iy i a meteor which itself had already dis- © Sse Sgt ? Se tae es , bs iekp appeared, and which, judging from what See Mf was left behind, must have far exceeded Sy. @ : Z PSs pe in lustre any of the meteors seen during Sz the night. The first apparition of this remarkable phenomenon I unfortunately lost, having been engaged at the time in writing down some details in my notebook. It was obvious, however, that the meteor had only just va- nished, for the residuary mass of light was still very bright. I could only compare its appearance in this respect to that presented in a dark night by the blazing furnace of one of the great iron-works in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. In less than a minute after it was first seen it assumed the appear- ance of a horseshoe, or inverted arch, of diffused and rapidly diminishing light, one extremity of which was projected upon e Ursee Majoris, and the other upon y and 6 of the same constellation [No.1]. Gradually it expanded in dimensions and grew fainter; at the same time the arch became more elongated and pointed, suggesting its resemblance to a merry-thought, or the outline of a heart. At 14" 48™ the western extremity was still attached to e Urse Majoris, but the eastern had drifted from y and 6 to @ and f of the same constellation | No. 3]; an effect doubtless attributable to the prevalence of a westerly wind, which was blowing at the time. The apex was seen to descend as far as Urs Majoris, or perhaps a little lower. This remark- able object continued to be distinctly visible till 14" 56™; even at 15" traces of it might still be discerned”. Professor Piazzi Smyth thus describes the appearance of the train at the Carlton Hill Observatory at Edinburgh :— * Explanation of the figure.—No. 1. Appearance of the streak at 14" 42™, G. M. T. No. 2. Appearance at 14% 44™, No.3. Appearance at 145 48™, No. 4. Shortly before disappearance at 14» 52™, A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 377 “ Of bright meteors .. . there must have been one about 2" 40™ a.m, between @ Urse Majoris and a Urse Minoris; for immediately thereafter the central part of its luminous track was brilliantly conspicuous, like a silver snake in the sky. From minute to minute the luminous line became more corrugated, widening and becoming fainter by degrees; and also drifting, apparently under the action of the north-west wind blowing at the time; even after a quarter of an hour the train-matter was still visible, but changed to some- thing like the outline of a gigantic pear, and drifted some 30° from its first position.” At Sunderland, in Durham, Mr. Backhouse obtained a view of the persistent light-streak, and to his report is added a de- Ree scription of another meteor, and drawings of Fonks= their appearance. “At 2" 21™, a meteor as bright as Jupiter, directed from ¢ Leonis, left a train, a part of which lasted two minutes. At 2" 22” 30° it was like fig. 1. “On looking out of the window at 2" 42™ a... I discerned the train of a meteor, the upper part Canis being a patch of light much brighter than the rest. 2@207 Ox “ Fig. 2 shows it soon after I discovered it, and fig. 3 at 2" 44™ 405 a.m. It was visible at 2" 53", Fig. 2. Fig. 3: eX Cephet ox Cephet ee Pe ar, en Cygni oa Cygut “T did not sce the meteor, but am told that it was as bright as the moon.” A description of the meteor, as seen at Newcastle-upon-Tyne by Mr. T. P. Barkas, gives a perfectly similar account of its appearance. The meteor shot past Polaris, and became extinguished in the neighbourhood of £3 Cephei. (4) 1866, November 20th, 4” 4.21. (local time), Nashville, Tenn. U.S.A. Extract from the New York ‘ World,’ 24th November. Meteorological Phenomenon.—At Nashville, about four o’clock last Tues- day morning [the 20th of November 1866], a meteor lighting the whole heavens was seen in the direction of Rome, Ga., moving rapidly south-west. Tt appeared like a ball of fire as large as the sun. It exploded apparently ten miles off with a tremendous report, like a 40-lb. cannon, that shook the earth and made the windows rattle.” The “ phenomenon,’ if it actually took place as here described, forms an addition to the list of detonating meteors happening about the 20th of No- vember, already enumerated in previous Reports (British Association Report, 1866, p. 125). 378 REPORT—1867. (5) 1867, Junc 11th, 8" p.., G. M. T. (France and Switzerland). Accounts of this meteor were collected by Professor Ed. Hagenbach-Bis- choff at Basle, and by M. W. de Fonvielle at Paris. The following description of its appearance, first ascending vertically and then slightly falling, at Basle shows that a projection of its course prolonged, would pass nearly through that town. Basle, June 13th, 1867.—I stood with a telescope on the ‘ Bruderholz,’ near my house at Madérg, when the meteor made its appearance. As soon wi i, Race rae Cree “AKT ew eaneese. Sion PP eae = —ee wrasse, pa P- ess me WILTED T Papo ip ge ko i ees Lae Fireball of June 11th, 1867; and appearance of the streak, as observed in tho telescope, at Basle, by H. Christ. as it appeared, directly over the middle of the forest, I pointed the telescope to it and examined therewith the successive changes of the white, semitrans- parent, faintly luminous cloud which it left for the space of about an hour. “Immediately after the disappearance of the nucleus (which rested like a fixed star at the summit of its course for about half a second, fig. 1) there re- mained at the spot a small globular cloud (fig. 2) which rapidly extended itsclf, as if dissipated by an upward current of air, as in fig. 3. _ Tt then took the form of a winding, riband-like, or irregularly spiral curve (fig. 4), which it preserved for the space of about half an hour, and at last gradually assumed the cirrus-forms shown in figs. 5 and 6, and disappeared in the approaching darkness after nine o’clock. The accompanying figures are exact and careful representations of its successive transformations. One remarkable feature of the phenomenon was that the originally deposited small globular cloud of vapour remained visible for a long time, as shown in figs. 3 and 4, at the basis of the streak.” (Report of H. Christ to Professor E. Hagenbach-Bischoff.) Excellent bearings of the meteor taken in the neighbourdood of Basle en- A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 379 able Professor Hagenbach to fix the summit of its apparent path at that place at 123° above the horizon, 45° west from north, in the direction of Dunkirk, Oise, Aisne, Meuse, and Marne in the North of France. The meteor was seen in daylight at Paris proceeding almost horizontally at an altitude of about 225°, from 3° west to 34° east of north (Comptes Rendus, 24th June, 1867)*. Comparing together the observations at Basle and Paris, Professor Hagenbach concludes that the meteor moved from over Dunkirk to over the neighbourhood of Cambray, in the Département du Nord, at a height of between sixty-five and eighty-five miles above the earth in a direction from north-west towards south-east. The following observation at St. Quentin, in Aisne, twenty-five miles south of Cambray, shows that the meteor continued its course still further towards the east, and probably passed a short distance south of St. Quentin; and of the course assigned to it by Professor Hagenbach. “A very small point of crimson-red light was first scen, appearing in the east and proceeding rapidly north- ‘ wards, as from a to 0} in the figure “ ; > (No.1). It then changed its appear- F 7 ance to a flame-colour, and suddenly eek HIE ge e altered its direction at an obtuse angle descending towards the west of north, as from 6 to c, and gradually became extinguished. Its duration was about two seconds. After its disap- pearance there remained in the sky, traced with wonderful di- eae stinctness, a bright white streak 4 ; (hh in the form of fig. 2. In the course of ten minutes its lines grew wider and became diffuse.”’ (Report of Hormisdas Leblanc, Mayor of St. Quentin, to M. W. de Fonvielle.) The sudden change of course, noticed by M. Leblanc, was probably attended by a detonation ; for at Braine sur Viste, near Soisson, in Aisne, about thirty miles south of St Quentin, M. Ed. Lainney reports to M. de Fonvielle :— “‘ Walking in the fields at about eight o’clock on the evening of the 11th of June, we heard a heavy report like that of a distant mine exploding, or of a battery of cannon fired offin the distance. Twenty miles from this place, at Fresnes, a luminous meteor was seen moying from N.W. to 8.E., and it burst _ with a loud explosion.” Distant views of the meteor were obtained in the Cote d’Or and in Haute _ Marne, which confirm the other accounts of the long duration of the smoke- _ like train, and afford some more details of the position of the meteor. The _ first of these reports is by M. L. Roussy, chronometer-maker to the Toulouse _ Observatory, whose acquaintance with the writings of M. Petit on the sub- _ ject of luminous meteors led him to observe the phenomenon with particular attention. __ “Twas in the train which had just left the station near Dijon (Cote d’Or) returning to Paris, and leaning against the window on the right of the train, when at 8" 9™ (Paris time) I perceived a luminous streak of very intense light preceded by an advancing fireball, of which the accompanying figure * M. J. J. Silbermann, who saw the meteor from the Collége de France, thought that its altitude was “about 60°” (Letter to M. de Fonyielle); and other accounts at Paris assign intermediate heights to these. 380 REPORT—1867. (fig. 1) is a rough sketch. A break in the streak about the middle of its Fig. 1. LN = ices ca) Abytluas ™x« W/Z 2 es ce Horizon length showed a point where the fireball, on arriving from A to B, must have undergone a partial extinction for an instant before acquiring again the splen- dour with which I saw it in its course from B to C, At the latter point it disappeared, as shown in the figure, with a shower of sparks at about 31° or 32° above the horizon. «During the space of eight minutes the train of light preserved its form, while its brilliancy at the same time gradually decreased. It then grew more diffuse, both lengthening and widening, and undergoing a deformation of its shape at the ends, which folded Fig. 2. in upon themselves thus—(see , fig. 2). It still continued to in- Qe ~ crease in length and volume, and oD to move pretty rapidly towards the west, while the changes of its shape continued. At nine o’clock it was still visible with its original brightness, and haying now the shape shown in fig. 3, which it preserved Fig. 3. until it vanished. Its colour at this time resembled that of steam from the funnel of a locomotive engine discoloured by coal-smoke. The point a formed the apex of a triangle where two lines of the streak ab, ac met together without any portion of the streak between them. At 9" 5" p.m. a star (E) a little over, and to the right of the sunset made its appearance, and by its aid the gradual motion of the streak towards the west was easily perceived. “T expected that from the great height at which the streak was probably placed, it would still continue to be illuminated for a much longer time, but it gradually disappeared at the same time that the stars began to make their appearance in the sky. « At 9" 15™ p.m. the length from a to R was three times the length which the streak had whenit was first deposited.” At Vignes (Haute Marne) the meteor appeared in the north-west and moved slowly and nearly horizontally at a small apparent height above the horizon from north-west to south-east. It was brilliant white, and disap- peared in ten or twelve seconds without explosion, leaving a white streak of light, which at first had the appearance represented in fig. 1, which it pre- ee A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 381 served for some minutes. The streak then expanded, and became bent and Fig. 1. EE -— 2 EE=FIEDG 2 ae ZA. Ze oe twisted without losing its bright and dense appearance into the form of fig. 2, Ten or twelve minutes after its first appearance its form was that of fig. 3. It was now drifting slowly from the east towards the west, and without losing anything of its sharpness of definition and bright white appearance it was hidden behind a cloud, fifteen or twenty minutes after the time of its first appearance. (Report of M. Gilbin to M. de Fonvielle.) The accounts of numerous other observers in Paris, Rheims, and Strasbourg, in France, at Luxembourg, and at Geneva, Bern, Z iirich, and Lielthal, in Swit- zerland, as well as at Lindau on the eastern shore of the Lake of Constance, testify to the same general appearance of the meteor, the occurrence of which near the date of the 9th of June, marked in the present year by the fall of an aérolite (noticed in the next paragraph) in Algeria, and in 1866 by the stonefall of Knyahinya, appears to connect it with the same aérolitic period to which the latter meteorites belong. Il. Awrozires. 1867, June 9th, 10" 80" p.r. (local time). Plain of Tadjera, Amer Gue- bala, near Setif, Algeria. A luminous body was seen to descend towards the earth, and when arrived at a certain height to burst into fragments. The flash of light was followed by rumbling noises, which ended in three loud reports, and were attended by a fall of aérolites. Three stones, which are undoubted meteorites, were afterwards picked up, and brought to Setif, which is ten miles from the place of fall. A fragment, which is deposited in the museum at Algiers, is placed at the disposal of the French Academy. (Comptes Rendus, August 5th, 1867.) IY. SuHowrr-Mereors. Meteoric shower of October 18th to 20th, 1866. In these Reports for the year 1847, the following observation occurs, Which refers to an abundance of meteors about the date of the 17th to the 26th of October, seen at Whitehaven by Mr. J. F. Miller, in the previous ear :— 7 “JT never saw more meteors than this winter. From October 17th to December 17th they appeared in great numbers every clear night, some as large as Jupiter. The most remarkable were between October17th and 26th, and on November 10th, 11th, and 12th.” 382 REPORT—1867. The occurrence of a meteoric shower with a very precise and well-defined radiant-point at v Orionis on the 18th of October 1864 and 20th of October 1865, was noticed in these Reports (for 1865, p.122; and 1866, p. 134), and the remarkable peculiarity of meteors emanating from this radiant-point was pointed out, that they are characterized by very ruddy colour, and by leaving voluminous streaks. On the nights of the 18th—-20th of October 1866, the sky was so gene- rally overcast in England that no special observations of the recurrence of the shower could be collected. An incidental confirmation of the periodical recurrence of remarkably fine meteors on this date is, however, afforded in the present catalogue by the account of an unusually large meteor, seen at sea between England and Ireland, on the morning of the 19th of October 1866; and described by Mr. J. Seymour Davies. The fireball presented precisely those peculiar features which characterize the meteors emanating from this special radiant-point, both by its violet colour, approaching to crimson, and by leaving a persistent luminous streak, which remained visible five minutes by the watch. The direction of the meteor, “ from south to north,” also agrees with that which meteors passing nearly overhead from this radiant-point would pursue at 3" a.m. (which was the hour of the obser- vation), when the constellation of Orion, in which the radiant-point is placed, is situated upon the southern meridian. Meteor-shower of November 13th—14th, 1866. On the night of the 12th-13th of November the densely overcast state of the sky in England permitted few observations to be recorded. At the Observatory, King’s College, Aberdeen, five observers took their station at 10" p.m., and watched until 1" 30" a.m. on the 13th. Mr. D. Gill reports :— «The sky was beautifully clear, excepting a low bank of cloud, which extended all round the horizon. At 12"50™ small patches of cloud appeared in different parts of the sky, but entirely disappeared by 1°30" a.u. Streaks of aurora appeared irregularly throughout the whole night. «Comparatively few meteors with trains were observed on this evening and the following morning, most of the phenomena partaking more of the appearance of ordinary shooting-stars. In the accompanying journal their general position only is noted.” The particulars of a few meteors of a marked description are entered above, in the Catalogue. The numbers of the meteors seen in the successive half hours by the five observers were as follows :— hem hm hm hm hom Open Tn the half-hour ending ...... IO 30 JI Oo I 30 2 0. 3230 “Rio 1730 Number of meteors seen ...... 4 2 12 12 7 8 7 Two flashes of lightning, in the 8.8.E., were seen at 1" 1™ and 1” 6™ 435 A.M. At Glasgow, with the sky two-thirds clear, Mr. A. 8, Herschel recorded ~ two meteors in twenty minutes on the same morning, from 3" to 3" 20™ a.m. November 13th—14th.—Clouds generally prevailed on the eyening of the 13th, and cleared off on the morning of the 14th of November. The follow- ing are extracts from the principal reports on the apparition of the shower :— At Manchester.— The night was tempestuous, with lightning, rain, and ~ hail until 12" 15™ a.m. on the 14th, after which the sky frequently became partially, or even totally obscured at intervals, but remained tolerably clear — A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 383 until 1" 30" a.m. The finest part of the display endured from 12” 45™ until 1* 15™ a.w., when the numbers seen fell off most rapidly, contrary to the ordinary rule of horary increase, until 4 o’clock a.m. As far as I can esti- mate, the number seen by one person about 1 o’clock must have averaged about 50 in one minute. At 1" 45" I counted 50 in six minutes, and at 3 o’clock only 15 in five minutes ! «‘ There was rather a remarkable glare during the display, and the sky was not nearly so dark as it should have been.” (Letter from Mr. Greg). Report of Mr. Dancer, optician and practical astronomer, of Manchester, to Mr. Greg.—* Meteors. Morning of November 14th, 1866, Manchester. No. of meteors Interval, seen. Remarks. Brom 12° 87" a.m, to 12° 538" a.m. 16™ 146 3 observers. eee Me tS 5) af ond OPS yg 625 100 2 ‘ At 25, 5a 66 3 a “¢ The largest seen had a purplish train and colour. ** One gentleman, in a very favourable position in Cheshire, reports fifteen meteors seen at once.” (Communicated by Mr. Greg.) Blackburn, Lancashire.—“ At 12" 15™ a.m, meteors appeared at the rate of two or three per minute. At 1" a.u., four or five conspicuous meteors were nearly constantly to be seen in the sky. One observer might, if his view were entirely uninterrupted by clouds, see fifty simultaneously. At 2" 15™ A.M. a comparative cessation. At 3" a.m., only afew weak ones in the space of two or three minutes. At 4", 5", and 6" a.m. no further appearances, the sky becoming more permanently overcast, with few glimpses of the stars. Immediately before sunrise, the sky being clear, there were no meteors visible.” (From the Manchester ‘ Examiner and Times.’) Beeston Observatory, Nottingham. Extract from Mr. Lowe’s observa- tions :— The first meteor seen was at 7" 59™ p.m., on the N.E. horizon, large and bursting like a rocket. From 8" until 10" p.w. much cloud. From 10° p.m. until 11" p.m. cloudless, twelve small meteors seen. Between 9" p.m. and 11" p.m. six flashes like faint reflected lightning *. At 10°36™ p.m. an indistinct meteor, a mere dull spark, moved from N. to 8. horizontally (this was evidently very low down, as a hill behind it was higher than the meteor. It was impossible to be deceived in this, and I consider that it passed within 100 yards of me). The sky was again cloudy until nearly half-past 1 o’clock A.m., but quite light from the meteors. h m * About 1 20 a.m, I counted myself 104 in a minute, at 1 30 ,, . si 100 - at 1 50 ” ” ” 80 9) at 3 30 ,, they had diminished to © 6 i andat4 30 ,, - pe 4 ¥ * T watched all through the night before, and we had three different times clear sky of from 20™ to 30™ duration between heavy showers, but not a single meteor was seen; and on the night following the shower, when clear, there were but few seen here.”’, Oundle.—Report of H. Weightman:—“ On the night of the 12th, although keeping a strict watch between 6" 30™ and 7" 30™ p.a., and again between 8" 30" and 9° 30™ p.w., I saw no meteor, I watched again in the open air “f oe The lightning flashes had not the looks of lightning. Was it reflected meteor ig 9? 884 REPORT—1867. from 11 p.m. until 5" a.., on the morning of the 14th, and recorded the following numbers :— Numbers| Average number R k Hour. seen. per minute. emer ess LTD PM tO NIZE Mecensc ese. 75 I Some time lost in preparations. 120 PM, 5,122 95™A-M....... 500 14 Several observers on the watch. 12) 35M a.m. to 124 50™a.M.| 500 3 3 ” (Their number then became too great to admit of being counted.) AIAN LOWS. 55™ to 12"55™ we counted 193 meteors. Average 3 per minute. At that time the sky was overcast. By 1" 30™ it was clear in the south (S.E. to 8.W.), though still cloudy in the N. and N.E. From 1" 30" to 1" 45™ a.m. we counted 350 meteors at least. Average 23 per minute. They appeared in rushes of 3, 4, or 5 at once. Several were visible through the fleecy clouds. Had the sky been clear all the time, I verily believe that we should have counted thousands. Gathering clouds drove us in with rain, at 2"15™ a.m. However, at a later hour it cleared somewhat, and I saw several more following the tracks of their predecessors.” At Aylsham, Norfolk.—Mr. W. H. Scott reports that on the morning of the 14th, “at 1" 15™ a.a. there was for about 10 minutes a perfect shower of A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 385 meteors. In 60 seconds I counted 28, although my place of observation was shut in by a house on one side. The least number that I counted in 60 se- conds during the time mentioned was thirteen. A dense cloud then came over from the N.W., and I could see no more. They were quite observable through the edges of the cloud when it first came over.” At Wimbledon.—A record of the number of the meteors was kept, with other particulars of the shower which will be given later on, by Mr. F. C. Penrose, assisted by one other observer. The names of the observers are in- dicated by the letters F. and H. in the register. Int Li Number of meteors seen by the observers o nterval, in F, and H. looking od pagats minutes and 5 ,G. M.T. than were counted). tr 30 § |53. F. Sky nearly 81. H. Sky clear. clear. seconds. South. North. m 8 } 2 30 © |33. H. Sky partially] 51. F’. Sky clear. cloudy. } I 35 |24. H. Sky consider-| 50. F. Sky clear. ably cloudy*. } r 45 |1g. F. Sky much 100. H. Sky clear. Number clouded. by estimation (many more J At London.—On the top of Primrose Hill, Mr. T. Crumplen, assisted by Mr. H. J. Wix, recorded the number of meteors seen during the shower. The sky was absolutely cloudless. A bright auroral glare spread itself over the north and north-eastern sky between 10" and 11" p.m, sufficiently luminous to obscure the fainter stars. Occasional sheet-lightning was ob- served during the progress of the shower. The observers looked in opposite directions, and counted audibly to prevent reduplication. Number of meteors Hour of obser- | Interval seen by Total in all} Average yation, Nov. in parts of the number per 14th, a.m. minutes.| Mr. Wix, |Mr.Crumplen, sky. minute. looking 8. | looking N. hm From 12 25 6 to 12 35 19 19 B25 42% 4% From 2 7 to 217 10 69 80 149 15 _ The above numbers, in both cases, appear to show that more meteors were visible in the northern than in the southern half of the sky. The maximum was reached between 1" and 1" 15" a.a., when 103 meteors were counted in 90 seconds in a space not exceeding one-third part of the sky, in a N.W. direction. * After this time the observers changed places. During the interval from th 4o™ to 2h a.m. there was a comparative absence of meteors. Soon afterwards the sky became much overcast. 1867, 2D 386 REPORT—1867. At Hawkhurst, Kent.—After midnight, on the morning of the 14th, the sky was nearly cloudless. One observer, looking towards the north, From 12" 0™ to 12" 5™ a.m., counted 25 meteors, Average 5 per min. From 12°48™to1l2°50iam., ,, 68 vA aah a Flashes, like faint lightning behind a small cloud, oceurred at 12" 35™ 4.m., and another later on. A third was seen about 2" 30™ a.m., which could not be traced to any spot. At Cowes, Isle of Wight.—Report on the meteors of the 13th-14th of November 1866. (‘The Times,” Noy. 16th.) Hour of observa- | Interval,| No. of | Average tion. in meteors | No. per Te soiane eon To minutes.| seen. | minute. hm h m TL ZOU ||| 12) Fo 30 66 2 12) fo 30 30 200 7 30 50 20 201 Io 50 58 8 190 24 58 Lara 4 201 50 2 5 3 206 70 5 Io 5 214 42 10 II I 100 100 II 13 2 206 103 Rate of apparition now too great for the meteors to be counted for some minutes. I 50 I 54 4 83 21 At 1» 30™ rain fell sharply. 2 20 2 35 15 73 5 Rain fell again during the last in- at Grrr ehegiteanitates sees 2 OY 3 terval. : at 5 ene daate none seen) ...... At Sidmouth, Devonshire.— Report of Mr. H, 8. Heinecken on the meteor- shower of the 13th-14th of November 1866, The sky was overcast, with frequent showers, until 12" 8™ a.m., and again from a quarter before one to one o’clock. Atone o’clock it cleared for about ten minutes, and after this it only cleared again at intervals throughout the night. Three observers looked due north, east, and south, through the closed, sloping windows of an observatory, which exactly faced in those directions, and obtained the following enumerations :— Hour of obserya- | Interval) No. of | Average tion, Nov.14th, ae in meteors | No. per Rivathe! From To | minutes. seen. minute, h ms{h m s) i) 58 : 12 8 10/12 45 of 36 50| 457 12 Three observers, looking N., E. and 8. t ©. Olet. TO!) Gc! to 130 13 Two observers only, looking E.and 8. 3.10 ©] 3.20 Oo} ro 31 3 Do. At 5" 10™ a.m. the sky was suddenly illuminated by a flash of lightning ; but the light was of longer duration, and the meteor (if such was the cause of it) was “not seen. Bathwick Hill, Bath.—Report of Mr. W. Dobson, on “ Meteors observed at Bath. Nov. 14th, 1866.” A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Hour of observa- tion, Noy. 14th, a.m. From To h m h m Iz 9 12 15 15 30 30 43 Pg I 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 25 30 3° 35 35 40 40 45 45 5° 50 2 0 20 5 5 10 To 20 Interval,| No. of | Average in meteors | No. per minutes.| seen. | minute. 15 75 5 15 124 8 13 221 15 5 222 44 5 260 52 5 214 43 5 163 33 5 103 21 5 62 12 5 60 12 5 44 9 5 43 9 Le 35 7 5 45 e! 5 44 9 lh ao 24 5 387 Remarks. ———————— | Sky overcast with clouds since the last interval. The numbers were counted by Mr. Dobson when not occupied with observa- tions at the telescope ; when thus employed, another observer took up the numbers, and continued to register the meteors. At Birmingham.—Report of Mr. W. H. Wood on the November meteors of 1866, at Birmingham. “Numbers counted in one-third of the heavens, containing the radiant- point, by Mr. Wood, observing singly. Hour of observa- | £ tion, Noy. A From To hm hm 13] Io 4 P.M.| 1E 15 P.M. Ir 15 34 34 55 55 12 OAM. an 52 OAL 10 10 22 22 26 26 28 28 33 33 36 36 39 39 43 43 45 45 56 Seas" I 29 35 4I 41 47 55 iy 57 2 4 2 10 14. 20 23 Interval, in minutes. OBRIUY AAS No. of | Average meteors | No. per minute. seen. Remarks. Paths and particulars mostly noted. Amount of cloud 3. Light- ning in N, at 104 57™, Amount of cloud 3. Overcast, rain. Cloud -3,. Cloud 3. Then cloud, 3. Cloud, -2,. Sky clear, and remained so till 28 25™, then cloudy. The rate of apparition is now so great, that only special phenomena are re- corded, . [in N. Sky hazy. Clouds gathering Cloudy. Observations dis- continued. 2 = 2D 388 REPORT—1867. «‘ Number of meteors seen, in half hours, in a third part of the sky. bom bm Yh m -- hms boa fotal, In the half hour ending 1230 10 130 20 2 30 Number of meteors seen 56 510 684 308 70 1628 Estimated, for all the sky 170 1540 2050 920 210 4890 “Time of Max., 12 O0™ a.w.—l» 25™ a.m, No. for all parts, not less than 70 p. min. Hour of Max., 12 30™ a.m.—1» 30™ a.M., A e 3590 meteors.” At Aberdeen.—Report of Mr. D. Gill to Professor Grant, on the meteors of the evening of Tuesday the 13th of November, and morning of Wednesday the 14th of November 1866. ‘“‘ Two observers took their stations at 10" p.m. «The evening was beautifully clear. A low bank of clouds surrounded the horizon to a height of 3° or 4°; but this soon cleared off. «A breeze from the west became stronger as the night advanced, but no cloud appeared until 2" 30™ on the morning of the 14th, and by 3 o’clock the sky was totally obscured. Aurora was visible in regular rays from the north. “From the accompanying journal, giving details of observations up till 12" 483™ a.m., it will be seen that the number of meteors seen in the previous minute was 200. - “ From this time meteors, generally with nuclei of the brilliancy of Venus, and apparently emanating from Leo, shot out in all directions in such great numbers as to defy computation. “« By 1" 30™ the numbers had so fallen off that from that moment 100 were counted in 3™ 57° (about 25 per minute), and at 2" the same number in 5™ 208, or a little less than twenty per minute. The following is a list of the numbers visible as observed :— Evening of 13th November. Morning of 14th November. | Hour of observa- Hour of observa- tion, P.M. Total No.) Number | tion, A.M. rie ae Average rate AT S| of apparition vom To P.M. |minutes. | ou To the 13th. per minute. bit heal flay ant h m s/h ms I0 Oo Io 15 2 2 IZ 0 OIZ 7 30) 100 3 10-15 30 5 3 7 30 18 30} 200 Opus 30 45 Io 5 18 30/ ~24 30) 300 17 i Ae Xt te ‘7 : 24 30| 30 301 goo 17 | uniform, II 0 15 29 12 30 30] 34 ©} 500 30 : 15 BS 38 Bl. dea el eer gel wee ae uniform. 319 45 53 Siem So] aCe IS eS 40 45 | 12 0 85 32, || +449 Of 45 30} goo | 45 45 30} 47 3c} 1000 | 50 At 15 30™ 4.m., ay. rate per min 25. 47 30, 48 30] 1200 | 200 gation A a yea By] «‘ A very striking feature is the markedly rapid increase compared with the gradual decrease. A curve representing the observations would indicate bands, or periods of uniform numbers.” At Glasgow.—After midnight, until 1 o’clock, passing clouds from the west occasionally obscured the sky. From 1 o’clock until after 3 o’clock a.m., the sky was perfectly free from clouds. The rate of apparition of the me- teors was registered at intervals throughout the shower by Professor Grant, as given in the subjoined list. Some notes of their numbers from Mr. Herschel’s observations are also placed in the register, and are denoted by the letter H. Those numbers observed by Professor Grant are designated by the letter G. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 389 | Hour of | Hour of Hour of No. of meteors No. of meteors No. of meteors observa- er minute observa- er minute observa- er minute tion, A.M. P * |Ition, a.a.| P * Iltion, A.M.| Pp 2 h. m. h. m. hm 12 15 |zestimated. H.*|| 1 10 |56counted.H.| 1 35 | 21 counted. H. 12 45 |12 do. H.* Gers 9/5 7- Oe 2 AS ela 1 o |25 do, H.* 1 20 |43. G. 2 34 3 in 2™count, H. 125 |30. G. 1 bee as er 2.G. B30) sl43hins2™, Gall 4s 30 1 in2™or3™ G. At about 12" 30™ a.m. an extremely vivid flash of lightning was observed, which could not be traced to any cloud, nor to any meteor then visible in the sky. The last observations were made at 5 o'clock a.m., and the heayens had then resumed their normal aspect. At Sunderland, Durham.—Report of Mr. T. W. Backhouse on the November meteors, 1866, as seen at Sunderland. **T looked out for meteors now and then on the morning of the 13th, but saw none. It was mostly cloudy. «On the evening of the 13th I looked out frequently for meteors until after 10" p.w., but saw only one, at 8" 23", “On the following morning I watched from 12" 15™ to 3" 35" a.m. The night was splendid, though there were often small clouds; but I do not think that they at all affected the number of the meteors that I counted. It was windy. I saw a flash of distant lightning, unless it was the light of a meteor below the horizon. There was a very faint aurora of an irregular kind, J counted the meteors now and then, and saw a out of a S.W. window. b out of an KE. window, which commands not quite so much of the sky as the 8.W. window. ec, d, e out of doors; ¢ looking towards y Geminorum; d towards Capella ; and ¢ in different directions. “The most that I ever counted visible at once was six meteors. It was between 12" 52™ and 12" 53" a.m. At 12" 31™ I first saw three at once,” f observati ee ee “ee Interval in | Number of Average rate 7 minutes and | meteors seen. per minute, | From To seconds. | abcde el) bede hm s hm s me 8 12 32) 0 12-34 45) 2 45 SPU Xo BRE Ceam | anes Fpeoree se 39 «0 40 45 Tae Aigt |) AOrarensasen 1 DA a setmanioeniat 52 0 53.0 i TN Ov ies iem ecneceour Di. caeaeee ite IIo § Darla lal lige og anesonceer i + B28 ia 9 5tlor?o 4ot ‘far. beaten bes for GGr{) 26 53 27 57 Nyt 2 BRA Re pre ae Op pSobsenge coe 29 50 31 10 20 aed Ob nase ee a Br Reese 34 35 35 35 Tee Ont eae c bceocecalim lank EEDA 2 Seeoas 42 50 Aree Fas Oe) A ieee Ore cfete,. 4] Pee ane TAs 52. 0 Its ge: Sie | Wacdaenecnacee i) © all litpocraduece 8 226 25 2 28 45 2 20 MOue adc ences 7 eo ee aed. 33 3 38250 GENO WET Rs. ese: : Ia dedncecriiee ¥5) 9 18 45 aes SRL eee jt Videeahereersag es 31 45 33 35 I 50 7 APE ROE I ee é 16 of 6 18 45 2 45 Lede aeet os a. Ora te * These numbers were recorded, from recollection of the appearance of the meteors, im- mediately after the cessation of the shower. + Conflicting journal entries make this statement doubtful. ¢ Approaching twilight made stars below the third magnitude invisible. 390 REPORT—1867. At Flimwell, Hurstgreen, Sussex.—Mr. Howlett obtained an uninterrupted view of the shower from an elevated situation near his residence, with a per- fect view of the horizon on all sides. The numbers which he reckoned, although higher than those of the foregoing estimates, were fairly counted, and indicate the time of the maximum with considerable precision. Two observers looking towards opposite directions counted aloud to prevent redu- plication, and as each counting of meteors was registered, the time by a chro- nometer was taken as nearly as possible. any, can hardly have exceeded one minute. The error of the chronometer, if Date, Hour of |Interval,in} Number | Average Date Hour of | Interval, | Number | Average 1866, observa- | minutes counted rate | 1866. observa- |in minutes counted rate Noy. tion, and _in the per Nov. tion, and _in the ‘per G.M.T. | seconds, | interval. | minute. G.M.T. | seconds. | interval. | minute. hyn 84 Ya “8 pM. 13th jr1 54 © ‘AM. 14th 5 30) © 30 100 200 | to 6 30] I o 100 100 AM. 14th |12 14 30] 20 30 100 iF Weaol TiO 100 100 | 20 5 30 50 9 8 o| 0 30 100 200 26 6 0 50 8 8 30] © 30 100 200 30 4 0 100 25 §°30) Fo 100 a 35 58 100 20 Io oO] © 30 100 200 39 4 0 100 25 Il 30) =X 30 100 66 42 “pnis) 100 33 12.30) £ 0 100 100 45* en) 100 33 14 30} 2 6 100 5° 46 30] 1 30 100 66 ig 30) “2° 100 100 48 I 30 100 66 16 30) 3 6 100 100 50 2 0 100 50 18 o| 1 30 150 100 51, 4o|) 1040 100 66 19, Oo), 3 6 100 100 52 30| I oO 100 100 20 36] 1 30 200 133 54 O| 1 30 100 66 ze e430 250 56 55, | 2 -o 100 100 2640) 1 36 100 66 56 of i 0 100 100 28..0| 190 100 66 BO eG) (2 000, 100 50 a2, Ol) 4 18 100 25 eee) ae A) 100 100 Br Oo} Ig 6G 500T 53 iro 3" 6 100 50 ee | aio roof 25 Se folweL?- Ss 100 b foe) 2.3, 39) eisege 100 12 2 30] © 30 100 200 15 oO} 11 30 100 9 3) 16) sGuRg0 100 “ 27 30) 12 30 100 8 Avera as 0 100 100 240 Oo] 12 30 100 8 | Foleo) aah fe tai 2 100 100 | The watch was then suspended until 4" 5™ a.m. AM.14th| 4 5 o a.m. 14th T7110] 7 Te 20 2§. to 23.0) 1m yo 19 18 29 - 0] “24. 0 50 235 BRNO) 23). 6 50 22 5 10 oO} 18 oO 20 Iz | i} The numbers projected on a curve (fig. 1) show that the observer’s station traversed the richest portion of the zone of meteors between 1” 2™ and 1° 10™ A.M. on the morning of the 14th of November 1866; and that lesser max- * From this time attention was almost exclusively confined to merely counting the meteors without continuing to record their apparent paths amongst the stars. t These 500 were counted by one observer during the other's absence. might have counted 1000, or 53 per minute. { Began again to have time to record the apparent paths of the meteors amongst the. stars. Two observers A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 391 ima of the display also occurred about 12°50", 1" 20", and 1" 40™ a.m. during the progress of the shower. Fig. 1.—Rate of apparition per minute of meteors observed by Mr. Howlett at Flimwell, near Hurst Green in Sussex, on the morning of the 14th of November 1866, with one assistant. Hours of Observation, 1866, November 14, a.m. 2AM. 20 40 2AM. At Leyton, Essex.—The total numbers of meteors and their average fre- quency per minute, in successive five minutes on the morning of the 14th of November 1866, as observed at Mr. Barclay’s observatory at Leyton, are thus stated by Mr, Talmage :— Total Average || Average In the five minutes ks number In the five minutes Total number ending at a per } ending at number per @ POuRLCEs minute, |! counted. minute. h m h m Noy. 14th 12 A.M. Ii 2 Nov. 14th 1 A.M. 10 22 4 57 5 3 4 37 9 tr .2 125 25 42 3p an 7 231 46 | 47 55 II 12 324 64 52 31 6 17 239 47 If 57 22 4 22 214 43 2 2 28 6 27 147 29 || 7 37 7 I 32 104. 20 Ali 2.12 20 4 j The numbers projected, like the former, in a curve show that the greatest frequency of the meteors at Leyton, on the morning of the 14th of November 1866, took place at very nearly ten minutes after one o’clock, and that ten- 392 REPORT—1867. dencies to other maxima were observed at twenty minutes and thirty-five minutes after one, agreeing nearly with the previous curves. Fig, 2.—Average rate per minute of meteors observed at the Cape of Good Hope, and at Leyton, in Essex, November 14th, a.mw., 1866. 50 LAM 20 40 2AM. oe ~ At the Cape of Good Hope.—Royal Astronomical Society’s ‘ Monthly Notices,’ yol. xxvii. p. 66. The meteoric shower was well observed at the Royal Ob- servatory, and described by Mr. G. W. H. Maclear, commencing at 1"3™ a.m. (Cape time), and reaching its maximum between 2" 10™ and 2" 13" a.m., when in three minutes 200 meteors were observed. Deducting 1" 13™ 55* (long. of the Cape of Good Hope Observatory, FE. from Greenwich) from the hours of observation, and projecting the numbers of the Cape register, like the}foregoing numbers, in a curve, it is seen (fig. 3) that the maximum at the Cape of Good Hope took place, in point of absolute time, about thirteen minutes earlier than at Leyton; and the other inflections of the curve at the Cape of Good Hope are displaced from those at Leyton by about an equal interval. Mr. G. Forbes, of St. Andrews Uni- versity, accounts for the difference* by showing that, in the relative position of the earth with respect to the zone of meteors on the morning of the 14th of November 1866, the Cape of Good Hope would touch their boundary, and would become plunged into the thickest portion of their stream about thirteen minutes before the same phenomena would be perceived in England. At Greenwich.—Royal Astronomical Society’s ‘Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxvii. p. 54._-The rate of frequency of meteors per minute at the Royal Observa-~ * Philosophical Magazine, 8. 4. vol. xxxiii. p. 282. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 393 tory, Greenwich, during the night of the 13th—14th of November 1866, was recorded by a party of eight observers under the direction of Mr. Glaisher. The diagram (fig. 3) shows, in the same manner as the preceding, the average Fig. 3. Hours of observation, 1866, November 13-14. ==———ol jeer Ab R y S| i = Ss a B ETT, CTA ATE | {Is des ol PES number of meteors per minute observed at Greenwich, on the 13th-14th of November, between the hours of 11 p.m. and 4 a.m. Besides four principal maxima of frequency at 12 40™, 12 10™, 1 20™, and 1" 50™ a.m., two other smaller maxima are seen to have occurred at 2 45™ and 3" 45™ a.m. The Greenwich observations, in eatenso, are printed in the Greenwich ‘ Results of Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ’ for the year 1866. At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher recorded a number of the apparent paths of the meteors, amply sufficient to determine the positions of the principal radiant-point in Leo, and of two others of less consequence, one in Gemini and the other in Perseus. Among the tracks of meteors recorded by Mr. Glaisher’s staff of observers at the Royal Observatory, about sixty of the apparent paths were projected 394 REPORT—1867. on a general chart of the constellations (see figure)* specially provided by the Committee of the British Association for this purpose, with a view of de- Tracks of Meteors observed at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1866, : November 13-14. — termining the exact position of the radiant-point. The tracks prolonged backwards, with very few exceptions, pass across a small circular area, about 10° in width, having its centre near the star x Leonis, about 3° north of that star in right ascension 148° 50! (9 55™), N. Decl. 23°. The position of the small star # Leonis (Bode) is the identical place assigned to the radiant- point of the great November shower, in the year 1833, by Professor Twining. At Glasgow.—The tracks of eighty-three meteors recorded between the period of the greatest intensity of the shower at 1" 15™ a.m, and 2? 40™ a.m. were projected by Mr. Herschel, with the assistance of Mr. A. Macgregor, on a similar chart, and indicate nearly the same position of the radiant-point in R. A. 149° (9" 56™), N. Decl. 24°+. Professor Grant, by means of the same star-chart and with forty-three alineations, obtained for the position of the: radiant-point R. A. 147° 35’ (9" 50™), N. Decl. 22° 53!; while his assistant, Mr. J. Plummer, with the projections of twenty-six alineations on the same map, found the position of the radiant-point in R. A. 150° 30’ (10" 2™), N. Decl. 21° 36’. Allowing twice the weight to the former determination, the definitive position of the radiant-point that results from both of these obser- vations combined is in.R. A. 148° 33’ (9" 54™), N. Decl. 22° 30’. A list of fifteen of these positions of the radiant-point are given by Mr. Herschel in * Diagram at p. 55, vol. xxvii. of the ‘Monthly Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical Society. : , t Diagram at p. 56, vol. xxvii. of the ‘Monthly Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical Society. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 395 the ‘ Monthly Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvii. p.19*, of which this and the following paragraphs contain the original descriptions. At London.—Mr. T. Crumplen and Mr. 8. H. Wix report :—‘* Watching carefully at 12" 45™ to 1" 15", and indeed at other times throughout the morning, we came to the conclusion that the radiant was in the space con- tained between the stars Z, w, w, « Leonis, at a spot indicated on the Chart of the British Association as R. A. 147°, N. Decl. 24°. This was arrived at by observing meteors in the immediate neighbourhood of those stars, some of them coming almost from the very point itself, and visible only as enlarged stars with scarcely any perceptible train.” Report of H. M¢Leod :—* I only noticed four meteors from other points ; but the principal radiant-point was most clearly defined, @Ec ‘The figure represents the six stars in Leo ; and ¥ ® the radiant-point appeared to me to be as near as possible to the intersection of lines joining the opposite stars of the trapezium. One very bright @ @7 one appeared about 2h 15m a.m., just to the right ‘% 8 e of the radiant-point, and burst, leaving a green ¥. ou spot which lasted about half a minute.” At Wimbledon.—Mr. F. C. Penrose states that ‘“ the origin or radiant-point in Leo was clearly between y and e; but I question if a single point gives a satisfactory origin, and I submit that a circle of about 3° in diameter is more consistent with the direc- tion of the paths of the meteors, as P in the figure.” _ At Hawkhurst—Sir John Herschel laid down the position of the radiant-point with great precision on Bode’s chart of the constel- lation Leo on the morning of the 14th of No- vember, and found its “longitude for 18662 (allowing 55! for precession since 1801, the epoch of the chart) to be 142° 20', and its lati- tude 10° 15! North.” (Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvii. p. 20. f At Freshwater, Isle of Wight.—Mr. Pritchard, the President of the Royal Astronomical Society, in a letter to Mr. Herschel states that on the 14th of November he marked the radiant-point thus, {© Noy. 13, 1866}, “at a Leonis (the least bit above it). I should say that it was too plain to admit mistake to those who looked long enough.” At Clifton, Somersetshire—In a letter to |\.8 234 a "ap @ "80 aa) wm of F 3 4 3S oe om a 3 Do = Philadelphia mean time of | 3 = S28! 2 A Bes obseryation, 1867, August) “= | & aoSSols | & zis roth A.M e|& Sahl a | 8 ga5 cgi ea |S poet eas @ 80S Sao ered Sees cial ae = |) rae eters, =| ro Ss owl Z ra e |. 0 o| 8 |o |zag| 6 | 8S ]5 labia OIA lB Wer 0 1/41/86 |B hm hm From 1 3 to 1 45A.mM. | Io | 7 | 17 3 10] 4] 14 2 ye kA a2) Ol §;, 6] 4] 10 3 Cele Wey 3 EEO seo Ri Jalon acs re) val ees fal (eee ° op Ue PEC ASE Ae BONY Sue alles I I Tel eo) I Total numbers in one hour ; 22) 1 20 and forty-five minutes . 3 | 35 7 7 eer 6 Those originating near the radiant indicated the usual point in Perseus ; but some of the more distant ones seemed to come from the direction of Cassiopeia. Successive intervals of fifteen Number ‘of meteors observed i o, 11th | mie sib ape i By B. V. Marsh. By R. M. Gummere. : j ; Pe . || Confor- | Noncon- Tone _ | Confor- | Noncon ..7 || Confor oncon Eliade phia arent mable. formable. Total. | mable. |formable. Total. hm h m | From 12 oto 12 I5AM.| 14 I 15 22 x: OPTS a AO AGS) 5, 15 3 pispa te! 19 P Psp OAs as, 8 2 Ta." 6 2 8 VenROts aie Tae i 13 3 16 || 24 3 27 3 TObe pA TTS 14, 4 18 | 13 3 16 ” DES by Gl GO. 92 8 5 ba ean | agape + 17 op Om ae Mek aay tae 10 3 13 CO rE 3 13 » 145 5 2 0 5, II 3 4 |) 19 2 21 a 2G ah Oe ties 10 2 | 16 ° 16 Total numbers in two hours: Re es iy and fifteen minutes ...... | } 103 ae et 164 The average magnitude was decidedly below that of previous years. Only a few left persistent trains, and there were none of very great splendour, The weather was clear, and circumstances altogether favourable. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 411 At a somewhat later hour than the last of the above observations, the August meteoric shower appears to have reached its maximum in America. New York Herald, August 12th.—‘‘ Poughkeepsie, August, 11th, 1867:— Shortly after one o’clock this morning an entirely clear sky was visible. ... From one till two a.m. over seventy meteors were counted, and from that time till half-past three a.m. they increased in number so fast that they could not be counted. Three of them were of great brilliancy. By four o’clock A.m. the unusual exhibition had entirely ceased.” The rarest displays of shower-meteors are comparatively brief in their duration, and Mr. Marsh points out “ that observations extending over several days, and VARIOUSLY SITUATED IN LONGITUDE, are needed, in order to show the earth’s progress through the group, and to determine the exact time of central passage.” Y. PAPERS RELATING TO OBSERVATIONS OF Luminous Merrors. 1. Professor Newton, on “ The Relative Number of Shooting-stars seen in a given Period by different numbers of Observers.” (American Journal of Science, 2nd ser. vol. xli. p. 192.) The results of this careful series of observations made at Newhaven, Con- necticut, on the morning of the 15th of November 1865, may be referred to as a common standard for determining the rate of apparition of meteors in cases where several observers combine together to register their numbers. During the three hours, from midnight until three o’clock a.m., on the morning of the 15th of November, twelve observers at Newhaven were so arranged that two looked to the zenith, and the remaining ten divided the points of the compass equally between them. As each observer saw a meteor he called his name, which was entered by an initial letter in the register. By three o’clock 186 meteors were counted. The average number seen by each person was 38°75. Hence the propor- tion— No. seen by one observer: No. seen by twelve: : 38°75:186...... (1) The average number seen by two persons looking towards opposite points of the compass (taking all the pairs of such observers) was 75-4: and hence No. seen by two observers : No. seen by twelve:: 75°4:186...... (2) _ The average number seen by three observers looking nearly symmetrically to different points of the compass (taking all the combinations of such obser- vers) was 99:7. Whence No. seen by three observers : No. seen by twelve:: 99°7:186...... (3) Proceeding thus with all the symmetrical combinations of four, five, six, or more observers, and comparing the results with the similar results obtained by a party of six observers on the night of the 15th of August 1865, the numbers seen by more or less numerous observers are shown in the following Table, which also contains the relative numbers seen by different parties of observers, in the time that four observers would take to count 100. 412 REPORT—1867. Average No. of meteors seen while four observers would count 100. Average No. of meteors No. of ob-| 8°&" during the watch. server's. Aug. 15th, | Nov. 15th, | Aug. 15th, 1865. 1865. 1365. I 49°44 33°75 35°9 2 89°65 75°40 65°1 3 11788 99°79 85°6 4 137°71 I19'20 1000 zs 156°44 131°86 113°6 6 172°c0 143°00 124°9 eel Wr sesate PIG al Radacee Teil lai sccktos LOGIG7 || aestes i) WW Apgocs 1G6775" ||| -kseeee fem PY apes TsO me||| ue cstea TN | Sec GO GS) |) went |!) Yoatona TB O2OG) yl) Ceewies Noy. 15th, 1865. 32°5 63°3 83°6 100°0 110°6 120'0 128'2 134°8 1399 14571 150°9 156'0 The last column of the Table shows that a visible in a given period. 2. Mr. R. P. Greg “ On Meteoric Showers and their Radiant-points. (Bul- letins de Académie “Royale de Belgique, 2nd ser. vol. xxiii. No. 2, 1867.) «The meteoric shower of the 2nd of January 1867, was far less copious There is not impos- sibly a period of five years in its return, and a seven-year period in the returns ag than it appeared on the same date in 1863 single observer would not count more than a fifth part, nor four observers more than two-thirds of the meteors and 1864. of the shower-meteors of the 5th—15th of December. ‘«« The linear or oval extension of the radiant region in the case of fifteen or twenty meteoric showers, some them of long duration (six or eight weeks), appears to arise from the change of the angle of intersection of the orbits of In the course of two months (a sixth part of the whole circumference) the angle of intersection, at the points where the earth enters and leaves the meteoric group, should undergo a very appreciable alteration. In cases of very long duration, it is probable that the orbits of the meteoric bodies nearly coincide with a part of the earth’s orbit, and that the meteors of such a group move for some time nearly in the the meteoric bodies with the earth’s orbit. same, or in an opposite direction to the earth’s path. «Suppose A B to be a portion of the earth’s orbit, R the apparent place of the radiant region, KE’, E’’ two positions of the earth at entering and leaving the meteoric group, embracing between them an interyal of two months, A vy A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 413 v' m', vm" the apparent directions of two meteors directed from the radiant R. Then the angle a’ is evidently greater than a”. “ As far as I have been able to examine the question, the arc subtended by the difference of the angles a’, a’ may be more or less exactly measured by comparing together the lengths of the major and minor axes of the radiant region in those cases where it appears to have an elongated form, Projected and measured upon a map of the stars, this are occasionally amounts to 10°, or 15°, independently of 5° allowed for errors of observation, and for other sources of inaccuracy.” By the “‘ are subtended by the difference of the angles a’, a,” the difference from parallelism between the lines 7’ im’, 7m’ in the above paper is per- haps intended to be signified; and this may amount occasionally to 15°, It is plain, however, that the real difficulty connected with the long endu- rance of particular radiant-points in a nearly fixed position is, to explain why the elongation of the radiant region, or the difference from parallelism actually observed, does not, in general, amount to a quantity nearly as large as the difference between the angles a’, a". Thus, supposing A a, B } to be the inner and outer limits of a current of meteoric bodies moving in parabolic orbits round the sun, S, in the same plane with the earth’s orbit, a B, and haying the common axis BS s; § a, ‘perpendicular to B §, the earth’s dis- tance from the sun when it encounters the inner limit of the stream, three ‘months before the time when it arrives at B. The absolute velocity of the me- - teors where they encounter the earth is everywhere represented by the diagonai of a square, as a v, whose side a V re- presents the velocity of the earth in its nearly circular orbit. Now as the di- rections of the circle and parabola at a are, respectively, in the side a V and diagonal a v of the same square, the re- lative velocity of the meteors at a, with respect to the earth, is in the direction v V, parallel to a$; and this is also the direction of the relative velocity, with respect to the earth, of the meteors which overtake the earth at B. The radiant-point of the meteors at a, B would, in such a case, therefore have a nearly invariable direction, or apparent position in the sky, RR; and in the intermediate interval of three months, during which the shower con- tinues, it would only undergo very small changes of its place, REPORT—1867. 414 ‘uolyeuoyop v Aq paMorpoy ‘0741CT “TIeQ9thT ‘(sadvfo ‘A 800A) our ouLOs pornp -ud pnopo ey} ‘sjaodet eyt-uoumE omy ‘sou “IU OMY Joye foaF JO Urey puv pnopo foyro1ey ‘OWE “Kep Jo WS] eaws £ oygrcy "T “ON 980 cog “yoyI0I B OFT pope} fumop -- ‘ow .Z] {spuoves OF £0991 -(uostiry,) /G Peysey Ureay { T[VqQoatyy ‘LON 9eQ ‘Aoojour Suyeuojacy “(FTO “L) Treqotts ‘OWI, = ‘“Ooyout Suryeuoqjocy aracs ‘seuodyy 40 Peon 8D 2084 -eudome Hues ‘LON 38O ‘[[eqauy Suryeuoyacy OUT “PPEUJoyg 4¥ uoas ‘ uouemouoyd yworyoopo wy ‘LON “38 ‘[UFIQNOp [[RJouoys {1oajour Suryeuoyocy (LON “FeO UL se ‘ZZOT UE JOU) TTeFeUo4g TON 380 9 “PIGG oUNL ‘EZLT prey “(rupery) oid ‘OW OWE “OW “OW. ‘(ads “has ja Teun.) 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Spirillina arenacea............, rior sleet inflata, Montagu...... votalima inflate vaea ce oss sp etter 6 93 & 94. Lirvona. RCOUDIMCUS LONE ONGn a, I) cedtaslen eae Weghgales = vw ste cea ected Sheree Canariensis, D’Orb. .. | Nonionina Jeffreysii .............. 72 & 73 Varvuina, D’Orb. PUISLI AGH EM ORO a) ERO CAIN FUSCA) cota s detelelalel viele gy ley] 114.8115. Suborder Perrorata. Family Lacenipa. Laarna, Walker. | (| Lagena vulgaris, var. striata........ 10, sulcata, W & J. wa 5 ae A var. interrupta ....| 11. eee TESS ee ch " var. perlucida, parte! 8. Entosolenia costata ............05 18. levis, Montagu ji) Lagena vulearis’...........s0yeeus 5 & 5a, ; wpe wtare I = ms war. clavate sachs {shea Gs - Lagena vulgaris, var. gracilis ....,.| 12 & 13. striata, Montagu...... vee : var. substriata ... 14, AA REPORT—1867,. Genera, Species, and Varieties. Lagena, Walker. semistriata, Will. globosa, Montagu . marginata, Montagu .. ornata, Wrll. pulchella, Brady...... squamosa, Montagu melo; Orb. iit. sales caudata, D’Orb....... distoma, P. § J....... crenata, P.§ J....... Jeffreysiil, Brady .... Noposaria, Lamk. longicauda, D’ Orb. raphanistrum, Linn. .. pyrula, D’ Orb. | DentTALina. D’ Orb. VaGinvina, D’ Orb. legumen, Linn. linearis, Montagu CrISTELLARIA, Lamk. Marerutina, D'Orb. Linevutina, D’Orb. carinata, D’ Orb. GuanpuLina, D’ Orb. leevigata, D’ Orb. Potymorpuina, D’ Orb. lactea, WW. § J. acuminata, FV. oblonga, Brown concaya, Wil. tubulosa, D’ Orb. myristiformis, Will. | UVIGERINA, D’Orb. | OrBuLina, D’ Orb. Sprrituina, Lhrenb. viv ae Ehrenb. communis, D’Orb.... obliqua, D’Orb. ..... rotulata, Zamk. ..... crepidula, F. & M... ibheranepy OM OT OMA aan. compressa, D’ Orb. ... pygmeea, D’Orb...... angulosa, WALLA sitios uniyersa, D’Orb. .... —“——. | Spirillina perforata...........-.-.. Names. Lagena vulgaris, var. semistriata. . oh var. perlucida, parte Entosolenia globosa Entosolenia marginata a a yar. lucida .. is var. quadrata Entosolenia marginata, var. ornata . var. la genoides ” ” | Entosolenia squamosa ............| oF » var. scalariformis. » Var. hexagona . Entosolenia squamosa, var. catenulata Entosolenia glcbosa, var. lineata .... | PO te CNT AC Ce ICN MC IAT CRSA Yh Fla) CeCe Nodosaria radicula........... 02 4: Dentalina subarcuata, var. jugosa Nodosaria pyrula eee ee ee rete e ewes Dentalina subarcuata.............. . s) var. jugosa .... Dentalina legumen................ | bn a var. linearis. . Cristellaria calcar » var. rotifer Cristellaria calear, var. oblonga 5 subarcuatula .........: | rr) Cristellaria subarcuatula, var. elongata Tingulina carinata <0... se ate lee Polymorphina lactea, parte. ........ Polymorphina lactea, parte. ........ communis Polymorphina lactea, var. ” yy «VAT. c » Var. concava .. » var. fistulosa .. Polymor phina myristiformis........ acuminata oblonga .. Uvigerina pygmirea, ewes. cesses. e angulosa amily GLoBIGERINIDA. Orbulina universa References to Williamson's ‘ Monograph, Figures. 9 "fp 15 & 16, 19-21. 22 & 23. 27 & 28, eee eens ee ee eee ——_ 145. 146 & 147. 153-155. 148. 149&149a. 151 & 152. 150. 156. & 157. 158&159. 140. ON THE SHETLAND FORAMINIFERA. 4A5 pore Fe ay and References to Williamson’s ‘ Monograph.’ GuopicERina, D’Orb. Names. Figures. bulloides, D'Orb. .... | Globigerina bulloides..........+0- 116-118. Textuaria, Defrance. abilis, Will Textularia variabilis ...........++. 162 & 163. EO eo eka ee haa 4 » var. levigata..| 168. emea, D'Orb. .... ” a yar. spathulata 164. & 165. ditformis, D’Orb. .... “ oh var. difformis..| 166&167. sagittula, Defrance. .. | Textularia cuneiformis .........++ 158 & 159. trochus, D’Orb....... cr 5 var. conica ..| 160&161. BieEnertna, D’ Orb. Pecgtatas FY Orb, a2). | nies seein ates video ese salsine vin etal] o wee ge pe nodosaria, D’ Orb. 0... |eccseeeesseceecesencncereeecenee | sseegees VERNEUILINA, D’ Orb. tie sat : +s scabra, pl. 6 : polystropha, Reuss .... Bulimina arene: pl. 98 ictal. ake 136 & 137. Boutmima, D' Orb. pupoides, D’Orb. .... Bulimina pupoides .........0000055 124& 125. marginata, D’Orb..... mn » var.marginata ....| 126&127. aculeata, D’Orb. .... “ 5 var. spinulosa...... 128. ovata, D’Orb. .......- . ,, var. fusiformis ....| 129& 130, conyoluta, Will. ...... I » var. convoluta...... 132 & 133. elegantissima, D’Orb., | Bulimina elegantissima........++++ 134& 135, Vireuira, D’ Orb. Schreibersii, Czjzek. .. | Buiimina pupoides, var. compressa . . 131. Botrvina, D’Orb. pamctatd, BY Orb... 6 | wntee cee ene rs seeeuegserebopemers| ongeteess Cassiputrna, D’Orb. levigata, D’Orb. .... | Cassidulina laevigata .....--.++0+- 141 & 142. crassa, D’Orb......... s ObbuUsa/S sera telat anette 143 & 144. Discorsina, P. § J. rosacea, D’Orb....... Rotalina mamilla ........0++eee5: 109-111. ochracea, Will. ...... “i ochracea 2.26.66 s este ees 112 & 118. globularis, D’ Orb. .... “ concamerata (young)...... 104 & 106. Beriheloti; DOP0.. «0. | en ncine seein edacure cess nso see cin | ean cnina PLanorBuina, D’ Orb. Mediterranensis, D’Ord | Planorbulina vulgaris .......+.++- 119 & 120. Pinidingerti, D'Orbi (200 Ve ee aah ies ies ol ale Siaeenlg a | old Giles Ungeriana, D’ Orb... [ove ce eect cence scene ee telen ete Lo ecw eens Truncatutina, D’ Orb. lobatula, Walker .... | Truncatulina lobatula ........++-- 121-123. refulgens, Montfort .. 0 | owccsesceecrenvceeesetnenceesecee | receeees Anomatina, D’ Orb. oho E NGM ce fe eter t he cn cenganemcem aston sme | erases Ss Pourvinutina, P. § J. repanda, #. § Df. .... | Rotalina concamerata ......+++++- 101-103. auricula, F.§ M. .... + (lower "Sragccbade rons CoN 98-100. concentrica, P.G& J. 1. | ..eee eens petes Postrel hvencte (areere UA | my blecegetiohars Ri ester Leereee 4 cietols ciated xtaSialem sim o ua pialeste ni sien nay nt hee cing Rora.ta. Beccarii, Linn. ...... Rotalina Beccarii ........--e sree 90-92. nitida, Will. ........ € 70115 (3 Eat een Se .....{| 106-108. Brbiculatise 2) Orgies |ee tender ands ls te ws cee ss eee | ys He slain Trnoporvs, Montfort. TEACHES at lt Gets Gn rican hac O00 Ce 0 Cea Oe Oc ct Ma a PATELLINA, Will......... corrugata, WWill....... Patellina corrugata .......+5++++- 86-89. 446 REPORT—1867. Family NumMvriyipa. eg a eis a References to Williamson's ‘ Monograph.’ Nunsmurima, D’ Orb. Names. Figures. radiata, F.§ W....... Nummulina planatula ......... en (A LOE Oprrcuina, D’ Ord. ammonoides, Gron. .. Nonionina elegans .,....0....0000> 74.&75. PoLysTOMELLA. crispa, Linn. ........ Polystomella crispa ...ssseeeseees 78-80. Phap-polictate, RGM, || Polystomella umbilicatula ........ - 81& 82. BRED PHUDCIALA, 'rF2e? 1 | Polystomella 2 yar. incerta} 82a. areca, PG To sis... | cena seeeasetecese de decd ns ot Pes VS nen © Nonronrna, D’ Orb. turgida, Will.......5. Rotelina tureida: i... ssw NENG a 95-97. umbilicatula, Montagu. eee arg fees SFI 2 hein: 68 & 69. =e Nonionina umbilicatula, p. 97 .,.. = depressula, W.§ J. .. Nonionina crassula, p. oy aetacti non 70871 peapha, FG M. 11... | occ e eee cece centres secceesbons | bayas ; stelligera, D’Orb, 0... 0 [vce c eee eee eee cece vee ete econ | bene ees Appendix to the Fourth Report on Dredging among the Shetland Isles. Addi- tions to the British Fauna. By Dy. Atserr Gtyruer, F.R.S. AurnoucE we are very well acquainted with the marine fishes inhabiting the shores of Great Britain and Ireland, our knowledge of the pelagic and deep- sea forms is extremely scanty. Of the Dealfish (Z'rachypterus areticus), a fish by no means uncommon in the northern and eastern seas of Scotland, I have never seen a British example in a good state of preservation. Now and then, after the gales of the vernal equinox, a mutilated specimen of the Ribbonfish (Regalecus Banksii) is drifted ashore, rarely to fall into the hands of a naturalist, generally to be cut up as bait for the lobster-pot. The British species of Leptocephalus is not better known than the allied forms from the Mediterranean and tropical seas. Others, like Centrolophus, are known from single examples only. Their development, as well as that of many of the more common forms which spawn in the open or deep sea, is perfectly unknown. Tn secking information concerning this part of the British fauna, we are not hunting after a shadow: there is evidence enough to show that the depths of the British seas are inhabited by a fish-fauna very different from that of the coasts, and that this fauna is composed of two elements—first, of those which may be regarded as indigenous, and, secondly, of such forms as are frequently, perhaps constantly, carried by currents from more southern parts of the Atlantic northwards, even to the coasts of Norway (Antennarius, Batrachus, Bery«)—not to mention those fishes which by their strong power of swimming are enabled to reach our shores in their migrations, as Ausonia. The causes of our incomplete knowledge of these fishes are evident: zoo- logists were either not aware of the existence of such a fauna, or satisfied with the stray specimens thrown in their way by accident; while the diffi- culties surrounding the examination of the deep-sea fishes are so great as to render all progress in attaining to a knowledge of them extremely slow. Still it may be hoped that, after the attention of naturalists has been directed to the subject, no opportunity will be lost of advancing it. ON ADDITIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. 447 Such an opportunity occurred to Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, who, during his ex- ploration of the marine invertebrate fauna of the Shetland Islands, preserved the specimens of fishes which were brought up in the dredge from a depth of from 80 to 90 fathoms. Small as the number of specimens is, the result of their examination proved to be most interesting and satisfactory, inasmuch as they belong to four species new to the British fauna, two being new to science, viz. Ammodytes siculus (Swains.), Motella macrophthalma (sp. n.), Calliony- mus maculatus (Bonap.), and Gobius Jeffreysit (sp. n.). On former occa- sions I have pointed out that the geographical range of deep-sea fishes appears to be extended in proportion to the vertical depth inhabited by them, and that they are either distinguished by an increased size of the eye to col- lect as many rays of light as possible, or by a rudimentary condition of that organ, as is the case with fishes inhabiting caves. This is in some measure verified by the species collected by Mr. Jeffreys, which, however, it must be remembered, inhabit a much less depth than Regalecus, Plaqyodus, &e. Two of them (Callionymus maculatus and Ammodytes siculus) were previously known as occurring in the Mediterranean; and the eyes of three of them are conspicuously larger than in their congeners (Ammodytes lancea, Callio- nymus lyra, and Motella tricirrata). 1, Anmodytes siculus (Swains.). (Smooth Sand-Launce, ) This species was hitherto known from Sicily only. For description see Giinth. Fish. iv. p. 386. 2. Motella macrophthalua. (Large-eyed Rockling.) Giinth. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1867, vol. xx. p. 290, pl. 5. fig. B. This species has three barbels, one at each of the anterior nostrils and one at the chin. It is distinguished from specimens of the same size of the other three-bearded species by its large eye, the diameter of which, in the specimen obtained, is as long as the snout, one-fourth of the length of the head, and much longer than the width of the interorbital space. The teeth of the mandible are very unequal in size, some being canine-like. The ante- rior ray of the rudimentary first dorsal fin is about as long as theeye. D,. 55, A.55. Back with narrow brownish cross bars. Three inches long. The figure quoted represents the specimen of the natural size. For the sake of comparison the figure of the head of Motella tricirrata (B') has been added. 3. Callionymus maculatus, Bonap. (The. Southern Dragonet.) Giinth. 7. ¢. p. 290, pl. 5. fig. A. This species is common in the Mediterranean ; but it has been also ob- served on the coast of Norway. It is easily recognized by the shortness of the snout relatively to the diameter of the eye. 4. Gobius Jeffreysii. D.6|10. A.9. L. lat. 30. Giinth. 7. ¢. p. 290, pl. 5. fig. C. Body as deep as broad anteriorly, its greatest depth being one half of the length of the head, which is two-sevenths of the total (without caudal). Head depressed, broader than high, its greatest width being two-thirds of its length. Snout of moderate extent, though shorter than the eye; lower jaw ee a ae ee ae eee ee) ee a 448 REPORT—1867. projecting beyond the upper. Eyes very close together, large, their diame- ter being two-sevenths of the length of the head. Dorsal fins higher than the body; the second dorsal spine more or less prolonged. ‘The pectoral and ventral fins reach equally far backwards, to the vent. A series of five rounded blackish spots along the lateral line, the last being on the root of the caudal fin. Dorsal fins with series of black spots; outer half of the anal blackish. A blackish bar below the eye. Three specimens, two inches long. The only British species with which this Goby might be confounded, and to which it is evidently allied, is Gobius rhodopterus (Gthr.) ; however, this latter species is said to have the interorbital space broader, its width being equal to one half of the diameter of the eye (Cuv. & Val. xii. p. 50); and M‘Coy, who examined two Irish examples, describes the snout as ‘‘ very short, tumid, and convex,” which character cannot be applied to G. Jef- freysti. Second Report of the Rainfall Committee, consisting of J. GuAisHER, F.R.S., Lord Wrorrestry, F.R.S., Prof. Puriuirs, F.R.S., J. F. Bateman, F.R.S., R. W. Mytne, F.R.S., C. Brooxn, F.R.S., T. Hawsstey, C.E., and G. J. Symons, Secretary. Your Committee consider it will be convenient that the present Report should be so arranged as readily to compare with the previous one; the different branches of rainfall investigation are therefore classed under the same head- ings as in the last Report, and new branches are noticed subsequently. 1. Extraction and Classification of published Records.—This very important work, which was temporarily suspended to allow of more urgent matters being pressed on, has now been resumed, and will be steadily pursued ; it may be desirable to state that its completion must not be expected for some few years ; the labour involved is excessive, but time and perseverance will ensure the accomplishment of the work, a work not for present use alone, but of the greatest service to all future inquirers. 2. Examination of Rain-gauges.—Steady progress has been made in this matter, Mr. Symons having during the year visited and tested sixty gauges ; full details of the examinations are annexed to this Report. By reference to the list of stations in the British Association Report, 1865, pp. 192-242, it will be seen that nearly every gauge in the counties of Kent and Sussex has been visited and tested. 3. Inclined and Tipping Funnelled Gauges.—These instruments were fully described in the last Report; Mr. Chrimes, who kindly undertook the entire cost of the erection and maintenance of these instruments, has continued the observations, which it affords us much pleasure to state will shortly be examined by Professor Phillips. 4. Influence of River Mists on the Amount of Rain collected.—This question remains exactly in the same position as at the ‘time of our last Report, since the following suggestion, thrown out by Mr. Symons in “*‘ British Rainfall, 1866,” p. 7, has met with no response, “I feel rather beaten by these diffi- culties, and do not see how to solve the original proposition of determining the influence of river mists on the amount of rain collected, unless it be by transferring the Shepperton gauges to some flat dry district, tolerably uniform in its level, with a large piece of ornamental water, and then the gauge | ry | | T.WLowry fe. 4 ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 449 might either be placed on an island, if free from trees, or float moored in the centre of a pond or lake. If any observer can offer these conditions, I shall gladly place the instruments at his service, as the expediency of con- tinuing them in their present state seems doubtful.” 5. Additional Rain-gauges in Derbyshire.—The remarkable geological formation of this beautiful county has specially marked it out as a field of rainfall research ; some valuable but fragmentary observations were made by Mr. Bateman on the rainfall in the neighbourhood of the Peak, and obserya- tions have long been taken at Combs Moss, Chapel-en-le-Frith, Woodhead, and other stations in the N.W. of the county; from 1761 to 1813 a very regular record was kept at Chatsworth ; for a quarter of a century Mr. Davis has been observing with great care at Derby, having been preceded in the same town by Mr. Swanwick, who also observed for twenty-five. years at the beginning of the century. From this it may be inferred that the mean fall, and the secular variation of annual fall, at certain points in the county are pretty well determined ; but hitherto we have had little or no information as to the relative fall in different parts of the county, and specially in that most interesting district which lies between Ambergate and Rowsley, having Mat- lock for its centre. Cordially assisted by the Hon. and Rev. O. W. Forester, the Rev. J. M. Mello, and Mr. Davis of Derby, we have the pleasure of noticing considerable progress in the investigation of this question. There are still deficiencies in some parts of the county which we purpose bringing before the residents so as to render the cordon of stations complete. 6. Additional Gauges in the Lake-district—The erection of any more rain-gauges in the English Lakes may at first sight appear superfluous and undesirable, but a little explanation will, we think, convince all that their organization by Mr. Symons is a most important step in rainfall work. Up to 1844 we believe no greater annual fall than 90 inches had been recorded in any part of the British Isles. Dr. Miller, of Whitehaven, planted a gauge at Ennerdale Lake in November 1843, and yearly increased and varied his stations until the fall in the valleys of Wastdale and Borrowdale, and “ Sea- thwaite” and “The Stye,” became with meteorologists as well known as London or Dundee. In 1853 these. were all discontinued, save those in charge of Mr. Dixon at Seathwaite and the Stye. In 1864 Isaac Fletcher, Esq., F.R.S., of Tarn Bank, reorganized the stations in these valleys, while some of the other valleys were taken charge of by other observers ; this being the condition of affairs in Cumberland, and Captain Mathew haying at the same time undertaken to investigate the fall of rain in the Snowdonian range, Mr. Symons felt that this was an especially eligible time for examining if the remarkable falls* so clearly proved to exist in the vicinity of Scawfell extend far therefrom ; and for this purpose he devoted nearly two months last autumn to personally superintending the erection of gauges in parts of the Lake- district far removed from the sites of the other gauges, out of the ordinary routes of tourists, and, as some would have thought, out of the district of re- markable rains. The results of these observations will be fully noticed in our next Report. 7. Percentage of Annual Rain which falls Monthly in different localities — Under the head of “ Extraction and Classification of published Records,” we have explained that all available returns of the fall of rain at any time, and in any part of the British Isles, are being carefully collected. These returns are tabulated on sheets, whereof a facsimile is appended to this Report, and * In 1866 the enormous fall of 225 inches was measured at the Stye. 24 450 REPORT—1867. of which about 300 are perfectly filled, as is Table I,, and between 4000 and 5000 are in process of filling. It must not be supposed that this large Table I. RAINFALL AT KENDAL. Observer, S. Marshall, Esq. Authority, WS. Retwrn. Rain- f By Mr. Marshall. gauge. | Diameter, 8in. Height above Ground, 4 ft.6in. Above Mean Sea-level, 149 ft. Wearit!:i22.4 1830.| 1831.) 1832.) 1833.| 1834.| 1835.| 1836.| 1837.| 1838. | 1839. || Means. January ...| °43| 1°62} 2°28} 1°63 |14°76| 5°35| 3°94] 3°43| I°71 | 5°32 4°047 February +) 4°77 | 8:21 | 4°26) 4°58} 5°72} 8°82] 3°92| 5°84] ror | 5°74 5°287 March...... 5°05 | 6:03] 3°55| 2°07] 5:17] 5°05| 6°34] 1°98] 4:00 | 6°07 4°531 Mipril~ tee 5°66 | 2°44| 2°23] 3°75] 104] 1°59| 2°84] 1°61] 2°95 | 1°26 2°537 Maye (x28: 2°83} °72| 160} 2°53] 1°64] 3:06] ‘05} 1°20] 2°73 "71 1°647 UNE 5 iovexec 5°29 | 2°68] 4°64. 7°72) 6°70| 1°25} 8:00] 3°61] 2°89 | 3°10 4°588 SUVs eee acs 4°96| 4°08| 2°64 2°23] 5°05| 6°26] 9:05] 4°73| 6°07 | 8-46 5°353 August ...| 4°22] 3°90] 4°43] 1°97| 6:17| 3°11] 3°76] 3°11 | 7°63 | 7°28 4°558 September .} 8-03} 6°39] 2°30] 3°53] 4°91] 7°81] 5°90] 4°18] 2°71 | 7°44 5°320 October ...| 4°69 x1°81 | 8°35] 3°75] 4°72| 4°39} 3°97] 5°32] 7°03 | 3°30 || 5°733 November .|10"02 | 8°56! 5°37| 7°44.) 4°21] 6°31] 8°01} 6°18} 4°03 | 4°35 6'448 December ..| 2°08 | 4°98} 8°04 |14'22| 5°05] 2°89] 8°55] 7°20] 3°58 | 4°94 6°153 Totals ...|58°03 |61"42 |49°69 |55°42 |65°14 |55°89 |64°33 |48°39 | 45°74 | 57°97 || 56202 proportion of incomplete sheets implies imperfect registers, such is not the case; the appearance depends on the fact that, for facility of reference and entry, it was necessary to make all the forms commence with some uniform date, and as the observations were of course commenced in various years, there thus (temporarily) appear to be far more fragmentary registers than there really are. The register sheets, it will be seen, are to a considerable extent self-proving, while the decennial period possesses advantages which are self-evident. These sheets form the basis of the investigation now to be described. It will be seen that the last column in the register sheet gives the mean fall in the month and in the year; the former divided by the latter (the decimal being of course shifted).gives the percentage, of the yearly amount, which fell in each month. The computations are at present only Table II.—Monthly Percentage of Mean Annual Rainfall, England, in the years 1850-59. Mean 15 in. | 20in. | 25in. |Z301in.| 35 in. | goin. | 45 in. | 5oin. Mean of Annual to to is to : to to to to Aueve all Fall from | 20 in. | 25 in. | 30 in. | 45 in.| 40 in. | 45 in. | 50 in. | 60 in. | °° ™* |] Stations. January...| 7°7 re) 8:8 94. | 10°3 | 114. 9°3 | 118 | I4'0 10°08 February...) 4°7 4°9 BO. | 5:0 1|p acs Tee 77 Ges 94 6°52 Maree ese ee Seas | eb TOS | og | GME eg 5°79 April ...... 6°9 7'I 72 ge V5 68 56 6°5 5°6 6°64. Misty esos: Ve} 79 75 | 64 | 6:0 5°9 4°9 5°5 41 6°17 June ...... 8-7 91 Sr | 83] 84 77 9°4. 75 6°4, 8°18 July co D2t4. leno. |} Tr], 8-7 83 ahd 9°4 77 70 g'22 August ...| 11°38 | 10°6 96 | 9°31 8:9 8:6 | 10'9 8:8 gl 9°73 September.) 9°3 9'0 89 | 88] 83 76 8°6 a 71 8:41 October ...| 10°7 | 11°38 | 12°6 | 12°r | 11°8 | xo'g | FO'Q | 10°7 9°9 1I‘'27 November.) 8°9 8°5 910 | Ott 3°8 92 37 go 89 8°89 December..| 6°3 63 Maa OL A) Or2..\\ TO 93 | 1170 | 12°6 g'I0 Stations...) 4 29 28 10 6 4 2 3 3 89 a ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 451 complete for England and for the ten years 1850-59 inclusive. The results are so striking and seem likely to have such an important bearing on ques- tions of water supply, and (probably to a less extent) on agricultural matters, that we think it would be wrong to suppress them because we hope to report fully on the subject next year, and that we shall best discharge our duty by reporting the facts which have been ascertained, but prefixing the caution that although these deductions are based on daily observations for ten years at each of ninety stations, yet that this apparently firm basis is by no means unassailable ; the laws that hold good in one ten years may not be so mark- edly confirmed by other ten years, and those which hold south of the Tweed may be reversed or modified in the sister countries. Table II. indicates the results at present obtained. 8. Approximate Determination of the Height of Rain-gauge Stations above Sea-level_—There having been very many stations (perhaps 500 out of a total of 1500) the altitude of which above the mean level of the sea was un- known, considerable attention has been given to the determination of this important element. Before noticing the steps we haye recently taken, it may be well to state briefly what is meant by the apparently simple term “‘height above mean sea-level,” and to what extent this information is ob- tainable. ‘‘ Mean sea-level,” otherwise called “ Ordnance Datum,” is the mean height of the sea as recorded by the tide-gauge erected at Liverpool by the Ordnance Survey Department, and it is the zero from which all their altitudes are measured. ‘he altitudes determined by the Ordnance Depart- ment have been published in two forms—(1) in works entitled « Abstracts of Spirit Levelling in England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland,” wherein, as the title implies, are given the heights of certain marks, called Benchmarks, (ZIX) cut on milestones and other permanent objects along some of the principal roads in the British Isles; (2) in the maps on the 6-inch (and now on some of the 1-inch) scale the altitude of many points are given, and contour lines are also marked. This excellent system being in operation, it may be asked why this Committee have done anything in the matter; the reply is very simple and, we think, conclusive. We have not attempted in any way to supplant or encroach on the functions of the Ordnance Depart- ment; but we have called the attention of our observers to the benefit de- rivable from levelling to the nearest marks, sometimes on their own lodge- gates, yet unknown to them. In this way we have endeavoured to popularize and extend the benefits conferred by these government levels. But there are many places ten, fifteen, or more miles from the nearest benchmark, and for the benefit of observers thus situate, the following arrangements were made. Notice was sent to about 800 rainfall observers that they would be doing good service by taking careful readings of their barometers thrice daily (9 a.M., 3p.m., and 9 p.m.) for ten days, May 24th to June 2nd, 1867, entering them on a printed form sent with the notice, and when filled returning the same to Mr. Symons. These documents were then sorted into two groups, the one comprising only returns from stations at which the index-error of the baro- meter and its height above the mean level of the sea were known, and the other group comprising those stations of which the height was unknown. The returns having been carefully cleared of all errors, intercomparison of the ultimate results has given us a secondary series of altitudes probably correct to 10 or 20 feet, heimg accurate enough for, all rainfall purposes, these being also available as primary stations should a repetition of the process be necessary at any future time. 24H 2 452 REPORT— 1867. EXAMINATION OF d g 24/ 8s § & - Q=) 70 g S| 2 é County. Name of age | cre and z z Makers animate 5 2A) Se ; aoe a Og Ag 5° a'S t= 2 oat 8 o An 1866. 167.| Aug. 16,.| Cumberland ...... Borrowdale, Seathwaite, Mrs.| III. | Potter ............ 9 a.m, Abberley. 168.) Aug. 28.| Nottingham ,..... Nottingham, Welford Bridge,| X. | Negretti& Zambra] 9 a.m. R. W. Mylne, Esq. | 169.| Aug. 31.| Derby......,.....-..| Chapel-en-le-Frith, M.S. & L. R.| VIII. | Casarfelli ......... g a.m, 170.| Sept. 18.| Cumberland ,,.... Derwent Island, H. C. Marshall,| ITI | Casella ............ 9 a.m. Esq. 171.| Sept. 18.; Cumberland ..... Keswick, Crow Park, H. C.| XII. | Casella ............/month- Marshall, Esq. ly. 172.| Sept. 19.) Cumberland ...... Borrowdale, Seathwaite, I. See | Cooke......... +ee--(Month- Fletcher, Esq., F.R.S., Mrs. | page ly. Abberley. 466. 173-| Sept. 19.} Cumberland ...,., Keswick, Greta Bank, T. S. | III. | Dixey........ Sess iee|occesavem Spedding, Esq. 174.| Sept. 24.! Westmoreland ...) Patterdale, W. Marshall, Esq....) XII. | Casella ......... ../weekly, 175.| Sept. 24.] Westmoreland ,,,| Greenside, Stang End, W. Mar- | XII. | C shall, Esq., J. Barningham. RAIN-GAUGES. feet. 422 go 965 240 260 422 ° a 377 490 Scale- point. APWUNK PON H ON KAO H ~ APONS HAG NH Nwewo nOoON 99 water. Grains, 530 1050 1525 2010 2500 1000 1950 3000 3905 4900 580 1090 2000 25co 4900 ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, Equivalents of | Error at scale-point, specified in previous column. —"002 —"005 —"002 —'007 —‘ool +'oor correct +°oo1 + oor +'oo1 —*002 —‘oor correct +'006 correct + oor —"co2 —‘ool correct — "004. —‘007 —‘o1o —'008 —‘oll +-oor +008 +:018 —"CO5 —"cog — "003 correct +'003 —"003 —‘ool —"009 — ‘oor — "004, —‘olo —‘o12 —"'oc6 —"co7 —"004. 453 Remarks on position, &e. | | Gauge was tested in 1862 (see No.8) and the funnel remains unaltered; but the glass had been broken and a new one (rather incorrect) supplied. [This has been in turn supplanted by another perfectly accurate one.—Nov. 1866.] In railed enclosure, about 3ft.6in. high and 6 ft. square. Mr. Mylne ordered it to be cut down to 2 ft., the position will then be unexceptionable, just above the level of the highest floods in the Trent, from which it is only 200 yards distant. Clear open position, on the slope of a hill just above the top of the inclined plane. The island is so thickly wooded no very open spot can be found; when visited there were some flowers 3 ft. high, 2 ft. S.E. of the gauge, and a tree 60 ft. high about 40 ft. 8.W.; the results are checked by No. 171. On the circular knoll, formerly known as the racecourse an exposed position quite clear of trees. A number IX. gauge is in the same railed enclosure with this gauge, and both are read. Placed close to No. 8 for comparison therewith. Gauge identical with those placed by Mr. Fletcher at ft. Scawfell Pike ... 3200 ft. Sprinkling Tarn 1985 Esk Hause ...... 2550 Me y osedale ......... 624 Great End _...... 2982 | Styehead Tarn... 1472 Wasdale Head... 247 | The Stye ......... 1077 Brant Rigg ...... 695 | Stonethwaite ... 330 In flower-garden, and quite bedded in geraniums ; asked that it might be moved to a clearer spot. There was also a tree 60 ft. high about 40 ft. distant in E. In railed enclosure in a field at the head of Ullswater, a capital open position. A number IX. gauge has been in the same enclosure for some years, but I could not learn how long it had been given up; it was not in use when visited. On a shelf-like ledge of rock, quite over- hung by other rocks; a bad position. Scale-point equivalents not certain ; it was raining hard and blowing a gale, so that it was not easy to hold Reference number. 167. 170. 171. 173. 174. 175. Ab A REPORT—1867. EXAMINATION OF = r= 8 8 3 5 Se Name of station, owner, and S & Care ate 2 4 County. chaaten & | Maker'sname. | ° 2 Meal As Su ard pa 3 a” as 1866. 176.| Sept. 25.) Cumberland ...... Ullswater, Hallsteads, A. Mar-| TX. | Marshall & Co. ...|!month- shall, Esq. ly. 177.| Sept. 26.) Cumberland ...... Ullswater, Watermillock, W.} IX. | Marshall & Co....:month-| Marshall, Esq. ly. 178.| Oct. 5., Westmoreland ...| Ambleside, Loughrigg, E.B.W.| X. | Negretti & Zambra) 9 a.m. Balme, Esq. 179.| Oct. 5.) Lancashire......... Coniston, R. J. Bywater, Esq. XI. | Negretti & Zambra)......... 180. Oct. 8.) Westmoreland ...| Troutbeck, The Howe, Admiral | VITI.| Marshall, Kendal |......... Wilson. 181.| Oct. 16.) Westmoreland ...| Lowther Castle, Earl Lonsdale. | X. | Pastorelli Rd2:|\ Oct 13.) Work wseeccssece< === York, Coney Street, Mr. Sigs-| IIT. | Cooke............+:- ga.m. worth. 183. Oct. 18.) Westmoreland ...| Penrith, Great Strickland, H.| XI. | Negretti& Zambra)......... H. Plummer, Esq. | } 184.) Oct. 19.| Westmoreland ...| Penrith, Brougham Hall, Lord | II. Brougham, Mr, Campbell. ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. RAIN-GAUGES (continued). Height of iameters (those marked mean). M D in. 9°99 10°00 10°00 10°02 M 10002 10°02 10°00 9°98 10°00 M 10°00 797 Ree 8:02 8:00 M 8-000 4°98 5°93 5°00 5°02 M 5'007 8:03 799 8:00 797 M 7°998 8:02 8:03 797 794 M 7°990 4°98 5°05 5°01 4°97 M 5003 5°03 4°98 Neer 5700 M 5:008 12°00 12°08 12°02 12°10 M 12°005 Equivalents of water. oa Grains. in. ‘I 1300 2, 2620 23 3800 "4 5080 aE 6370 ‘or 50 i fe) 500 *20 1000 730 etele "40 1980 "50 2480 ‘OI 110 or 1254. ) 2520 *3 3800 ou 1290 Bi; 2560 “3 3880 "4 5100 5 6430 “ 500 2 10co 53 1490 ey BBs i.) 2490 on 500 2) 1000 23 wale 4 1980 5 ee Error at scale-point, specified in previous column. —"002 —‘o06 +*ool correct — ‘002 correct —‘oor —"oor correct +002 + "oor -+"ool + oor + ‘oor correct —*002 —"002 —*006 —'003 —‘008 —‘ool —'‘cor correct —‘ool —*002 —‘ool —‘ool correct +002 —‘ool 455 Remarks on position, &e. the glasses steady, and there was no- thing to set them down upon. In a large open field, railed in and in all respects well placed. Tn garden §.E. of the house and suffi- ciently exposed. A few trees, but not high ones, On the lawn quite exposed. The posi- tion is somewhat unusual, the hill dropping rapidly to E., W., and 8. from the small plateau on which the gauge is placed. On edge of lawn, east side of Coniston Water, about one mile from its head. Ground rises gently to the east of the gauge. No trees near. On the south side of the valley, + of a mile W. of Troutbeck Church; the house is 40 or 50 ft. S. of the gauge, which is cn the lawn sloping to the beck. On a post in the kitchen-garden, clear of obstructions, save perhaps a few trees. There was no inside can to this gauge, and the water running about the large vessel would doubt- less be always diminished by evapo- ration and the difficulty of pouring out without occasional spilling. Gauge fastened to a wall close to, and 30 ft. above, the river Ouse. Rather sheltered in the N. by the houses. Gauge on lawn well placed, and clear of all obstacles. The diameter of lesser tube at top was 4-04in., and the scale (where perfect) gave about 11-3 in. for each in., there- fore the gauge was probably correct when new, but it is very old, and the cylinder has been repeatedly burst by frost and soldered up again; the rod has also been broken and spliced, Reference number. rary NI > iy 178. 179: 180, 181. 182. 183. 134. 456 REPORT—1867. EXAMINATION OF g Chey ot Be| 25 a5) 1866. 185.| Oct. 20. 186.| Dec. 4. 187.| Dec. 4. 188.| Dec, 6. 189.| Dec. 6. 190.| Dec. 7. 191.| Dec. 7. 192.| Dec. 7. 1867. 193.| May 29 194.! May 30. .| Sussex * County. Cumberland Sussex een te ee eaee Sussex Sussex SUSSEX veveovsere Sussex Sussex Sussex Sussex Name of station, owner, and observer. Penrith, Edenhall, Mr. Bow- stead. Buxted Park, Col. Harcourt, Mr. Huggate. Uckfield Observatory, C. L. Prince, Esq. ...| Maresfield, Forest Lodge, Capt. Noble. .| Maresfield, The Rectory, Rev. BR. Turner, Uckfield, Moulsey Gore, F. Bredie, Esq. Newick, Ketches, Miss Shifner... Newick, Beechlands, W. Blaaw, Esq. Pevensey, M. Vidler, Esq.........| Beachy Head, Miss W. L. Hall. Construction of gauge. Til. IV. TY: 100 Maker’s name. Newcomb ........ Time of reading. eeetereee Dixey sereoesseeeeee.| 9 aM. Dixey soossencsvara0- Negretti & Zambra)........ Negretti & Zambra Negretti & Zambra Negretti & Zambra Casella, sacncrsscers ga.m, 9 a.m. ga.m. 9 a.m. _—T _ Height of gauge. 320? 3.0] 104 6 0} 149 = 2 | 263 3 | 172 @ 6; 112 o 8| 192 © 10] 210 Co) Io ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. RAIN-GAUGES (continued). S238 gh 8 awe Il 4°99 4°98 5°00 5°01 M 4995 IE22 1325 II‘oo 11°32 M 117198 Te25 II'21 11'28 I1'20 M 11°235 799 8°00 8°00 8-02 M 8'002 7°97 7°93 7°98 793 M7953 7°98 8-02 8-03 7°98 M 8:003 8°03 $:03 797 7°98 M 8-002 4°98 5°93 5°00 5°00 M 5003 8*00 8*co 8:02 7°92 M 7°985 Equivalents of water. Scale- point. in. UBD HULU DS UPUWUNHAUPONS HUES S HUES SH Grains, Heenan were enl eee eeee Error at scale-point, specified in previous column. —‘col —"oo2 —‘ool correct —‘oor —'oll —‘o2I —'031 correct correct correct —‘o02 —'‘oor —'003 —"002 —'003 correct correct +*002 —"004 —"o002 —'006 +'oo1 +:006 +°006 —"005 —"'ool —*007 correct —‘ool —'003 —— “007 correct — "C03 —"co4. —'003 —*o02 —‘ool + ‘oor +'002 457 Remarks on position, &e. and fresh floats have been added from time to time. I recommended that a new one should be placed near it, and the result is that the old one re- cords nearly 25 per cent. too little, Sheltered on the E. by a row of elms about 35 ft. distant, and perhaps 50 ft. high, All else clear. Good position in kitchen-garden. When visited, was found on a pedestal, so that the funnel was 6 ft. above the ground, from which pedestal it had more than once been blown down; suggested that it should be placed on the ground ; agreed to. Good position, in centre of town. Gauge on a pedestal like No. 186, but securely fastened. Would be rather sheltered if lower. In a railed enclosure around the Ob- servatory, the nearest angle of which is only 7ft. distant in N.W. and 14 ft. high. On lawn, rather sheltered by shrubs in 8. and §.8.W., about 6 ft. high and 6 ft. distant. Very near to No. 187, in an open field nearer to the railway. On lawn, clear of trees, and with a leyel tract for some distance round. Ina sunk garden, surrounded by hedges and the house and trees, but none are yery close. On the beach, in a veryexposed position. Gauge fastened to a short post, and enclosed by a palisade 6 ft. square and 3ft. 6 in. high. ...| On the top of Beachy Head, about 100 yards W. of the Coast-guard Reference number. 185. 186, 187. 188. 190. Igl. 192. 193. 194. 458 REPORT—1867. EXAMINATION OF : FI 8 gs 8x} SS : = & = ey Name of station, owner, and Bo 5 Be 24 County. pa £8, | Maker's name. 8 'S) 1867. 195.| May 31.) Sussex ......, se..| Lewes, Glynde Place, Mr.| III. | Bate, Poultry M‘Leod. | May 31.| Sussex ....00.0004 Eastbourne, Miss W. L. Hall...) XII. | Casella ...ccsc.00.-|escsceuee June 1. | Sussex sessssoess. Brighton; | Upper Brunswick + WHI. |js.ccsvcessccuelo.sces.s|tccse cea Place, Dr. Kebbel. 197. | June 1. | Sussex .........04 Brighton Water-works, W. | VI. | Crosley .........0-{sec.e Blaber, Esq. June 1.} Sussex ...ss..0.00. Brighton Water-works, W. | XII. | Casella .......00...)....00008 Blaber, Esq. 199. June 1. | Sussex oe... Brighton, Richmond Terrace, | XII. | Private ............[...0.c008 O. Smith, Esq. 200. 201.] June x. | Sussex ............ Brighton, St James Street, H.} III. |............cceeeeeees Rowley, Esq. 202. June 3.| Sussex ............ Brighton, Eaton Place, Dr. X. | Browning ......... Barker. 203. SUNG VEsal MSUBKOK uesaccetens Brighton Gas-works............... Walt || Crosley tetera Pe 204.| June 8.| Kent ..........00004 Beckenham, C. O. F. Cator, Esq.| X. | Negretti & Zambra| 9 a. ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 459 RAIN-GAUGES (continued). = > | Equivalents of | Error at = 23 3 water. scale-point, ( 3 a as Ba F =a, al Specitied! mm Remarks on position, &e, 2 F aS Scale- : i oA] ra) I st | point. Grains. Se sati Z 5 in. in. 4°97 station, and under the care of the 5°02 men on duty. Glass believed to be M 4993 the same as No.196 ; if so, gauge must be practically correct. 3-0) 59 5°00 I 500 —‘oor | Ona postin kitchen-garden, an espalier |195. 5°00 2 1020 -~"006 5ft. high 4ft. off in N.E., N., and 5°02 3 1540 —‘ollr N.W., all else clear; suggested re- 4°98 4 2020 —"'007 moval to a more open spot: found M s'000} °5 2510 — 006 observer’s books badly cast, checked - them all through, and took copies. eh ..|' Go 4°98 I 500 —‘oor | In the best practicable position in a |196. 4°99 2 1000 —*002 rather sheltered garden; probably 5°02 3 1480 .| -+-oo1 nothing is more than 45° above the 4°99 ‘4 1980 correct gauge, and the results may be ac- M 4°995| °5 2470 +:oor cepted. 2 6) 45 TOTO), || 5. ds.05| teeny Beetees| aces dosaracc icc No use at all. The gauge was right |197. 4 I0'00 underneath a sycamore tree, in most | ~ 10°05 ridiculous proximity to thestem. No 10°05 further observations will be made. M to'050 5 6]! 9g0 10°00 *09 2525 —‘o1o | In a capital position on the large lawn |198. 10°00 of the water-works. 10°00 M_10°000 5 7] 90 5°00 ‘ol 50 correct | Near to No. 198, and in an equally |rg9. 5700 | “IO 500 —‘ool good position. 4°99 "20 1000 --'002 M 4°997| °3° | 1490 —‘ool "40 1980 correct "50 2480 —‘oor B07). .58 6:20 $3 2500 —'o28 | Clear position, gauge (as usual with |200, 6:20 6 5000 —"056 privately made ones) very incorrect. 6°20 9 7500 —"084 Returns have never been published, 6:20 | 12 T0c00 — "112 except under a pseudonym in a local M 6-200 paper ; hope they never will be. ™ oj} 40 5700 or 500 —‘oor | Very much sheltered. Houses in N.W. |201. 4°95 "3 1510 —"005 40 ft. high and 40 ft. off, and in §.B, 504. | 4 2000 — ‘004 40 ft. high and 27 ft. off. 5°00 5 2505 —-"006 M 4997 : Oo 3] 98 8-00 I 1300 —ooz | Good position, except from 8.W., where |202. 8-00 2 2570 —"003 the house, 45 ft. high, is only 30 ft. 7°95 3 3800 correct distant. 8:04. 4 5010 +'005 M 7°998| °5 6300 +004 m o| 72 ga DOSCECO: titsteereerelseseeeseeseeeee| On a post in a good open position. 203. 9° z vege M 10°000 | © 6] 142 Sor or 1240 +'oo2 | On lawn, rather near its sloping edge, |204. y 7°97 2 2525 correct but otherwise unexceptionable posi- { 797 “9 3810 —"002 tion. , 7°96 4 5050 correct i M7977| °5 6305 460 . REPORT—1867. EXAMINATION OF : Fl A 6 gg] 33 Name of stati a | ee eo os ame of station, owner, an = ; “= &o ge g 4 County. observer. z & pa pe | 5 af) Ag 3° AE 1867. 205.| June 8.| Kent: ...iscsce.scses Beckenham, C. O. F. Cator, Esq.| XIT. | Apps .....sscsseccesleseseeeee 206.| June 10.| Sussex .sscoesseees Farnhurst, Hawksfold, Miss| X. | Negretti& Zambra}9 a.m. H, A. Salvin. 207.| June 10.| Surrey ............ Guildford, Commercial Road, | XI. | Negretti & Zambra| 9 a.m. Capt. James, R.E. 208.| June 10.) Surrey ...ssseeees Guildford School, Dr. Merriman.) XI. | Negretti & Zambra — 209. June 11.| Sussex .......0005 Chichester, Chilgrove, W. L.| III. | Knight ............ 9 a.m. | Woods, Esq. 210.| June 11.| Sussex ....s.seeeee Chilgrove, Bepton Hill, W. L. | III. | Knight ............ month- Woods, Esq. ly. |] 211.| June 13.| Sussex ......eseeee Chichester Infirmary, W. Hills, | III. | Knight ............{0...008 it Esq. 212.| June rx.| Sussex ver..seseeee Chichester, West Dean, H. Pax-| X. | Negretti& Zambraj......... ton, Esq. 213.| June 12.| Sussex ............ Chichester, West Gate, Dr.| III. | Knight ............ 9 a.m. Tyacke. 214.) June 14.| Sussex .......005 Chichester, Shopwyke House, | X. | Negretti& Zambra|month- Rey. G. H. Woods. ly. 215.| June 20.) Sussex .....see00ee Bognor, Aldwick, Mr. Upton...| IIL. | Knight ............/ececee ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 461 RAIN-GAUGES (continued). Height of gauge. Equivalents of | Error at water. scale-point, specified in Remarks on position, &c. Scale- : revious 5 Grains. P point. column. marked mean). M Diameters (those Reference me 5 Close to No. 204. APU On lawn facing S.W., and quite open, rather high ground overlooking Mid- hurst, &e. teh eeeeee AES .| In an open garden, a very good posi- tion. Equivalents not entered on the examination form, but think the glass was tested and found correct. correct. | On lawn in a very good position. —‘oor correct. —"004. —‘0ooz | Very good position ; bottle neck rather —*007 small, and funnel therefore shaky. —"'009 Rim of gauge rather flat, which will — ‘009 probably correct the errors of the —'008 glass. mescesess : : —'003 | Quite open, in a hollow near the top of — "004. the hill, on the east side, but about —'003 200 ft. below it. "004 —*003 —‘oo1 | Has usually been in an open part of —‘oo2 the lawn in front of the Infirmary, —'003 and will be replaced there as soon as -+-oor alterations, in progress at time of correct. visit, are completed. Gauge was temporarily carefully placed in a tolerably good position. On the slope of the valley facing S.E., not very far from the Church ; fairly exposed. oS Eats) In a very open position, on a large level lawn. HUPO NR In a large vase, on the lawn, good open position. Yeutu sd Found very close to a gooseberry-bush, had it moved to a clear spot. 462 REPORT— 1867. EXAMINATION OF ; a r= S Z| 3% Name of stati 1 | 28 g| o8 ame of station, owner, anc a 2 z 2 2 4 County. sic Sian ¢ & Maker's name. a7 4: os 1867. 216.| June 21.| Sussex ........2-.: Littlehampton, Yapton, R. Red-| XIT. | Casella ............).....0008 ford, Esq. 217.| June 24.| Sussex .....-s00..- Horsham, St. Leonards Lodge, | TIT. | Casella .........../...... de W. E. Hubbard, Esq. 218.) June 24.) Sussex .......00-5 Horsham, St. Leonard's Lodge, | III. | Casella ...........-|....0000 The Gardens, Mr. 8. Ford. 219.| dune 24.) Sussex .........40 Crawley, The Hyde, E. S. Biggs, | VIII. | Private ............[... Esq. 220.| June 24.| Sussex .........06 Petworth Rectory, Rev. C. Hol- | ITI. | Gould............2.-|eccsecees land. } 221.) June 25.| Sussex ....e0s seee-| Petworth Gardens, Mr. Jones...| XII. | Casella .........0--|.sceeeees 222.| June 25.) Sussex ..+.00...-.-|Arundel, Dale Park, J.C.Fletcher,! IV. |........c.ccceeeeee te Sete “d i Esq., Mr. Wilson. 223.| June 26.) Sussex .......ss00e Worthing, Bedford Row, W.| XI. | Negretti& Zambra) 9 a.m. J. Harris, Esq. 224.| June 26.) Sussex ...........- Worthing, Dr. Barker ............ X.? | Private si. 25.002 225.| June 27.| Sussex ..........+. Worthing, Findon, Rey. Dr. | III. | Casella ....... ave o]bs deem F 3 Cholmelly. gauge. mm 6 | Zor m 6 | 273 6 | 370 I 6 | 170 6 | 180 © | 316 Oo} 21 o| 18 © | 167 Height of ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. RAIN-GAUGES (continued). I 2 is 979° a M 10°000} °5 5°06 5°06 5°06 5°03 M 5'053 5°00 4°98 4°99 4°98 M 4°987 II'22 11°18 Tir23 Ir'l4 M 11193 5°02 4°98 501 5°03 M so10 13°2 "135 1322 12'9 132 vw wn o a) . ae 5702 I 4°80 22 500 3 yee 4 M 4°98?) °5 5 oe Ses s water. Con get | pea — cale- * a st | point Grains Equivalents of | Error at scale-point, specified in previous column. —'013 —‘007 —‘oIo —"oo1 —'oor correct. +:oor correct. correct. — O02 —‘OOr +002 correct. — ‘ool —‘*O0Oo2 — ‘OO! +oo1 correct. +:008 +014 +023 +024 +1014 —'007 "005 —"OI4 —'014, "004. —‘oor —"003 — "002 —‘oor —'003 — "08 "003 —"005 —‘Ooor —'0o21 —"o1o —‘oo1 +roor +002 +002 +'007 +009 +-or4 +'036 _ "004. —*007 —"005 —*007 — ‘Oro 463 Remarks on position, &e. In a garden well exposed, clear leyel country. At §.E. angle of a terrace, in a bed of cut heath; the gauge is 1 ft. 6in. above the terrace, and about 6 ft. above the next lower one, The house 30 ft. off in 8.W. is about 25 ft. high, all else is clear. About a of a mile from No. 217. A very roughly made flat-funnelled gauge, placed about 4ft. from the base of a large hot-house facing 8. I have no doubt in rough weather both rain and snow unduly shoot into the gauge. On lawn sloping to E., slightly but not injuriously sheltered. In the kitchen-gardens, level, and very open position. In kitchen-gardens on slope to S., belt of trees in N., but not near enough to affect gauge. Rim of funnel very flat. In garden in front of Bedford Row, sheltered to the W. by houses 40 ft. high and 50 ft. distant. A very roughly made gauge, in an in- different position. Fair exposure on lawn, some elms, about 50 ft. high, 100 ft. distant in S.W. Gauge had been indented considerably at one point. The mean diameter as given is believed eference number | R 216. 217. 218. 219. 220, 221. 222. 223. 224. 464. Reference number. | | | examination. Lal oo a = 226,| June 227.| Sept. 228.| Sept. 229.| Sept. 230.| Sept. 231.| Sept. 232.| Sept. 233.| Sept. 234.| Sept. 235.| Sept. 236.) Sept. 28 lol J 24. 24. 4. 4. REPORT—1867. .| Sussex s| BOrfar seccsceeoees Forfar pee ee eens S| OLIAT stescavacecles’s .| Forfar .| Forfar eee ee earns .| Forfar eee eeeeenree Forfar seen enereee .| Forfar Hampshire eeeeee Hampshire wee eee Name of station, owner, and observer. Steyning, Rey. H. Ingram aeons Dundee, Eastern Cemetery, Mr. M‘Kelvie. Dundee, Barry, Mr. J. Procter. Dundee, Crombie, Dundee Water-works. Dundee, Barry, Mr. J. Procter Dundee, Craigton Reservoir, Dundee Water-works. Dundee, Hill Head, Dundee Water-works. | Dundee, Hermon Hill, R. Adam- son, Esq. Dundee, Westfield Cottage, E. Clark, Esq. Ryde, C. Scholefield, Hsq., R.N. Ryde, Esplanade, R. Taylor, Esq. EXAMINATION OF 8 oS . S& E ce Maker's name. | © = Be a o° ws <) Ae XIE. |'Casella: .....-:00se|s FeO Tp? | Adieg vec scen-scoenn 9 a.m TIT. | Casella ............ ga.m AAU OR FSSC sseotccodeagionescdenecas:— VIII.) Mr. Procter ......} 9 a.m. VES eee dectncyeaeg ene ectee|secle siete WiLL. || oe eerste cesesncesersive| mentale . WILDE ie eves etre eeteneraer month- ly. XII. | Lowden ............ gam KIT. | Casella, io.cc0.0505+|.conee a VILL.| Local)... .ccicoeesvns 9 a. ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 4.65 RAIN-GAUGES (continued). Height of 481 57° 109 mean), (that marked M Diameters =o - 5°02 4°98 5700 5'00 M 5:000 3°00 3°00 3°00 3°00 M 3:000 5°02 4°98 5°01 5°00 M 5002 11'22 11°32 11°28 11°31 M 11283 11°72 11°67 11°68 11°77 M 11°710 11'20 1145 II‘50 11°32 M 11°367 II‘06 II"4o II'13 11°32 M 11°227 11°30 11°32 11°30 11°32 M 117310 5700 5°00 5700 5/04. M 5:010 so8 5O1 5702 5°CcO M s'o15 12°!I Equivalents of water. eae Grains, in. i 500 *2, 1000 a3 1500 4. 2000 5 2500 1°30 2350 1'00 1800 eit 500 2 1000 33 1499 "4. 1980 °c 2480 “tie | kosbasossoce CA >| hononebnadte Tr) | Sooo pcesoee OAe laa eats Saxe) "085| 2525 “18 5050 '277| 7576 SX lcieaistls snes Seu leee aes secns EVOP) lsvenaemsgves oA seaneveaces GS Bdedeteece I'o colseineates ‘OI 5° ar 500 "2, 1000 “9 1499 4 1980 cr 2480 ay 500 2 1000 “3 1490 “4. 19890 oie 2480 Seen i Error at seale-point, specified in previous column. —'oor —*002 —'003 —"004. —"004. —'016 —*'008 —‘ool —'002 correct. +oor correct. + ‘oor +002 +002 +°003 —*008 —*006 —'002 +002 +004 +005 correct. correct. +'002 correct. correct. —‘oo! + oor +"002 +:0co2 correct. correct. + oor +°003 +003 Remarks on position, &e. Reterence number. | to indicate the true area of the gauge. Some trees in 8.W., about 30 ft. off and |226. 20ft. high; the gauge is rather sheltered, but any injurious effect can hardly arise. Inan open part of the Cemetery, which |227. is on a yery gentle slope towards the Tay. In garden rather sheltered, but probably |228. not so much so as to yitiate the re- sults. In a railed enclosure, perfectly open in |229. all directions. Close to No. 228, 2.30. Very good position on open lawn. |231. There is also a gauge, pattern No. V., but with a very flat rim. Trees in N.H. 50 ft. distant and 30 ft. |232. high. Pipe into receiver nearly 1-5in. in diameter ; will be reduced to °1 in. In garden, fully exposed; measuring- |233. jax not accessible. On the tsp of the thermometer stand ; |234. rain drawn off bya tap. In a garden sloping to river. On a post in garden at EB. end of Ryde. |235. Ww w [o>) In small yard at back of house and. 21 466 : REEFORT—1867. EXAMINATION OF ; a 8 ee 24) 32 3 EE) z 8 a County. Name cf BeuOn oyaes; and ac Mates was. |S eb Sea gs observer. @% 80 25 32| As 8% E'S pa 8 .) ' Be 1867. 237.| Sept. 24.] Hampshire ...... Ryde, Esplanade, R. Taylor, | XII. | Casella ............ 9 a.m. Esq. ¢ 238.| Sept. 27.) Hampshire ...... Osborne, J. R. Mann, Esq.......| X. | Negretti & Zambra|month-|| . ly. 239.| Sept. 27.! Hampshire ...... Osborne, J. R. Mann, Esq.......] IV. | Negretti & Zambra| 9 a.m.}) 240.|'Sept. 28.) Hampshire ...... Newport, Chapel St., Mr. E. G.| XI. | Negretti & Zambra} 9 a.m.|/ Aldridge. 241.| Sept. 30.) Hampshire ...... St. Lawrence, The Rectory, Rey.) XII. | Casella ............ 9 a.m. C. Malden. 242.| Oct. 1.) Hampshire ...... Ventnor, Pelgraye House, Dr. TD. |PNG yatta eee es ne: 9 a.m. Martin. Note.—The preceding Tables are similar in every respect to those contained in the British Association Report for 1866; and in order that the present one may be complete in itself, part of the explanation there given is here repeated ; as is also the-Plate representing the various forms of gauge most generally used. The present Tables contain the results of Mr. Symons’s personal examina- tion of gauges onthe dates specified in the second column, and at the loca- lities stated in the third and fourth columns. The pattern of the gauge is indicated by the Roman numerals which refer to the accompanying Plate ; the next four columns are self-explanatory ; then, as few gauges are true circles, four diameters (7. e. at intervals of 45°) are taken, and their mean is assumed as the mean diameter of the gauge and marked M; from this the area, and weight of an inch of water over that area, is readily obtained, and the difference between the computed value and that which the gauge showed ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. RAIN-GAUGES (continued). 467 tee} = when tested is the error of the gauge given in the last column but two; the last columns are self-ex- planatory. ' A section is given of Gauge No. 172, it being of a type not represented on the Plate, yet of consider- able importance, inasmuch as it is the pattern em- ployed by Mr. Fletcher, F.R.S., on the Cumberland The orifice is small, only 4 inches, in order to keep the volume of water within manage- able limits ; they are constructed with very thick double-lapped copper vessels dropped into stout iron cans provided with lock and hinges; the amount is measured with a glass like No. III. Mountains. on the body B. Height of 2 = = | Equivalents of | Error at gauge. £48 water. scale-point, ie. 5 =| specified in Above Be = Scale- i revious ground.) yo | A Sa | point. pe faiane ft. in.| feet. in. in. 119 12'0 12'0 M 12000 6 0} 20 5°00 ‘I 490 + oor 4°98 2, 990 correct. 5°00 ms 14.90 —*002 4°98 4 2000 —"005 M4990] °5 2480 —'002 oS! )e172, 7°98 27 1290 —*002 797 2 2500 + "002, 7°97 7°96 M 7°970 ay! |) 1972 I2°10 *065| 2500 —*035 I1'go *150} 5000 — ‘038 12'00 '240| 7500 —'034 I2‘01 *325| 10000 —038 M 12003] ‘415 | 12500 "034. *500| 15000 —'025 8 8 53 Sor 7 510 —‘002 5700 2 IoIO —*003 5°00 ay 1500 —*‘oor 5°04. “4 1985 +-"002 M s5:013] °5 2490 correct. ae 85 5°00 I 500 —‘ool 4°98 2. 1000 —"'002 5°02 be | 14990 —‘oor 5°00 "4 1980 + oo! M 5000} °5 2480 correct. & 7 | Loo 12°00 05 1490 —‘oo1 12'co OF 3000 —*005 12°02 Sri 4260 +roor 12°02 M 12'010 Remarks on position, &c. sheltered both by buildings and a tree due 8. 16 ft. high and only 8 ft. distant. Close to No. 286. On grass plot; a hedge 5 ft. high was |2 only 4 ft. distant in E. Close to No, 238. On apex of small outhouse, much shel- tered by trees. Quite clear on lawn; ground sloping to 8. Clear except in N., where the house (three stories) is only 40 ft. distant. e, c are handles, D is a hinge, and AE D falls down close : 212 * Beale of inches, Reference number | 237- 239. 240, 241. 242. 468 REPORT—1867. Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Bowrtne, The Rt. Hon. C. B. ApvERLEY, M.P,, Sir W. Armstrone, Mr. Samuret Brown, Mr. W. Ewart, M.P., Mr. Carei H. Bercer, Dr. Farr, Mr. Frank Fettows, Prof. Franxianp, Mr. Groner Grover, Prof. Hennessy, Earl Forrescut, Mr. Freprrick Henpricxs, Mr. James Hey- woop, Sir Roperr Kang, Prof. Lronse Levi, Prof. W. A. Mitirr, Prof. Rankine, Mr. C. W. Sremens, Col. Sykes, M.P., Prof. A. W. Wititamson, Lord Wrorrrestey, Mr. James Yates, and Prof. Luoner Levi, Secretary. Sixck our reappointment at Nottingham, your Committee have used their best endeavours to diffuse the knowledge of the Metric System, with a view to its extension throughout the world, and we have the pleasure to report that special and extensive opportunities have presented themselves for the purpose. The advantage of having the principal items in the statistics of the United Kingdom published in the terms of the Metric, as well as of the Imperial System, a practice which has been most advantageously introduced in some Government Departments, has been again brought by your Committee to the notice of the Board of Trade; but although this method has been repeatedly recommended by the International Statistical Congress, and also by the Com- mittee of the House of Commons in 1862, the request has not been granted. Your Committee can scarcely admit that an arrangement, which would be found so convenient to this and to foreign countries, and which would so facilitate the general knowledge of the Metric System, should be refused on the ground of clerical difficulties, or because it may cause a trifling ad- ditional expenditure. ‘The Committee hope that, on further consideration, the Board of Trade will see the advantage of complying with the wishes repeatedly expressed for such items of information. The Mural Standard, which has been the subject of so much care and study, both as regards precision and material, has now been completed by Mr. Casella, Scientific Instrument Maker to the Admiralty, and is available for public use. It is made of white glazed porcelain, which is little affected by changes of temperature, and combines cheapness with elegance. The two units, the Yard and the Metre, with their divisions, authorized by law, are there shown in contact, so as to admit of easy comparison. The Yard, divided into feet, inches, and eighths of an inch, is painted in red; the Metre, divided into decimetres, centimetres, and millimetres, in blue. By very careful obser- vation, it has been found that the measures on this instrument are exact to within the two hundred and fiftieth part of an inch, or the tenth part of a millimetre. It is fitted in a mahogany frame, for suspension on the walls of public buildings. Your Committee have ordered copies of the Mural Stan- dard to be presented to the Board of Customs of London and Liverpool, the University of Oxford, and the office of the Warden of the Standards. By the kindness of Mr. Yates, a copy of the Mural Standard has also been presented to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. It is much to be desired that the Mural Standard be extensively made known, and your Committee would recommend the same to the special attention of the Chambers of Com- merce and municipal authorities. In February last, your Committce, in conjunction with the Council of the British Branch of the International Decimal Association, invited a con- UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 4.69 ference with deputies from the Chambers of Commerce in the United King- dom, and the Consular authorities in London. The conference was held at the Society of Arts, under the presidency of Sir John Bowring, and the fol- ing resolutions were unanimously passed :— That the permissive use of Metric Weights and Measures in the United Kingdom, without corresponding powers for legalizing authorized standards of the same, and the stamping of Metric Weights and Measures in use, is calculated to cause much inconyenience in trade, and to frustrate the prac- tical adoption of the system; and that it is therefore desirable that the Department of the Board of Trade charged with the custody of Imperial Weights and Measures, be also authorized to provide and maintain the stan- dards of Metric Weights and Measures, and to stamp and verify those in general use. That in order to facilitate the use of the Metric System, it is desirable that the same be introduced into the public departments, especially in the Post-office and the Customs, by the official preparation of the Tariff in Metric equivalents, with authority to levy duty according to the same; and the publication of the principal results of the statistics of the Board of 'Trade in Metric and Imperial values. That this Conference recommend the Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom to use means for promoting the voluntary use of the Metric System among merchants, manufacturers, and tradesmen, such as the pre- paration of special tables, available in the various trades, for converting prices and quantities from the Metric into the Imperial System, and vice versd; and the exhibition of Mural Standards of the Metre in public places in the principal ports and market-towns. That in the opinion of this Meeting, the International Monetary Con- vention lately entered into by France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland, for the purpose of giving a common weight, fineness, and currency to their stan- dard Coins, is deserving approbation as a measure calculated to facilitate and extend the commercial, banking, and exchange operations between those nations themselves, and foreign countries having dealings with them. And this Meeting is further of opinion that the conditions of the Inter- national Monetary Convention, so far as they may be found applicable to the Metallic Currency System of the United Kingdom, are well worthy of the attentive consideration and support of all who are interested in the pro- gress of and intercommunication between nations. That it is desirable that the Chambers of Commerce should be repre- sented at the Conference to be held in Paris in connexion with the special Exhibition of Weights, Measures, and Coins, at the approaching Universal Exhibition. The most important event, however, which is likely to exercise considerable influence in the future discussion of the question, is the Conference held in Paris at the suggestion of your Committee and of the Council of the Inter- national Decimal Association. The Conference haying been held at a time when Parliament was sitting and the Courts of Law were open, no large representation could attend from this country, yet Mr. Samuel Brown and Professor Leone Levi attended on behalf of your Committee and they had the advantage of having with them Mr. Louis P. Casella, the constructor of the Mural Standard, Mr. Muspratt and Mr. Blood, representing the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, and Mr. Joseph Wrigley, representing the Hudders- field Chamber of Commerce. The Conference was attended by represent- atives from many countries, including Austria, Spain, Portugal, Denmark, 470 REPORT—1867. Sweden, Norway, Prussia, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Russia, Italy, Morocco, Tunis, Brazil, South America, and the United States; and was presided over by M. Mathieu, of the Institute. The first question discussed was that of Weights and Measures, anda report was read on the subject, which was pre- pared by M. Jacobi, of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, and adopted by the organizing Committee. Starting from certain fundamental propositions in fayour of the Decimal system of calculation and of the Metric system especially, the report showed how far that system had been extended in different countries, specifying those which have already adopted it entirely and in an obligatory manner, such as France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, the Roman States, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Mexico, Chili, Brazil, New Grenada, and other Republics of South America; those which have more or less borrowed from it, such as Switzerland, Baden, Prussia, Bavaria, Wur- temberg, Austria, Denmark ; those which have introduced the Metric system in a permanent manner, as the United Kingdom, and the United States ; and those which have nothing in common with the Metric system. After this survey, the report entered into a detailed account of the adyantages which would result from the use of the system in different branches of labour, in the teaching of arithmetic in primary schools, in scientific researches and memoirs, in commercial transactions, in industry and machinery, in postal tariffs, telegraphs, and customs duties. As regards the use of its nomen- clature, the report is not in favour of any material alteration, and far less of using old names for new quantities; nor does it favour the com- bination of the old and new systems, such as the use of the foot side by side with the metre even in a period of transition. In conclusion, the re- port recommended the immediate teaching of the Metric System in schools, and the use of the same in statistical and other public documents. After some discussion the report was put to the vote, and was carried unanimously. Doubts having been expressed as to the exact correspondence between the standards kept at the Archives and those at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, and some uncertainty existing respecting the method to be pursued for obtaining an exact standard in other countries, the prototype being in Paris, Général Morin and M. Tresca, Conservator and Subcon- servator of the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, stated that on the 5th October, 1863, his Excellency the Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, had appointed a Commission, composed of themselves, with M. Silberman, Conservator of the collections, and M. Froment, Constructor of instruments, charged to make an official comparison between the pro- totype standards kept at the Archives, with those deposited at the Impe- rial Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, more particularly destined to be used for comparisons with the standards made by or for the different goyvern- ments which might adopt the Metric System. The prototype standard Metre at the Archives is of platinum, has no inscription or mark whatever, and is a Métre 4 bout. It is in a case, haying a tablet with the following indication ;— MerrTrE Conforme 4 la loi du 18 Germinal an. III. Présenté le 4 Messidor an. VII. And outside the inscription the words: Fait par Lenoir. That at the Conservatoire has precisely the same inscription, is in every way identical with the other, and seems in a better state of preservation. The UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 471 Kilogram of the Archives is a cylinder of platinum, without any mark or inscription, in a box haying the following inseription :— KinoGRAMME Conforme 4 la loi du 18 Germinal an. IIT. Présenté le 4. Messidor an VII. Fortin f. The Kilogram at the Conservatoire has been recently re-constructed (1864), and has the same form with the other. Two distinct comparisons were made between these Metres and Kilograms, and the result was that those at the Conservatoire were found to be 1-:00000329 and 1:00000072 respectively, as compared with those of the Archives. In answer to the assertion that a cubic centimétre of distilled water at 4° Centigrade of temperature did not in fact furnish the exact basis for the weight of the Kilogram, it was stated that the difference was quite infinitesimal, and that it had no value whatever when the exact standard was kept, and that corresponded with the standard Kilogram of all nations. The statements of Général Morin and M. Tresca were considered highly satis- factory, as giving every guarantee of sufficient exactitude, and completely dispelled every doubt suggested on the subject. A Commission appointed by the Committee afterwards inspected the Metre and Kilogram at the Archives and Conseryatoire, and having found them as described, made a protocol signifying their satisfaction at the care with which the standards were preserved, and at the results of the verification made. With reference to the uniformity of weights and measures, your Com- mittee have therefore much pleasure in reporting that their task has been greatly accelerated by the Conference described, and that there is every pro- spect that the principal nations will speedily adopt the Metric System. In the United Kingdom much remains to be done on the subject. As yet the Metric System, though rendered legal, has made but little progress either in general practice or even in the education of the people, aud your Committee are of opinion that the most efficient mode for promoting the early introduc- tion of this salutary reform is to make the use of the Metric System compul- sory at no distant period. They recommend, therefore, amongst other mea- sures, that a bill be speedily introduced in Parliament providing that after a given time the use of metric weights and measures shall become compulsory throughout the United Kingdom. As regards the coinage, your Committee have to report the proceedings of two important Conferences. The Monetary Convention signed at Paris on the 23rd December 1865, by the representatives of France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy, having established an agreement between four im- portant countries whereby the coinage of cach of them was made legally current in all the others, great eiforts have been made to induce other nations to give their adhesion to the Convention. Hitherto the Convention was made between nations which had already an identical system of coinage. The object of the Conference was to consider by what means those nations which had a totaliy different system could ke also united. This Conference, called by the French Government, was held at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, under the presidency of His Imperial Highness the Prince Napoleon, and was attended by representatives from Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, the United States, from Great Britain, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Por- tugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, and Wurtem- berg. The results of their deliberations were as follows. 472 REPORT—1867. It was unanimously agreed :— That the monetary unification may more easily be realized by the mutual coordination of the existing systems, taking into account the scientific advantages of certain types, and the number of persons who have already adopted them, than by the creation of a new system altogether inde- pendent of the existing ones. That for that purpose, the system agreed on by the Monetary Convention of 1865 should be taken principally into consideration, subject to any improvements of which it may be capable. It was agreed by all, except the representatives of the Netherlands,— That it is not possible to attain such identity, or even a partial coinci- dence, in such monetary types in an extended area, on the basis and on condition of the exclusive adoption of a silver standard; but that it is possible to attain it on the basis of a gold standard, allowing each State to preserve the silver standard in a transitory manner, It was agreed by all, except the representatives of Russia and the United States,— That the advantage of internationality, which the coinage of the metal taken for common standard would possess, is not a sufficient guarantee for its being maintained in circulation in all the States, but that it is necessary to stipulate that in the countries which continue to use the silver standard only, and in those which have a double standard, the relation between the value of gold and silver should not be established on too low a footing, in order to give due facility for the practical intro- duction of the gold coinage. It was unanimously agreed,— That for the success of the Monetary unification, itis necessary to fix types haying a common denominator for the weight of the gold coin, with an identical fineness of 9/10 fine. The proposal that the common denominator should be the piece of five francs was adopted by a majority of 13 votes against 2, the representatives England and Sweden having voted against, and those of Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg, and Belgium having abstained from voting. It was then unanimously agreed,— That the gold coin of the common denominator of 5 francs should have legal course in all the States which are mutually bound by the Monetary Convention. It was agreed by all, except the representatives of Prussia, Baden, and Wur tembers, who abstained from voting,— That it would be useful that the types of coinage determined by the Monetary Convention of 23rd December 1865, should be in the interest of unification, and consequently of reciprocity, completed by new types, for example, of 25 frances. But for the proposal that a piece of 15 francs be also added, the represen- tatives of seven countries voted in favour, those of seven voted against, and those of six, including Great Britain, abstained from voting. It was unanimously aereed— That the Conference expresses the hope that the measures which may be adopted by the Governments of the different States in order to modify their respective monetary systems in accordance with the bases indi- cated by the Conference, should be made as much as possible the sub- jects of diplomatic conventions, And it was unanimously agreed— UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 473 That soon after the reception of the answers which may be given by the different States to the official communication, which will be made to them of the labours of the Conference by the French Government, that Government may, if necessary, call a new Conference. But on the question as to the time when such answers should be given, the representatives of ten countries voted for before the 15th F ebruary prox., those of five voted in favour for the 1st October 1867, those of the United States for the 15th May 1868, and those of Great Britain for the 1st June 1868. Those of France and Spain abstained. Such were the resolutions. of the International Monetary Conference, which had an official character, and whose proceedings were to a certain extent binding on the States represented. The other Conference, whose decisions on weights and measures we have already reported, was also pre- sided over by Prince Napoleon, who took the chair on the day when the monetary question was discussed. The Committee had not prepared a report on this subject, as in the case of weights and measures, but had adopted the following resolutions, which were submitted to the Conference, and adopted with only some verbal alterations. Whereas the adoption of a uniform system of coinage would present evident advantages as regards convenience and economy in the settlement of international exchange, and recommends itself to the attention of all enlightened governments ; Whereas, on the other hand, such a desideratum cannot be realized unless several nations are prepared to sacrifice their old and habitual instru- ments of traffic, whilst it is important that the change may be effected in a gradual and continuous manner, and that the mode of effecting this change should be as simple as possible and free from all incidental complication ; The Committee proposes as follows :-— 1. It is necessary in the first instance that the different governments interested in this question should agree as to the same unit in the issue of their gold coins. 2. It is desirable that this coin be everywhere coined of the same fineness, of nine-tenths fine. 3. It is desirable that each government should introduce, among its gold coins, one piece at least of a value equal to that of one of the pieces in use among the other governments interested, so that there may be among all the systems a point of common contact, from which each nation may afterwards advance in gradually assimilating its system of coinage to that which may be chosen as a uniform basis. 4. The series of gold coins now in use in France, being adopted by a great part of the population of Europe, is recommended as a basis of the uni- form system. 5. Whereas, in consequence of accidental and happy circumstances, the most important monetary units may be adapted to the piece of five francs in gold by means of very small changes, this piece seems the most con- venient to serve as a basis of a monetary system; and the coins issued upon such a basis may become, as soon as the convenience of the nations interested permit, multiples of this unit. 6. It is desirable that the different governments should decide that the coins issued by each nation in conformity with the uniform system pro- posed and agreed, should have legal currency in all other countries. 7. It is desirable that the system of double standards be abandoned 47 A, REPORT—1867,. wherever it yet exists, that the system of decimal numeration be uni- yersally adopted, and that the money of all nations be of the same fine- ness and the same form, 8. It is desirable that the governments should come to an understanding for adopting common measures of control, so as to guarantee the inte- grity of the coinage both when issued and whilst in circulation. Your Committee will take these and other plans for the decimalization of the coinage into their serious consideration, and as soon as possible will en- deavour to propound one which they hore may meet all the requirements of the question. In conclusion, your Committee are happy in reporting that in their action they have obtained the valuable cooperation of the Council of the Interna- tional Decimal Association, and they trust that in the difficult and extensive task they have before them they will obtain the active sympathy, and assis- tance of the members of the British Association. The labours of the Conference will, we trust, place the great and difficult question of the decimalization of the coinage in the United Kingdom on a satisfactory basis; and it is time that it should be taken up in a practical and business-like manner. Your Committee are perfectly agreed on the two great conditions that the coinage should be international and decimal; but they have not yet come to a satisfactory conclusion as to the unit which would best satisfy these deside- rata. The proposition of the Conferences to take the five-frane piece in gold as a basis deserves consideration, though as a unit it would be imprac- ticable, being too small as a gold coin, very easily lost, too costly to produce, much subject to wear and tear, and not sufficiently large for transactions of finance and commerce. The five francs could only be used as a submultiple, and upon this two plans have been presented. One is to take the 10-franc piece equivalent nearly to 100 pence; another is to alter the sovereign to the exact equivalent of 25 francs. The Committee will carefully consider these and other plans, with a view to the realization of an object so desirable as an international coinage, and will report on the subject in due time. Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance. The Committee consists of Professor Williamson, Professor Sir C. Wheat- stone, Professor Sir W. Thomson, Professor Miller, Dr. A. Matthiessen, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Sir Charles Bright, Professor Maxwell, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Balfour Stewart, Mr. C. F. Varley, Professor G. C. Foster, Mr. Latimer Clark, Mr. D. Forbes, Mr. Charles Hockin, and Dr. Joule. Tue Committee have much pleasure in reporting that during the past year considerable progress has been made, and that the principal instruments required by the Committee for experiments have been completed and are in use, The most important experiments have been those conducted by Dr. Joule, ~ having for their object the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, by observing the heat generated in part of a voltaic circuit, the resist- ance of which was measured in absolute units by means of the standard of resistance issued by the Committee. ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. AGS Last year preliminary experiments of this kind had been made by Dr. Joule, and the agreement which he then reported between his mechani- eal equivalent obtained by frictional experiments and that obtained by the electrical method was so close as to lead to a suspicion that it was partly fortuitous. The experiments, which have this year been conducted with every pos- sible care, give 783 as the value derived from the B.A. standard of resist- ‘ance, while 772 is the well-known number derived from friction. The details of the experiments are contained in an Appendix which accom- panies this Report. Dr. Joule states his opinion that the electrical method ‘thas been carried out with greater accuracy than the frictional method, assuming the B.A. standard to be an exact decimal multiple of the absolute unit. The following extract from Dr. Joule’s Report will show the labo- rious nature of the experiments. He says, “The last and most perfect series of experiments comprise thirty for the thermal effect of currents in the spiral, thirty for the effect of radiation &c., and thirty for the horizontal intensity of the earth’s magnetism.” Dr. Joule expresses himself willing to make a new determination by friction. Meanwhile the experiments already completed remove all fear of any serious error, either in the number hitherto used as “ Joule’s equivalent,” or in the B.A. standard, a fear which hitherto, remembering the very discrepant results obtained by others, has been very naturally entertained even by the Sub-committee, from whose experiments the standard was constructed. In connexion with the measurement of resistances, Mr. C. W. Siemens has invented a simple and excellent contrivance, by which the measurement of resistances can be made by persons wholly unaccustomed to electrical experiments. They have only, after the necessary connexions are made, to turn a screw till a needle stands opposite a fiducial mark, when the resist- ance required may be read directly on a scale with considerable accuracy. Mr. Siemens proposes to apply this invention to pyrometers, where the resistance read will indicate the temperature, and the only clectrical con- nexions required will be joining of the battery wires to two terminals. Other applications of this invention will doubtless arise, and extend the practical application of electrical measurements. A full description of the instrument is contained in the Appendix. Mr, Siemens reports very favour- ably of this instrument, which possesses considerable advantage in cheap- ness and portability. Mr. Siemens has constructed the instrument, and made the experiments entirely at his own expense. An instrument similar in object, and suggested by the aboye, is also described by Mr. Jenkin in an Appendix. Mr. Hockin has tested the constancy of the standard resistance-units, with satisfactory results, except in the case of one mercury tube. The exact results of Mr. Hockin’s comparisons are appended. He suggests that lead- glass was used for the mercury tube, and that the glass may consequently have been injured by the nitric acid used to clean it. Mr. Hockin has also made interesting experiments on the construction of large resistances by the use of selenium. He finds that resistances of one million units and upwards can be made of this material, and that these artificial resistances maintain a sensibly constant resistance at high tempera- tures, such as 100° C. It is hoped that these very high artificial resistances will be found useful in practice and much superior to those hitherto con- structed of gutta percha, or other insulators, which were of comparatively little use in accurate work, owing to absorption, change of resistance with 476 REPORT—1867. temperature and inconstancy when kept for any considerable time. These valuable experiments have not caused any expense to the Association. The determination of a unit of capacity has occupied Dr. Matthiessen, Mr. Hockin, Mr. Foster, and Mr. Jenkin during the last two years. Very considerable difficulties have been encountered, and are not yet wholly overcome. The methods by which both the electrostatic and electromagnetic units can be determined, and multiples or submultiples prepared, are suffi- ciently simple in theory, but they assume that the condensers or Leyden jars compared have really a definite capacity, and that with a given electro- motive force, between the induction surfaces, a definite quantity of elec- tricity will be contained in the jar or condenser. This is very far from true with condensers of ordinary form. Whether the dielectric separating the plates be glass, mica, gutta percha, paraffin, ebonite, or any other known solid insulator, an absorption of electricity takes place; the longer the plates are charged, the more electricity the condenser will contain, and conversely, it will continue to discharge itself for a very long period after the inner and outer armatures have been joined. With some of the best insulators the effect will continue for hours, if not for days. Condensers made with these solid dielectrics have therefore no definite measurable capacity. This capa- city will differ according to the time during which they have been charged, and it may also vary with extreme variation in the electromotive forces em- ployed, although this latter change has not been detected when the differ- ences of potential are such as between one Danicll’s cell and two hundred. Only gaseous dielectrics appear free from this embarrassing peculiarity, called absorption, polarization, or residual charge. One object of the Subcommit- tee has therefore been to construct condensers in which air alone separated the induction-plates. But new difficulties arose in carrying this idea into practice. Some support for each plate was necessary, and then leakage occurred from one plate to another over the surface of any small insulating supports employed, such as glass balls or vulcanite stems. It was possible, by great care in drying the air, occasionally to make condensers of this type, which would remain insulated for a short time, or even for some months ; but long experience has shown that an artificially dried atmosphere cannot be conveniently maintained in any instrument which is not hermetically sealed. Dust also accumulated between the plates of the trial-condensers ; this altered their capacity and increased the leakage from plate to plate. Even a single filament of dust, by springing up and down between the two elec- trified surfaces, would occasionally bring them to the same potential with great rapidity, neutralizing the charge; moreover a condenser of this type could not be taken to pieces and cleaned, for no mechanical contrivances could ensure that the parts after cleaning would return to their original position so exactly as to constitute a condenser of the same capacity, before and after the cleaning. It is therefore clear that an air-condenser can only be constructed in a hermetically sealed case, containing an artificially dried atmosphere; and even with these conditions, excluding the graduated and adjustible condensers, which were first tried, the air-condenser is not easily constructed. For large capacities, which are alone useful in connexion with practical telegraphy, the plates require to be so numerous and large as to make the expense great and the bulk very inconvenient. Itis hoped by the use of tin plates, soldered to metal rods, and supported on insulated stems inside a soldered metal case, that these objections may be partly avoided ; but meanwhile practical men have introduced condensers of ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 477 a more convenient form, overlooking the disadyantage which they all possess of ill-defined capacity. These condensers consist of sheets of tinfoil separated by paraffin and paper, a preparation of gutta percha, or mica—three plans adopted by Mr. Varley, Mr. Willoughby Smith, and Mr. Latimer Clark respectively. Condensers of this type have been made approximately equal to a knot of some submarine cable, and the rough units thus introduced are gradually creeping into use, although all electricians have been anxious that the Com- mittee should issue a more scientific standard. Under these circumstances, Mr. Jenkin has adjusted a mica-condenser, approximately equal to 10-14 absolute electromagnetic units. The capacity of this condenser is assumed as that which it possesses after electrification for one minute, and is mea- sured by the discharge through a galvanometer, in the manner usually prac- tised when testing the charge of a submarine cable. The formula for obtain- ing the measurement in absolute units from the throw of the needle is very simple, requiring only observations of the time of oscillation, of a resist- ance in absolute measure, and of a deflection of the galyanometer-needle. All of these observations can readily be made, so that their accumulated error cannot exceed one per cent. ; and for the present purpose this accuracy is sufficient, inasmuch as, when using the condenser, -small variations inevitably occur, arising from the residual discharge. While therefore the new provisional unit of capacity has no claim to a high scientific accuracy, it will supply a practical want and introduce a unit based on the principles adopted by the Committee, in place of the random measures supplied by a knot of Persian Gulf or Atlantic cable. No decision has yet been arrived at whether the new unit shall be issued by the Committee, or on Mr. Jenkin’s own responsibility, nor has the price been fixed. The experiments by which it has been obtained are given in an Ap- pendix. The practical applications of the standard of capacity are important. It will allow the capacity of submarine cables to be universally expressed in comparable figures, and may lead to improvement by the diminution of the specific inductive capacity of the insulator, precisely as the introduction of units of resistance has assisted the improvement in insulation and conduc- tivity. The electromagnetic capacity standard will also, by comparison with the electrostatic standard about to be made, furnish one mode of determining the constant called v in previous Reports, a number of much importance in the theory of electricity. The next unit or standard for consideration is that of the difference of potentials or electromotive force in absolute measure, concerning which the experiments have been wholly in Sir William Thomson’s hands. He reports that he has at last succeeded in constructing a series of electrometers capable of measuring differences of potential ranging from ;1, of a Daniell’s eell up to 100,000 cells, and that these measurements can all be reduced to absolute units by comparison with one instrument of the series. This class of instruments has been created by Sir William Thom- son, who year by year has produced electrometers each surpassing its pre- decessor, both in accuracy and delicacy ; but although those who have had practical experience of the admirable results obtained by these, have for the last two or three years believed that the limit of excellence has been reached, Sir William Thomson has not ceased to invent better and simpler forms, until 478 % REPORT—1867. the instruments now supplied surpass every expectation of practical electri- cians and furnish, indeed, a new engine for electrical research. The chief difficulties encountered have been the insulation of the Leyden jar, which has formed an essential part of all the contrivances, its main- tenance at a constant potential, and the reduction to absolute measurement ; in the present instrument absolutely perfect insulation is no longer required ; for by a new device for converting mechanical force into statical electricity (first constructed by Mr. Varley in 1859) Sir William Thomson is able at any moment to replenish the jar by a few turns of a handle, and by a gauge electrometer, he can insure that the same charge is constantly maintained in the instrument. The difficulty of the reduction to absolute units consists in the difficulty of comparing the extremely small forces produced by electro- static attraction, witn the force of gravitation, and in the accurate measure- ment of the extremely small distances which separate the attracting surfaces. Sir William Thomson reports that these difficulties have been overcome in his opinion, and that he will be shortly in a position to construct and issue a simple pattern of an absolute electrometer or gauge of potential which will serve as a standard for general use. Further experiments and tests are, however, required before this can be done, as any precipitation would only injure the interests of the Committee. It is right here to mention that the above experiments have been carried out almost entirely at the expense of Sir William Thomson. The replenisher, which is founded on the principle of the electrophorus, may very possibly supersede the old form of electrical machine entirely ; it has some analogy with the electromagnetic machines lately invented by Mr. C. W. Siemens and Professor Wheatstone, by which intense dynamic effects are evolved from the smallest initial trace of magnetism, by the con- version of mechanical force into electric currents, and was, indeed, sug- gested by this invention to Sir William Thomson, who reinvented the plan patented by Mr, Varley*. A modification of the same contrivance will allow the comparison of ex- tremely minute quantities of electricity, such, indeed, as might be accumulated on a pin’s head; by a series of rapid inductions a charge is accumulated on the electrode of an electrometer, which may be made equal in potential to that on the pin’s head, but infinitely exceeding it in quantity; the effect of this charge in the electrometer can then be observed without difficulty, and any increase or diminution in the quantity of electricity on the pin’s head or proof plane can be detected, and the rate of loss or increase observed. The potentials to which various small bodies are charged can also be observed by the same method, the advantage of which consists in the fact that the original charge on the body tested is undisturbed by the test, whereas by any of the older tests the charge was altered by being touched by a proof plane or by the electrode of the electrometer. A similar plan has already been proposed by Mr. Varley and Sir William Thomson, with a water-dropping arrangement, but the mechanical contrivance is in all ways preferable. No expense has been incurred by the Committee for these instruments or experiments. * Passing to the unit of current, the Committee regret that no experiments have yet been made with the large absolute electrodynamometer constructed with the funds granted by the Royal Society. Much difficulty has been experienced in finding a sufficiently solid foundation in London, and probably the instruments must be moved into the country for accurate use. * A similar plan was proposed by Mr. Nicholson in 1785: vide Phil. Trans. ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 479 A portable electrodynamometer has been constructed which will be suit- able for distribution as a standard instrument. It can be compared with the large absolute instrument, and can also be compared directly with the most sensitive astatic galvanometers yet made, as has been already proved by expe- riment. These instruments cannot be distributed until further experiments on their constancy have been made. Sir William Thomson, at his own expense, has also constructed an electro- dynamometer for absolute measure. His results will check those obtained in London, and the portable standard will also be tested by being sent backwards and forwards between Glasgow and London, to be compared alternately with the absolute instruments. The determination of ‘‘v,”’ the ratio between the electrostatic and electro- magnetic units, is also an object pursued by the Committee. Sir William Thomson has made preliminary experiments, and has obtained numbers for this constant by the aid of the absolute electrodynamometer, and the absolute electrometer already named. The number he has obtained differs so consider- ably from that hitherto received that he prefers to extend his experiments before publication. The same remark applies to the measurement of the electromotive force of a Daniell’s cell, made by the absolute electrometer. Itis hoped that the present Report contains satisfactory evidence that valu- able work is being done by the Committee, and that the sums of money liberally granted by the Association have been expended on proper objects. It will be seen that these grants have stimulated further expenditure on the part of more than one member; and thanks are also due to the Electric and International Telegraph Company, for the liberality with which they have lent large batteries, thereby saving much expense. The Committee are willing to be reappointed, and require no grant of money for the ensuing year. APPENDIX. I. Ona “ Resistance-Measurer.” By C. W. Stemens, F.R.S. For the measurement of small resistances the method formerly employed was that of the tangent galvanometer, which method is still valuable in the determination of resistances which are inseparable from a difference of electric potential, such, for instance, as a galvanic element. In measuring wire-resistance, more accurate and convenient methods have been devised, amongst which that of the common differential galyanometer and that known as Wheatstone’s balance hold the most prominent places. _ But both these systems have disadvantages which render them insufficient in agreat many cases. For instance, in the first method a well-adjusted vari- able-resistance-coil is necessary, which, if the method is intended to be appli- cable between wide limits, will have impracticable large dimensions. The bridge method, though very beautiful, requires three adjusted coils, and fre- quently gives rise to calculations, which renders it unavailable for unskilled operators. The sine method, which is the most suitable for measuring great resistances, requires even a superior amount of skill and mathematical know- ledge on the part of the operator. Many years’ experience of these methods made me feel the want of an in- strument which would, by its simplicity of construction and ease of manipula- tion, be capable of employment by an unskilled operator with a degree of exactness equal to that of the bridge method. ; 480 REPORT—1867. The condition upon which such an instrument could be successful appeared to be the following :— 1. The employment of a zero method, by which the galvanometer-needle should always be brought to the direction of the magnetic meridian, or the same given point upon the scale, and therefore be independent of the unknown function of the angle of deflection. 2. The readings to be made upon asimple lineal measure divided into equal parts signifying equal units of resistance. 3. The employment of a single and unalterable comparison-resistance. The apparatus constructed to fulfil these conditions is represented by the following diagram :— Two equal and parallel helices, 2 and h', are fixed upon the common slide s s', which moves in the direction of its length between guide rollers. This motion is effected by the end s’ armed by a facing of agate, which presses against the face of the metal curve ce’. The latter is fixed upon a slide moving in a groove in the rule dd’, at right angles in the direction d d' by means of a milled head 7, on the axis of which is a pinion gearing into a rack underneath the straight edge of the curve cc’. The rule dd’ is graduated in equal parts ; and opposite to the divisions is a nonius up the straight edge and the curve, to divide each degree into ten parts. Whenever the milled head i’, therefore, is turned, the position of the curve is altered ; and as the point s’ of the bobbin-slide is pressed against it by means of a spring, the bobbin fol- lows it in all its movements. The wires of the two bobbins are connected together, in the common point a, with the pole of a galvanic battery e, the other pole being connected with two resistances R, and through these with the remaining end of the galvano- meter-helices. The resistance R is made constant, and adjusted so that when xv=0 the index of the curve stands exactly opposite the zero of the graduated scale d d', the unknown resistance being represented by «. It is evident that, the resistance in the bobbins being equal, as also their dimensions and initial magnetic effects upon the needle suspended between them, if we make the resistance w equal to R, the current in the two branches iil ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 481 will be equal, and the magnet-needle therefore balanced between them only when the helices are equally distant from it. Should, however, either of these resistances preponderate, the strength of current in that branch will be les- sened; and in order to reestablish the balance it will be necessary to shift the bobbins, approaching the one in which the weaker current is circulating towards the suspended magnet. The instrument is erected upon a horizontal metal table standing upon three leyelling-screws. The bobbin, the suspended magnet, and dial plate for observing the zero of the pointer are contained in a glass case, supported by four brass pillars. The instrument is supplied with terminals for the battery- connexions, and a current-breaker for interrupting the battery-circuit. Oppo- site to these are four terminal screws for receiving the ends of the resistances R and x, with contact-plugs between them, in order to quickly establish a short circuit in case the operator should be in doubt towards which side he has to move the adjusting-curve. Two constant resistances accompany the apparatus R—that which is used during the measurement, and a, a resistance of known yalue, which is introduced between the terminals # in order to enable the operator for his own security to make a control measurement by which he may verify the accuracy of the instrument at any time. Another purpose of this resistance is to facilitate the readjustment of the zero-point, in case the galyanometer should at any time be cleaned or a new silk-fibre put in. In constructing the sliding curve of this instrument, it might be determined by calculation from the formula given by Weber for the deflection produced by a circular current of known magnitude upon a magnetic point, and from the given distance of the coils from each other. I prefer, however, in practice to determine the curve of each separate apparatus empirically, because it is not possible to coil a helix mathematically true, or to set it, when coiled absolutely at right angles to the plane of its horizontal motion. In the determination of each curve I use a delicately adjusted rheostat or seale of resistances in the circuit of w, giving it varying values corresponding to the equal divisions of the engraved scale, and constructing the curve accord- ing to the position which it is found necessary to give to the point s’ in order to arrive at the magnetic balance. With each instrument it would be possible to haye two values of R—one expressed in mercury and the other in B.A. units; and in order to measure at pleasure in either of these units, it would only be necessary to insert the one or other between the terminal screws for R. The instrument has been found to be very convenient for the measurement of the wire-resistances of overland lines, or for the reading of resistance ther- mometers ; it reduces the operation and the observation of the zero position of a needle, and the reading upon a graduated scale, which can be performed by a person of ordinary intelligence without experience in electrical measurement. In accuracy and range it equals the bridge method, while as regards portability and cheapness of apparatus the advantages are decidedly in its fayour*. II. On a Modification of Siemens’s Resistance-Measurer. By Frxemine Junki, F.R.S. The following method of measuring resistances was suggested to Mr. Jenkin by the above invention of Mr. Siemens :— Let two tangent galvanometer-coils of equal magnetic moment be fixed * T have lately constructed the same instrument on this principle with a circular instead of a straight sliding-piece, which gives the advantage of a longer graduated scale in the form of a circle. The circular sliding curve is adjusted by radial set screws in a solid ring working in a V-groove round the galvanometer. 1867. 2k 482 REPORT—1867. together at right angles, with a short magnet hung in their centre, having a long light index pointing at a fiducial mark when the needle is in the magnetic meridian. Let the battery and coils be so joined that the current shall divide in the ratio of the resistances in the two coils, and shall pass in such a direction as to tend to turn the needle in opposite directions. The dotted lines show the position of coils when the current is passing. Let one coil with a resistance R at the beginning of the experiment stand in the magnetic meridian, and the other coil with a resistance R, in a plane perpendicular to the meridian; and when the current is passing in such a direction that R tends to turn N § in the direction of the arrow, let the coils be turned till the needle is again brought to the fiducial point and the coil R, makes an angle ¢ with the magnetic meridian, then we have R = tan 9 R, ; for the force exerted by the coil R, to deflect the needle in the direction of the arrow will then equal m sin @ ; the force exerted by the coil R, to deflect the needle in the opposite direction will be m, cos ¢; and we have m sin mr . p=mM, COS g, OF m tan ¢, Where m and m, are the couples experienced by the magnet under the action of the two coils, but as we have supposed these ‘ ‘ , ; m, coils to haye equal magnetic moments with equal currents, a ee there- 1 fore R=tan ¢ R,. Rand R, need not be the resistances of the galvano- meter-coils only, but may consist of two parts, G+ 7 and G, +7,, where G and G, are the resistances of the galvanometer-coils, but 7 and 7, are added resistances. Thus, when GG, and 7 are known, 7, can be obtained by a simple observation. if G + r be one, one hundred, or one thousand units, the resistance of 7, will be equal to the tangent of ¢, or to one hundred or one thousand times that tangent respectively minus in cach case a constant = G,. If the range of the instrument were not required to be very great, the coils would be turned by the pushing of a straight slide, equal divisions on which would correspond to equal increments‘of the tangent of ¢, and the scale would be numbered, so that the resistance 7, HF | an 18, 1866} 148 A.M. February 11,1866} 148 C. H. IVGROUIY.sesentengeseceo ness iil. February 11, 1867| 17:9 C. H. * The alteration of this coil, observed on February 11, 1867, is due, no doubt, to a defect observed in the glass tube. The tube was of lead-glass. Perhaps the strong nitric acid used to clean the tube a the glass. A new mercury unit (No. III.) was made in consequence of this efect. The apparent alteration in the platinum-iridium coils from the first value found, I believe to be owing to a clerical error. No alteration has been observed in them since the second observation made by Dr. Matthiessen in June 1865. The values given in the above Table are deduced from the German-silyer coil called B, used in your Committee’s experiments in 1864. This coil was found (by comparison with copies made in 1864, of gold-silver, German silver, and platinum silver) not to have altered. The coil B was also compared with the coil (June 4) used in 1863, and the ratio of the two coils was found not to have altered. IV. Experiments on Capacity. By Frenne Jenxiy, F.R.S. The capacity of a condenser made of mica and tinfoil was adjusted so as to be approximately equal to 10-4 electromagnetic absolute units, according 25K2 484 REPORT—1867. to the following experiments. The capacity of any condenser can be directly measured in absolute measure by the following formula applying to the effect of a single discharge from the condenser through a galvanometer :— t sin 27 S=2 2 ak, (vide Report, 1863, Appendix C, p. 144), where R, is the resistance of a circuit in which the electromotive force used to charge the condenser would produce the unit deflection, while ¢ is the angle to which the needle is ob- served to swing from a position of rest, and is half the period or time of a complete oscillation of the needle of the galyanometer under the influence of terrestrial magnetism alone. This formula, which is analogous to that for any ballistic pendulum acted upon by a known impulse, supposes that the whole impulse is given in a time very short as compared with ¢, and it also supposes that the deflection 7 is unimpeded by friction. I employed a Thomson’s astatic reflecting galvanometer with double coils of German-silver wire. The oscillations, with the usual mirror and magnet, subside so rapidly that ¢ cannot be measured with accuracy, and zis very sensibly affected by the resistance of the air; to obviate this I attached a brass ball to the lower magnet of the galvanometer, weighing 55 grains*. A single floss-silk fibre can just support this weight, under which it con- tinues to stretch sensibly for about three days. In order that the discharge from the condenser, electrified by from 20 to 30 cells, should have force to move this heavy ball through a sensible angle, the galvanometer was made highly astatic, and then I found that with even a single cocoon fibre the needle did not return to zero within three or four divisions of the scale for some minutes, exhibiting a kind of viscosity. The floss-silk fibre, though much weaker, gave a very constant zero. The yalue of ¢ with the weighted needle seldom differed much from 20 seconds, and the times could be observed for 10 or 11 minutes, during which time ¢ was found to remain sensibly constant. As there was no difficulty in observing the times of oscillation within one second, it may be said that the observed value of ¢ was correct within one part in 500. Greater accuracy was not required, as the possible error from other sources considerably exceeds this. Twenty Daniell’s cells were used to charge the condenser, and the. discharge observed was about 180 divisions; but the observations were recorded within a quarter of a division: as this is done by estimating the position of the reflected spot stationary between the two black lines of the scale for an almost insensible time, it would not be right to assume that the deflection 7 is observed with greater accuracy than one part in 400. When the spot of light returned after making one complete oscillation, the diminution in the deflection was from 10 to 12 divisions ; one quarter of this amount was therefore added as correction in each case to the deflection observed. The resistance of the whole circuit was composed of the battery resistance, that of German-silyer resistance-coils, and of the German-silver coils in the galvanometer; no considerable variation could therefore occur except in the battery, which formed only a small portion of the total resistance. The coils (adjusted by Mr. Hockin) are probably correct within one part in a thousand, and the measurement of the galyanometer-coils is equally well known. From what has been said, it might be expected that the capacity of any condenser could be obtained with an accuracy of one part in 400 or 500 at * The ball, two magnets, mirror, and connecting bar, forming the whole suspended system, weighed 574 grains. ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. A485 least ; but successive discharges were occasionally found to differ by as much as two divisions, though this amount of discrepancy was rare. It was due partly to the residual effect of former charges in the condenser, though great care was taken to avoid this, partly, it is believed, to slight changes in the electromotive force of the battery (which was not in very good order, the discharges being generally less toward the end of a set of experiments), and partly to slight motion of the needle at the moment of taking the discharge. This last source of error made it impossible to make the observations in Lon- don ; even in the country the needle was seldom, if ever, absolutely still, though the oscillations were generally less than one division. The variation of the electromotive force and resistance of the battery when taking a per- manent deflection was another source of error. Owing to the great inertia of the swinging parts, no observation could be taken until the current had been flowing for at least a minute, and often more; and, especially when small resistances were used, the deflections visibly diminished with time. Owing to all these causes, I do not depend on the results obtained as certainly accurate within less than one per cent. This is the less to be regretted, as the capacity of a mica condenser is very ill defined within wide limits, owing to absorption. The condenser used consisted of 38 plates of mica, about 0-003 in. thick, and having a circular piece of tinfoil 3 in. in diameter cemented to each side of the mica, with a piece of each tinfoil projecting beyond the mica so as to join all the upper tinfoils and all the lower tinfoils together, and form the inner and outer armature of the condensers. This plan has for some time been practised by Mr, Latimer Clark, and makes a very constant and well-insulated condenser, extremely easy to adjust roughly by altering the number of the mica plates, and for small corrections by cutting away portions of the tinfoil from the top plate. Mica, like all other solid dielectrics with which I am acquainted, apparently absorbs electricity to a very large extent, and continues to do so for a long time, discharging it at first rapidly, but at the last very slowly indeed, so that a complete discharge is not effected for hours. The total capacity of the con- denser varies therefore as the time varies during which it is charged, and the apparent discharge varies with the time during which we measure it; for instance, if we merely observe the discharge due to a momentary contact, we shall obtain a different result from that given when we maintain the contact all the time the needle is swinging ; the result will also vary in the latter case with the time of oscillation of the galvanometer needle. If the needle oscillates slowly, it will be acted upon by a greater quantity of elec- tricity than if oscillating rapidly. Thus, in one experiment, the deflection, when the discharging contact was permanently maintained, was 166 divisions, when a momentary contact was made by a blow it was only 156°. When the contact was made for about 1-7 second the deflection was 161, and when the contact was maintained for 3-4 seconds the deflection was 164; the maximum deflection of 166 was reached after 5 seconds: these experiments show that when the needle had travelled two-thirds of its maximum distance, the current being discharged exercised a very sensible influence on the deflection. The ballistic formula is therefore not strictly applicable to a case of this kind, and a different result would be obtained with a galvano- meter oscillating either more or less quickly than the one I used. . It seemed therefore unnecessary to take great precautions or to aim at any high degree of accuracy ; and my object has simply been to provide a unit for cable-testing which shall be approximately equal to the ideal standard chosen by the Com- mittee, and which can be used with at least as great accuracy as those copies of knots of Atlantic or Persian Gulf cables hitherto used. 485 REPORT—1867. The value of R,, in the formula given at the commencement, was found by two methods, which we will call the indirect and direct method. In the indirect method three sets of resistance-coils, a, b, ¢, were arranged as in fig. 1, with a battery B, and a galvanometer G, and a shunt Z, equal Fig. 1. 1 rs oe bo in resistance to 54, of the galvanometer-coils. The resistance ¢ was made equal to 1000 units, and the resistances a and 6 adjusted until a convenient deflection was obtained on the galvanometer; the resistance a was next changed to a,, and 6 was then altered to 4,, so as to give the same deflection as before on the galvanometer G. Then calling d the deflection observed, G the resistance of the galyanometer, we have = __ yo+e+nG) (6, +e+7G)_ \ R,=nd | (a,—«a) Lae ie Cr> a formula for which the resistance of the battery need not be calculated n=1000). The second or direct method of obtaining R, was first to caleulate the resis- tance of the battery B by the following formula (fig. 2) :—/ and f are variable resistances; g the resistance of the shunted galvanometer =47:2 in my ex- periments; break the circuit at f, and adjust h till a convenient reading is obtained ; then join f, as shown in the sketch, and adjust f and / until the same deflection is obtained as before ; then, calling h, the last resistance at h, we have _ ph—h, Oo ae I, Secondly, a direct deflection d was obtained with a resistance k in cir- cuit; then R,=nd (k+B+ Q). The following is a record of the experiments made in chronological order :— September 22.—Discharge.—Values of 7 after charging for one minute with 20 cells :— ie 2°. 3°. 4, De Mean. 167 167 166 165 165 166 Adding 2:5 to compensate for portion of air i=168-5, and the angle being very small, sin }7=84-25. Test for insulation; discharge after one minute’s insulation 154, ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 487 Times.—First four oscillations ; ; the spot crossed the central point in the same direction at 0' 35"",, .0' 65", 1’ 142", 1’ 88"; last four oscillations, ete eae) 720.10", 10" Bo". Total number of oscillations 31, Mean value of 2=19' 15”. Value of R,. Indirect sethags — a. ay. b,. e. d. R, Ohm’s. 125 S000 10000 100 649 1000 2754 5: 17 x 10° 2°....6000 8000 1000. 575 1000 354i 517 ,, 3°....8000 10000 1000 647 1000 2743 SE gy AD: 6008 8000 1000 574 1000 3554 5:18 Mean value of R, in absolute measure 5:16 x 101, Vulua. of 8, 99° 58: XKAOiz?, Value of R,. ‘Direct method. Battery ar ari — sl h. h.. g: Ze ¢ ee Teno ee a a Mean yalue of B 488, Deflection with variable resistance in circuit ; i— d. k. B. I: n. R, Ohm’s. = .. 2262 22000 488 47 1000 510 x 10° .3104 16000 488 47 1000 5:13 x 10° Mean baat: ‘of R,=5'125 x 10" absolute units. Value of S from values of ¢ and? as above, 100:21 x 10-!4, September 24.—Discharge.—sin 4 i=84:75. R, from indirect method :— a. ay. b. b,. C. d. R, Ohm’s. ...» 6000 8000 1000 575 1000 554 518 x 10° 2°.... 8000 10000 1000 648 1000 275 516 x 10° Mean value of R, in absolute measure 5:17 x 10°, Assuming ¢ as on September 23, S=99-92 x 10-¥, The box holding the condenser was now filled up with an insulating com- position, October 13. — Discharge. — 184 divisions, 12 divisions lost on return, sin 3i=93:'5. Discharge after one minute’s insulation 181 divisions. Time.—F ust four oscillations, 0' 30", 0’ BS a Sars last four oscillations, Lor ae, TOl Ze", TO aaa” ETe5F Total number of oscillations 31. Mean value of 2:=20:47. R, by ied rect ere — b,. ¢. d, R,. 8000 10000 a 646 1000 3833 619 x 10°. Value of S=98°-42 x 10-¥, R, by direct method. Battery resistance :— h. h if hi. g- 10 17400 700 47 22352 Direct deflection ;— ; hk, B. g: N. R,. 1°,,,.2702 22000 2253 47 1000 6:01 x 10° 2. og. SOO 18000 2253 47 1000 6:05 x 10° Mean value of R,=6-03 x 10" absolute units. Value of S=101-03 x 10-”, October 15.—Discharge :— iP: 2°. 3°. 4°, BY, 6°. 185 185 1842 184 1842 1842 Mean 184:6, adding 3 for air, sin } i=93°8. Times.—First four, 0' 23", 0' 422”, missed, 1' 24” ; last four, 7’ 55", 8' 16", 8' 35", 24 oscillations in all, Mean value of 2¢=20°56. 488 REPORT—1867. Independent series of observations divided into triplets :— first two, 0'223, 1' 24”, last two, 9'374, 10:39, 30 oscillations in all. Mean value of 24=20°55. Value of h,. aes method. Battery resistance :— Jon C0 j ADOC CI BOR OHO IBIS Oooe 53 506 223 Direct deflection :— d. k. B. g- N. R, Ohm’s. Oe 28 22000 219 47 1000 6:19 x 10° 2°,...821%4 19000 219 47 1000 6:19 x 10° Mean value of R, in absolute units 6-19 x10". Value of S=99-2 x 10-¥, October 17.—Discharge :— 1 DF on 4°. Mean. 179 180 179 180 179°5 sin 37=917. Times :— 0' 55", 1'562", 10' 72", 11’ 82". Total number of Gale ione 30. Mean value of 21—= 20: AG, Value of R,. Eee Te method. Battery resistance :— Ce Direct deflection. :— d. k. B. q: 2. R, Ohms. Lo ea 20S 22000 2153 47 1000 597 x 10° 2°... .029 18000 2153 47 1000 6:01 x 10° Mean value of R, = 5:99 x 10” absolute units. Value of S=99-25. The seven values obtained for § give a mean value of -9965 x 10-4 as the capacity of the mica-plate condenser when charged for one minute, and measured by a discharge through a galvanometer, on the needle of which it acts for about 5 seconds. If we reject the two observations made on Oct. 15, which were, indeed, only preliminary, and made with less care than all the others, we find the average to be 0:°9962 x 10-™ and the approximation be- tween this mean and any single results is 0-42 per cent. It is therefore probable that a unit copied from this preliminary standard will not be one per cent. wrong. A tenfold multiple (10~" absolute measure) of the condenser measured is a convenient magnitude as a practical unit of capacity for telegraphy ; thus the capacity of the Atlantic cable per knot thus measured is 0:3535. Assum- ing that the practical unit of electromotive force will be chosen as that mul- tiple which is most nearly equal to Daniell’s cell, 7. ¢. 10° electromagnetic units, then the capacity of the proposed practical unit is such that it contains with ‘the unit EK M F the same quantity of electricity as would be passed in one second through a circuit of the resistance of one Megohm. Thus 105 E M F, acting on a circuit of 101%, will pass in one second 10-8 absolute units of quantity ; and similarly, 10° EK M F will charge a condenser of ab- solute capacity equal to 10—!° with 10—* absolute units of quantity. This practical series of units is that which, in the opinion of Mr. Latimer Clark and myself, is best adapted for practical use in telegraphy. Mr. Clark calls the unit of quantity thus defined (10—‘) one Farad, and similarly says that the unit of capacity has a capacity of one Farad, it being understood that this is the capacity when charged with unit electromotive force (10°). = = ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 489 V. Report on Hlectrometers and Electrostatic Measwrements. By Sir Wu. Tomson, “LS. §1. An electrometer is an instrument for measuring differences of electric potential between two conductors through effects of electrostatic force, and is distinguished from the galvanometer, which, of whatever species, measures differences of electric potentials through electromagnetic effects of electric currents produced by them. When an electrometer merely indicates the existence of electric potential, without measuring its amount; it is commonly called an electroscope; but the name electrometer is properly applied when greater or less degrees of difference are indicated on any scale of reckoning, if approximately constant, even during a single series of experiments. The first step towards accurate electrometry in every case is to deduce from the scale-readings numbers which shall be in simple proportion to the dif- ference of potentials to be determined. The next and last step is to assign the corresponding values in absolute electrostatic measure. ‘Thus, when for any electrometer the first step has been taken, it remains only to determine the single constant coefficient by which the numbers deduced from its indica- tions as simply proportional to differences of potential must be multiplied to give differences of potential in absolute electrostatic measure. This coeflicient will be called, for brevity, the absolute coefficient of the instrument in question. § 2. Thus, for example, the gold-leaf electrometer indicates differences of potential between the gold leaves and the solid walls enclosing the air-space in which they move. If this solid be of other than sufficiently perfect con- ducting material, of wood and glass, or of metal and glass, for instance, as in the instrument ordinarily made, it is quite imperfect and indefinite in its indications, and is not worthy of being even called an electroscope, as it may exhibit a divergence when the difference of potentials which the operator desires to discover is absolutely zero. It is interesting to remark that Faraday first remedied this defect by coating the interior of the glass case with tinfoil cut away to leave apertures proper and sufficient to allow indi- cations to be seen, but not enough to cause these indications to differ sensibly from what they would be if the conducting envelope were completely closed around it; and that not till a long time after did any other naturalist, mathe- matician, or instrument-maker seem to have noticed the defect, or even to have unconsciously remedied it. § 3. Electrometers may be classified in genera and species according to the shape and kinematic relations of their parts; but as in plants and animals a perfect continuity of intermediate species has been imagined between the rudimentary plant and the most perfect animal, so in electrometers we may actually construct species having intermediate qualities continuous between the most widely different genera. But, notwithstanding, some such classifi- cation as the following is convenient with reference to the several instruments commonly in use and now to be described :— I. Repulsion electrometers, Pair of diverging straws as used by Beccaria, Volta, and others, last century. Pair of diverging gold leaves (Bennet). Peltier’s electrometer. Delmann’s electrometer. Old-station electrometer, described in lecture to the Royal Institu- tion, May 1860; also in Nichol’s Cyclopedia, article “ Elec- tricity, Atmospheric” (edition 1860), and in Dr. Eyerett’s 490 REPORT—1867. paper of 1867, “On Atmospheric Electricity” (Philosophical Transactions). II. Symmetrical electrometers, Bohnenberger’s electrometer. Divyided-ring electrometers. III. Attracted disk electrometers. Absolute electrometer. Long-range electrometer. Portable electrometer. Spring-standard electrometer. § 4. Class I. is sufficiently illustrated by the examples referred to ; and it is not necessary to explain any of these instruments minutely at present, as they are, for the present at all events, superseded by the diyided-ring elec- trometer and electrometers of the third class. There are at present only two known species of the second class; but it is intended to include all electrometers in which a symmetrical field of electric force is constituted by two symmetrical fixed conductors at different electric potentials, and in which the indication of the force is produced by means of an electrified body moveable symmetrically in either direction from a middle position in this field, This definition is obviously fulfilled by Bohnenberger’s well-known instrument*. § 5. My first published description of a divided-ring electrometer is to be found in the Memoirs of the Roman Academy of Sciences about 1856; but since that time I have made great improvements in the instrument—first, by applying a light mirror to indicate deflections of the moving body; next, by substituting for two half rings four quadrants, and consequently for an electrified body projecting on one side only of the axis, an electrified body projecting symmetrically on the two sides, and moveable round an axis; and lastly, by various mechanical improvements and by the addition of a simple gauge to test the electrification of the moveable body, and a replenisher to raise this electrification to any desired degree. § 6. In the accompanying drawings, Plate V. fig. 1 represents the front elevation of the instrument, of which the chief bulk consists of a jar of white glass (flint) supported on three legs by a brass mounting, cemented round the outside of its mouth, which is closed by a flat cover of stout sheet-brass, and a lantern-shaped cover standing over a wide aperture in its centre. For brevity, in what follows these three parts will be called the jar, the main cover, and the lantern. Fig. 5 represents the quadrants as seen from above; they are seen in ele- vation at a and 3, fig. 1, and in section at ¢ andd, fig.2. They consist of four quarters of a flat circular box of brass, with circular apertures in the centres of its top and bottom. Their position in the instrument is shown in figs. 1,2, & 6. Each of the four quadrants is supported on a glass stem passing downwards through a slot in the main cover of the jar, from a brass mount- ing on the outside of it, and admits of being drawn outwards for a space of about 3 of an inch (1 centim.) from the positions they occupy when the instrument is in use, which are approximately those shown in the drawings. Three of them are secured in their proper positions by nuts (¢, e, ¢) on the out- side of the chief flat lid of the jar shown in fig. 4. The upper end of the stem, carrying the fourth, is attached to a brass piece (f ) resting on three short legs * A single gold leaf hanging between the upper ends of two equal and similar dry piles standing vertically on a horizontal plate of metal, one with its positive and the other with its negative pole up. + Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei. ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 491 on the upper side of the main cover, two of these legs’ being guided by a straight V-groove at g to give them freedom to move in a straight line in- wards or outwards, and to prevent any other motion. This brass piece is pressed outwards and downwards by a properly arranged spring (h), and is kept from sliding out by a micrometer-screw (7) turning in a fixed nut. This simple kinematic arrangement gives great steadiness to the fourth quadrant when the screw is turned inwards or outwards, and then left in any position ; and at the same time produces but little friction against the sliding in either direction. The opposite quadrants are connected in two pairs by wires, as shown in fig. 5; and two stout vertical wires (/, m), called the chief electrodes passing through holes in the roof of the lantern, are firmly supported by long perforated vulcanite columns passing through those holes which serve to connect the pairs of quadrants with the external conductors whose difference of potentials is to be tested. Springs (7, 0) at the lower ends of these columns, shown in figs. 1 & 2, maintain metallic contact between the chief electrodes and the upper sides of two contiguous quadrants (« & 6) when the lantern is set down in its proper position, but allow the lantern to be removed, carrying the chief electrodes with it, and to be replaced at pleasure without disturbing the quadrants. The lantern also carries an insulated charging-rod (p), or tem- porary electrode, for charging the inner coating of the jar (§ 11) to a small degree, to be increased by the replenisher ($ 12), or, it may be, for making special experiments in which the potential of the interior coating of the jar is to be measured by a separate electrometer, or kept at any stated amount from that of the outer coating. When not in use this temporary electrode is secured in a position in which it is disconnected from the inner coating. § 7. The main cover supports a glass column (q, fig. 2) projecting vertically upwards through its central aperture, to the upper end of which is attached a brass piece (7), which bears above it a fixed attracting disk (s), to be described later (§ 13); and projecting down from it a fixed plate bearing the silk-fibre suspension of the mirror (¢), needle (), &c., seen in figs. 1 & 2, and fixed guard tubes (v, w), to be described presently. § 8. The moveable conductor of the instrument consists of a stiff platinum wire (wv), about 8 centimetres (3% inches) long, with the needle rigidly attached in a perpendicular plane to it, and connected with sulphuric acid in the bottom of the jar by a fine platinum wire hung down from its lower end and kept stretched by a platinum weight under the level of the liquid. The upper end of the stiff platinum wire is supported by a single silk-fibre so that it hangs down vertically. The mirror is attached to it just below its upper end. Thus the mirror, the needle, and the stiff platinum stem constitute a rigid body haying very perfect freedom to move round a vertical axis (the line of the bearing fibre), and yet practically prevented from any other motion in the regular use of the instrument by the weight of its own mass and that of the loose piece of platinum hanging from it below the surface of the liquid in the jar. A very small magnet is attached to the needle, which, by strong magnets fixed outside the jar, is directed to one position, about which it oscillates after it is turned through any angle round the vertical axis, and then left to itself. The external magnets are so placed that when there is magnetic equilibrium the needle is in the symmetrical position shown in figs. 5 & 6 with reference to the quadrants *. § 9. The needle (w) is of very thin sheet aluminium cut to the shape seen in figs, 5 & 6; the very thinnest sheet aluminium that gives the requisite stiff- * Recently I have made experiments on a bifilar suspension with a view to superseding the magnetic adjustment, which promise well. 492 REPORT—1867. ness being chosen. If thé four quadrants are in a perfectly symmetrical position round it, and if they are kept at one electric potential by a metallic are connecting the chief electrodes outside, the needle may be strongly electrified without being disturbed from its position of magnetic equilibrium ; but if it is electrified, and if the external electrodes be disconnected, and any difference of potentials established between them, the needle will clearly ex- perience a couple turning it round its vertical axis, its two ends being driven from the positive quadrants towards the negative, if it is itself positively electrified. It is kept positive rather than negative in the ordinary use of the instrument, because I find that when a conductor with sharp edges or points is surrounded by another presenting everywhere a smooth surface, a much greater difference of potentials can be established between them, with- out producing disruptive discharge, if the points and edges are positive than if they are negative. § 10. The mirror (¢) serves to indicate, by reflecting a ray of light from a lamp, small angular motions of the needle round the vertical axis. Itis avery light, concave, silvered glass mirror, being of only 8 millimetres (3 of an inch) diameter, and 22 milligrammes (3 grain) weight. I had for many years ex- perienced great difficulty in getting suitable mirrors for my form of mirror galvanometer; but they are now supplied in very great perfection by Mr. Becker, of Messrs. Elliott Brothers, London. The focus for parallel rays is about 50 centimetres (20 inches) from the mirror, and thus the rays of the lamp placed at a distance of 1 metre (or 40 inches) are brought to a focus at the same distance. The lamp is usually placed close behind the vertical screen a little below or above the normal line of the mirror, and the image is thrown on a graduated scale extending horizontally aboye or below the aperture in the screen through which the lamp sends its light. When the mirror is at its magnetic zero position the lamp is so placed that its image is, as nearly as may be, in a vertical plane with itself, and not more than an inch above or below its level, so that there is as little obliquity as possible in the reflection, and the line traversed by the image on the screen during the deflection is, as nearly as may be, straight. The distance of the lamp and screen from the mirror is adjusted so as to give as perfect an image as possi- ble of a fine wire which is stretched vertically in the plane of the screen across the aperture through which the lamp shines on the mirror; and with Mr. Becker’s mirrors I find it easy to read the horizontal motions of the dark image to an accuracy of the tenth of a millimetre. In the ordinary use of the instrument a white paper screen, printed from a copper-plate, is employed, and the readings are commonly taken to about a quarter of a scale-division ; but with a little practice they may, when so much accuracy is desired, be read with considerable accuracy to the tenth of a scale-division. Formerly a slit in front of the lamp was used, but the wire giving a dark line in the middle of the image of the flame is a very great improvement, first intro- duced by Dr. Everett in consequence of a suggestion made by Professor P. G. Tait, in his experiments on the elasticity of solids made in the Natural- Philosophy Laboratory of Glasgow University*. § 11. The charge of the needle remains sensibly constant from hour to hour, and even from day to day, in virtue of the arrangement, according to which it is kept in communication with sulphuric acid in the bottom of the * A Drummond light placed about 70 centimetres from the mirror gives an image, on a screen about 5 metres distance, brilliant enough for lecture-illustrations, and with suffi- cient definition to allow accurate readings of the positions on a scale marked by the image of a fine vertical wire in front of the light. ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 493 jar, the outside of the jar being coated with tinfoil and connected with the earth, so that it is in reality a Leyden jar. The whole outside of the jar, even where not coated with tinfoil, is in the ordinary use of the instrument, especially in our moist climate, kept virtually at one potential through con- duction along its surface. This potential is generally, by connecting wires or metal pieces, kept the same as that of the brass legs and framework of the instrument. To prevent disturbance in case of strongly electrified bodies being brought into the neighbourhood of the instrument, a wire is either wrapped round the jar from top to bottom, or a cage or network of wire, or any convenient metal case, is placed round it; but this ought to be easily removed or opened at any time to admit of the interior being seen. When the instru- ment is left to itself from day to day in ordinary use, the needle, connected with the inner coating of the jar as just described, loses, of course, unless replenished, something of its charge; but not in general more than 3 per cent. per day, when the jar is of flint glass made in Glasgow. On trying similar jars of green glass I found that they lost their charge more rapidly per hour than the white glass jars per month. I have occasionally, but very rarely, found white glass jars to be as defective as those green ones, and it is possible that the defect I found in the green jars was an accident to the jars tested, and not an essential property of that kind of glass. § 12. I have recently made the very useful addition of a replenisher to restore electricity to the jar from time to time when required. It consists of (1) a turning vertical shaft of vulcanite bearing two metal pieces called carriers (0, 6, figs. 17 & 18); (2) two springs (d, d, figs. 16 & 18, Plate V.), connected by a metallic arc, making contact on the carriers once every half turn of the shaft, and therefore called connectors ; and (3) two inductors (a, @) with re- ceiving springs (c,¢) attached to them, which make contact on the carriers once every half turn, shortly before the connecting contacts are made. - The inductors (a a, figs. 16 & 18) are pieces of sheet metal bent into circular ceylin- drical shapes of about 120° each; they are placed so as to deviate in the man- ner shown in the drawing from parts of a cylindrical surface coaxal with the turning-shaft, leaving gaps of about 60° on each side. The diameter of this cylindrical surface is about 15 millimetres (about 3 an inch). The carriers (66, figs. 17 & 18) are also of sheet metal bent to cylindrical surfaces, but not exactly circular cylinders; and are so placed on the bearing vulcanite shaft that each is rubbed by the contact springs over a very short space, about 1 millimetre beyond its foremost edge, when turned in the proper direction for replenishing. The receiving springs (c, c, figs. 17 & 18) make their contacts with each carrier immediately after it has got fairly under cover, as it were, of the inductor. Each carrier subtends an angle of about 60° at the axis of the turning-shaft. The connecting contacts are completed just before the carriers commence emerging from being under cover of the inductors. The carriers may be said to be under cover of the inductors when they are within an angle of 120° on each side of the axis subtended by the inductors. One of the inductors is in metallic communication with the outside coating of the jar, the other with the inside. Figs. 16, 17, & 18 illustrate sufficiently the shape of carriers and the succession of the contacts. The arrow-head indicates the direction to turn for replenishing. When it is desired to dimi- nish the charge, the replenisher is turned backwards. A small charge having been given to the jar from an independent source, the replenisher when turned forwards increases the difference of potentials between the two inductors and the two coatings of the jar connected with them by a constant percentage per half turn, unless it is raised to so high a degree as to break 494 REPORT—1867. down the air-insulation by disruptive discharge. The electric action is explained simply thus:—The carriers, when connected by the connecting springs, receive opposite charges by induction, of which they deposit large proportions the next time they touch receiving springs. Thus, for example, if the jar be charged positively, the carrier emerging from the inductor connected with the inner coating carries a negative charge round to the receiving spring connected with the outside coating, while the other carrier, emerging from the inductor connected with the outside coating, carries a positive charge round to the receiving spring connected with the inside coating. If the carriers are not sufficiently well under cover of the inductors during both the receiving contacts and the connecting contacts to render the charges which they acquire by induction during the connecting contacts greater than that which they carry away with them from the receiving con- tacts, the rotation, even in the proper direction for replenishing, does not increase, but, on the contrary, diminishes the charge of the jar. The de- viations of the inductors from the circular cylinder referred to above have been adopted to give greater security against this failure. A steel pivot fixed to the top of the vulcanite shaft, and passing through the main cover, carries a small milled head (y, fig. 1) above, on the outside, which is spun ‘rapidly round in either direction by pressing the finger on it, and thus in less than a minute a small charge in the jar may be doubled. The dimi- nution of the charge, when the instrument is left to itself for twenty-four hours, is sometimes imperceptible ; but when any loss is discovered to haye taken place, even if to the extent of 10 per cent., a few moments use of the replenisher suffices to restore it, and to adjust it with minute accuracy to the required degree by aid of the guage to be described presently. ‘The principle of the ‘‘ replenisher”’ is identical with that of the “doubler” of Bennet. In the essentials of its construction it is the same as Varley’s improved form of Nicholson’s “‘ revolving doubler.” § 13. The gauge consists of an electrometer of Class III. The moveable attracted disk is a square portion of a piece of very thin sheet aluminium of the shape shown at in fig. 4, It is supported on a stretched platinum wire passing through two holes in the sheet, and over a very small projecting ridge of bent sheet aluminium placed in the manner shown in the magnified drawing, fig. 3. The ends of this wire are passed through holes in curved springs, shown in fig. 4, and are bent round them so as to give a secure attachment without solder, and without touching the straight stretched part of the wire. The ends of the platinum wire (3, 3) are attached by cement to the springs, merely to prevent them from becoming loose, care being taken that the cement does not prevent metallic contact between some part of the aluminium wire and one or both of the brass springs. I have constantly found fine platinum wire rendered brittle by ordinary solder applied to it. The use of these springs is to keep the platinum wire stretched with an approximately constant tension, from year to year and at various tempera- tures. Their fixed ends are attached to round pins, which are held with their axes in a line with the fibre by friction, in bearings forming parts of two ad- justable brass pieces (y, y) indicated in fig. 4; these pieces are adjusted once for all to stretch the wire with sufficient force, and to keep the square attracted disk in its proper position. The round pins bearing the stretching springs are turned through very small angles by pressing on the projecting springs with the finger. They are set so as to give a proper amount of torsion tending to tilt the attracted disk (@) upwards, and the long end of the aluminium lever (8), of which it forms a part, downwards. The downward motion of the long end ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 495 is limited by a properly placed stop. Another stop (e) above limits the upward motion, which takes place under the influence of electrification in the use of the instrument. A very fine opake black hair (that of a small black-and-tan terrier I have found much superior to any hitherto tried) is stretched across the forked portion of the sheet aluminium in which the long arm of the lever terminates. Looked at horizontally from the outside of the instrument it is seen, as shown in fig. 7, Plate V., against a white background, marked with two very fine black circles. These sight-plates in the instruments, as now made by Mr. White, are of the same material as the ordinary enamel watch-dials, with black figures on a white ground. The white space between the two circles should be a very little less than the breadth of the hair. The sight-plate is set to be as near the hair as it can be without impeding its motion in any part of its range; and it is slightly convex forwards, and is so placed that the hair is nearer to it when in the middle between the black circles than when in any other part of its range. It is thus made very easy, even with- out optical aid, to avoid any considerable error of parallax in estimating the position of the hair relatively to the two black circles. By a simple plano- convex lens (4, fig. 2), with the convex side turned inwards, it is easy, in the ordinary use of the instrument, to distinguish a motion up or down of the hair amounting to - 330°67 287°94 4°05 A402 gana 347°56 32613 1°59 Sept. 26 ......... 352°15 333°12 2°12 Fy a ete 377°56 36812 0°70 Sept. 27 .0nc-t 35581 347°9 o'74. YL .cosreeobe 388°0 37569 1°31 Cotr a siSieccconns 3769 375°04 °° pre er ono 385°3 396°95 —1'l5 Octr (Grea-.c0°- 402°94, 37647 2°13 ost ee eens 43328 411°33 1°52 Qeti. 1S) st sewanes 319°5 323°51 —o'29 cule aasece 356°02 347°79 0°33 Ocie G10) pees 365708 303°94 5°95 1) teeeeeess 398°49 35629 3°57 Oct? 20-0: 357°9 34401 1°61 ASS Ancoupcae 395°66 377°40 1°43 Ochs ).22) 52555 .0.8 37124 380°45 —0'95 Fy Wy Pagans es 362°7 392°44 —3°18 (Olein PS) odssediace 297°96 305°0 —o'50 Oh) Wikibase 334-07 329°05 o'5 Ocha 2 5isces=nee 261°67 277°01 —1'26 Bp sobpaubor 277°59 294°31 —1°86 Oct a2 Grincccsess Peach 247°61 —1I'40 re pei coots 264°37 265°97 —o'66 Oct 2 7iassensxe- 237°05 23485 o'r Syn Wavaensecs 25115 257°24 —0'65 Average ......... 343°011 335°245 0°6083 518 REPORT—1867. The correction to be applied to the thermometer immersed in air as de- 123-66—12% __356°654184r 12-744 0. Q0:98 w= —1:1835. It appears also that a difference beween the temperatures of the calorimeter and air-registering thermometer so corrected, equal to 10-822, gives the unit effect on the former. Hence the corrected indication of the air-thermometer in the second series of thermal experiments will be 349-63—1-1835=348-4465. This being 12:5345 in excess of the temperature of the calorimeter, the corrected thermal effect will be 25-65— OO = 24-4917, which, after a small further correction for the immersed stem, becomes 24:512. The thermal capacity in this second series was made up of 95561 grains distilled water, copper as water 2501, thermometer and coil as water 80, and cotton-wool as water 200 egrs., giving a total of 98342 grains. The equivalent, as deduced from the second series, is therefore duced from the above Table is given by , whence 62723 2 | A122" 53-6656 f x 292946 x 33434330 x 3600 6:2832 —25366 oT519 98342 12951 * The equivalents obtained in the two foregoing series of experiments are as much as one-fiftieth in excess of the equivalent I obtained in 1849 by agitating water. I therefore instituted a strict inquiry with a view to discover any causes of error, so that they might be avoided in a fresh series. The most probable source of error seemed to be insufficient stirring of the water of the calorimeter. Although agitated so frequently as forty times in the hour, there could be no doubt that, during any intervals of comparative rest, a current of heated water would ascend from the coil, and that if a thin stratum of it remained any time at the top, some loss of heat would result. I resolved therefore to use a fresh calorimeter, and to introduce into it a stirrer which could be kept in constant motion by clockwork. Another source of error which, though it would be finally eliminated by frequent repetition of the experiments, it seemed to be desirable to avoid, was the hygrometric quality of the cotton-wool which enveloped the calori- meter in the second series of experiments. I therefore sought for a material which did not present that inconvenience. The plan finally adopted was to cover the calorimeter first with tinfoil, to place over that two layers of silk net (tulle), and to finish with a second enyelope of tinfoil. A third source of possible error was the circumstance that the silver- platinum alloy, when made positively electrical in distilled water, is slowly acted upon, an oxide of silver as a bluish-white cloud arising from the metal, while hydrogen escapes from the negative electrode. On this account the coil in the experiments of the last series, as well as the subsequent, was well varnished. But it was found at the conclusion of the experiments that the varnish had in a great measure lost its protecting power. This circumstance gave me considerable anxiety: I was, however, ultimately able, by the fol- lowing facts arrived at after the thermal experiments were completed, to satisfy myself that no perceptible influence had been produced by it on the results :— 1st. The resistance of the coils, after long-continued use had deteriorated the varnish, was not sensibly less than it was after they had been freshly varnished. ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 519 2nd. The coil of the 3rd series was, in the unprotected state, immersed in distilled water, and compared with many hundred yards of thick copper wire, unimmersed, having nearly equal resistance. The result showed that the resistance to the current was sensibly the same whether a single cell or five cells of Daniell in a series were used. Now, had any considerable leakage by electrolytic action taken place, it would have been very much less in pro- portion in the former than in the latter instance. 3rd. When the coils of the second and third series, in the unprotected state, were placed in distilled water, and made the electrodes of a battery of five cells, the deflection was 40’ of a degree on a galvanometer with a coil of 17 inches diameter composed of 18 turns of wire. This deflection indicates a current of about ;1, of the average current in the thermal experiments. In this case the chemical action was distinctly visible, but quite ceased to be so when the electrodes were connected by a wire of unit resistance, so as to reduce the potential to that in the thermal experiments. 4th. The coil of No. 2 series being used as a standard, that of No. 3 series, in the unprotected condition, was immersed, first in water, then in oil. The resistance to the current of five Daniell’s cells was found to be sensibly equal in the two cases. Hence there could be no doubt that the loss of heat during the experi- ments by electrolytic action could not possibly in any instance have been so great as one-thousandth of the entire effect, and was probably not one quarter of that small quantity ; whilst in the larger number of experiments, when the varnish was fresh, it must have been nil. The coil used in the third series of experiments was made by bending four yards of platinum-silver wire double, and then coiling it into a spiral which was supported and kept in shape by being tied with silk thread to a thin glass tube. ° The terminals were thick copper wires, and the whole was coated with shellac and mastic varnish. The following results were ob- tained for its resistance. In the first three trials the current was measured by a galvanometer with a circle of nine turns 17 inches diameter, and in the last six with an instrument with eighteen turns of wire. In the first six there was an extra unit of resistance included in the circuit :— Temp. | Temp. |Resistance Battery. Unit. C,. Ore C,. of of in terms of| unit. | coil. | my unit. ° One cell, Daniell ...) Mine .../ tan 52 53 tan 37 3°15 tan 37 10°6 63°27 62°78 *98963 ED » +--/tam §2 24°12 |tan 36 29°02 |tan 36 37°27 | 59°03| 60°07] °98823 —) 110) eee oe Jenkin's|tan 52 3°62 |\tan 36 645 |/tan 36 14°79 | 60°88] 60°57| ‘98752 Daniell’s cell. Posi- tive metal iron = tan 50 25°8 |tan 35 21°88 |tan 35 29°27] 59°78| 60°46] 98818 Ditto .................- Mine ...| tan 49 48°12 | tan 34. 57°36 |tan 35 5°62 | 60°03} 60°30] 98754 Ditto Bette tndiaeie deities » -+--|tan 48 17°62 |tan 34 5°48 | tan 34. 12°24 60°50] 60°88| 98816 ot sf. «| bMS. 28 tan 49 58°6 |tan 50 11°98 | 61°27| 61°08] °98863 BPO «22.2... eee Jenkin’s |tan 75 17°25 |tan 49 44°93 |tan 49 57°51 | 61°96] 61°27| 98871 i Mine ...|/tan 75 596 |tan 49 1897 | tan 49 33°08) 69°35] 70°28] “98820 ren ee. . ::2-t| eee [Mem meh te sat MN Rce cee TAN TS. checker Goth at soem lf fabeats 98831 The above average resistance, reduced to 18°-63 C., the mean temperature in the third series, is -98953 of the Association unit, or in British measure 32465480. In the third series, the experiments for the heat of the current, of radia- 520 REPORT—1867. tion, and for horizontal magnetic intensity were alternated in such a manner that each class occupied the same portions of the day that the others did. I sought in this way to avoid the effects of any horary change in the humidity &c. of the atmosphere, or in the magnetic force. Of the thirty experiments comprising each class, six were performed at about each of the several hours, 11 am., 123 p.m., 13 pm., 4 P.m., and 53 P.M. The calorimeter, protected as already described, was supported on the edges of a light wooden frame. It was carefully guarded against draughts by screens coated with tinfoil placed at a foot distance. The stirrer con- sisted of a vertical copper rod, to which vanes, on the plan of a screw- propeller, were soldered at four equidistant places. The rod extended 2 inches above the calorimeter, and was there affixed to a light wooden shaft 2 feet long, attached at the upper end to the last spindle of a train of clock- wheels. The weight was 35 lbs., which, falling about 2 feet per hour, pro- duced a continuous revolution of the stirrer at a rate of about 200 in the minute. The action of the stirrer left nothing to be desired. It was started five minutes before an experiment commenced, and kept going until the last observation of the thermometer had been made. The experiments, as in the second series, lasted one hour, during which were made eight observations of the thermometer immersed in the calori- meter, twenty of the temperature of the air, and forty of the deflection of the galvanometer. Third Series of Thermal Experiments. 2 Tempera- | Tempera-| Rise of Date. Gees D ee ti face of ture of | tempera- a ni rare, ‘eae air. water. ture. ween: 1867. ae in. June 28, 12.54 P.M.| 28 18°25) *290024 488-660 494°17 25°1 30 » 28, 5.36 30 56°37) °359310 534155 | 524°214 | 32°08 26 29, 1.30 28 55°45| °305345 5097172 | 490°13 27°82 27 July 1, 10.304.M.|29 41°1 | °324949 428°81 425°67 28°52 27 » Ty 4.24 P.M.| 30 19°4 | .342107 508°78 467°214 33°05 26 sy 2:12.45 30 10°12) “337891 4°5°343 45°°73 25°13 26 meas 10:0) 30 30°98] *347424 401°822 458°104 24°99 28 nap 4s) 20 31 23°4 | 372299 516"992 452°97 57°98 27 1020, TTD AM, | 9021-721] Gg4am70 385°622 394°0 28°98 28 » 20, 3-45P.M.| 31 37°55| °379241 45419 430°97 34°92 28 A PSOE 32 06 | °390765 482°44 460'621 35°48 30°5 33 22, 5.21 32 23°47| “402470 | 493°087 | 498°573 | 34°47 284 Fe 31 18°43) “369081 465°238 | 4737167 | 31°27 28°7 4» 24, 11.0 AM.|31 4°75| °363299 | 430°688 | 448°043 | 30°24 27°9 » 24, 4.5 P.M.) 30 49°15} 355900 439°007 | 470°954 | 28°14 28°2 9) 25, 12.15 32 39°5 | “410832 | 465°354 | 432°45 38°48 29°4 » 25, 4.55 33 10 | *427129 521569 | 486049 | 39°72 28°4 » 26, 12.58 32 33°95] “407920 445°009 | 464267 | 33°61 30 9) 27) I1.13A-M.| 33 1°6 | “422590 3910 419°21 34°46 30 275 4.14PM. | 32 58°22) *420777 | 418-11 446°623 | 34°09 29°4 Aug. 2, 12.31 31 52°98) °386923 385°876 390°9I1 aRu0 30 Eh So 31 53°77) °387325 407°781 | 422°843 | 32°25 28 » 3:12.56 31 37°18] "379056 453°66 421°948 | 35°37 29°75 » 6, 11.18 A4.M.|26 34°35] ‘250162 439°906 435°699 22°32 29°7 » 6, 3-55P.M.|28 42°8 | -30c070 457°145 462056 25°67 29°6 » 8, 12.17 29 29°25) “319773 465°586 | 443°204 | 296 29°7 oi eo 545 29 39°25) °324137 499°874 | 480°564 | 29°67 28 Jae Osea, 29 332 | °321491 478658 469'296 28°8 264 | 4, -10, 11.9 A.M. | 29 12°65) °312625 468°344 4557304 28°21 27°4 », 10, 3.56P.M.| 28 14°47| °288500 519°082 493°136 27°28 23°4 Avera voaiencsscnncse| Ameren 3547795 458°690 455°436 | 3102666 | 28°362 nee ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 521 Third Series of Radiation Eaperiments. Temperature | Temperature Rise of . pate of air. of ate: temperature. ail ok weight. 1867. | June 28, 10.38A4.m.| —-460°527 481°990 kere 31 » 28, 3.53 P.M. 513°687 506°770 0°75 28°2 9» 29, 11.55 A.M. 4.937088 473°930 1°82 28 » 29, 4.40 P.M, 526°185 | §08°480 1°88 28°5 July 1, 1°23 469°368 442°114. 2°46 27°5 » «2, 10.58 A.M. 404°842 439°790 —2'82 27 2, 2 4:5 Pa 401-779 450°930 —4'1 28°5 » 4 11.46 AM, 492'210 A27°517 5°97 28 » 4 4.42 PM. 541°007 484'927 sr 26°5 i | 20; 1.0 416°237 |} 409°044 1’03 28°75 » 22, 10.5 AM| 474°393 439°140 3°32 30 3) 22) 3.50 P.M. 486°267 | 480°106 08 28°75 9» «23, I1.41 A.M. 451029 456°947 —o'!l 28°4. » 23, 4.49 P.M. 475°319 | 486°113 —o'65 28°5 3 24, 12.54, 441°677 460'780 —1'48 26°5 » 25, 10.40 A.M. 435°863 410°237 2°43 28 » 25, 3-27 P.M. 515°653 460939 5°03 28°38 », 26, 11.29 A.M. 44.1°256 447°526 Oz 28°5 | » 26, 4.49P.M.| 435°776 472° 503 —30 29 30 2 17 404758 433°444 —2°28 29°8 Aug. 2, 10.55 A.M. 369°966 374/18 —O'15 29°75 3 2% 3250 BM. 407°34 406°42 O'17 27°8 pia ne 3O Aca, 435°813 401°187 3°24. 28°6 | » 3) 4:33PM.) -476°691 446°393 2°9 27 » 6, 1.15 457°87 447°343 1°05 28°9 | » 8, 10.46 A.M. 442°403 426°304 1°68 29 > 8) ALL PM. 489'901 463°143 2°42 29°7 PG; Li-5t AM 466°428 453149 1'27 26°5 cS, 5-97 ee 4.90°308 484'753 0°66 27°9 Pe Gee 20 502°96 472°469 2°82, 28°6 PAVEYEES ....00.5c00 460°6808 451°6356 1018 28498 The correction to be applied to the air-registering thermometer, as deduced 217:452—10x 16:26 ? whence w, the quantity to be added to the observed tempera- from the radiation experiments of this third series, is found from __488°807 +4 20x e468 ture of the air in the thermal experiments, =2:81. The temperature of the air was therefore virtually 6:073 higher than that of the water. The results also show that the unit of effect on the calorimeter was produced by a differ- ence of temperature of 11-645. 6°073 Hence 31:0266 ies part of the thermometer stem, the corrected thermal effect in the third series is found to be 30-5821. The average capacity of the calorimeter was equal to that of 93859 gers. of water, being made up of 91531 grs. distilled water, 22364 grs. of copper, 486 ers. of tin (the weight of the coating next the calorimeter), 52 grs. silk net (half that employed), the thermometer, coil, and corks. 1867. 2N =30°5051; and adding :077 for the unimmersed 522 REPORT—1867. Determinations of Horizontal Magnetic Intensity. Galvanometer | Weighing b aie Date. deflection, peti H— 17676 vw 0. W. tan @ 1867. ae gers. June 28, 1.30 P.M. 37 21°42 253°04. 3°68334 5, 20)10;50 A.M. | 26 43°06 109'28 3°67114 nn 205, | 3-50 PAL: 25 12°56 96°04 3767964 duly 1,312.25 | 38 23°56 272°35 3°68144 » 1, 5.20 38 59°25 284°95 3°68634 52>) | 1-40. 38 49°94 280'9 3°68034 » 4, 10.45 A.M. 26 24°55 106'25 3°66894. » 4 3-45 P.M. 26 10°55 104'99 368474 9, 20, 12 Noon. 39 18°9 289°875 3°67484 » 20, 4.40 P.M. 41 11°35 332°825 3°68504. 3» 22, 1.30 41 21°4 335°13 367594. » 23, 10.45 A.M. Boat 169°616 3°67194 » 23, 3.45 P.M. 31 5615 168°608 3°68224 9) 24, 11.51 A.M. 39 52°95 301591 3°67364. » 24, 5°0 P.M. 40 24°9 315°092 3°68474 » 25, I-10 41 27°95 338°391 3°67964 » 26, 10.30.A.M. 34 40°45 206°658 3°67324. by 20> ES AG EMA, 939, 25S 188°675 3767864. 9 27,12 Noon. 43 19°55 386°0 368194 » 27, 5°12 PM. 42 48°53 372°658 3768414 Aug. 2, 1.30 41 15°35 332°733 3°67 584 9 +3, 10.25 A.M. 34. 13°9 198'99 3°66464 1. 3 3-33P-M.| 33 40°3 191°983 3°67628 a) Opa, 35 98 214'117 _ 3°67156 pe 10) 44-50 37° S81 248°258 367784. ee uo i 37 44°55 259°867 368110 3) 9; BO.53 AM. 31 23°65 160°708 367186 » 95 4.42 P.M.| 30 43°4 152°75 3°67590 10, 12.12 36 254 235°433 3°67557 » 10, 4.50 34 49°5 209'608 3°67864. AVONAGO. (seccbteed|ien Saeect ees vas Ville cl taeriseete 3°67771 The equivalent deduced from the third series is therefore 62723 rier Uo ae pase es) - x 35478 x 32465480 x 3600 ——— 8777 x 35478 x 32 xX 30°5821 see aa lola) 12-951 * The equivalents above arrived at are :— From Series 1. Average of 10, 25335. From Series 2. Average of 15, 25366. From Series 3. Average of 30, 25217. The extra precautions taken in the last Series entitle the last figure to be taken as the result of the inquiry. Reduced to weighings in vacuo it becomes 25187. = 25217. NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. ae. | ‘ BIA Vea ahh monroe aad . ae ay ~~ NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS, MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Address by the President, Sir W. Tomson, LL.D., FR. THE progress of mathematical and physical science during the past year will be better represented by the valuable reports to be laid. before this Section, and the lines of thought which have originated since the British Association last met will be better illustrated by the papers and discussions which will constitute our or- dinary daily work, than by any statement which I could haye prepared. It was therefore my intention not to detain you from the interesting subjects and abundant matter for discussion which will so fully occupy our time during the Meeting, by an introductory address. But I must ask you to bear with me if I modify some- what this resolution in consequence of a recent event which, I am sure, must touch yery nearly the hearts of all fn and of very many in all parts of the world, to whom the name of Faraday has become a household word for all that is admirable in scientific genius. Having had so short a time for preparation, I shall not attempt at present any account of Faraday’s discoveries and philosophy. But, indeed, it is very unnecessary that I should speak of what he has done for science. All that lives for us still, and parts of it we shall meet at every turn through our work in this Section. I wish I could put into words something of the image which the name of Faraday always suggests to my mind. Kindliness and unselfishness of disposition ; clearness and singleness of purpose; brevity, simplicity, and direct- ness ; sympathy with his audience or his friend; perfect natural tact and good taste ; thorough cultivation :—all these he had, each to a rare degree; and their influence pervaded his language and manner, whether in conyersation or lecture. But all these combined, made only a part of Faraday’s charm. He had an inde- scribable quality of quickness and life. Something of the light of his genius irra- diated his presence with a certain bright intelligence, and gave a singular charm to his manner, which was surely felt by every one, from the deepest philosopher to the simplest child, who ever had the privilege of seeing him in his home—the Royal Institution. That light is now gone from us. While thankful for having seen and felt it, we cannot but mourn our loss, and feel that whatever good things, whatever brightness may be yet in store for us, that light we can neyer see again. On the alleged Correspondence between Pascal and Newton. By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., LL.D., PRS., §e. Sir David Brewster said that he had received from M. Chasles several of Newton’s letters or notes, which he supposes to be genuine. He would only read one or two observations tending to show that this was a gigantic fraud—the oe he he- 1867. 2 REPORT—1867. lieved, ever attempted as connected with science or literature. Sir David then read the following notes:—1. The correspondence was founded on the assumption that Newton was a precocious genius, haying written on the Infinitesimal Calculus Xe. at the age of eleven, whereas he was then at school and knew nothing of mathe- matics, occupying himself only with waterwheels, windmills, waterclocks, and other boyish amusements. 2. There is no evidence that Pascal and Newton had any correspondence. Having examined the whole of Newton's papers in the possession of the Earl of Portsmouth, I never found any letter or paper in which Pascal is mentioned. 3. The letters from Mss Hannah Ayscough, Newton’s mother, bear this signature, although at the time they were written she was a married women and should have signed Hannah Smith. 4. The letters of Pascal have been found by M. Faugere to be in another hand, and the signature not that of Pascal. 5. The letters and signatures of Newton are not in his hand. 6. An experiment with coffee is mentioned in one of the letters of Pascal, whereas coffee was at that time unknown in France. 7. All Newton’s letters are in French, a language in which he never wrote. His letters to the celebrated French mathematician, Varignon, are in Latin, and Newton himself has stated that he could not read French without a dictionary. 8. The style and sentiments in Newton’s letters are such as he never could have used. He expresses efernal gratitude to Pascal,a word which no Englishman would have employed. 9. According to the correspondence, M. Desmaizeaux got access to Newton’s papers after his death, and carried off a great many of them. Now it is certain that Mr. Conduitt, Newton’s nephew, arranged and examined all Newton’s papers after his death in order to obtain materials for a life of him, and, having failed to find a competent person to write it, he under- took it himself, and obtained from persons her alive all the information that existed respecting Newton’s early life and studies, All this information, which IL have used in my life of Newton, stands in direct contradiction to the assumption of Newton's precocity and early connexion with Pascal, which is the basis of the correspondence now exciting so general an interest. There can be no doubt, there- fore, that the letters of Newton and Pascal are audacious and elaborate forgeries, calculated and intended to transfer to Pascal the glory of the discovery of the law of gravitation and other discoveries which we owe to Newton. On the alleged Correspondence between Newton and Pascal recently communi- cated to the French Academy. By T. Axcunr Hirst, /2RS., FRAS, The author stated that the allezed correspondence between Newton and Pascal, recently communicated to the French Academy by the eminent geometer and his- torian Michel Chasles, had taken the scientific world by surprise, If genuine, it would follow that it is to Pascal and not to Newton that we are indebted for the development of the theory of gravitation; that Newton borrowed his ideas from Pascal, and, what is worse, basely concealed and tried to cancel all traces of his having thus borrowed. Charges so grave as these could not for a moment. be entertained by Englishmen, were they not put forward by one whose authority is _ acknowledged, and whose rectitude of character is beyond suspicion. The real history of these documents appeared to be unknown to their present owner, nor was M. Chasles at liberty even to state by whom they were consigned to him. We were deprived, therefore, of the most direct way of testing their authenticity, and must have yecourse to examination of the documents themselves. With a view of enabling us to do so, M. Chasles had kindly sent to Sir David Brewster and to the author of the present communication seyeral specimens, in French, of Newton’s handwriting, all which had at once been pronounced to be forgeries by the eminent biographer of Newton. ‘ After drawing attention to several inconsistencies contained in the letters already published by Chasles and purporting to be from Pascal, Newton, Boyle, Aubrey, and others, the author stated that the question of authenticity could only be con- clusively decided by a careful comparison of the documents with the authentic pa- pers of Newton now in the possession of Lord Portsmouth, the Earl of Macclesfield, the Royal Society, and Trinity College, Cambridge. This comparison would be much facilitated, and, indeed, scientific literature greatly enriched, if the owners of TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 these papers would generously permit photographic copies to be taken, The na- tional manuscripts of England and Scotland have already been admirably photo- zincographed by Sir Henry James, The manuscripts of Newton, which are also national, certainly deserve to be transmitted to posterity in like manner. MarHEMATICs. On the Inverse Problem of Coresolvents. By the Hon, J. Cockin, I.A., FR. Communicated by the Rey. Professor R. Hariey, RS. f Inverse problems, as is well known, present greater difficulties than direct ones. For instance, while it is easy to square a number, it is not so easy to extract its square root, Moreover, there are cases in which it is impossible to obtain a finite so- lution of an inverse problem. The solution of a quintic is usually considered to be such a case, In the theory of coresolvents it is comparatively easy to pass from the algebraical to the differential resolyent, but the converse does not hold. The finite integration of the linear differential resolvent of a given algebraical equation would, perhaps, be a step towards the general solution of the inyerse problem. But that integration has not yet been effected, except in two or three special cases ; and the definite integrals of Boole have not, that I am aware of, been converted into indefinite ones. In order to take the step above pointed to, it seems to me neces- sary to have recourse to a non-linear differential resolyent, to be constructed as follows :—The elements of the final non-linear are three; the first is (1) the second differential coefficient of the dependent variable; the second is (2) the first differential coefficient of that variable; the third is (3) the square of the second element divided by the dependent variable itself. The sinister of the non-linear resolyent is constituted by the six homogeneous quadratic products of the three elements, and is the sum of those six products, each multiplied into an indeter- minate or conditional multiplier. Each element and each product is, as we now by the theory of coresolyents, in general capable of being expressed as a rational and integral function of the dependent variable, of a degree less by one than that of the given algebraic equation. Suppose this last equation to be a quartic, then each product, and consequently the dexter of the non-linear resolvent, can be ex- pressed as a cubic function of the dependent variable. Let the dexter of the non- linear be reduced to zero by causing the several coefficients of the cube, the square and the first power of the dependent variable, and also the absolute term, to vanish separately. These four conditions, while they reduce the dexter of the non-linear to zero, enable us to eliminate four of the indeterminate multipliers from its sinister, No elevation of degree will arise from the elimination, for all these four condi- tions are linear. The coefficients of the six homogeneous quadratic products on the sinister will now in general be homogeneous linear functions of the two un- eliminated, indeterminate multipliers; and, by the solution of a cubie only, the the ratio of these two multipliers can be so assigned as to cause the sinister to break up into linear factors, each factor being a linear and homogeneous function of the three elements. If we apply the exponential substitution to either of these factors equated to zero, the resulting final non-linear differential equations of the first order are of a soluble form. We have thus constructed a soluble non-linear differential resolvent of a general biquadratic. For a cubie we might dispense with one of the homogeneous products, and consequently with one of the indeter- minate multipliers ; but we should thus be led to a resulting cubic ; and it will be better to retain the whole six terms of the sinister. We shall then, having only three conditions of evanescence to satisfy on the dexter, be able to break up the sinister into linear factors, as before, by means of a homogeneous cubic in the three remaining disposable indeterminate multipliers. Applying to this last cubic the method of vanishing groups, we see that its solution depends upon the solution of a quadratic equation and the extraction of a cube root only. In the case of a quartic, the integral obtained by the foregoing processes involves two arbitrary constants only, and its nature and extent require further discussion. But it seems 1* 4 REPORT—1867. that, by means of the theory of coresolvents, we obtain new methods of solving algebraic equations up to the fourth degree inclusive; and although the above discussion does not embrace equations whose degrees exceed four, 1t apparently indicates that further results may spring from the study of non-linear differential resolvents. A list of 5500 Prime Numbers. By W. Barrerr Davis. On Finite Solutions of Algebraical Equations. By the Rev. Professor R, Hanrtuy, PRS, On a certain Cyclical Symbol. By the Rev. Professor R. Hartzy, F.RB.S. The object of this paper was to explain the meaning and use of a certain symbol which the author had employed with advantage in dealing with circular algebraic functions. Some years ago, while engaged on the theory of quintics, the author found that in the transformation and general treatment of the higher equations circular functions occupy a conspicuous place, and play an all-important part ; and the author was led, by an attentive consideration of the structure of such functions, to devise a calculus, whereby operations upon them might be materially abridged. The author had since found that his invention had been to some extent anticipated by Vandermonde, in a Memoir on the Resolution of Equations, published by the French Academy in 1771. The author explained the difference between Vander- monde’s process and his own, and showed how he had succeeded lately in enlarging the powers of the latter. Examples were given to illustrate the value of the new symbol, not only as an abridged notation, but also, what was more important, as a working instrument or process. On a Theorem in the Integral Calculus. By Dr. D. Brrrens pr Haan. g i] The differentiation of an integral according to a constant under the sign of inte- eration has been extended by Schlémilch to the case of the limits of the integral depending on this constant. Omitting the correction in case of discontinuity, the formula is m R 2 ( $(p, ade ( TP. 2) do-+-$(p, R) = ar ail ay Now an analogous formula should exist for integration under the integral sign. From (1), when R and are constants in. regard to p, and so the two last forms R q ( GaN G0; :e) ADs. >=. ras re eam) : vanish, we deduce qd R ( w( I(p; «)da= a P aie e ep that is, the theorem for changing the order of integration. In the same manner, from (1) with the two last terms, we deduce, first, % (4,2), ¢ dR pies POE aa irr meen Nee Ca ee eas (ile) ER dp+C;. (3) JFe Jt © and afterwards, after some transformations, . q R R q TR (“a(n seman ne ("Ba to, JR" den r Py oP dp e/ q dh —¥ —-dp\F (, R) i) dp rf 1) ( is dr ey) aN sila rf, "ae | dB 5 (drs a ‘ dp iN Y aye S(p, "dp * «> MA) y TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 where Kp, y="F2Y 0, d= {re ype. a) Both formule are of use in the integral calculus. Proof of the Binomial Theorem. By the late James Linpsay. Communicated by W. B. Grant. On the Approximate Drawing of Circular Arcs of given lengths. By Professor W. J. Macevorn Ranutye, LL.D., FR. This paper contains rules for use in mechanical drawing, founded on the prin- ciple, that if a straight line and an indefinite number of circles in one plane touch each other at one point, the curve which cuts off parts of a given uniform length from the straight tangent and from all the circles, approximates, in the neighbour- hood of the place where it cuts the straight tangent, very closely to a circular are whose radius is three-fourths of the given uniform length. The arcs laid off according to the rules are somewhat longer than the exact leneth; but in an arc subtending 30° the error is only ;,4,, part of the length of the arc ; and it varies nearly as the fourth power of the angle subtended by the are. ASTRONOMY. Preparations for Observing the Total Solar Eclipse of August 18, 1868, By Major J. F. Tennant, #.E., FLRAS., FRGS., PMS. In January last I drew the attention of the Royal Astronomical Society to the Total Eclipse of 1868, August 18, which will be visible in India, and in the March Number of the ‘ Notices’ of the Society will be found a paper in which I proposed that the Government of India should be solicited to make arrangements for making use of this very favourable opportunity for examining the prominences. I am happy to say that, at the suggestion of the Astronomer Royal, the Secretary of State for India has sanctioned the preparation of an equipment, and I propose in this note to mention what is in progress. First. It is intended to photograph the appearances of the total phase. For this purpose a 94-inch “ silver-on-glass” reflector, equatorially mounted and driven by clockwork, is being prepared. The photographs will be taken in the focus of the speculum, and it is estimated that the exposure to produce an image of the prominences will not exceed half a second. Provision is being made for a consi- derable field, in order that, if possible, some record may he obtained of the struc- ture of the corona. Secondly. It is proposed to examine, as well as may be, the spectra of the pro- minences and corona. For this, one of the old collimators of the Greenwich Transit Circle has been kindly lent by the Astronomer Royal. It is being equatorially mounted in a rough way, and will be provided with a spectroscope permitting the observations to be referred to the lines of the solar spectrum. Lastly. The Astronomer Royal has lent a 42-inch telescope, mounted firmly, to which is being adapted an eyepiece for examining the state of polarization of the lights of the prominences and corona. An arrangement is being made by which one test may be rapidly changed for another, and it is hoped that in this way a more satisfactory result will be obtained than by any single test. I trust that all the instruments will be in India early in next year, and that they will be in position in time to allow experiments to be made, so as to secure the success of the photographic operations. —————. 6 REPORT—1867. Lieut. On the Colowrs of the Soap-Bubble. By Sir Davip Brewstur, K.H., LL.D., F.RS., Se. The colours of the scap-bubble have been the subject of frequent observation since the time of Boyle, Hook, and Newton, and they have been invariably ascribed “not to any colour in the medium itself in which they are formed, or on whose surfaces they appear, but solely to its greater or less thickness.” The author of this paper had heen led to doubt the correctness of this opinion, and while re- peating the beautiful experiments of Professor Plateau “On the Equilibrium of Liquid Films,” he was led to discover the true cause of these colours, whether they are observed on the soap-bubble or on plane, convex, and concave films stretched across the mouths of closed or open vessels. The paper, which is illustrated with numerous coloured drawings, is divided into five parts. 1. On the phenomena of colour in a vertical plane film. 2, On the production of revolving systems of coloured rings on the soap-film. 3. On the form and movements of the bands and rings on convex and concave films. 4, On the phenomena produced by different solutions. 5. On the origin and development of the colours of the soap-bubble. Tn these sections the author has shown that the colouring-matter of the soap- bubble is secreted from the soap-solution when reduced to the state of a film; that it rises to the highest point of the film in colourless portions, in the form of tadpoles, which pass into molecules in every possible order of colour, and then take their proper place in the coloured bands ; that these bands move over the surface of the film under the influence of gravity, and may be blown into fragments or into molecules of all colours, or even recombined with the film; that they may be blown into two systems of coloured rings, the one revolving from right to left, and the other from left to right; and that under the the influence of the centrifugal force, these molecules are carried into their place in Newton’s scale—those of the first orders going to the centre of the rings, and followed by those of higher orders that happen to be in the film, when it is blown upon through a tube in the direction of a diameter. “Tt is impossible,” the author adds, “ to convey in language an adequate idea of the molecular moyements, and the brilliant chromatic phenomena exhibited on the soap-films, and it is equatly impossible for art to delineate them. The visible secre- tion of a colourless fluid from a film less than the twelve thousandth of an inch in thickness,—its separation into portions of every possible colour,—the quick passage of these portions into bands of the different orders in Newton’s scale,—their ever varying forms and hues when the bands either break up spontaneously, or are forcibly broken up,—their conversion into revolving systems of coloured rings under the influence of a centrifugal foree,—their various motions when the film is at rest, and protected from aérial currents,—their recombination into a colourless fluid when driven to the centre or margin of concave and conyex films, and their reab- sorption by the film by means of mechanical diffusion, are facts constituting a system of visible molecular actions, of which we have no example, and nothing eyen approaching to it in Physics.” On the Figures of Equilibrium of Liquid Films. By Sir Davin Brewsrmr, A.H., LL.D., FRS., Se. In repeating some of the experiments of Professor Plateau, described in seven interesting memoirs published in the Transactions of the Belgian Academy, and in prosecuting his own experiments on the colours of the scap-bubble, the author of this paper observed several new phenomena which may have escaped the notice of the Belgian philosopher. Professor Plateau has described and drawn the beautiful systems of soap-films, obtained by lifting from a soap-solution a cube made of wires about one and a half inch lone. This system is a polyhedron, composed of twelve similar films stretch- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 ing from the wires, and united to a plane quadrangular film in the centre. When this vertical film was blown upon, M. Von Rees observed that it was reduced to a line, and then reproduced in a horizontal position, from which it could be blown again into a vertical position. If we suppose the quadrangular film removed, and all the twelve films radiating from the centre of the cube, Professor Plateau found that such a system could not be kept in equilibrium, unless there was something solid in the central point, such as the end of a wire or a drop of fluid. : In repeating these experiments the author found that, after converting the hori- zontal into the vertical quadrangular film, and continuing the blowing, he produced the radial system of films, which in an instant returned to the system with a ver- tical film, and then into the system with the horizontal film. M. Von Rees had found that, by immersing the wire cube with the normal poly- hedron a few millimetres in the soap-solution, the film formed on its lower face, imprisoned the air in the quadrangular pyramid above it, and that this air rose to the centre of the cube, and replaced the quadrangular plane with a hollow cube with curved faces. In this beautiful experiment the hollow cube is invariable in size, being neces- sarily equal in its contents to one-fourth part of the wire cube. The author of the present paper discovered a method of inserting a hollow cube of any magnitude in the centre of the polyhedron. This was done by blowing a bubble of the requisite size, and introducing it within the wire cube. . He succeeded also by this means in inserting a second hollow cube beside the first, the side common to both being plane when the two cubes were equal, convex when the one was less, and concave when it was greater than the other. In such a system, which is in perfect equili- brium, the number of films is zzeteen. He found also that two hollow solid figures could, by the same means, be inserted in the other systems of films which Professor Plateau had discovered in a wire tetrahedron, or a quadrangular pyramid, or a regular octahedron, ora rectangular prism, or in a system obtained from two rectan- gular planes fixed at right angles to each other. This last and interesting system consists of four curved films extending from each vertical wire, and connected with an elliptical film in the common section of the rectangles. The major axis of this film is four times greater than its minor axis, and it is placed in the angle, which is a little greater than 90°, but sometimes also in the other angle. By making this system of wires moveable, sothat the rectangular planes can pass from 90° to 180°, the author obtained some singular results, As the angle increased from 90°, the minor axis of the elliptical film increased, till when it approached to 180° it was nearly circular, appropriating gradually the fluid of the four curved films attached to the wires. By again diminishing this angle the almost circular film became more and more elliptical, till it reached its normal state at 90°, giving back to the curved films the fluid which formed them. If the angle of the rectangular plane which contains the elliptical film is diminished, the film will grow more elliptical, and at 45° will become a straight line, giving up its fluid to the other four films, At this instant the whole system changes, the oval film being reproduced in the angle of 135° ! Remarkable as this phenomenon is, there is one still more remarkable, which requires the testimony of the eye to make it credible. If when the rectangles are inclined 90° we blow upon the elliptical film a bubble of such a size as to replace the system of films with a hollow curvilineal cube, and wait till it bursts, the system of liquid films which it expelled will reappear, as if it had left its ghost behind it to recover the elements which the tubble had appropriated ! By uniting the upper and lower ends of all the wires in this system, and also by uniting the wires at various points in their length, the author obtained a number of beautiful and complex systems of films, which require numerous diagrams to make them intelligible. After treating of the equilibrium of liquid films, as seen in the union of spherical bubbles and other hollow sdlids, the author considers the formation of plane, con- vex, and concave films upon the mouths of open and closed vessels of different shapes, and their deposition on the same vessels from bubbles ; and he describes 8 REPORT—1867. various remarkable movements of the films, upwards and downwards, when they are formed upon conical yessels open at both ends, Notice respecting the Enamel Photographs executed by Mr. M‘Raw, of Etin- burgh. By Sir Davip Brewster, K.H., LL.D., L.RS., &§e. In order to give permanence to photographs, various attempts have been made to burn them into glass or porcelain. M. Joubert and M. Lafon-Camersac some time ago produced very fine pictures by this process; and more recently, M. Ober- metter and M. Grune, of Berlin, have been equally successful. Our countryman, Mr. William M‘Raw, has also succeeded in obtaining very excellent pictures, which will bear comparison with those produced by the best foreign artists, and he has requested me to exhibit specimens to the Section. Myr. M‘Raw believes that his process is similar to that of Camersac, which is kept secret, and he claims no other merit than that of being the first British artist who has succeeded, in this branch of photography. His pictures are produced in any enamel colour, and although, betore they are fired, they can be rubbed off like daguerreotype, yet the burning fixes them immoyeably, while the fusion of the picture gives it its characteristic transparency. I’rom some experiments which he has already made, Mr. M‘Raw is sanguine that the pictures may not only be produced in monochrome, but that they may be simply tinted and finished with the various colours burned in. Alhough the specimens are chiefly on glass, yet they can be transferred to any surface or sub- stance that will stand the firing, such as enamelled copper articles of porcelain. On the Motions and Colours upon Films of Alcohol, Volatile Oils, and other Fluids. By Sir Daviy Brewster, K.H., F.B.S., Se. Tn a paper “On the Phenomena of thin Plates exposed to Polarized Light,” published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1841, the author observed certain motions and colours upon some of the volatile and fixed oils, the cause of which he did not attempt to discover. Their apparent similarity to the molecular movements and colours, described in a preceding paper, induced him to resume the subject. When a drop of alcohol is placed upon an aperture the fifth of an inch in diameter or less, a concave lens will be formed upon it. As the alcohol evaporates, a very small plane film will appear in the centre, and will gradually increase till it fills the aperture. If held in a vertical or even inclined position, and examined by transmitted light, a current of fluid, without colour, will be seen issuing from the margin of the film, moving quickly to different parts of its circumference, some- times dividing itself into two currents dancing opposite one another, and then ex- tending into secondary currents in constant motion. Similar currents are produced upon various alcoholic solutions and a large number (seventy to eighty) of volatile oils, &e. If we now examine the film by reflected light, the principal and secondary cur- rents will be seen as before, but accompanied with systems of coloured rings of great beauty, shifting their place on the film, sometimes in rotation, expanding and contracting quickly, and changing their form and colour. In small films there is often only one system of rings contracting and expanding with a constant variation of the central tint. In general, however, there are two, three, or several systems—each system being produced by a secondary current giving motion to the colouring-matter on ‘the surface of the film. In some cases the motions and colours disappear, the film becomes colourless, and tadpoles issue from its margin as on the soap-bubble; but in general the film bursts before this takes place. The colourless currents and the colours into which they expand are supposed by the author to have the same origin as those upon the soap-bubble. The paper was illustrated by drawings of the currents and of the systems of rings. On the Radiant Spectrum. By Sir Dayip Brnwster, K.H., LL.D., F.RS., $e. T have given the name of Radiant Spectrum to a phenomenon which I discovered in 1814, and which I described to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in the early part of that year. ; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 Tt will be understood from fig. 1, which represents the brilliant radiation which surrounds a very small image of the sun, when it is formed either by reflection or refraction, or otherwise. M & A Sse B ; / V, Fig.l. Fig.2 fo. nN & o m! Fig. 9. M fi/ If we now form a spectrum of this radiant image, either by a prism or by dif- fraction, we shall have the radiant spectrum shown in fig. 2, where MN is the 10 REPORT— 1867, spectrum of the small circular image 8, and AB the spectrum of the radiation, the centre of which is beyond the violet, and nearly in the place where the intensity of the chemical or invisible rays is a maximum. In order to analyze this compound radiation, let the image of the sun §, fig. 1, be taken from homogeneous ved light R, fig. 3, and refracted by the prism, and we shall have its radiation ab at a little distance from the bright portion R, as in fig. 3. In homogeneous yellow light (Y, fig. 4) the radiation ab willbe at a greater distance from Y than in the ved light. In homogeneous violet light (V, fig. 5) the radiation ab will be at a greater distance from V than in the yellow light. If we now retract laterally these homogeneous radiant spectra, fig. 3 will be changed into fig. 6, fig. 4 into fig. 7, and fig. 5 into fig. 8, thus proving that the radiant portion of the spectra consists of rays more refrangible than the portion RY and V from which it is derived, and that the difference between the refractive in- dices of these portions increases with the refrangibility of the rays at RY and V. The compound spectrum MN, AB, fig. 2, is therefore composed of all these sepa-_ rate spectra, and if we refract it laterally, as shown in fig, 9, we produce the oblique radiant spectrum M'N'A'B’, thus proving that the radiant image consists of rays more refrangible than the homogeneous hight from which it is derived. In a rude experiment with a prism of flint glass, whose mean index of refraction was 1:596, the index of the extreme violet was 1:610, and that of the centre of the radiant image 1640, In the preceding experiments the radiation is produced by the action, on the retina, of the small and bright image of the sun; but the same results are obtained, and more distinctly exhibited, by placing a surface of finely ground glass either on the front of the prism, or behind it, and near the eye. The existence of aradiant image beyond the violet end of the spectrum, as in fig. 2, is a fact difficult to explain. I have had an opportunity of describing, or showing it to several distinguished philosophers—to the Marquis Laplace and M. Biot in the autumn of 1814, and more recently to others, by some of whom the experiments haye been repeated, but no explanation of them has been suggested, excepting the untenable one that the separation of the radiant image from the ordinary spectrum might be the result of parallax. A better theory, and one of great interest, if true, may be sought in the pheno- mena of fluorescence, discovered in sulphate of quinine by Sir John Herschel, and in fluor spar and other substances by myself, and in the beautiful explanation of them by Professor Stokes. In this theory the invisible radiation of ahs chemical rays is rendered visible by being scattered by granular surfaces, just as the invisible chemical rays in the ordinary spectrum are rendered visible by being reflected and scattered by the particles of fluorescent bodies. On the Laws of Symmetry of Crystalline Forms. By A. R. Carron. A contribution towards the expression of the angle between the Optic awes of a Crystal in terms of the angles between the faces. By A. KR. Carron. On the Theory of Double Refraction, with special reference to the influence of the Material Molecules on the propagation of Light in Crystals. By A. Rh. Carron, On a Mechanical Means of producing the differential motion required to equa- lize the focus for the different planes of a solid. By A. Cuavpnr, F.R.S.* A New Fact of Binocular Vision. By A. Craupgr, PAS. Photographie Portraits obtained by Single Lenses of Rock Crystal and Topaz. By A. Cracpet, F.B.S. * See Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1867. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ll - On a Real Image Stereoscope. By J. Crurx Maxwet, I.A., PRS. In all stereoscopes there is an optical arrangement, by which the right eye sees an image of one picture and the left eye that of another. These images ought to be apparently in the same place, and at the distance of most distinct vision. In ordinary stereoscopes these images are virtual, and the observer has to place his two eyes near two apertures, and he sees the united images, as it were, behind the optical apparatus. In the stereoscope made for the author by Messrs. Elliott Brothers the observer stands at a short distance from the apparatus, and looks with both eyes at a large lens, and the image appears as a real object close to the lens. The stereoscope consists of a board about 2 feet long, on which is placed, first, a yertical frame to hold the pair of pictures, which may be an ordinary stereoscopic slide, turned upside down; secondly, a sliding piece near the middle of the board containing two lenses of 6 inches focal length, placed side by side, with their centres about 11 inch apart; and thirdly, a frame containing a large lens of about 8 inches focal length and 3 inches diameter. The observer stands with his eyes about 2 feet from the large lens. With his right eye he sees the real image of the left-hand picture formed by the left-hand lens in the air, cloze to the large lens, and with the left eye he sees the real image of the other picture formed by the other lens in the same place. The united images look like a real object in the air, close to the large lens, This image may be magnified or diminished at pledstrre by sliding the piece containing the two lenses nearer to, or further from, the pictures. Experiments on the Luminosity of Phosphorus. By J. Morvat, M.D. Heat, On some Deductions by Dr. Tyndall from lus recent Experiments regarding the Radiant and Absorptive Properties of Vapour in the Atmosphere. By R. Russet. After referring to the importance of Prof. Tyndall’s researches on heat as a mode of motion, the author took exception to some of his deductions on the influence which the vapour of water exerts in modifying the intensity of solar and terrestrial radia- tion. The author stated that he had come to the conclusion that the radiant powers of the vapour of water in the atmosphere were not even capable of forming clouds, though they might be capable of forming mists in valleys. In our atmo- sphere he believed that the vapour of water has little power of transmitting its heat into space when it approaches or reaches the dew-point, and that if any cloud had been caused by the radiation of heat into space, its upper surface would be flat, like the mists in the meadows before sunrise. These and other reasons led him to the conclusion that the radiation of vapours into space has, directly, a very slight influence on the production of rain. On a New Telegraphic Thermometer, and on the Application of the Principle of its construction to other Meteorological Indicators. By C. Waxatstoxn, F.RS., D.C.L., LL.D., §e. The telegraphic thermometer which I constructed in 1843, and which is de- scribed in the Report of the Thirteenth Meeting of the British Association, depended on the simultaneous action of two isochronous chronometer or clock movements— one at the remote station regulating the motion of a plunger in the bore of a ther- mometer, and the other at the near or observing station, marking, by the motion of the needle of a galyanometer, the moment at which the contact of the plunger with the mercury of the distant thermometer completed or broke the circuit. The clock movements required to be periodically wound up, and therefore the affected instrument could not be left to itself for an indefinite time. There are, however, many situations in which it might be desirable to have meteorologic indications when the instruments would not he accessible for very 12 REPORT—1867. long periods. I have therefore devised a new class of telegraphic meteorometers which shall be independent of clockwork, and may remain in any situation of diffi- cult access as long as the instrument endures. This principle is applicable to all in- struments which indicate by means of a revolving hand, and I have already devised its application to a Breguet’s metallic thermometer, an aneroid barometer, and an hygrometer, depending on the absorption of moisture by a thin membrane, It is also se to a bar-magnet in a fixed position, and to a variety of other indicators. The apparatus consists of two distinct instruments, connected only by an wires: the first I will call the questioner (A); the second, the responder (B). The questioner (A) is a rectangular box presenting externally a circular dial face, round which are engraved the degrees both of the Fahrenheit and Centigrade ther- mometric scales; the former ranging from 20° below zero F. to 220° above that point, and the latter from 0° to 110°C. It shows besides three binding screws for the purpose of connecting the telegraphic wires, and a handle which causes the rotation of the armature of a magnetomotor in the interior. This maenetomotor is similar in its construction to that employed in my alphabetic magnetic tele- graph ; a soft iron armature rotating before the four poles of the magnet occasions, when the circuit is completed, alternate currents of equal intensity. The box also contains a small electromagnet which acts by means of mechanism similar to that employed in the indicator of the aforesaid telegraph, and causes the revolution of the index of the dial. The responder (B) is a cylindrical brass box which presents on its upper surface a similar dial with its thermometric scales and index; at its base three binding screws, corresponding to those of the questioner, are fixed for connecting the tele- graphic wires, and it is furnished with a brass cover that it may be hermetically sealed when lowered in the sea or buried in the ground. Its interior contains three essentially distinct parts :—1. The metallic thermometer, which consists of a spiral ribbon of two dissimilar metals, with its hand capable of ranging through the ex- tent of the circular thermometric scale of the dial. 2. A small electromagnet, acting by means of a propelment on a disk, making as many stops in one rotation as there are half degrees on the scale. 3. An axis, to which is fixed a delicate spiral spring which causes a pin to bear lightly against the hand of the thermometer, however it may vary in position. The two instruments are connected by means of two telegraphic wires. The first proceeds from an earth-plate at the near station, passes through the coil of the electromotor in A, joins the coil of the small electromagnet in B, and then pro- - ceeds to another earth-plate at the distant station. The second wire is perma- nently connected with the first between the earth-plate and the coil of the mag- netomotor, and includes that of the electromagnet in B, and its opposite end is brought close to the remote end of the first wire. The mechanism is so disposed that when the first wire is disconnected from its earth terminal it is brought into circuit with the second wire. By this arrangement, when the dial of A is brought to 0° and the handle turned, at the first moment the circuit is completed through the first wire, containing the coil of the electromagnet in B, and the return earth. A disk is thereby caused to revolve in an opposite direction to the graduation of the scale, until a pin, originally starting from 0°, comes into contact with the pin pressing against the thermometer hand, and thereby completes the circuit of the second wire and breaks the connexion with the earth-plate. At first only the electromagnet in B is acted upon, but when the currents are diyerted into the new channel, both the electromagnets act simultaneously. In consequence of the action of the electromagnet. in A the hand of its dial passes over a space corresponding with that between 0° and that indicated by the thermometer, and the hand of the dial ultimately accords with that of the distant thermometer. When the hand of the dial on A comes to rest, the disk in B arrives at 0°, and a catch permits the spiral spring to unwind itself, and its pin flies to and presses against the thermometer hand. It must be observed that instruments thus constructed are not capable of mark- ing every possible gradation; but they may be made to indicate divisions of the scale of any required minuteness. It is advisable to limit the extent of the scale when more minute divisions are deemed necessary, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 The only circumstance that can affect the accuracy of the indications of the in- strument is this. The pin pressing against the thermometric index displaces it a little, and causes it to assume a position about a degree in advance; but as this pressure is a constant one, the inconvenience is remedied by a slight corresponding shifting of the scale. Exectricity, MAGNeTIsM. On the Electric Induction of Mr. Hooper’s Insulated Wires, compared with Gutta-Percha Insulated Wires, for Telegraphic Cables. By Witttam Hooper. The author referred to the relation existing between the different properties of insulated wires arising from induction. He showed by an extensive series of ex- periments that an intimate connexion exists between the effects of electrification and electrostatic induction, and that the penetration of electricity into the substance of an insulator, when measured by the residual discharge, is a function of the electro- static capacity, and not simply of resistance. He has also shown that the effects of electrification are increased nearly in the same proportion as the interior induc- tive action is reduced. On a new form of Dynamo-Magnetic Machine. By Wriu1am Lapp, F.R.A.S, Siemens and Wheatstone have shown that the residual magnetism left in soft iron, after being under the influence of a battery, or permanent steel magnets, can be augmented from the currents generated by itself, by merely applying dynamic force to the revolving armature containing a coil of copper wire, the terminals of which are connected with the wire surrounding the electromagnet, but although great effects were produced zn the electromagnet, the current itself could only be made available by its partial or total disruption—in the former case diminishing the power of the electromagnet, and in the latter reducing it to its normal condition. The author has constructed a machine, in which the power of the electromagnet is kept up, whilst a separate current, to be applied to any useful purpose, can be drawn off by means of an independent arrangement. The machine consists chiefly of two plates of iron; to both ends of each plate is fixed a portion of a hollow cylinder ; these plates are then placed a certain distance apart, and insulated from each other, in such a manner that the cylindrical pieces form two hollow circular passages ; into these spaces two Siemens’s armatures are placed. The plates are surrounded by coils of stout copper wire connected together, the two terminals being brought into connexion with the commutator of the smaller armature, so that each change of polarity in the armature will augment the power of the electromagnet. When the machine is first made, it is only requisite to pass a current from a small voltaic cell for an instant, to give the iron a polarity, it will then retain a sufficient amount of magnetism for all future work. If the armature in connexion with the electromagnet is made to rotate, there will be a very feeble current generated in it; this, passing round the electromagnet, will increase its power with every additional impulse. It will thus be seen that the only limit to the power of the machine is the rapidity with which the arma- ture is made to rotate, which is entirely dependent on the amount of dynamic force employed; but the great improvement in this machine is the introduction of the second armature, which, although it takes off very powerful currents generated in its wire by the increased magnetism, does not at all interfere with the primary current of the electromagnet. The machine exhibited in the Paris Exhibition measures about 24 in. in length, 12 in. in width, and stands 7 in. high, which, notwithstanding its imperfect proportions, is capable of keeping 56 in. of platinum wire, ‘01 in. diameter, incandescent, when a small voltameter was placed in circuit would give off 250 cubic centimetres of gas per minute; and in connexion with an 1867. 14. REPORT electric regulator would yield alight equal to about 35 Grove’s or Bunsen’s elements, the driving-power expended being less than one horse. : 1 have also constructed another form of machine, on the same principle as that described above, but instead of having two independent armatures running in sepa- rate grooves, they are fixed end to end, so as to appear like one continuous arma- ture, but so placed with reference to each other that their magnetic axes shall be at right angles. By this arrangement there is only one opening required for the armature, enabling full advantage to be taken of the horseshoe form of electro- magnet. The shoes of the electromagnet and armatures are so proportioned to each other that there is an actual break in the magnetic circuit with reference to each armature alternately, but by their disposition at right angles there never is an actual break in the complete magnetic circuit ; simply a shifting occurs of the prin- cipal portion of the magnetic force from one armature to the other at the precise moment required to produce the best effect. The mechanical advantages to be ob- tained by this disposition of parts must be at once obvious, as one pair of bearings and a set of driving gear are dispensed with, and from the fixing of the two arma- tures together the currents are made to flow perfectly isochronous with each other. It may be found advantageous to vary the angle of position of the armatures with reference to each other, according to the speed at which they are driyen, so that the current given off by the exciting armature may at the precise moment exert its full effect upon the electromagnet, and thus produce the best effect in the second ar- mature. On a Magneto-Electric Machine. By Wrtt1am Lapp, F.R.AS. On the Phenomena which occur when Magnetized Steel is dissolved in Acids. By Dr. T. L. Putpsoy,. Notice of a proposal to illuminate Beacons and Buoys by Electricity, conveyed through Submarine Wires connected with the Shore. By 'T, Srpvenson, FRSE., MICE. With a description of the Induction-Spark Apparatus used for this purpose in the first experiments made for the Northern Lights Board, also the Electrical Apparatus recently designed for the Northern Laghts, by C. W. Stemeys, P.22.S. The great expense of such lighthouses as the Eddystone and Bellrock has rendered it necessary for the sailor to be contented in many places of danger with a simple bea- con or floating buoy, which, being inyisible at night, ceases to be useful at the very time of all others when a guide is most needed, Various expedients for light- ing these sea-marks, such as camphine lamps and phosphorescent oils capable of emitting a dull light in the dark, haye been proposed. In January 1854 I pro- es in Trans. Roy. Scot, Soc. Arts to lay gas-pipes between the shore and the eacon and “ submarine electric wires for illuminating a lantern placed in a beacon or buoy.” As stated in that paper, however, “I dismissed such schemes from my mind ; for independently of many other difficulties attending them, they are open to one ground of objection, which, at least in the present state of our knowledge, seems insurmountable. This is based on what may be called an axiom in light- house engineering, viz. that it is better to exhibit no light at all than one which is liable to be often extinguished.” Under these circumstances I at that time suggested an entirely different method of illuminating beacons, namely, a beam of parallel rays of light projected from the shore upon optical agents placed upon the beacon at sea, and capable of spreading the rays over any required angle in azimuth, so as to produce a mock or apparent light, This method has been in use at Stornoway Loch without any accident or failure for the last fifteen years. There are, however, certain places where this apparent or mock light is not very suitable, cwing to the primary light and reflected light being nearly in line. This consideration, coupled with the im- provements which have subsequently taken place in electrical appliances, led me, in 1865, ina report to the Northern Lights Board on the magneto-electzic light, to TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 reyert to my former proposal of leading electricity through wires for the illumina- tion of beacons and buoys at sea. : For such a purpose neither Holmes’ nor Wilde’s light could be employed, as they are produced by the rapid consumptien of carbons, and require the employment of lamp machinery, which, though to a large extent automatic, involves the constant presence of a lightkeeper in the lantern. {f therefore resolyed on employing the simple electric spark, either by itself or in yacuum tubes. After consulting with my friend Professor Swan, who suggested the combination of the Leyden jar with the induction-coil, experiments were made, and in an interim communication to the Scot, Soc. Arts on 15th January 1866, I was able to report that, “ by means of four Bunsen cells, an induction-coil, and a Leyden jar, 1 had succeeded with a simple unaided spark placed in the focus of lighthouse apparatus, to produce an effect at the distance of about half a mile, which was in all respects satisfactory.” The light might have been seen much further but for the intervention of obstructions to the view. The Commissioners of Northern Lights, on the recommendation of Messrs. Ste- venson, in their report of 1st February 1866, procured, with the sanction of the Board of Trade, a submarine cable from Messrs. Siemens of London, but as the cable was not suitable for this kind of apparatus, the current could not be passed under the water. Messrs. Stevenson then reported to the Board that, as Mr, Siemens had thought of a different form of apparatus, he should be employed to furnish one. This beautiful arrangement is now exhibited, and Mr. Siemens has kindly sent me a description of its different parts, which I shall afterwards read. While Mr. Siemens was engaged with this instrument, I received many impor- tant suggestions as to the induction-spark apparatus. Mr. Brebner, C.E., sug- gested that the induction-coil should be placed on the beacon, while the break and ‘batteries should be on the shore, Dr, 8, Wright recommended that, instead of one large coil, several coils of small intensity should be used; and Mr. Hart, who con- ducted all the experiments, and to whose untiring zeal is mainly due whatever amount of efficiency the induction-spark apparatus may possess, added a new con- tact breaker with two magnets and a double break. By means of these improvements the light was kept in action during a week at the expense of about 2 shillings for 16 hours, with a current passing through a wire 860 feet long. The light so produced, as viewed from the sea and elsewhere, was perfectly sufficient for the purpose required. It may be added, that of all the metals which I have tried a wire of bismuth produced the brichtest spark. The effect might, perhaps, be also increased without using additional cells, if the same currents sould be again utilized so as to generate a second spark in the focus. There can be no doubt that a sufficient light can be obtained either from the induction-spark or from the arrangement of Mr. Siemens, to be afterwards described. Beacon lights, which are needed for pointing out local dangers, do not, of course, require to be of the great power which is needed in lighthouses for illuminating the ocean, In determining which of the two kinds of apparatus should be pre- ferred, the point turns upon which is likely to be the most certain in its exhibition. Each method has its own peculiar adyantages and disadvantages. In the induc- tion-spark apparatus the contact breaker is on the shore and under control, but, on the other hand, the coils may perhaps not lastlong. In Mr. Siemens’s apparatus the products of combustion may perhaps affect the efficiency of the optical apparatus, and the moving parts are at sea and beyond control. “Nothing but a continuous trial for some length of time can determine which is the preferable. It is to be hoped that one or other may prove suitable, for the conveyance of electricity from the shore to outlying rocks promises to form a new and most important’ era in maritime illumination, The time, indeed, may not be far distant when such a nayigation as the entrance to Liverpool will be as clearly detined at night as in the daytime, by the illumination of its heacons and buoys by electricity. Mr. Siemens’s apparatus was worked by twenty cells, while the induction-spark had only six, but when fully equipped, it will be worked by eighteen cells. Each apparatus was shown in the focus of a Holophote, the former producing the most powerful flash, 16 REPORT—1867. Mr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., of London, having been asked by Messrs. Stevenson for suggestions as to the best means to be adopted for carrying out Mr. T. Stevenson’s proposal for producing a flashing light upon a beacon, by means of a land battery connected to the beacon through a submarine cable, embodied his views in a letter addressed by him to Messrs. Stevenson on the 1st October 1866. After reviewing the objections to other methods, he recommended the application of the extra- current together with a self-feeding mercury contact, as the only practical method in which the flash is not destroyed by electric charge of the connecting cable. Mr. Siemens having been authorized iby the Northern Light Commissioners to con- struct an apparatus in accordance with his views, has submitted the same to a suc- cessful trial. The apparatus upon the beacon or buoy consists of a heavy electromagnet, the coils of which are permanently connected with the conducting wire of the cable on the one hand, and with a contact lever on the other hand, which contact lever is actuated by the armature of the electromagnet in the manner of a nefts hammer. The circuit with the battery (consisting of from ten to twenty Bunsen’s elements) on land is completed through the sea. When the current has had time to excite the electromagnet sufficiently for it to attract its heavy armature, the motion of the latter breaks the circuit, which breakage is accompanied with a spark proportionate to the accumulated magnetism, and, in some measure also to the capacity of the cable, which in this apparatus does not destroy, but rather assists the effect. The luminous effect is increased by a slight combustion of mercury, which latter is con- tinually renewed by a circulating pump worked by the armature, by which ar- rangement a good and permanent contact is ensured. On a Self-acting Electrostatic Accumulator. By Sir W. Tromson, LL.D., PRS. The apparatus described in a recent communication to the Royal Society, en- titled ‘On a Self-acting Apparatus for multiplying and maintaining Electric Charges, with applications to illustrate the Voltaic Theory,” was exhibited in action. Both Leyden jars being at first discharged as completely as could be done by keeping their outer and inner coatings connected for several days, they became charged, one positively and the other negatively, through the action of the drops of water, to such a degree, in the course of a few minutes, as to cause the jets of water to scatter over the lips of the receivers. The jars were afterwards repeatedly dis- charged, and the rapid reaccumulation of charges was shown to the Meeting by the scattering of the jets, by electroscopic tests, and by sparks drawn from the in- sulated conductors. On a Series of Electrometers for Comparable Measurements through Great Range. By Sir W. Tuomson, LL.D., PRS. These instruments, which were referred to in Mr. Jenkin’s Report of the Stand- ards of Electrical Units Committee, were exhibited to the Section, and some of them shown in action. A description of them, with drawings, will appear in an appendix to that Report. On a Uniform-Electric-Current Accumulator. By Sir W. Tuomson, LL.D., FBS. Conceive a closed circuit, CTABC, according to the following description :—One portion of it, TA, tangential to a circular disk of conducting material and somewhat longer than the radius; the continuation, AB, at right angles to this in the plane of the wheel, of a length equal to the radius; and the completion of the circuit by a fork, BO, extending to an axle bearing the wheel. If all of the wheel were cut away except a portion, CT, from the axle to the point of contact, at the cir- cumference, the circuit would form a simple rectangle, CTAB, except the bifurea- tion of the side BC. Let a fixed magnet be placed so as to give lines of force perpendicular to the wheel, in the parts of it between C the centre and T the point of the circumference touched by the fixed conductor; and let power be applied to TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 cause the wheel to rotate in the direction towards A. According to Faraday’s well-known discovery, a current is induced in the circuit in such a direction that the mutual electromagnetic action between it and the fixed magnet resists the notion of the wheel. Now the mutual electromagnetic force between the por- tions AB and CT of the circuit is repulsive, according to the well-known elementary law of Ampére, and’ therefore resists the actual motion of the wheel; hence if the magnet be removed there will still be electromagnetic induction tending to maintain the current. Let us suppose the velocity of the wheel to have been at first no greater than that practically attained in ordinary experiments with Barlow’s electromagnetic disk. As the magnet is gradually withdrawn let the velocity be gradually increased, so as to keep the strength of the current constant, and, when the magnet is quite away, to maintain the current solely by electromagnetic in- duction between the fixed and moveable portions of the circuit. If, when the magnet is away, the wheel be forced to rotate faster than the limiting velocity of our previous supposition, the current will be augmented according to the law of compound interest, and would go on thus increasing without limit were it not that the resistance of the circuit would become greater in virtue of the elevation of temperature produced by the current. The velocity of rotation, which gives by induction an electromotive force exactly to that required to maintain the current, is clearly independent of the strength of the current. The mathematical deter- mination of it becomes complicated by the necessity of taking into account the diffusion of the current through portions of the disk not in the straight line between C and T; but it is very simple and easy if we prevent this diffusion by cutting the wheel into an infinite number of infinitely thin spokes, a great number of which are to be simultaneously in contact with the fixed conductor at T. The linear velocity of the circumference of the wheel in the limiting case bears to the velocity which measures, in absolute measure, the resistance of the circuit, a ratio (deter- minable by the solution of the mathematical problem) which depends on the pro- portions of the rectangle CTAB, and is independent of its absolute dimensions. Lastly, suppose the wheel to be kept rotating at any constant velocity, whether above or below the velocity determined by the preceding considerations ; and sup- pose the current to be temporarily excited in any way, for instance, by bringing a magnet into the neighbourhood and then withdrawing it; the strength of this current will diminish towards zero or will increase towards infinity, according as the velo- city is below or above the critical velocity. The diminution or augmentation would follow the compound interest law if the resistance in the circuit remained constant. The conclusion presents us with this wonderful result: that if we commence with absolutely no electric current, and give the wheel any velocity of rotation exceeding the critical velocity, the electric equilibrium is unstable: an infinitesimal current in either direction would augment until by heating the cir- cuit, the electric resistance becomes increased to such an extent, that the electro- motive force of induction just suffices to keep the current constant. It will be difficult, perhaps impossible, to realize this result in practice, because of the great velocity required, and the difficulty of maintaining good frictional con- tact at the circumference, without enormous friction, and cousequently frictional generation of heat. The electromagnetic augmentation and maintenance of a current discovered by Siemens, and put in practice by him, with the aid of soft iron, and proved by Maxwell to be theoretically possible without soft iron, suggested the subject of this communication to the author, and led him to endeavour to arrive at a similar result with only a single circuit, and no making and breaking of contacts; and it is only these characteristics that constitute the peculiarity of the arrangement which he now describes. ; On Volta-Convection by Flame. By Sir W. Tuomson, LL.D., F.RB.S. In Nichols’ Cyclopedia (2nd edition), article “ Electricity, Atmospheric,” and in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, May 1860 (Lecture on Atmospheric Elec- tricity), the author had pointed out that the effect of the flame in an insulated lamp, is to reduce the lamp and other conducting material connected with it to the 1867. 2 18 REPORT—1867. same potential as that of the air in the neighbourhood of the flame; and that the effect of a fine jet of water from an insulated vessel, is to bring the vessel and other conducting material connected with it to the same potential as that of the air, at the point where the jet breaks into drops. In a recent communication to the Royal Society “On a Self-acting Apparatus for multiplying and maintaining Electric Charges, with applications to illustrate the Voltaic Theory,” an experi- ment was described in which a water-dropping apparatus was employed to prove the difference of potential in the air, in the neighbourhood of bright metallic sur- faces of zinc and copper, metallically connected with one another, which is to be expected from Volta’s discovery of contact electricity. In the present communi- cation a similar experiment was described, in which the flame of a spirit lamp was used instead of a jet of water breaking into drops. A spirit lamp is placed on an insulated stand connected with a very delicate electrometer. Copper and zine cylinders, in metallic connexion with the metal case of the electrometer, are alternately held vertically in such a position that the flame burns nearly in the centre of the cylinder, which is open at both ends. If the electrometer reading, with the copper cylinder surrounding the flame, is called zero, the reading observed with the zinc cylinder surrounding the flame indicates positive electrification of the insulated stand bearing the lamp. it is to be remarked that the different methods here followed eliminate the ambiguity involved in what is meant by the potential of a conducting system composed partly of flame (alcohol) and partly of metal. In a merely illustrative experiment, which the author has already made, the amount of difference made by substituting the zinc cylinder for the copper cylinder round the flame, was rather more than half the difference of potential maintained by a single cell of Daniell’s. Thus, when the sensibility of the quadrant divided-ring electrometer * was such that a single cell of Daniell’s gave a deflection of 79 scale-divisions, the difference of the reading, when the zinc cylinder was substituted for the copper cylinder round the insulated lamp, was 39 scale-divisions. From other experiments on contact electricity made seven years ago by the author, and agreeing with results which have been published by Hankel, it appears that the difference of potentials in the. air, in the neighbourhood of bright metallic surfaces of zinc and copper in metallic connexion with one another, is*about three-quarters of that of a single cell of Daniell’s. It is quite certain that the difference produced in the metal connected with the insulated lamp, would be exactly equal to the true contact difference of the metals, if the interior surfaces of the metal cylinders were perfectly metallic (free from oxidation or any other tarnishing, such as by sulphur, iodine, or any other body) ; provided the distance of the inner surface of the cylinder from the flame is everywhere sufficient to prevent conduction by heated air between them, and pro- vided the length of the cylinder is infinite (or, practically, anything more than three or four times its diameter). The author hopes before long to be able to publish a complete account of his old experiments on contact electricity, of which a slight notice appeared in the Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. On Electric Machines founded on Induction and Convection. By Sir W. Tuomson, LL.D., PRS. To facilitate the application of an instrument for recording the signals of the Atlantic cable, recently patented by Sir W. Thomson, a small electric machine running easily enough to be driven by the wheelwork of an ordinary Morse instru- ment was desired; and he therefore desioned a combination of the electrophorus principle, with the system of reciprocal induction described by him in a recent communication to the Royal Society (Proceedings, June 1867), which may he briefly described as follows :— A wheel of vulcanite with a large number of pieces of metal (called carriers, for brevity) attached to its rim, is kept rotating rapidly round a fixed axis. The car- riers are very lightly touched at opposite ends of a diameter by two fixed tangent springs. One of these springs (the earth-spring) is connected with the earth, and * See Proceedings of Royal Society, June 20, 1867. TE ro nen ammatons TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 the other (the receiyer-spring) with an insulated piece of metal called the receiver, which is analogous to the ‘‘prime conductor” of an ordinary electric machine. The point of contact of the earth-spring with the carriers is exposed to the in- fluence of an electrified body (generally an insulated piece of metal) called the in- ductor. When this is negatively electrified, each carrier comes away from contact with the earth-spring, carrying positive electricity, which it gives up to the re- ceiver-spring. The receiver and inductor are each hollowed out to a proper shape, and are properly placed to surround, each as nearly as may be, the point of contact of the corresponding spring. The inductor, for the good working of the machine, should be kept electrified to a constant potential. This is effected by an adjunct called the replenisher, which may be applied to the main wheel, but which, for a large instrument, ought to be worked by a much smaller carrier-wheel, attached either to the same or to another turning shaft. The replenisher consists chiefly of two properly shaped pieces of metal called inductors, which are fixed in the neighbourhood of a carrier-wheel, such as that described above, and four fixed springs touching the carriers at the ends of two diameters. Two of these springs (called receiver-springs) are connected respectively with the inductors; and the other two (called connecting springs) are insulated and connected with one another. They are so situated that they are touched by the carriers on emerging from the inductors, and shortly after the contacts with the receiver-springs. If any difference of potential between the inductors is given to begin with, the action of the carriers, as is easily seen, increases it according to the compound interest law as long as the insulation is perfect. Practically, in a few seconds after the machine is started running, bright flashes and sparks begin to fly about in various parts of the apparatus, even although the inductors and con- nectors have been kept for days as carefully discharged as possible. The only in- | strument yet made is a very small one (with carrier-wheel two inches in diameter) constructed for the Atlantic Telegraph application; but its action has been so startlingly successful that great effects may be expected from larger machines on the same plan. When this instrument is used to replenish the charge of the inductor in the constant electric machine, described above, one of its inductors is connected with the earth and the other with the inductor to be replenished. When accurate constancy is desired, a gauge-electroscope is applied to break and make contact between the connector springs of the replenisher when the potential to be main- tained rises above or falls below a certain limit. Several useful'applications of the replenisher for scientific observation were shown; among others, to keep up the charge in the Leyden jar for the diyided-ring mirror- electrometer, especially when this instrument is used for recording atmospheric electricity. A small replenisher, attached to the instrument within the jar, is worked by a little milled head on the outside, a few turns of which suflice to re- plenish the loss of twenty-four hours. MeterorotLoey. Notice respecting a Haystack struck by Lightning. By Sir Davip Brewster, A.H., LL.D., PRS. The author gave an account of the production of a substance found at the bottom of a circular passage made by a lightning stroke in a stack of hay at Dun in For- farshire in 1827. ‘The specimen, which was produced from the silex in the hay, had a greenish tinge, and contained portions of burnt hay. It has been deposited in the Museum of St. Andrews. Observations of the Rainfall at Arbroath. By Atexanprer Brown. 2% 90 REPORT—1867. A Comparison of the Kew and Lisbon Magnetic Curves during the Disturbance of February 20-25, 1866. By Senhor Caretto, Communicated by Dr. Batrour Srewart, F.R.S. During the 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th, and 25th of February 1866, large mag- netic disturbances were recorded by the magnetographs at the Lisbon Observatory. The present communication, relative to these disturbances, offers some interest on account of the apparent variability of the forces which are in action during the same disturbance, and also the apparently variable relations between these forces at Lisbon and the same forces at Kew. In a former comparison certain laws were deduced, and it was interesting to know if they were confirmed. On the Results of Observations of Atmospheric Electricity at Kew Observatory and at Windsor, Nova Scotia. By Dr. J. D. Evererr. The Kew observations included in this paper extended from June 1862 to May 1864 inclusive, and were taken with Sir William Thomson’s self-recording appa- ratus ; specimens of the photographic curves thus taken being exhibited at the Meeting. The Windsor observations taken by Dr. Everett with apparatus of a different kind, also invented by Sir William Thomson, but not self-recording, ex- tended from October 1862 to August 1864, Monthly averages which had been taken showed that at Kew there had in every month been two maxima in the day, one of them between eight and ten a.m., and the other, which was more conside- rable, between eight and ten p.m. At Windsor, on the contrary, the electricity between eight and ten p.m. had in every month been weaker than either between eight and ten a.m. or between two and three p.M. The annual curve for Kew had its principal maximum in November, and another in February or March. At Windsor the principal maximum was in February or March, and the minima in June and November. The annual curves for the two places agreed pretty well from January to October, but were curved in opposite directions from October to January. On the Meteor Shower of August 1867. By Grorcn Forsss. Communicated by Professor Swan, F.2.S.E. The author gave the results of certain observations made by him at St. Andrews on the meteor shower of August 1867. The nights following the 9th, 10th, and 11th of the month were very cloudy, and no observations could be made. Most of the observations were made on the evening of the 10th and morning of the 11th. But even on this night a faint haze for the most part covered the sky. The meteors were almost all of the same size as stars of the 5rd or 4th magnitude. They were, with few exceptions, white. They lasted in general only about half a second. They were very Boe in their flight. One could hardly distinguish any nucleus. The train was visible, after its formation, only for a very small fraction of a second ; and breaks in their tracks of about 1° were frequently noticed. The lengths of their paths extended from 3° to 15°, though in some cases they were 30° in length. Attention was chiefly directed to discovering the points of radiation, and to noting the times of appearance. The Radiant-Points—It was soon seen that there were two distinct radiant- points; the one in the region of Casseiopeia, the other about Andromeda. By drawing on the spot the courses of the meteors among the stars, the points of radia- tion were marked on a map, and were found to lie as follows:—That in Casseio- peia had for its right ascension 2" 43™, and for its north polar distance 29° 30’. The other was in the constellation Pisces, and its position was R.A.=0" 46™, NEED = 67 The numbers of Shooting-stars.—The numbers of those which came from the Casseiopeian and Piscian groups, and also of the unconformable meteors, were all separated, and are shown in the following Table. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 : From Cas- From Uncon- Total ey OF Spycanan a seiopeia. Pisces. formable. numbers. h m hm From 10 30 to 10 45 4 0 4 speelOi45. 510s 0 5 0 5 peulsO) jue 4o 5 iti 6 gp wd45, ,, 22,0 5D at 1 6 pe 220), AZ 1S 3 1 iu 5 : » 12165 ,, 12 30 5 0 5 » 1230 ,, 12 45 6 Sa 0 6 re AD wae O 5 2 0 if a EAS ea Llb 5 2 (0) 7 re LE Soe re Bo! 14 6 0 20 ite Le). ae LAD 6 5 0 11 Ae AAD 7 2 O 4 4 if 9 Paes LOaj7- 2:30 it iL 0 2 » 2830, 245 2 0 2 4 PRE hance cay dus. S6: ea 70 21 6 97 The position of the observer was not such as to see at all well those coming from Pisces till 12" 45™. The night of August 11 and the morning of August 12 were cloudy, but the positions and directions of flight of about a dozen shooting-stars were determined, from which it appeared that the radiant-point was in Casseiopeia, but that it was not so distinctly marked as on the previous night, and seemed to lie nearer to y Casseiopeize *. On the Gales and Hurricanes of the Indian Ocean South of the Equator. By Cuartes Metprum, W.A. The author stated that by means of the log-books of vessels visiting the harbour of Port Louis, the Meteorological Society of Mauritius, since its formation in 1851, had been collecting meteorological statistics of the Indian Ocean in the form of a journal showing the state of the winds, weather, and sea, on every day. The total number of days’ observations tabulated in chronological order down to the 31st of December, 1865, is 170,000, and in some years the daily average is from 70 to 80 observations of twenty-four hours each. Since 1853 a considerable number of Synoptic Charts (up- wards of 500) have been constructed, and it is proposed,to publish a series of such charts, showing the state of the winds and weather over the Indian Ocean at noon on each day for a period of one year. In addition to these tabulated observations, a mass of information has been collected regarding the gales which have occurred in the Indian Ocean, many of which have been described in the Society’s Transac- tions. As Secretary to the Society, the author had opportunities of studying these gales, and being now in this country he begged permission to communicate some of the results of his investigations. The gales and hurricanes of the Indian Ocean South of the Equator may be thus classified :—1st, trade-wind gales, in which the wind veers little; 2nd, the extra- tropical gales, between the parallels of 30° and 45° S., in which the wind generally eee a shifts ; and 3rd, the tropical hurricanes, in which the wind always veers or shifts. 1. The trade-wind gales occur in all seasons, but chiefly in the winter months of June, July, and August, when the 8. W. monsoon prevails north of the equator, and the S.K. trade-wind acquires additional strength from the demand made upon it to supply the monsoon, the two winds being apparently one system under the * A change in the position of thé radiant point of the August shower on different nights has long been suspected. See Professor Twining’s remarks in the American Journal of Science, 2nd series. vol. xxxii. p. 444, and vol. xxxvi. p. 305. It is to be regretted that the cloudy state of the weather at St. Andrews prevented the settlement of this question ; but probably some other observer has been more fortunate. me REPORT—1867. influence of the earth’s rotation and the high temperature which prevails in the northern hemisphere. At Mauritius these gales are characterised by a barometric pressure of 30°200 to 30-400 inches. The wind sets in at South to S.S.E., and seldom veers more than a point or two, the barometer at times oscillating during the height of the gale, which is sometimes attended with passing showers, but never with heayy rain, thunder, or lightning. Generally the gale commences in about 30° S., and advances towards the equator, like an extensive wave or billow, the barometer rising at each successive locality some time before the wind acquires much force. It is preceded by a heavy sea, which occasionally proves dangerous near the equator. It lasts from one to ten days, and blows in fitful gusts, which at Mauritius have usually a pressure of 1 to 10 lbs. onthe square foot, and at times of 10 to 20lbs. Owing to the frequency of these gales the mean daily maximum force of the wind at Mauritius is greater in winter than in summer. 2. The extra-tropical gales, between the parallels of 530° and 45° S., also occur in all seasons, but are most violent from May to August inclusive. These gales are generally characterised by the presence of two currents of air, the one from the southward, and the other from the northward, the two currents being variously situated with respect to each other. At times they exist side by side, as surface-winds, the one from the 8.W., and the other from the N.K., each occupy- ing a belt of 5° to 30° in longitude, stretching from the parallel of 30° S. as far south as the observations extend, viz.45°. Inthe narrow space between the two winds, light airs, calms, and a high cross sea, with heavy rain, thunder, and lightning, eene- rally prevail, and there the barometer is lowest. The belt of southerly winds lies to the west of the belt of northerly winds, and the two travel laterally to the east- ward, preserving their relative positions often for several days. The gale of the 13th to the 20th of January, 1861, as would be seen by inspecting a number of charts illustrative of it, was a good example, and many others might be adduced. The barometer stands higher, and the thermometer lower, in the southerly than in the northerly wind. On the western side of the former the barometer has been knowh to stand as high as 30°650 inches, while in the trough, or space between the two winds, it stood at 29:000 inches. Sometimes there are several alternate belts of southerly and northerly winds, as in gales which took place on the 27th and 28th of July, 1863. _In place of forming parallel belts, however, the two winds are often inclined, and sometimes directly opposed, to each other. Occasionally, too, only one of them appears, the other, if it exists at all, being either above the surface-wind, or away in the South Atlantic, to which the observations do not extend. This was thecase from the 14th to the 20th of May, 1865, when a violent north-wester occurred in the space between the meridian of Greenwich and 52° E., and the parallels of 30° and 45° 8. But whatever may be the positions of the two currents of air, the gales inva- riably travel to the eastward, and many of them have been traced from the meri- dian of Greenwich to 65° E. Where they originate, and how far they travel, has not been determined. It does not appear that they are revolving gales, although whirlwinds may occasionally occur between the inner edges of the two winds; for in no instance has the wind been traced round an axis, or central area, as in the case of the tropical hurricanes. They take place with so much uniformity and regularity that their progress may be traced from day to day and hour to hour, and the man- ner of the veering or shifting of the wind, when there are two currents, be known beforehand, the shift being (often suddenly) from N.E. to S.W., or from N.W.rd to S.W.rd, and the veering from N.E. to North, N.W., West, &c., or with the sun. They last from one to seven days, and travel at the rate of four to twenty miles an hour. The wind usually sets in at N.E.rd and ends at 8.W.rd, or 8.E.rd. After the shift, or when the wind comes to the south of west, the barometer rises, and ina few hours the wind gradually abates. They succeed one another at short in- tervals and with considerable regularity, but vary in force. Hyen the ordinary changes of wind and weather in that part of the ocean seem to be more or less dependent upon the antagonistic currents of air to which reference has been made. 3. Many persons were at first little disposed to accept the ‘Law of Storms’ as laid down by Redfield, Reid, Thom, and Piddington, and there were points on which these writers themselves were not agreed. Jyven at the present day there TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23 _are shipmasters and others who put little faith in the theory of revolving storms. But a careful investigation of all the great storms which haye occurred in the In- dian Ocean, south of the equator, during the last eighteen years, has amply con- firmed the truth of the theory in the main, On the other hand, some corrections and modifications are required. These rotatory storms, which are confined to the months of November to May in- clusive, originate between the parallels of 6° to 14° 8., and travel to the W.S.W., and afterwards, but not always, to the southward and S.H.; the wind invariably moving round a central space (which is usually characterised by a calm) from left to right, or with the hands of a watch ; while the storm, which has a diameter of 1 to 1500 miles, moves onwards at the rate of 1 to 20 miles, but more frequently 4 to 7 miles an hour, for a period varying from a few hours to ten days, attended with torrents of rain, and in its northern half often with lightning. - It would appear that when they were first made a subject of investigation, attention was chiefly directed to what took place within the storm, all the infor- mation regarding it having been derived from afew vessels which had been involved init; while little notice was taken of the state of the prevailing winds at a distance, or of the possible connexion between them and the origin and progress of the storm. Hence some writers appear to have regarded them as detached disks of air, put and sustained in motion by electricity, magnetism, earthquakes, or some other mysterious agency. One of the first results of the extended system of observation adopted at Mauritius was to show, what had been surmised by Dr. Thom, that these revolving storms are invariably generated between the N.W. monsoon and the S.E. trade-wind, and that to all appearance their rise and progress are intimately connected with those two opposing winds. The fact that they occur only during the monsoon months in itself favours the supposition of a connexion between the two phenomena. Observation has shown that the monsoon extends farther south on the western than on the eastern side of the Ocean, its southern limits often stretching obliquely from Tamataye, in Madagascar, on the west, to Sumatra on the east. To the south of the N.W. monsoon the 8.E. trade-wind prevails. Between the two winds there is a space of calms, or light variables. During hot sultry weather evaporation must take place rapidly, especially in the trade-wind region. The vapour is carried by the two winds towards the space which separates them, and is accumulated there until the air becomes saturated. There may at the same time be an ascend- ing column of air and vapour, which would further promote condensation. Heavy rain sets in, the barometer falls, and the two oppositely directed winds flow to- wards the locality of diminished pressure, bringing with them more vapour, which is also speedily converted into rain, the barometer falling lower. As the vapour is chiefly supplied by the 8.K. trade-wind, and its precipitation in the trade-wind region is followed by a decrease of barometric pressure there, the movement of the area of diminished pressure is towards the south, across the trade- wind region, the N.W. monsoon, and the N.E. trade-wind to the north of it, where the barometer is high, pressing to the southward to restore the equilibrium, and the monsoon, as it were, eating into the trade-wind as the aqueous precipitation proceeds. In this way the monsoon sometimes advances along its whole extent in longitude to the tropic of Capricorn, or even beyond it, until the trade-wind alto- gether disappears, or is foul only far to the south. When the vapour has been precipitated the trade-wind gradually returns, the monsoon receding before it to the northward, until the two winds again attain their normal positions. After a lapse of some time, during which another accumulation of vapour takes place, heayy rains again commence on the equatorial borders of the trade-wind, and the monsoon again advances to the southward. The two winds thus oscillate back- wards and forwards during the summer months, and it is on these occasions, when the monsoon is advancing to the southward, that the tropical revolving storms occur, the south-west and west sides of the storm being apparently fed by the trade-wind, and its north-east and east sides by the monsoon. Instances of the advancement of the monsoon to the southward, as from the 13th*to the 18th of February, 1860, the 16th to the 20th of January, 1861, the 1st to the 18th of February, 1861, and the 16th to the 24th of February, 1865, were given in a series of charts showing the directions of the wind at noon on each day. 24. REPORT—1867. Revolving storms, however, do not always take place on such occasions, although, as the monsoon approaches, the wind generally veers from E.S.E. to East, North, and N.W., with much rain, and generally thunder and lightning. Nor does the monsoon always advance along its whole extent in longitude, but more frequently penetrates into the trade-wind, and then only one rotatory storm is formed. When the monsoon and trade-wind are in collision over a considerable extent of longi- tude, or across the whole ocean, two or more revolving storms may be formed, which sometimes rage together for several days, as in the case of two violent hurricanes which occurred between the 8th and the 17th of February, 1861, and of several others between the 6th and 24th of April, 1866. On occasions like these as many as five rotatory storms have been known to exist at the same time along the inner borders of the two winds, but they did not all last long. In the earlier and latter parts of the season these storms often do not travel beyond the parallel of 16° S. They are most frequent in February and March, and during those months they generally advance to 25°8., and sometimes to 30° or 32°8. Their tracks are generally curves, the convexities of which are towards the west, and the apices anywhere between the parallels of 14° and 24° S., according to the season. It would appear that they traverse the trade-wind region in conse- quence of the progress of the aqueous precipitation being in that direction, and of the monsoon extending farther south on the western than on the eastern side of the ocean, as already stated. The direction of the wind in the body of the storm may be accounted for by the relative positions and directions of the monsoon and trade-wind, independently of the earth’s rotation on its axis, although that also may have an effect. With regard to the form of these storms, it varies, and is not so circular as is usually supposed. The wind generally blows spirally towards and ultimately around the centre, as is shown, not only by the collective evidence of vessels on all sides of the storm, but also by individual vessels occasionally running completely round the cen- tre, and being gradually drawn into it. An example of this occurred in May, 1863, when a vessel belonging to the port of Dundee, called the ‘ Karl of Dalhousie’ (Capt. Campbell), scudded, at the rate of 10 to 13 knots an hour, three times round the centre of a revolving storm, which at the time happened to be nearly stationary, till at length she reached the central calm. (Charts were exhibited showing the positions of the vessels and directions of the wind in this storm at noon on each day from the 7th to the 20th of the month.) As the trade-wind in front of a revolving storm often blows in strong gales with a falling barometer over many degrees in longitude, and the direction of the wind, especially at a distance, is far from being at right angles to the bearing of the centre, severe losses have occurred in consequence of vessels, having the wind at S.E., running to the west or N.W. with the view of crossing the storm’s path, under the impression that the centre bore N.E. In place of ‘bearing N.I., when the wind is from 8.E., the centre may bear North or N.N.W., and if the storm be travelling to the 8.W., as is often the case, a vessel steering westward or N.W. may be running to her destruction. During a hurricane in February, 1860, for example, a number of vessels left the roadsteads of Reunion with the wind at 8.E., and, running to the N.W., got into the heart of the storm. Several of them were wrecked on the.coast of Madagascar, others were never heard of, and of those that returned some had to be abandoned. The safest course seems to be to lie to and watch the barometer and wind till the bearing of the centre be known with some certainty. But perhaps the greatest losses of life and property in the Indian Ocean south of the Equator arise from homeward-bound vessels running into revolving storms to the southward of them, by taking supposed advantage of the N.E. winds of a storm, between the parallels of 10° and 16° S., and steering to the S.W. till they get in front of the storm. This is the more to be regretted, inasmuch as all such losses may be easily avoided bylying-to till the barometer rises and the weather improves, or by proceeding cautiously to the southward. Heavy losses occur annually from inat- tention to this simple precaution. In May, 1863, for instance, of twelve homeward- bound vessels which had got involved in a revolying storm by running to the southward with increasing winds, falling barometer, and threatening weather, two had to be abandoned at sea, and the others were so disabled that on arriving at TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25 Port Louis some of them were condemned, and some detained for two or three months undergoing repairs. The loss on that single occasion must have amounted to at least £60,000, and there is not the slightest doubt that it would have been avoided if the vessels had kept back for a day or two, and not run headlong into the storm. In the hurricane season, in those latitudes, with the wind anywhere between north and south, through the west, the weather squally and threatening, and the barometer falling, a vessel should not press too much to the southward. By attention to this rule the storm will be avoided. “Experience has proved that the existence of a gale belonging to any one of the three classes above described is indicated at Mauritius by the barometer, winds, and weather, even when the distance is very considerable. A trade-wind gale is preceded by a high and rising barometer, and by the setting in of the wind at southward, generally with a clear sky. On the other hand, the barometer at Mau- ritius always falls during a gale belonging to either of the other two classes. As a general rule, if the barometer fall steadily for three or four days to the extent of even one-tenth of an inch below its height for the season, it may be inferred either that a tropical gale exists on the equatorial borders of the trade-wind, or an extra- tropical one on its polar borders; and the direction and veering of the wind, and the character of the clouds, will determine in which of these directions the disturbance is taking place. At the setting in of a tropical gale away to the north- ward or N.E., the trade-wind at Mauritius is drawn towards the locality of dimi- nished pressure, and the barometer falls. When an extra-tropical gale takes place away to the S.W., towards the Cape of Good Hope, the trade-wind is deflected in that direction, so as to form a part of the N.E. winds of the east side of the gale, and in this case also the barometer falls at Mauritius, until the southerly winds of the west side of the gale have begun to exert their influence, as the gale ad- vances to the eastward. The existence of all the heavy gales which have taken lace in either direction, for some years back, has been known at Mauritius, and requently announced in the newspapers at the time. On Meteorological Observations at Sea. By F. W. Morrar. Communicated by Dr. Morrar. ; These observations were made for the purpose of ascertaining the quantity of ozone in different degrees of latitude and longitude at sea. The observations extend between lat. 53° N. and 39°8., and long. 83° E. and 25° W. The author had ob- served that as the wind veered with increasing readings of the barometer from south points of the compass through west to north, ozone disappeared, and continued absent while the wind was in points between north and east, and that it reap- peared as the wind veered with decreasing readings of the barometer to south points. The disappearance and reappearance of ozone with these conditions were so regular that the changes appeared to be the result of an invariable atmospheric law, and the author was induced to examine the law of the rotation of the wind, so clearly developed by Dove, and the results of the examination led him to believe that the polar current is the non-ozoniferous, or that of minimum of ozone, and that the equatorial, or sea-wind, is the ozoniferous, or that of the maximum of ozone. According to the rotation theory, the polar current in the northern he- misphere forms the N.E “trade,” and that in the southern hemisphere forms the 8.E. “trade,” while the equatorials in the northern and southern hemispheres form the upper or returning ‘‘ trades.” These returning “trades” come to the earth’s surface in both hemispheres about the 28th degree (the latitude varies with the season), north and south of the equator. The author stated that if his deductions are trustworthy, the N.E. and S.K. “trades” ought to be the minimum of ozone currents, and the returning “ trades” the maximum of ozone currents; that in the northern hemisphere forming the S.W. wind, and the other in the southern hemi- sphere a N.W. wind; and as these currents consisted of the atmospheres of equa- torial latitudes, the quantity of ozone ought to be at least as great at the equator as with the returning currents. The author showed by tabulated results that such was the case, and he expressed a belief that were it not for the modifying effects of the trade-winds, ozone would be a constant quantity at sea. roe REPORT—1867. On the Errors of Aneroids at various Pressures. By Barrour Srewart, LL.D., F.RS., Superintendent of Kew Observatory. At the request of the Meteorological Committee experiments have lately been made at Kew Observatory, with the view of ascertaining to what extent an aneroid may be considered as a reliable instrument when exposed to considerable changes of pressure, such as occur in mountain ascents. In order to make these experiments, a large receiver had attached to it a standard barometer, of which the accuracy had been previously ascertained. By means of an air-pump, the aneroids, when placed in this receiver, might be subjected to any pressure, the exact amount of pressure being noted by the standard barometer. An arrangement devised by Mr. Beckley, mechanical assistant at Kew, enabled the aneroids to be tapped while in the receiver, so as to imitate, as well as possible, the tapping of the hand, to which these instruments are usually subjected previous to their readings being taken. For the aneroids, to which I shall immediately refer, observations were made for every inch of pressure between 30 inches and 19 inches, ten minutes being occu- pied in going from one stage to the next, and the instruments being always tapped at every stage. When they had reached their lowest pressure, they were kept at this for an hour and a half, and were then raised in stages of 1 inch every ten minutes until the ordinary atmospheric pressure was finally reached. The instruments themselves were obtained from the best-known makers, who kindly lent aneroids for the purpose of this experiment. ; The following Table denotes the average behaviour of these instruments so treated, eight sets of experiments having been made, and the instruments being one half large instruments, diameter 4 inches, and one half small instruments, diameter 2 inches. Supposing the instruments were quite right at starting at the pressure of 50 inches, then their behaviour while the pressure was being lowered is represented by the following Table :— in. in. At 30 inches, error -00 At 24 inches, error — ‘02 ” 29 ” ret 03 » 23 x » - — 05 2 20.» » +03 ” 22 ” » — 08 ” 27 ” ” +01 ” 21 ” ” eee » 26 y ” 00 7 20 » — 18 9 2D oy » 02 » 1 y » — 22 From this Table we may learn the following facts :— 1. If we compare an aneroid with a standard barometer before beginning our observations, in order to ascertain its index error, and if we then gradually lower the pressure, using the above index error, we shall find that the mstrument lags behind or reads rather too high down to 26 inches, at which point its behaviour appears to be reversed, and it falls thereafter too fast. 2. The instrument is, however, tolerably accurate down to 24 inches, or through a range of 6 inches. 3. If we compare the aneroid with a standard at the end instead of at the be- ginning of the observations, we shall get much less reliable results. Suppose now that the instrument is allowed to remain an hour and a half at the lowest pressure, and that it starts from this pressure of 19 inches, going upwards, being quite right at starting, as compared with a standard barometer, then the average behaviour will be represented by the following Table :— in. in. At 19 inches, error ‘00 At 25 inches, error +°01 » 20 » — 02 7 26 yy » +03 oe) ey ue led Pa ary » +05 ” 22 ” he eles » 28, » +708 9 23 oy ee Ol » 29 5 » +12 » 24 yy ” “00 » 30 ,, » 14 From Table II. we may learn as follows :— 1. If we start from a low pressure (19 inches) and compare our aneroid with a PF ee ae TS 27 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. standard barometer before beginning our observations in order to ascertain its index error, and if we then gradually increase the pressure, using the above index error, we shall find that the instrument lags behind, that is to say, reads too low up to 24 inches, at which point its behaviour appears to be reyersed, and it there- after rises too fast. 2. The instrument is, however, tolerably accurate up to 25 inches, or through a range of 6 inches. i : ; 3. If we compare our aneroid with a standard at. the end instead of the begin- ning of the observations, we shall get much less reliable results. So much for the double experiment, in which the pressure is first lowered and then raised. Now, if at the end of this experiment we compare our aneroid with a standard once more at the ordinary pressure, we shall find that, on the whole, its indications have fallen, or it reads too low, but gradually, and in course of time, it recovers itself. This is seen by the following instances :— 2-inch anevoid. Error before experiment +°47 3-inch aneroid. Error before experiment + -04 Immediately after ,, +19 Immediately after ,, —-06 23 hours after » +7384 1 hour after if 2.08 40 » yet 18 hours after a — O01 : : 3 days after < +01 22-inch aneroid. 3 weeks after 4-07 Error before experiment +°11 Immediately after ,, +03 18 hours after » +10 : In the next place, I would remark that large aneroids are better than small ones, as will be seen by the following Table denoting the average behaviour of smal] and large instruments for the down observation. Error Terror Pressure of large. of small. On Sheen chk ew: OO eltiwe ' 00 DO Baim ott heave BR AOA as Rasyas AES +-04 DS y Setkserse teas (fore th a ctdar, dex tyhe +:02 D7 eT eR RE Cee a ECT be OD toxeaeyst Brn S) 00 DO wiser eis aes: Ho Oli ed eee — 02 2D rsd, spershePoia ey ea OO. eh cee ore — ‘06 DA pa Ethos. EOD yk ihe sya. —'07 DBs d scvar ae Aagnels = 0ASe aahebPaesd ah: —1l The experiments are not yet quite finished, but we may perhaps conclude— 1. That if a good 4-inch aneroid be first of all compared with a standard baro- meter, and then gradually subjected to a decrease of pressure, it will give reliable results through a range of 6 inches. 2. That if a good 4-inch aneroid be first compared with a standard barometer at a low pressure, and then gradually subjected to an increase of pressure, it will give reliable results through a range of 6 inches, starting from the low pressure. 3. The results would probably be stil] better if the instrument, before use, were compared with a standard barometer after the manner I have now described. Storm- Warnings, their Importance and Practicability. By Colonel Syxus, WP., F.BR.S. The author adduced the testimony of numerous men of scientific eminence, and the Reports from the seaports to the great importance of the signals lately in prac- tice at the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, both from humane and commercial points of view, and then stated that out of 405 warnings given in three years, the prognostications were correct for 305 times. No one could tell the ossible number of lives and amount of property which had thus been saved ; and e asked if this did not sufficiently justify the continuance of these storm-~warn- 28 REPORT—1867. ings, even though founded on supposed empirical data. The Scientifie Committee of the Royal Society had declined to continue these warnings, on the ground that Admiral FitzRoy had obtained his conclusions on empirical data. The author stated that the Committee proposed to establish eight additional observatories throughout the empire; and at the end of fifteen years they expected to be able to predict storms on philosophical data, and not on empirical data. But if during the last fifty years all the Observatories of the kingdom had not been able to obtain these’ results, the author thought that they were not likely to do so during the next fif- teen years, and the cost of ma‘ntaining them would be wasted. On Evaporation from Rain-gauges. By Joux Turvston. CHEMISTRY. Address by the President, Tuomas AnpERsON, M.D., F.RSE. On many previous occasions the British Association has met in places which have afforded the chemist valuable opportunities of seeing the principles of his science reduced to practice, and the various papers which have been read at this Section on these subjects, and the discussions which have arisen regarding them, have formed a very interesting department of its proceedings. At the present Meeting little of this is likely to engage our attention; for though the manufactures of Dundee have probably increased, during the last ten or fifteen years, in a more rapid ratio than those of any other town in the kingdom, they have taken a direction which gives but little scope for the applications of chemistry, so that with the exception of a few of the simpler operations of the dyer, there is really scarcely anything which need specially attract our attention. Under these circumstances it may be fairly anticipated that the business of the Section will be more particularly oecupied with the discussion of the great principles of the science which to the general public are often less interesting, and regarded as the exclusive province of those engaged in scientific study, and not sufficiently recognized as being the only sure foundation on which the superstructure of practical progress can be raised. The consideration of these general principles is, however, at the present moment a matter of the very highest importance, for the science of chemistry is in a state of transition. The immense accumulation of facts which has been made during the last twenty or thirty years, has not only increased her bounds, but has shown the insufficiency of those principles on which the chemist was formerly ready to rely with almost implicit confidence, and introduced changes amounting to a revo- lution, which have had the effect of unsettling the views formerly entertained, without as yet introducing anything which can be considered satisfactory in their place. The atomic theory, which at the commencement of the present century explained with clearness and precision all the facts of the science then known, has proved itself (at least in the form in which Dalton left it) no longer sufficient for the purpose. At the time at which it was produced, the knowledge of chemists was confined to a comparatively small number of compounds, among which those - of oxygen had so preponderating an importance that the science of the time might almost be described as the chemistry of oxygen, At the present moment, if we were to attach to it the name of any individual element, we should probably describe the whole science by the definition which has been so often applied to organic chemistry, and call it the chemistry of carbon, for it is in the study of the compounds of that element that all the difficulties with which the chemist has now to contend have had their origin. At a comparatively early period indeed, doubts were expressed as to the sufficiency of the atomic theory of Dalton, and Ampére especially suggested that the chemical atom might with advantage be considered to be a congeries of smaller particles; but this and other analogous additions to the original conceptions of the chemical atom, being of a purely specn- lative character, and having no immediate bearing on the facts then, or even now known, have never been accepted by chemists, or received from them more than a i TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 very passing notice, and were not unfairly considered to be unnecessary complica- tions of the theory. It was left for time to accumulate facts, for which Dalton’s theory supplied no explanation of any kind, and these were at first neglected ; but as their number increased, their explanation was evaded by the invention of names intended to group together facts supposed to be dependent on similar causes. Such names as catalysis, allotropy, and the like, really explain nothing; they are little better than scientific lumber-rooms, in which unexplained facts are stowed away until it suits our knowledge or our convenience to classify and explain them. I am far from asserting that this mode of grouping facts supposed to have something in common, has not its advantages, provided only it be distinctly understood that it is the grouping of ignorance. The risk lies in the name being accepted as an explanation, and inquiry being thereby retarded—and something of this sort has indeed occurred ; for though these facts were admitted to be beyond the scope of the atomic theory, they were quietly set aside; things went on as they were before, and it was not till the introduction of the theory of atomicity, which shows itself in every chemical fact, that the doubts which had been long gathering in the minds of all thoughtful chemists, found distinct expression. I do not on the pre- sent occasion propose to discuss in detail the effect which the introduction of this view has had upon chemical theory, further than to remark that it renders it necessary either to abandon altogether the atomic theory of Dalton, or to introduce into it such modifications as fundamentally alter its entire character, and make it substantially a new theory. The former is an alternative which some chemists will be greatly disinclined to adopt. They will not willingly abandon a theory which has admittedly done admirable service, which at its first introduction estab- lished order and regularity where confusion and disorder previously reigned supreme, and under whose influence the science has attained its present goodly proportions. Others again may be of opinion that the atomic theory has done its work, and in the future is less likely to act as an assistance than as a hindrance to progress, by forcing us to consider all facts in its particular light, and causing us to overlook relations which might be at once detected by an unbiassed mind. This latter opinion has been very strongly expressed by Sir Benjamin Brodie, and in the Calculus of Chemical Operations, which he has recently made public, we have the first systematic attempt which has been made to express the consti- tution of chemical compounds by a method in which the idea of an atom has no place. As this is the most important chemical doctrine which has been put forward for many years, and must, if accepted, materially alter our present views, I shall venture to consider it in some detail, premising, however, that as only the first part of the investigation has yet been made public, any opinion I may now oe regarding it may be liable to modification when the entire investigation is ublished. . s Sir B. Brodie, as has been already observed, discards altogether the idea of an atom, and compares with one another the weights of different substances in the gaseous state which are capable at the standard temperature and pressure of filling a unit of space, which is the bulk of 1000 cubic centimetres. If we consider this space to be empty, and fill it with hydrogen, a chemical operation is performed which is represented by the symbol a, expressing the fact that the weight so intro- duced is chemically indivisible. If now in place of hydrogen oxygen be introduced, the unit of space is filled by a quantity sixteen times as great, but this weight is not indivisible, as is at once apparent if we notice what happens when oxygen is introduced into the unit of space already filled with hydrogen. In that case a second operation is performed on it, in which a weight eight times as great as that of the hydrogen is introduced, and water is the result. The quantity of oxygen which fills the unit of space must therefore be regarded as divisible, and this is expressed by assigning to it the symbol &,, indicating the fact that two identical operations are required to fill the unit of space with oxygen. By the same line of argument it is concluded that sulphur, selenium, &c., must be similarly constituted, and they are accordingly represented respectively by 6,, A,, &c. So far it will be observed that the system is merely a modification of that at present used by che- mists for expressing the laws of gaseous combination, excepting that all substances, compounds as well as elements, are referred to the unit of space, while, according 30. | REPORT—1867. to our present plan, the former are referred to two units of space and the latter to one. But when the compounds of chlorine and the allied elements, with hydrogen, are to be represented according to Sir B. Brodie’s system, it at once becomes appa- rent that some further hypothesis must be introduced if they are to be referred to the same volume. When the quantity of hydrogen represented by the symbol a, unites with chlorine, the product fills two units of space, and as, according to the fundamental hypothesis, a is indivisible, the question is to obtain some means of expressing without fractions the quantity of hydrochloric acid which fills the unit of space. This end Sir Benjamin attains by assuming that chlorine is itself a com- pound of hydrogen with an unknown element to which the symbol y is assigned ; chlorine being ay,, and formed by three operations, one being hydrogen, and the other two which are identical, result in the introduction into the unit of space of two quantities of a hypothetical substance x, whose weight is 17-25; and according to this view, when hydrogen and chlorine unite, the action is expressed by the equation ' ax, +a=2ax. On precisely the same principle iodine, bromine, nitrogen, phosphorus, antimony, and bismuth must also be hydrogen compounds. It is obvious therefore that Sir Benjamin’s system involves a very large amount of hypothesis; for it assumes that a considerable number of those substances hitherto regarded as elements are really compounds. I do not imagine that much difficulty will be experienced by any one in admitting the possibility of this, for I apprehend there is no chemist who imagines those bodies which we call elements to be the ultimate constituents of matter, or who doubts that the time, though still far distant, will come when they may be resolved into simpler substances. But when we come to reduce these speculations to a definite form, and seek to make them part of the science itself, it becomes essential to subject them to a very close and searching scrutiny. In order to justify their assumption, it seems to me necessary either that they should be supported by experimental evidence, or that they should afford the means of tracing out unsuspected relations, and thus extending the bounds of the science, or, at all events, that they should involve the minimum amount of hypothesis. Now, as regards the first of these, it is unnecessary to observe that there is not one tittle of evidence to show that chlorine is a compound any more than hydrogen itself, As far as extending the bounds of the science is concerned, we must look for an answer to the future, and it may be expected that in the remaining parts of the investigation, which it is to be hoped may soon be made public, it will be shown how the method may be used for this purpose ; but, in the meantime, I am unable to see how it is to open up new fields of inquiry, and it is certain that it leaves unexplained all those anomalies which are usually considered to be the weak points of the existing system. Neither can it be asserted that the system involves the minimum amount of hypothesis; for, in point of fact, the assumption of the compound nature of certain of the elements is rendered necessary by the funda- mental hypothesis that a is indivisible. If it be assumed to be divisible, the necessity for holding those elements to be compound at once falls to the ground, and I confess it appears to me that we should require very clear evidence of the advantages it offers before we accept a hypothesis involving so many others. The question must at best be considered as still sub judice, and the method is not likely to meet with general acceptance until it is supported by a much larger body of facts than those we at present have. While Sir B. Brodie’s theory is one from which the idea of atoms is excluded, it is important to notice that it is by no means incompatible with them, and it even appears to me that though it may suit our convenience to consider matter in rela- tion to space only, the real subject of inquiry is not the unit of space, but the unit of matter, and to it we must eventually come. If I hold, as I most undoubtedly do, that the atomic theory of Dalton must sooner or later be abandoned, it is not because I do not believe in the existence of a unit of matter. Whether we assume it to be a hard spherical particle, a centre of force, or a vortex produced in a per- fect ether, is another question; but it seems evident that some kind of molecular hypothesis is indispensable for the explanation of physical phenomena, and it is scarcely possible to doubt that some connexion must exist between the chemical TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. bl and the physical unit of matter. In the mean time it is only by the most cumbrous and improbable assumptions that the existing atomie theory can be made to fit in with the facts which chemistry has recently discovered, and of these the theory of atomicity is one which can scarcely be connected with it at all. In point of fact that theory is a merely temporary hypothesis, constructed to keep before our eyes the tendency which substances have to form compounds of certain definite forms, under special circumstances ; and it is scarcely possible to doubt, that in twenty or thirty years it will have passed away and have been replaced by something of a more satisfactory character. Meanwhile its important influence on the recent pro- gress of chemistry is too obvious to be disputed. It is only to be regretted that so many conflicting modes of considering the atomicities of the elements should have been introduced by different writers. Into the consideration of this matter I should have been glad to have entered at some length, but I feel that I have already detained you too long from the actual ’ business of the Section, and no doubt opportunities will arise in the course of the business for individuals expressing their opinions on this and other subjects. Amonz these the mode of expressing the symbols of chemical compounds, which was objected to long since by Sir John Herschel, and has been again brought into prominence by the publication of Sir B. Brodie’s paper, merits attention. The present unsettled state of chemical nomenclature, so inconvenient to the teacher, ought also to be discussed, and it might even be well to consider whether a com- mittee should not be appointed to ascertain how far it might be possible to adopt a uniform system. Nor do I think we ought to separate without recording our opinion on the subject of better and more extended scientific education. The events of the Paris Exhibition have brought our deficiencies in this respect very conspicuously before us, and show. us how much we have yet to do. That we have made progress in this respect is not to be doubted, for science is much more cultivated now than formerly, and is becoming more and more a branch of general education. Much, however, still remains to be done in this direction, especially in Scotland, and it will no doubt surprise many of my audience to hear that chemistry and natural history are still excluded from the course of study for degrees in arts in the Scotch universities. Of late years the study of these and other departments of natural science has been introduced to some extent in schools both in England and Scotland ; but, so far as my experience goes, without having as yet produced results of much importance. The difficulty, I think, lies in the kind of instruction offered; the usual practice having been to give lectures from which the discussion of principles and of everything which exercises and developes the mind, is elimi- nated, and only that which it is supposed will entertain or surprise is retained, and boys are thus led to look upon science merely as a pastime. They are shrewd. enough to see the difference between this and the closer and more severe system of study pursued in the other departments of their education, and they are apt ee ell w tom either to avoid work altogether, or to acquire their knowledge in a superficial manner. The whole system of teaching science to school-boys is a subject which merits far more attention than it has yet received, and the success of the move- ment must greatly depend on an efficient method of teaching being adopted. All these, however, are subjects the discussion of which would carry me far beyond the limits of those introductory observations with which it has been customary to open the business of the Section. It must be left for its members to bring forward their own views on these and kindred questions. On an Apparatus for indicating the Pressure and Amount of Firedamp in Mines. By G. Ansecy. On a Method of Recovering Sulphur and Oxide of Manganese used at Deuze, near Nancy, France. By 1. Lowrmtan Bet. Remarks on the Calculus of Chemical Operations. By Dr. A. Crum Brown. After observing that, as we have only the first part of Sir Benjamin Brodie’s paper before us, it is necessary to be cautious in our criticism, the author enume- o2 REPORT—1867. rated his objections to the system. 1st. That the assumption of the distributive law of multiplication is unnecessary, and leads moreover to the anomalous result that the same direct operation does not always produce equal results when per- formed on the two sides of an equation, thus z+ y=.2y; but multiplying both sides by x we get 22+ zy and «*y, which are not equal. 2nd. That the assump- tion (for which no evidence is produced) that the unit of hydrogen is a simple weight, leads to inconvenient formule, the symbol a being used to express not only the quantity of hydrogen in a substance, but also what those chemists, who use atomic language, would call the number of perissad atoms. 5rd. That a system of notation substantially the same in form as that at present in use might be de- duced from Sir Benjamin Brodie’s principles, upon the more reasonable convention that bodies hitherto undecomposed are not to be represented as compound. The ordinary chemical symbols might therefore be used in a functional as well as in an atomic sense. A Note on Messrs. Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith’s method of determining Nitrogenous Organic Matters in Water. By Ducatp Campsett, F.C.S. At the meeting of the Chemical Society on June 20, Messrs. Wanklyn, Chap- man, and Smith proposed to determine the nature and amount of the nitrogenous organic matters contained in drinking waters by the amount of ammonia given off when a given quantity of the water was distilled rapidly with the addition of cer- tain weights of different reagents added at different parts of the distillation, the reagents being carbonate of soda, caustic potash, and permanganate of potash. Their experiments lead to the conclusion that when a litre of water is distilled with two grammes of carbonate of soda, all the nitrogen of the urea existing in the water will practically be found as ammonia in the first 300 c. c. distilled over, and that none of the nitrogen existing in albumen or “ albuminoid”’ matters, which may be in the water, would be evolved as ammonia. Experiments were made with pure distilled water containing respectively 34, fo) zp, and ;1> parts of a grain of urea in a gallon, and in every case nitrogen remained in the water after distillation with the carbonate of soda, and was evolved by other means and estimated ; and it was only when the +3, part of a grain of urea, or less, was dissolved in a gallon of water that the urea was entirely decom- posed by carbonate of soda and evolved as ammonia. Experiments were likewise made with white of new-laid egg equal to 25, yo, as, and =}, part of a grain of dry albumen dissolved in a gallon of pure dis- tilled water, distilling one litre of each solution with two grammes of carbonate of soda; in every case distinct quantities of ammonia were evolved and estimated, and in the last experiment, with white of egg equal to the jj, part of a grain of dry albumen per gallon, practically, all the ammonia in the albumen was evolved, there being a loss of only 0000017 grain, a quantity so small as to be attributable to an error in observation or otherwise. In all the experiments the ammonia was estimated by Nessler’s test. On the Synthesis of Formic Acid. By A. R. Carron. On Loewiy’s Researches on the Action of Sodium Amalgam on Owalic Ether. By A. R. Carron, On a New Polarizing Photometer. By W. Crooxes, F.2R.S. On a Self-Registering Perpetual Aspirator. By A. E. Frercner, F.C.S. This instrument was contrived to assist in carrying out the Alkali Act of 1863, in cases where a continuous register is required of the acidity of the air which passes along a flue or chimney. It is a continuous and self-acting aspirator, which draws a measured quantity of air from the flue or chimney through absorption- bottles, and registers the amount so drawn. It consists, first, of a small fan three inches in diameter. This is placed in an TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33 opening made in the side of the flue or chimney. The draught of air entering by this hole gives revolution to the fan, and thence, by means of an endless screw and toothed wheel, to a crank which moves a bellows-pump. This draws air from the flue or chimney by means of a tube inserted through the brickwork, and causes it to pass through the absorption-bottles. The whole is portable, being enclosed in a small box, except only the fan, which projects about three inches. Onan Ether Anemometer for Measuring the Speed of Air in Flues and Chimneys. By A. E. Frnrcngr, 2.8, This instrument is contrived for measuring the speed of air in pipes, flues or chimneys in cases where, from the presence of heat, soot, or corrosive vapour, a delicate mechanism would be inadmissible. It has been called an ether-anemo- meter, since ether is employed in its construction; by it the speed of air moving at any greater rate than that of nine inches per second can be measured. The principle employed in its construction is in part that of the Gifford’s injector, wherein a current of steam passing the open end of a tube is made to produce a partial vacuum in it. In the current of air whose velocity is to be measured, is placed a glass or metal tube with a plain straight end, and along with it a tube whose end is bent at right angles and cut off short. This bent end is turned to face the current, while the straizht tube is so exposed to the current that it passes along its open end. The difference of pressure in these two tubes will then be a measure of the velocity of the current. The pull or suction of the chimney will be the same in each. To measure this difference of pressure, which for slow currents is very small, many methods were tried until the present form of apparatus was adopted. It is but a modification of the U-tube; the limbs are cylinders of three inches in dia- meter and four inches in length, connected at the bottom by a small horizontal tube. The liquid used is ether, on account of its low specific gravity and its mo- bility. In each limb is a hollow metal float, scribed with a fine line. The level of these lines is read off by a finely divided scale and vernier adjusted by fine screws. It is easy to read to ;,4,, inch, and therefore to measure a pressure which is balanced 1000 by a column of ether 5,45 inch high. In order to learn how to connect the readings of the instrument with the speed of the air operating on it, it was determined not to depend on calculation only, but to test it against currents of air of known speeds. For this purpose a pipe was con- structed fourteen inches diameter and 100 feet long, one end being in connexion with a tall chimney, the other one open. At the open end a hot brick was placed, and at a given signal a drop of sulphuric acid was allowed to fall upon it. The cloud of vapour thus raised passed along the pipe, and its arrival at the distant end was observed on looking through two holes bored for the purpose. The time was noted by a watch held to the ear. Having thus ascertained by two or three trials the speed of the’ air, readings from the ether-anemometer were taken. ‘The speed was then altered by means of a slide or damper, and measured again by noting accurately the time taken by the cloud of vapour in travelling the 100 feet, and a fresh reading of the anemometer registered. In this way a Table was made em- bracing the greatest range of speed obtainable by the chimney. It was clear from the law of bodies in motion, that this should obey the formula p=v?Xc; where p = the indication of the instrument, v = velocity of the current, and ¢ some constant influenced by the individual details of the instrument. From the series of experiments thus made, the value of ¢ was found to be 25°31: with this a complete table of the values of p from 0-001 inch to 1-000 inch was calculated. The instrument is found to be very satisfactory and reliable in its indications. It may also serve asa wind-gauge. A plain piece of iron gas-pipe projecting yertically above the roof of the house or observatory, should communicate with one limb of the ether-anemometer. As the wind blows over the open end of this pipe, a partial vacuum would be formed and measured by the instrument, An advantage of this arrangement over the wind-gauges at present in use would lie in the absence of all moving parts whose friction might vary, and which might pos- sibly be deranged. m 1867. 3 34. REPORT— 1867. TABLE to show the Speed of Currents of Air as indicated by the Ether Manometer. v= Np. X 25°31, Temp. 60° Fahy. Bar. 30 inches. Manometer- | Speed of Air. || Manometer- | Speed of Air. Manometer- Speed of Air. reading. Feet per reading. Feet per reading. Feet per Inches. second. Inches. second. Inches. second. 0-001 0-800 0-040 5:064 0:300 13-872 0:018 3'397 0:050 5:648 0-400 16-011 0-020 3°580 0-100 8-005 0:500 17:901 0-030 4:385 0-200 11:328 1:000 - 25°310 On the Refraction Equivalents of Salts in Solution, By Dr. Guavstonz, /.RS. The object of this paper was to describe some preliminary observations on the effect which various salts dissolved in water exert on a ray of light transmitted through them. The author in this way expected to arrive at the refraction-equi- valents of all the metals, and of the substances capable of combining with them to form soluble compounds. As yet, however, he rather indicated the method than the results, as he was unprepared to give precise numbers. Experiments for the Verification of the Laws of Dr. Henry and Dalton on the Absorption of Gases by Liquids. By Dr. N. pn Kwanrxor, The fact of absorption of gases by liquids was known by natural philosophers at the end of the seventeenth century, but the first serious observations on this subject were made by Cavendish and Priestley. At the beginning of this century, in the Philosophical Transactions (1803, part 1, pp. 29-42), Dr. Henry published a very important memoir, “Experiments on the Quantity of Gases Absorbed by Water,” in which he formulates the law of absorption in the following manner: “The results of at least fifty experiments on carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, nitrous oxide, oxygenous and azotic gases, esta- plish the following general law—that under equal circumstances of temperature, water takes up, in all cases, the same volume of condensed gas as of gas under ordinary pres- sure. But as the spaces occupied by every gas are inversely as the compressing forces, it follows that water takes up, of gas condensed by one, two, or more additional atmospheres, a quantity which, ordinarily compressed, would be equal to twice, thrice, §c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere.” This law was aceepted without change until now. Nevertheless it was evident that so simple a relation between the power of absorption of gases by liquids and the pressure, could only be considered as a rough approximation, and that in reality a phenomenon so intimately connected with the molecular structure of the liquids could not be expressed in such a simple form, because the unlimited admission of this law compelled one to admit also an un- limited absorption of gases already mown to be impossible for all gases, especially for the condensible ones, Dr. Henry, from the nature of the apparatus he con- structed for his researches, could not come to any other conclusion. His apparatus consisted simply of a glass bell, in which he introduced the absorbing liquid and the absorbable gas. This bell was connected with a manometer by a tube of india- rubber, and after the establishment of the required pressure, could be separated from the manometer and shaken by the observer a long time, for producing the total absorption. This construction had two great imperfections ne Fy it did not admit of a pressure of more than three atmospheres without forcing the joint; and 2Qndly, the long contact of the hands of the observer with the bell made yery un- certain the evaluation of the temperature of the gaseous volume before and after the absorption. Saussure repeated the experiments of Dr. Henry without changing considerably his apparatus, and came naturally to the same result. Nearly forty years after, Prof. Bunsen, of Heidelberg, made a valuable series of experiments on the absorption of gases at different temperatures, but the ingenious apparatus he TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 invented for this purpose could be employed only under the ordinary pressure of one atmosphere, and left untouched the relation established by Dr. Henry and Dal- ton between absorption and pressure. Lately Messrs. Roscoe, Ditmar, and Simms have made very interesting investigations on the absorption of some highly absorb- able gases, and showed that the law of Henry and Dalton is only exact for elevated temperatures. That was the reason which induced my friend Dr. Louguinine and myself to undertake a new series of experiments on a gas not so absorbable as those investigated by Messrs. Roscoe, Ditmar, and Simms—namely, on carbonic acid gas, Before all it was absolutely necessary to construct an apparatus which should not have the aboye-mentioned imperfections of the apparatus of our celebrated predecessor Dr. Henry, It was evident that it must consist of a glass vessel ex- actly gauged and arranged in such a manner as to be easily put in connexion with a large manometer, and separated from it in a yery short time. Secondly, the absorption must be produced, not by shaking the apparatus by the hand, but by moving it mechanically in a space with an invariable temperature. The first re- quirement was easily obtained by luting to the open end of our absorption-bell an iron tube with a cork, and the second by taking the precaution of making the con- tact of the absorbing liquid and the absorbable eas yery perfect by revolving the glass vessel, containing the liquid and the gas, in a great mass of water, maintained constantly at the same temperature. These are the two principal differences between our apparatus and those of our predecessors; and without entering into more details on our experiments, executed at the Collége de France in the laboratory of M. Reg- nault, I pass directly to the results we obtained for carbonic acid gas, and at the temperature of 15° C. or 59° F, If we designate by «, the coefficient of absorption of a given gas under the pres- sure P,, and by a, the coefficient of the same kind, but under a higher pressure P,, ce, > by the law of Henry and Dalton we must have #,:«,=P,:P,, or ao or 1 1 a—b=0; if we designate by a, £*, and by d, 5". ‘The following Table contains n—1 nv 1 the yalues of a and b given by our experiments :— a. b. a—b. UGA overs Aidaienle Ii is (9) oA Wane . 00712 - 11R 8 V5] BESO tal otc 22010 lee cor rire 071271 DBD908 |) cons DBIOG8) > sas 0:1885 SHORT: eays.et 986904. ieee 0:2108 Cee | Ga anee 31869 © ocaesit OB27b SiGQOOe tae. SAOES Suara, 0:2982 SOR rl ct ek Se OGOED lear treate 0:2746 ADAQT co gig wane GRRE La cies v Oa lLom As 71BCLilan veinc mote gr sag OonOL Tn spite of some small anomalies presented by these numbers, it is evident that the difference a—b is constantly increasing with the pressure, so that this discrepancy with the law of Henry and Dalton cannot be ascribed exclusively to the inevitable errors of observation. From the moment that the carbonic acid gas was liquefied, it was evident that its coefficient cf absorption by liquids must be zero for two different pressures. First, for a pressure of nearly zero; and second, for the pressure which reduced the eas, at a given temperature, to a liquid state. But if so, it was also evident that the relation between the coefficient of absorption and the pressure could not be a simple algebraical and lineal function of these variables, as it was supposed by Henry and Dalton, but that this relation could be more nearly expressed by a=A+BP+CP?, which for «=0 must give two positive and real values for P, and also . a= —A+BP—CP? and B>A and C >All wield legesell jaeoss = 11 0 0 The whole smelted gave of regulus 2 tons 15 cwt., contain- ing 28 per cent. sulphur....... BPRAAB YA aipjecals solos cateme Opal ule) HOSS (OF Sulphur Wn tHS SbARC: vi asta oisletn atsinnaie uiakein le) /ayarar 019 2 8 The 2 tons 15 cwt. regulus was calcined, the SO, again going to the vitriol chamber, and gave 2 tons 10 cwt. con- famine 9 per cent. sulphunsi. .\./. ss, essisiele es 0/20 «ia = 0 4 220 All which must be dissipated—loss .,...........00s000% 154% 0 Sulphur economized ,......... .. 615 3 0 Or 0 0 Sulphur economized........ 84:8 per cent. Pulphurthost os a. es eae 15-4 per cent. On the Preservation of Stone. Ly Joun Spritzer, FCS. For several years past the author has been studying the causes of the decay of stone, and experimenting with such chemical reagents as appeared to offer any promise of being usefully applied as means of prevention. At an early stage of the investigation it seemed probable that the corrosive action of sulphurous and sulphuric acids in the atmosphere, resulting from the combustion of coal fuel, would operate, in large towns especially, in a destructive manner upon dolomite and the numerous class of limestones commonly employed in public buildings. This chemical action, aided by the simultaneous attack of carbonic acid and mois- ture, and in’ the winter season further supplemented by the disintegrating effects of frost, are conceived to furnish a sufficient explanation of all the facts observed. Dr. Angus Smith, My. Spence, and others haying already directed attention to the immense scale of production of these sulphur-acids, the author proceeded to quote statistical data showing the extent or degree of pollution of the air from this cause in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire. Numerous samples of dolomite, Caen, Bath, and Portland stones fresh from the quarry have been tested, but with- out finding more than a trace of ready-formed sulphate, whereas scrapings taken from the decayed portions of the stone of the New Palace at Westminster were bitter to the taste, in consequence of the comparatively large amount of sulphate of magnesia formed during afew years’ exposure to the sulphurous gases occurring in a metropolitan atmosphere. Caen stone from several buildings and localities, Portland stone, and even old faces of chalk cliff in the neighbourhood of Woolwich, were in like manner found to contain appreciable quantities of the sulphate of lime, haying undoubtedly a similar origin. A close examination into the circum- stances attending the decay of stone at the Houses of Parliarhent invariably shows an increased liability to corrosion under the projecting eaves and mouldings, and at such sheltered parts of the stone surfaces as are usually covered with soot and dust, and are in a position to retain for the longest period the moisture absorbed during a season of rain, In many cases the disintegrated stone exhibits white crystals of the sulphate of magnesia, which alternately dissolving and recrystal- lizing in the pores of the stone, may be conceived to exert a disruptive action sufficient to account for the scaling and fracture of the dolomite, which has been so often observed. With the view of overcoming some of these difficulties, the author submitted a plan to the Royal Commissioners charged with inquiring into the decay of stone at Westminster, in May 1861, which consisted in the applica- tion to the cleaned surfaces of the stone of an aqueous solution of superphosphate of lime—a salt remarkable for its action in hardening the surfaces of chalk, Caen stone, or other calcareous building-stone to which it may be applied, either hy brushing or immersion, and which acts upon the carbonate of lime in the stone, ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 giving rise to the formation of Bideker’s salt (crystallized diphosphate of lime— 2CaO, HO, PO, + 4Aq). This suggestion received a practical trial at the Houses of Parliament, in a competition to which five other candidates were admitted by the Right Hon. the First Commissioner of Her Majesty’s Works in April 1864. Another promising scheme for the treatment of the decayed stone, especially applicable to dolomite, consists in the employment of baryta conjointly with the hardening salt, so that a base may be presented which is endowed with the power of destroying the soluble sulphate of magnesia in the pores of the stone, forming with it the remarkably insoluble sulphate of baryta, and at the same time engaging the magnesia in one of its most difficultly soluble combinations. On a recent occasion this process was applied to some Caen-stone facings at St. John’s Church, Woolwich, which were badly decayed. Several examples of the application of the superphosphate to decayed Caen, stone were referred to; and with respect to Portland stone, the earliest experiments were said to have been made at the Army Clothing Establishment, Woolwich, where (in 1861) some decayed window-sills were treated with perfect success. In connexion with the treatment of Portland stone, some interesting results were then described, which serve to illustrate the increased hardness and strength, and the diminished rate and capacity of water-absorption attending the employ- ment of the superphosphate. By treating small cubes of Portland stone with the phosphate solution, and when dry subjecting them to gradually increasing pressure until crushed between plates of lead in the American Testing Machine at the Royal Gun Factory, it was found that the breaking weight of the stone was aug- mented by 50 per cent. The increased hardness of the stone after treatment could be readily ascertained by scratching with a pointed instrument of copper, which metal proved to possess a degree of hardness intermediate between the original and treated Portland stones. The porosity of the stone, as indicated by the amount of water absorbed, proved to be greatly diminished in the case of the treated cubes. The advantage of the process is most clearly apparent in the denser and more compact variety of Portland known as the “ Whit Bed,” which alone is employed for external building purposes; that known as the “ Base Bed,” is softer, and only fit for internal decoration, and its texture is so porous that in becoming saturated it absorbs nearly 10 per cent. of water. Samples of Mansfield dolomite absorbed amounts of water varying in different specimens from 6 to 8 per cent. After treatment by this process, the degree of absorption was reduced one half, and- the results were even more favourable in the case of Caen stone. The cost of materials employed in the treatment of stone according to this plan is very trifling, and bears but a small proportion to the cost of labour necessarily expended upon the cleaning and preliminary preparation of the stone before the solution can be applied. One gallon of solution will cover about 250 feet superficial, when two coatings are applied upon Caen or Portland stone. The superphosphate employed _ must not contain any appreciable amount of sulphuric acid, and the specific gravity of the solution, when diluted for use, should be about 1:1. On certain New Processes in Photography. By Joun Srrttzr, F.C.S. Under this head were described several interesting improvements in photography, based on the chemistry of gelatine. The processes to which reference was made were the various modifications of the Woodbury type, including the new method of micro-photo-sculpture, the art of photolithography, as practised in the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, and some illustrations of the use of gelatine or albumen, on a foundation of silk, satin, or cambric, the work of Mr. H. B. Pritchard, of the War Department. The Hon. H. Fox Talbot was one of the first to describe and make a practical use of the action of light upon a mixture of gelatine and a soluble bichromate, and after him Col. Sir H. James, Mr. Swan, of Newcastle, and Mr. Woodbury, of Manchester, haye applied the same chemical principle in new direc- tions. It is known that the chemical rays of light have the effect of rendering insoluble gelatine to whieh a bichromate has been added; and it would appear that this oxidizing salt hardens the animal substance by forming with it a combination 46 REPORT—1867. of chromic oxide. In proof of this view, it may be stated that Mr. Swan has lately - devised a mode of working, in which a minute quantity of chrome alum or sulphate of chromium is used instead of the red chromate, and it is found that, when dried, this mixture is not again affected by water. The carbon prints of Mr. Swan, which were exhibited last year at Nottingham, are illustrations of the use of a chromate in conjunction with gelatine and pigments. Mr. Woodbury’s process is also based on the insolubility of the chromo-gelatine after exposure to light, and upon the: subsequent action of water upon a sensitive film, which has been in different degrees influenced by insolation under an ordinary photographic negative. The depths of tint in the original are represented by variations in the thiekness of the film of gelatine left unacted upon by water, and this dried may then be used as a matrix to produce a corresponding series of depressions upon a surface of lead or type- metal by the aid of a powerful hydraulic press. The blocks so produced serve for printing off a great number of proofs when they are liberally “ inked” with warm gelatine, highly charged with Franifort black or other suitable pigment, and pressed down upon a smooth sheet of paper until the excess of ink is forced out on all four sides of the block and so removed from the space constituting the area of the pic- ture, which, when set, is, lastly, protected with a varnish of collodion, Mr. Woodbury has lately perfected 2 modification of his process, which is. ap- plicable to the representation in high relief of microscopic objects. The method consists in spreading a warm solution of gelatine, containing a little sugar and bichromate of potash, over a glass plate previously coated with collodion, The film sets on cooling, and is then placed in contact with an ordinary photographic negative of the microscopic objects to be delineated, exposed to light, submitted as before to the action of water, and the soluble portions washed away. When the surface moisture has evaporated, a mixture of plaster of Paris, containing a small proportion of alum, is poured over the relief to the thickness of half an inch, and left to set. When dry it will be found, owing to the alum in the plaster harden- ing the surface of the gelatine directly on coming in contact therewith, to leave the gelatine easily, without any fear of adhesion. To give a finished appearance to the resulting casts, this intaglio, when dry, may be placed in a lathe, and a suit- able border turned on it, which will be represented in the resulting proofs by a raised border, similar to what is seen on medallions or plaster casts, The name of the object may also be neatly engraved on the intaglio, to appear in raised cha- racters on the reliefs. This intaglio should then be well waxed to fill up the pores, and is ready for taking any number of impressions in plaster; or a better plan is to take one in plaster, and having smoothed away any defects, to mould a reverse in sulphur, which will give a greater number of fine impressions. The progress made during the year in perfecting the details of photolithography have led to the practical use of this art as a means of procuring on a reduced scale printed repro- ductions of the large series of lithographs issued for the use of the British army by the Royal Carriage Department. The steps followed in conducting this process were briefly described, and a variety of illustrations produced at a very low cost were exhibited. The issue of these photolithographs by the War Department has: already attained to many thousands. Synthesis of Caproie Acid. By J. Aurrep Wanxtyy and Rosert Scuenx. Mercury-amyl was pepe by the process of Frankland and Duppa, and con- yerted into zinc-amyl by prolonged digestion with zine. The purity of the mercury-amyl had been guaranteed by a determination of mer- cury which agreed with the theory, The zinc-amyl was sealed up with sodium and heated in the water-bath. The action of the sodium is very slow. Having prepared sodium-amyl, we exposed it to the action of dry carbonic acid, which acted energetically, evolving heat.. The product of the reaction was treated with water, evaporated down to dryness, and the residue distilled with dilute sulphuric acid. An oily acid distilled over, and was converted into a baryta salt. The baryta salt was submitted to analysis, giving results concordant with the theory. Carbonic acid, therefore, behaves with sodium- amyl just as with sodium-ethyl and sodium-methyl, CO,+NaC;H,,=C,H,,Na0,, - TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 On the Existence of Putrescible Matter in River and Lake Waters. By J. Aurrep WANKLYN. Action of Sodium on Valerianic and similar Ethers. By J, Aurrep WANKLYN. On the Electrical Resistances of the Fixed and Volatile Oils*, By T. T. P. Bruck Warren. The want of an acknowledged and reliable means of recognizing the purity or condition of samples of oils has long been felt by pharmaceutists. No tests, or system of tests at present used,.are free from objection. An inspection of the optical characters of the oils, whether fixed or volatile, will be sufficient to confirm the truth of this observation. The polariscope has at best a very limited scope of application, whilst the deter- mination of the refractive or dispersive qualities requires such precise adjustments that the suitability either of the one or the other for the purposes of a technical test may be fairly questioned. The refractive power of the oils, both fixed and volatile, has so small a variation, that the difference produced on the refractive power of any oil by the addition of a small quantity of another, would he barely perceptible. The objection against the measurement of the dispersive action as a means of expressing the value of an oil is, that the determination of the differences of indices of refraction for the extreme rays is at once tedious and unreliable; the scale of dispersions offers, however, a much wider range of differences. It is probable that the comparison of two samples of oil by the irrationalities of their dispersion is worthy of some attention. The author is not aware of its being applied as a test; but the samples could stand side by side with respect to the illuminating source, and their spectra projected side by side could be easily observed and compared. Although bromine and iodine exert on some of the essential oils chemically characteristic effects, it does not appear certain to what extent the action may be modified by the addition of small quantities of other oils; consequently the che- mical phenomena, as well as a knowledge of their specific eravities and boiling- points, cannot be considered as offering any assistance to the detection of accidental or intentional impurities when existing in small quantities, The process which the author submitted is one which has given great satis- faction in all the experiments which he has made, and was suggested by a discovery due to M. Rousseau, quoted by De la Rive, ‘ that olive-oil, when mixed with =1, part its yolume of oil of poppies, increased the number of vibrations of a magnetic needle in a given time, when the same was included or made to form part of a yoltaic circuit.” This isolated fact would be of service for the determination of the purity of olive-oil, if oil of poppies were the only sophisticating ingredient. The adulterants of the volatile oils are principally turpentine and alcohol F, Compared with any of the essential oils, turpentine has an immense resistance, whilst that of aleohol is enormously lower than any of them, except perhaps that of oil of bitter almonds, which is so low that he did not measure it. The importance of this general fact is at once apparent, since the addition either of alcohol or turpentine in the smallest quantity is readily detected; and the quan- tity denoted by the variation in the deflection, either when compared with a standard of known purity, or by the resistances themselves. The oils of lemon and bergamot, when mixed with a small proportion of tur- pentine, do not, however, show such marked differences as the generality of the essential oils. The addition of turpentine to oil of lavender is more strongly marked by this test than in any other case. The effects produced by mixing different specimens of the same oil together are * Published dz eatenso in the ‘ Chemical News’ for Sept. 20, 1867, t The foreign oils are no doubt sometimes entirely substituted for the English oils, or largely diluted with them, 48 REPORT—1867. also perceptible ; thus the German oils of peppermint, or foreign samples of lavender- oil, produce modifications in the electrolysis. The bleached oils have even a lower conducting power than the unbleached oils ; and in this respect olive-oil possesses a greater difference than almond-oil. It is not easy to explain this. A singular difference exists between the Italian and the East Indian castor-oils. This difference will enable one to detect a very small percentage of the one added to the other. Cotton-seed-oil and oil of poppy, as well as turpentine, are so rapidly altered in their conducting power by electrolysis, that there is not the slightest difficulty in recoenizing them in samples-of oil. Olive-oil, when free from cotton-seed-oil or oil of poppy, has its resistance in- creased by electrification; but if the smallest quantity of either of them exist in a oe of oliye-oil, it produces a contrary effect by a prolonged contact with the attery. These results of electrolysis are alone important in determining the condition of a sample of olive-oil. On a New Manufacturing Process for the Perpetual Regeneration of the Oxide of Manganese used in the Manufacture of Chlorine. By Wauter WELDON. Every process, previous to that to be described in the present paper, by which it has han attempted to regenerate oxide of manganese from the residues of the manufacture of chlorine, has been performed in the dry way, and has thus required considerable time, and has involved not only at least one—more or less troublesome and costly—furnace operation, but also several removals of the mate- rial from vessel to vessel and from place to place, every such removal of course entailing more or less loss of material. The process, however, which is about to be described is performed in the wet way, and may be completed, even when operating on the largest scale, within as little as one hour. Moreover, all the operations of the process are performed in the same vessel as that in which the oxide produced by it is afterwards employed to react with hydrochloric acid, and from this yessel or still the manganese is neyer removed, so that it is entirely free from risk of loss by removal; and as it is not subject to any other cause of loss, a charge of manganese, once put into a still, when treated by this process, not onl never needs to be replaced, but never needs even to be added to, while it will libe- rate an equivalent of chlorine every few hours for literally any length of time. The starting-point of any process for the regeneration of the oxide of manganese em- ployed in the manufacture of chlorine, must of course be that residue which is known as “ still-liquor” being that which remains in the stills when oxide of man- ganese and hydrochloric acid have been digested together until all the chlorine which the oxide is capable of liberating from the acid has been liberated and given off, When working with a native oxide of manganese, the still-liquor contains, in addition to a quantity of protochloride of manganese equivalent to the quantity of oxide of manganese which has been dissolved, a considerable quantity of free acid, and more or less chlorides of iron and other bases, due to the native oxide of man- ganese being always more or less associated with other oxides. When working, however, with the artificial oxide of manganese produced as is about to be described, the still-liquor contains scarcely anything whatever but protochloride of manga- nese; and the new process consists simply in first adding an equivalent of lime to this liquor, without removing the liquor from the still, and then blowing atmo- spheric air through the resulting mixture of protoxide of manganese and solution of chloride of calcium. The white protoxide is thereby rapidly converted into a very dark-coloured higher oxide ; and when this product has been allowed to sub- side from the solution of the chloride of calcium in which it was formed, and the greater part of that solution has then been drawn off from it, it is ready to be treated with hydrochloric acid, from which it then liberates chlorine, with reproduction of exactly as much protochloride of manganese as was commenced with. From this point the very simple series of operations described is repeated just as before, and so on, over and over again, for any required number of times, The manganese is TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 49 thus constantly undergoing, always in one and the same vessel, a round of regularly recurring changes of state of combination, by which it passes, first from the state of de to that of protoxide, next from the state of protoxide to that of a igher oxide, capable of liberating chlorine from hydrochloric acid, then back again to the state of protochloride, and so on continually. GEOLOGY. Address by the President, AncuinaLp Gerxin, /.R.S., PGS. Aone the Lower Silurian, the oldest recognizable volcanic rocks in this country, two principal epochs of eruption have been detected by Professor Ramsay and his colleagues of the Geological Survey. One of these occurred during the deposition of the Llandeilo rocks, and is indicated by the igneous rocks of Aran Mowddwy, Cader Idris, Arenig, and Moelwyn; the other is marked by those of the Snowdon district, which lie among the Bala beds. These volcanic rocks consist partly of massive sheets of felstone, varying in texture and colour, and partly of thick accu- mulations of tuff or ash. The former are true lava-flows, the latter point to fre- quent showers of volcanic dust, and to the settling of such dust and stones on the sea-bottom, where they mingled with the ordinary sediment, and with shells, corals and other organisms. Some of these ashy deposits attain a great thickness. Thus, at Cader Idris, they are about 2500 feet thick, the accumulated result of many eruptions. Northwards this mass thins entirely away, and the ordinary sedimentary strata take its place. Equally local are the massive beds of felstone which repre- sent the submarine lava-flows of the time. Sometimes they still preserve the slagey vesicular character which marked their surface when the melted rock was in a state of motion along the sea-bottom—an evidence of the existence and posi- tion of true submarine volcanoes during the Lower Silurian period in Wales. In the lake district, similar proofs of volcanic action have been found among the lower Silurian rocks of that region. In Scotland, no very distinct traces of volcanic acti- vity have yet been detected among rocks of the lower Silurian age. In the Lower Silurian rocks of the south-west of Iveland, beds of ash and felstone are interstra- tified, resembling in general character and mode of occurrence those of Wales. In Wales, volcanic action does not appear to have outlasted the Lower Silurian period ; but in Iveland, among the headlands of Kerry, massive sheets of ash are intercalated in grits and slates, which, from their fossils, have been assigned to the age of the Wenlock series. The Old Red Sandstone of the southern half of Scotland abounds in igneous rocks, from the base of the series to the top. In its lower band lie the chains of the Sidlaw and Ochil Hills, and many detached masses scattered over the lowlands along the southern flank of the Grampians. These are composed of different fel- stones and porphyrites, with interbedded sheets of tuff, trappean conglomerate, and sandstone, stretching in the Ochil and Sidlaw range for sixty or seventy miles, and rising here and there to heights of 2000 feet above the level of the sea. This group of hills contains some of the thickest masses of trappean rock in the country. Tn what seems to be a middle portion of the formation comes the group of the Pentland Hills, consisting of long massive beds of trap, like the different varieties in the Ochils, with intercalations of tuff, conglomerate, and sandstone, the whale reaching a thickness of fully 5000 feet. In Ireland also the Old Red Sandstone furnishes evidence of active volcanic yents. Nor are traces of volcanic activity wanting in England during the same great geological period. In Cornwall and South Devon frequent proofs have been recognized of contemporaneous igneous action among the limestones and slates of the Middle Devonian series, and thence through the Upper Devonian into the lower part of the Carboniferous group. These consist in frequent bands of trappean ash, and of crystalline amygdaloidal and yesicular greenstone or other trap. The ash passes by insensible degrees into the 1867. 50 REPORT—1867. ordinary sedimentary strata of the series, sometimes containing fossils, and in certain places so interlaced with bands of limestone as to have been quarried for lime, The base of the Carboniferous series in Cornwall and South Devon is marked by the occurrence of ash and crystalline amygdaloidal greenstone similar to the igneous masses in the neighbouring Devonian rocks. In the centre of England the well- known toad-stones of Derbyshire indicate intermittent volcanic activity during the formation of the carboniferous limestone. They consist of three principal beds of trap, averaging each about 60 or 70 feet in thickness, preserving their course for many miles between the strata of limestone, probably, as pointed out by Mr. Jukes, the result not merely of one eruption, but rather of ditferent flows from distinct vents, and uniting into one sheet along a common floor. Passing into Scotland, we find the carboniferous formation of the broad midland valley full of the most stri- king evidences of volcanic activity. In the west, great sheets of different porphy- rites, with interbedded tuffs, sandstones and conglomerates, lie in the lower part of the formation, and rising in broad masses bed above bed, form that conspicuous chain of terraced heights which stretches from near Stirling through the range of the Campsie, Kilpatrick, and Renfrewshire hills, to the banks of the Iryine in Ayrshire, and thence westward by the Cumbrae Islands and Bute, to the south of Arran. In the eastern districts, instead of such widespread sheets of voleanic rock, the Carboniferous series includes hundreds of minor patches of tuff, dolerite, basalt, and porphyrite. The area of the Lothians and Fife seems to have been dotted over with innumerable little voleanic vents, breaking out and then disappearing one after another during the lapse of the Carboniferous period up to at least the close of the carboniferous limestone. The very limited area occupied by the erupted material is often remarkable. A mass of ash 100 feet thick or more may be found intercalated between certain strata, yet at a distance of a mile or two the same strata may show no trace of any volcanic material. Nowhere is this feature more wonderfully exhibited than in the coal-field of Dalry in the northern part of Ayr- shire. The black-band ironstone of that district appears to have been deposited in hollows between mounds and cones of volcanic tuff, sometimes 600 feet high, round and over which the later members of the Lower Carboniferous formation were de- posited. Hence the shafts of the pits are sometimes sunk forl00 fathoms through the tuff; and at that depth mines are driven horizontally through the volcanic rocks to reach the ironstone beyond. The‘ great carboniferous limestone series of Ireland contains evidence that here and there, at various intervals during its formation, minor volcanic vents were active on different parts of the sea-bottom. Among the Permian sandstones of the south-west of Scotland there occur some interesting proofs of contemporaneous volcanic action. In Nithsdale, and still more conspicuously in the centre of the Ayrshire coal-field, these sandstones contain towards their base a thick group of dark reddish-brown amygdaloidal porphyrites and tufis. Connected with these rocks are numerous bosses of a coarse volcanic agglomerate, which descend vertically through the coal-measures, altering the coal. They are the “necks” or orifices from which was ejected the volcanic material which now forms a conspicuous range of rising grounds overlying the heart of the coal-basin of Ayrshire. The New Red Sandstone series of Devonshire, in the neighbourhood of Exeter, furnishes clear proofs of volcanic activity. Sheets of a dark reddish-brown fel- spathic rock, sometimes compact or porphyritic, but usually of scoriaceous character, are intercalated among the lower parts of the Red Sandstone series of that neigh- bourhood. Sir Henry De la Beche, who described these igneous rocks many years ago, noticed that the more compact portions, instead of extending horizontally as beds among the sedimentary strata, descend vertically through them, as if these detached parts marked the site of some of the orifices whence the melted laya was rupted. The series of successive volcanic phenomena, which may thus be traced through the palozoic rocks of the British Islands up to the New Red Sandstone, is now abruptly broken. I am not aware of any satisfactory proofs of contemporaneous voleanic rocks among the secondary rocks of Britain, save in the Red Sandstone of Devonshire just referred to. Following a suggestion of Prof. Edward Forbes, I formerly regarded the great trappean masses of Skye and the other western islands AP et fete >. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 as probably of Oolitic age. But more recent investigations in Antrim, Mull, and Hige, have convinced me that in these districts, and probably also in Skye, the great basaltic plateaux which form so conspicuous a feature in the scenery of our north-western sea-board, date from tertiary times. From Antrim northwards through the inner Hebrides and the Farée Islands to Iceland there is a broken chain of volcanic masses, part, and not improbably the whole, of which are of Miocene age. In Ireland sheets of dolerite and basalt, in all 500 or 600 feet thick and some 1200 square miles in extent, repose directly upon an eroded sur- face of chalk. In Mull, similar plateaux, overlaid with masses of porphyrite and trachyte-like rocks, attain a united thickness of more than 3000 feet, yet at their base they contain recognizable plants of Miocene species. This vast depth of old lavas and tuffs points to a lengthened continuance of volcanic activity along the north-western margin of our country—an activity, however, marked by prolonged periods of repose, as the Scuir of Kigg and the coal and shales of Mull sufficiently prove. These masses, vast though they be, are by no means the only, if they are indeed the chief, relics of Tertiary volcanic action in Britain. If, starting from the basaltic plateaux of the north of Ireland or of the inner Hebrides, we advance to- wards the south-east, we soon observe that an endless number of trap-dykes, striking from these plateaux, extends in a south-easterly direction athwart our island. The south-western half of Scotland and the northern parts of England are, so to speak, ribbed across with thousands of dykes. These are most numerous near the main mass of igneous rock, whence they become fewer as they recede towards the North Sea. Usually a dyke cannot be traced far. In Berwickshire and the Lothians, these E. and W. or N.W. and S.E. dykes, often less than half a mile long, are well shown; in Ayrshire they become still more numerous, tra- yersing the coal-field and altering the coal-seams; in Arran and Cantyre their number still increases, until, after a wonderful profusion of them in Islay and Jura, they reach the great volcanic chain of the inner Hebrides. From their manifest intimate connexion with that chain, from the fact that they cut through all the formations they encounter up to and including the chalk, and that they cross faults of every size that may lie in their way, I regard these dykes as of tertiary age. If this inference is sustained, as I have little doubt it will be, by a more detailed investigation of the north-western districts, it presents us with striking evidence of the powerful activity and wide range of the volcanic forces in our country during the Miocene period. With these dykes, and the Tertiary igneous masses ie which they proceed, the record of volcanic action in Britain appears to close. Let me now allude to one or two portions of this broad subject which seem to me worthy of special notice. One of the first features to arrest attention is the singular persistence of volcanic phenomena in a limited area, Take, as an illustra- tion, the neighbourhood of Edinburgh within a radius of ten miles from the town. First and oldest comes the long range of the Pentland and Braid hills, consisting of a mass of bedded igneous rocks in a middle series of the Old Red Sandstone. These old lavas reach a thickness of 4000 or 5000 feet. Next in chronological order are the Calton Hill and lower portion of Arthur’s Seat, which mark the con- tinuance of volcanic action into the Lower Carboniferous period. The carboniferous rocks for miles around these hills are full of the traces of contemporaneous volca- noes, sometimes in the form of sheets of tuff marking the occurrence of little detached tuff-cones, sometimes in wider areas of tuff, basalt, and dolerite, where a eroup of minor volcanic vents threw out showers of ash and streams of lava. To the east rise the isolated Garlton Hills, which date from before the carboniferous limestone ; westwards, scores of little basaltic crags and rounded tuff-hills mark out the lower carboniferous volcanoes of Linlithgowshire. To the north, the end- less crags, hills and hillocks of the Fife coast contain the record of many eruptions from the middle of the calciferous sandstones high up into the carboniferous lime- stone group. Even the coal-measures of that county are pierced with intrusive bosses of trappean agglomerate, which indicate the position of volcanic vents, pos- sibly of Permian age. The same ora more recent date must be assigned to the later unconformable agglomerate and basalt of Arthur’s Seat. Nor is this the whole. Latest of all come innumerable trap-dykes, running with a prevalent east 4% 52 REPORT—1867. and west trend, and cutting through all the other rocks. Here, then, in this little tract, about the size of a small English county, there are the chronicles of a long series of volcanic eruptions, beginning in the middle of the Old Red Sandstone, and coming down to a time relatively so near our own as that of the Miocene rocks. Nor is this by any means an exceptional district. Mlustrations of a similar ee of volcanic action may be gathered in many other tracts of equally imited extent. Another fact which a general survey of the character of our volcanic rocks soon brings before us, is that, as a whole, those of earlier date differ distinctively in composition from those of more recent origin. From the first traces of volcanic activity in this country up to about the close of the Old Red Sandstone or begin- ning of the Carboniferous series, the interbedded (¢.e, contemporaneous) igneous rocks consist for the most part of highly felspathic masses, to which the names of clinkstone, claystone, compact felspar, porphyry, hornstone, felstone, &c. have been given. On the other hand, from the upper part of the Old Red Sandstone, or the lower members of the Carboniferous series, up to the end of the long history, the erupted masses are chiefly augitic, as basalts and dolerites (or green- stones, as the latter have been usually termed in Scotland). Were these rocks subjected to further and more detailed chemical examination, additional know- ledge might possibly be acquired respecting the history of the changes which have taken place within the crust of the earth. As geologists, it is important to note that, though two classes of volcanic rocks can thus be determined by analysis of their composition, no broad essential distinctions appear to be traceable in their mode of occurrence. Certain minor diilerences are, indeed, readily observable, such as the greater thickness of the beds among the older rocks, and the more frequent occurrence of columnar structure among the newer. Perhaps these and other distinctions may eventually give usa general type for each class. Never- theless, in its broader features there would seem to have been a striking unifor- mity in voleanic action from the earliest times down to our own day. This leads me to remark that a study of the igneous rocks of Britain furnishes no proofs that volcanic action has been slowly diminishing in intensity during past geological time. The amount of volcanic material preserved in our Old Red Sand- stone group probably exceeds that of our Silurian system, even after all due allow- ance for the greater denudation of the older series, The number of distinct voleanic centres traceable among the Carboniferous rocks in like manner surpasses that of the earlier formations. But by much the most extensive mass of volcanic material in these islands belongs to the latest epoch of eruption—that of the Miocene period. In one mountain alone, Ben More, in Mull, these youngest lavas rise over each other, tier above tier, to a height of more than 3000 feet; yet their base is concealed under the sea, and their top has been removed by denudation. We have here, therefore, no proof of a slow diminution of volcanic activity. The period separating the Miocene basalts from the New Red Sandstone trap-rocks, which seem to come next to them in point of recentness, was immensely vaster than that which has elapsed between the Miocene basalts and the present time, There is thus no improbability in the eventual outbreak once more of the subter- ranean forces. Nay, further, were a renewed series of volcanic eruptions to take lace now, they might in the far distant future be thrown together with those of Tiocene date, as proofs of one long period of interrupted volcanic activity, just as we now group the igneous rocks of the Lower Silurian, or of any other geological formation: so near to us, in a geological sense, are those latest and grandest of our volcanic phenomena. Among the different forms assumed by our igneous rocks, one of the most in- teresting, and, at the same time, most full of difficulty, is that of the trap-dykes. To my own mind there are few parts of the geology of the country so hard to understand as the extravasation of the thousands of dykes by which the north- western portion of this island is so completely traversed. For the reasons already assigned, I would refer the leading system of these dykes to the same geological age as the Tertiary volcanic rocks of the north-west. Yet we find them rising to the surface, and extending for leagues, to a distance of fully 200 miles from the nearest point of the basaltic plateaux. Did they reach the surface originally? If a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 so, were they connected with outflows of dolerite, now wholly removed by denu- dation? I confess that this supposition has often presented itself to me as carrying with it much probability. It seems to me unlikely that so many thousands of dykes should have risen so high as the present surface, retaining there (as shown by deep mines) much the same proportions as they show many fathoms down, and yet that none of them should have reached the surface which existed at the time of eruption. I regard it as much more probable that some of them, at least, rose to daylight, and flowed out as coulées, even over parts of the south of Scot- land and north of England, where all trace of such surface-masses has long been removed. Some of the surface-masses of dolerite in these districts may indeed be of Tertiary age; yet the proofs which the great Miocene basaltic plateaux present of enormous denudation are so striking as to make the total disappearance of even wide and deep laya-currents quite conceivable. But a much more serious difficulty remains. These dykes, as a rule, do not come up along lines of fault, yet they Saale wonderfully straight courses, even across fractured and irregular strata. ach dyke retains, as a rule, a tolerably uniform breadth, and its sides are sharply defined, as if a clean, straight fissure had been widened and filled up with solid rock, In the coal-mines of Ayrshire, for instance, the miners have driven through the dyke and found the coal, altered indeed, but at the same level, at the other side. More than this, the dykes are found cutting across large faults without any deflection or alteration. In short, no kind of geological structure, no change in the nature of the rocks traversed, seems to make any difference in the dykes. These run on in their straight and approximately parallel courses over hill and valley for miles. The larger faults of this country tend to take a north-easterly trend, and correspond in a general way with the strike of the formations. At richt angles, or more or less obliquely to these, are numerous faults of lesser magnitude, which follow roughly the dip of the rocks. But though these different systems of fissures already existed, and, as we might suppose, would have served as natural pathways for the escape of the subterranean melted rock towards the surface, the latter rose through a new series of fractures, often running side by side with those of older date. How were these new fractures produced? and how is it that they should run through all formations, up to and including the older parts of the Miocene basalts, not as faults, with a throw on one side, but as clean, straight fissures, with the strata at the same level on each side? I do not pretend to answer these questions. Let me only remark that, had the trap-rock been itself the disrupting agent, it would have risen through the older fractures which already existed as the planes of least resistance. The new fissures must be assigned to some far more general force, of the action of which the trap itself furnishes per- haps additional evidence. Another feature of our igneous rocks deserving more special consideration is the occurrence among them of true vents, or the sites of volcanic orifices. A very considerable number of these vents is filled up with a coarse agglomerate, consist- ing of fragments of different trap-rocks, with pieces of the surrounding sedimentary strata. Such vents are sometimes not larger than a dining-table. In many cases, where the material filling them is fine in texture, it is well stratified; but its beds are on end, or thrown into different inclined positions. The strata around them are much indurated, and frequently, perhaps usually, are bent sharply down round the margin of the vent, as if the ash or agglomerate, from contraction or otherwise, had sunk and pnilled the adhering strata down with it. Instructive sections of these rocks abound along the coast line of Fife and East Lothian, and they occur likewise in Ayrshire. One other part of the subject may be alluded to as deserving of inquiry. There seem to be indications that local but well-marked metamor- phism and the extravasation of syenitic and granitic rocks have taken place in connexion with some of our most recent volcanic phenomena. In Skye, Mull, and Arran the association of such crystalline rocks with sheets or dykes of dolerite and basalt should be worked out carefully. The volcanic rocks of Britain are now brought under the notice of the Section with the view of indicating a field of research where much remains to be discovered, and{where the labourers are but few. Asa result of the neglect into which it has fallen, the nomenclature of this portion of British geology has been virtually at a stand for about half a century. 5A REPORT—1867. While so much has been done in this respect by chemists and geologists abroad, we are but little further forward than when the great outlines of the subject were sketched long ago by the early leaders in the science. The same vague names, the same confused and defective arrangement, the same absence of careful chemical and mineralogical analysis, so excusable in the infancy of the science, still disfigure our geological writings and even the best of our geological collections. Field- geologists must be content to bear their share of the blame; yet it is not from their hands that the needed reform is mainly to be looked for. They can do but little till chemistry comes to their aid with information regarding the composition of the rocks which they investigate, and the extent to which the nomenclature adopted in other countries can be applied in their own. Surely the time must come ere long when it will be deemed a task worthy of years of long and patient research to work out the nature and history of the volcanic rocks of this country. Such a task will not be the work of a single observer. It will require the labour of the geologist, skilled to glean the data that can only be gathered in the field, and of the chemist who, aided and guided by these observations, shall seek to determine the composition of the different igneous rocks, and the relation which, in this respect, they bear to the rocks of other regions, and to the products of modern volcanoes. But whether distant or near, the day will doubtless arrive when we shall be able to connect into one story, as far at least as our fragmentary records {will permit, the narrative of the varied volcanic eruptions which from early geological times have taken place in the British Islands, and to link that chronicle with the long history of volcanic action over the globe, The passage of Schists into Granite in the Island of Corsica. By D. T. Ansrep, WA., FBS. The object of this communication was to adyocate the view that granite is a metamorphic rock, and not in any sense primitive or the nucleus of the earth. A section was described, the result of observations recently made, taken on the side of a road recently made between Ile Rousse and 8. Florent, on the north-western side of the island. The section presented unmistakeable and numerous alterna- tions of compact, well-crystallized, whitish-grey granite, with argillaceous rock, schists, grits, and rotten granite. The dip of the various beds varies from 30° to 10°, diminishing towards the north ; the thickness of the beds is often several yards, but not very great. There is much granite near, towards the interior of the coun- try, and stratified rocks near the coast. ‘The general inference of the author from this section was, that granites are not erupted but metamorphic rocks, On the Lagoons of Corsica. By D. T. Ansren, M.A., RS, The eastern coast of Corsica, though now the most malarious district in the Mediterranean, was inhabited and healthy 2000 years ago; and there is good his- torical evidence that it continued healthy till the end of the fifteenth century. Remains of two cities are still to be traced on these plains, which are now abso- lutely deserted. Each town was situated at the southern extremity of a large existing lagoon, near a principal river, provided in each case with a delta. Beyond each river, to the north, are numerous small torrents, originally entering the sea, but now feeding the lagoons, which have been formed by the sands of the delta drifted northwards from one river delta to the next beyond, owing to the prevalent winds. The drainage of the torrents is received into and supplies the lagoons. During summer there is no water brought down, and a sand-bar has accumulated until it has become a bank. In winter, the waters brought down are driven towards the northern and open end to escape, but they leave behind a large quan- tity of organie matter which during the subsequent heats of summer rots, and becomes converted into miasma. So long as the communication was open from the torrents to the sea the coast was healthy, but so soon as the lagoon was formed the malaria set in. The largest of the lagoons is that of Biguglia, extending from the delta of the Golo nearly eight miles towards the north. Its greatest width is 3000 yards, diminishing first to 2000 for a long distance, and then to 1000, About a mile TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 from the northern extremity it becomes a mere passage for the surplus water, about eighty yards wide, terminating in a narrow opening to the sea, Aiable to be choked up. It is separated from the sea by a sand-bank, at first 900 yards wide, diminishing to 300 yards. This is generally high enough to keep out the highest storm-waters; but there are remains of two old cuts through which the sea enters occasionally. The area of the lagoon is 4800 acres; the depth averages five or six feet below the mean level of the Mediterranean. Besides a eae number of winter torrents, there is one river emptying into the lagoon. The area supplying the tor- rents is about 20,000 acres, and that feeding the river and torrents to the north of it, about 25,000 acres. The mean annual rainfall of the district is estimated (from three years’ observations) at twenty-four inches, of which ten inches fall in October and November, which is the rainy season. The history of the formation of the lagoon is very clear. About 2000 years ago the bank of sand now nearly closing it did not exist. The bank must have com- menced and increased gradually till about 300 years ago, when it was completed. The gradual depopulation continued for about two centuries. The bank is about seven miles long, a quarter of a mile wide, and fifteen feet high above the shallow sea-bottom outside. i There is proof of the recent closing up of the lagoon in old walls and fragments of buildings near the northern end. There is no doubt of the comparatively modern elevation of all Corsica, but this will not account for the lagoons, These are due to the drifting of the sands, as explained; and as the unhealthiness of the island (which is extreme) is due to the lagoons, it would be diminished if they were greatly reduced. The author believes that by separating the drainage areas of the lake into two parts, and remoying, by pumping, the whole southern part, which is perfectly practicable, at least 4000 acres of rich land would be recovered, and the rest of the land rendered cultivable. The operation could be adopted with great facility and at small expense, and could not fail to exercise an impor- tant influence on the material prosperity of Corsica. On the Granites and other Rocks of Ben More, from a Letter addressed to Pro- fessor Putnurrs. By His Grace the Duxe of Areytt, LL.D., FR. When I was in the island of Mull the other day, I observed a fact which may erhaps be of some interest, which is, that Ben Craig, one of the lower shoulders of en More, exhibits very clearly the passage of a rock which looks like pure trap into regular granite. At the base of the shoulder mountain, which may be about 2000 feet high, it is a mass of a fine-grained compact granite. At the top itis a mass of stuff which weathers white, and has a fracture like some kinds of trap. At an intermediate elevation the trap-like stuff contains many crystals of felspar very distinctly separated. A little lower down these crystals become more frequent, and a granitiform rock appears; and very little lower the regular granite subtervenes. I could detect no separation. The top of the mountain is very white, the rock very shattered, some of it very light, with one or two dykes passing through this trap-like mass. The dykes are of a closer texture, with white crystals, wholly unlike the surrounding mass. I must add that, though this stuff breaks like a kind of trap, it is wholly unlike trap in other respects. _ It is perfectly amorphous, both in structure and in the mode in which it occurs. It is not laid in sheets and terraces like the traps of the same island elsewhere. In short it is not trap at all, but the matter out of which granite seems to have been made by pressure, and crystallization under pressure, Tsend in a separate cover—l. The granite as it appears at the base of the hill, or two-thirds of the way up; 2, a bit showing the appearance of the felspar crys- tals where they appear; and 3, the rock at the top, of which a vast mass of the mountain is composed. The whole structure of Ben More in Mull is full of inter- est. ‘The summit peak is of stratified rock, mica-slate ; and all the lower shoulders are granite or igneous rock becoming granite. 56 REPORT—1867. Report on recent Explorations in the Gibraltar Caves. By Capt. Frep. Brome. The explorations recorded in this communication were conducted principally in “ Martin’s ” and St. Michael’s Caverns. Martin’s Cave opens on the eastern face of the rock, below O’Hara’s Tower. It is an ancient sea-cave, though now upwards of 700 feet above the level of the Medi- terranean. The excavations in this cavern were commenced on the 28rd of June, and continued till the 22nd of July. There were no traces whatever of any previous attempts at exploration. The first operation was to excavate the dark earth all along, close to the south side, which is from six to three feet in depth. At this depth the diggers came upon a stalagmite floor of varying thickness. Here, after a few hours’ work, were found deposited two portions of a lower jaw, supposed to be human; about two bushels of bones of ox, goat, sheep, rabbit, &c.; several bones of birds and fish: two bushels of broken pottery of the rudest or unmarked kind, 57 pieces ornamented; 61 handles and pots; 6 stone axes and 70 flint knives; 1 excellent flint core; 20 Ibs. of flint chips ; 12 pieces of worked bone; a portion of an armlet and anklet; 101bs of sea shells, and a few land shells, together with three rounded pebbles. On the north side the same class of objects were met with, and in a small chamber on this side, under five or six feet of earth, Captain Brome’s son came upon a small chamber containing two ancient swords, one partly imbedded in stalagmite, and both much injured; and on a subsequent occasion, a small enamelled copper plate was found, which appears to have had a design upon it of a bird with its bill open, in the coils of a serpent. The colours are bright, and the object is beautifully made. These interesting relics have been referred by Mr. Franks to the eleventh or twelfth centuries. Excavations were then made in a cavern, situated on the same face of the rock, but a little to the south, and at a higher level than “ Martin’s” Cave, and named by Captain Brome the “ Fig-Tree Cave,’ in which similar rude works of art, consisting of fragments of py flint and stone implements, &c. were found. Japtain Brome’s greatest interest, however, was centred in “St. Michael’s Cave,” in which, day after day, numerous human remains were found, some im- bedded in the stalagmite, others loose, associated with stone axes, flint chips, and flint knives of the smallest size hitherto met with in the Gibraltar caverns. On the north side of the upper chamber in St. Michael’s Cavern, on breaking up a thick stalagmite floor, a small aperture was discoyered. When this had been enlarged sufficiently to admit of Captain Brome’s entrance, he found a series of passages and caverns, the extreme travelling distance of which from the entrance was exactly 200 feet. There were no means of access to it, excepting by the aperture by which Captain Brome entered. The walls were snow-white, and the illars and stalactites of the most variable and fantastic forms. Some of the latter, with the thickness only of a goose quill, were five feet long! The bearings of the cavern generally run N.W. At the south end of this cavern a perpendicular fissure was discovered, through which came a strong wind. The fissure was about nine inches wide, but one of the men (military prisoners) employed was found small enough to creep through it. He returned with a wonderful story of what he had seen. On the next day, accordingly, Captain Brome sent in one of his own sons, about twelve years old, who entirely corroborated the statements previously given, viz. that there were three caves, the first very small, and about twelve feet from the narrow entrance. At some distance further there was another, about twenty feet square, and still further, a cave as large as the upper St. Michael’s first chamber. The distance travelled is 250 feet from the entrance, which, added to the distance (200 feet) travelled in the first discovered cavern, make a total of 450 feet of hitherto wholly unknown caverns in so familiar a locality as the often- visited cave of San Migael. At the date of his last advices, Captain Brome was continuing the exploration of St. Michael’s Cavern, with every prospect of further interesting discoveries. But, as he says, “his surmises, that the unexplored caves would yield the same relics as the Genista Cavern, have been verified, and the fact is nearly, if not quite established, that at a former period all the Gibraltar caverns were tenanted by a race haying uniform habits of living.” is TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Dg On the Lower Lias, and traces of an ancient Rhetic Shore in Lincolnshire, By F. M. Burton. Enumeration of British Graptolites. By Witt1sM Carrutuers, 1.8. The genus was established by Linnzus, in the first edition of his ‘Systema Nature,’ for a series of natural productions which had previously been considered to be true fossils. In the genus, as it appeared in the early editions, not a single species of the fossils to which the name is now confined was included. No alte- ration was introduced into the genus until the twelfth edition, when G. scalaris appears, which had already been figured by Linnzeus in his Scanian travels. This is the true type of the family, and the only species with which Linnzeus was acquainted. The single-celled graptolite, which has by every one been referred to Linneus’s G. sagittarius, has nothing whatever to do with the organism to which he gave this name. His species is founded on a fragment of Lepidodendron figured by Volkmann. To correct this error, and to make the extent of the acquaintance which Linnzus had with these fossils more obvious, it was proposed to substitute the name G. Hisingeri for the species, after the distinguished paleontologist who first described the species, but erroneously gave it the Linnean name. The whole of the species were included by Murchison, Portlock, and others in the original Linnean genus. New genera were introduced by Barrande, M‘Coy, Hall, Salter, and the author. The various genera were then described, their different charac- teristics noticed, and the number of species given. A new genus, Cyrtograpsus, was proposed for a singular form from the Wenlock of England, of which a single species only has been observed occurring both in England and Bohemia, and which the author dedicated to the distinguished author of ‘Siluria.’ The netted forms which had been referred to this family had been carefully examined by the author, but he could not satisfy himself as to their affinities, and for the present must exclude them. The author enumerated the following fifty-two species, excluding synonyms :— Rastrites peregrinus, Barr., Llandeilo. D. septans, Hal/, Llandeilo. R. Linnei, Barr., Llandeilo. D. caduceus, Salt., Caradoc. R. maximus, sp. 2ov., Llandeilo. Dichograpsus aranea, Salt., Llandeilo. R. capillaris, sp. nov., Llandeilo. D. Sedgwicki, Sa/¢., Llandeilo. Graptolithus Becki, Barr., Llandeilo. D. crucialis, Sal¢., Llandeilo. G. conyolutus, His., Llandeilo. Cladograpsus linearis, Car., Llandeilo. G. Halli, Barr., Llandeilo. C. gracilis (Hall), Llandeilo. G. Hisingeri, Car., Llandeilo. Dendrograptus furcatula, Sal¢., Llandeilo. G. Nilssoni, Burr., Llandeilo. D. lentus, sp. nov., Caradoc. G. tenuis, Port/., Llandeilo. Diplograpsus acuminatus, Wich., Llan- G. intermedium, sp. xov., Llandeilo. deilo. G. Clingani, sp. zov., Llandeilo. D. barbatulus, Sa7¢., Llandeilo. G. Griestonensis, Wic., Caradoc. D. cometa, Gezn., Llandeilo. G. Salteri, Gein., Caradoc. D. folium, His., Llandeilo. G. Sedgwickii, Port/., Llandeilo and Ca- D. mucronatus, Hall, Llandeilo. racoe. D. pennatus, Harkn., Llandeilo. G. priodon, Bronn, Llandeilo to Ludlow. D. pristis, His., Llandeilo. G. Flemingii, Sa/¢., Wenlock. ? D. tricornis, Car., Llandeilo. Cyrtograpsus Murchisonii, sp. nov., Wen- D. Whitfieldi, Hai/, Llandeilo. lock. Climacograptus bicornis, Hai/, Llandeilo. C.? hamatus (Bazl.), Caradoc. C. bullatus, (Sa/¢.), Caradoc. Didymograpsus bryonoides, Hai/, Llan- C. scalaris (Linn.), Hall, Llandeilo and deilo, Caradoc. D. Forchhammeri, Gein., Llandeilo. Retiolites Geinitzianus, Barr., Wenlock. D. elegans, sp. nov., Llandeilo. R. yenosus, Hall, Wenlock. D. geminus, His., Llandeilo. Dicranograptus ramosus, Ha//, Llandeilo, D. hirundo, Salt., Llandeilo. D. Clingani, sp. zov., Llandeilo. D. Moffatensis, Cav., Llandeilo. Phyllograptus angustifolius, Hal/, Llan- D. Murchisonii, Deck, Llandeilo. deilo, 58 REPORT—1867. On Calamitee and Fossil Equisetacece. By Wriram Carrutuers, /.L.8., F.GLS. After describing the structure of the recent Eguisetacee, the author gaye an account of the internal structure of the various fossil stems which had been referred to this family. True Zywisetacee were rare as fossils, and the stems of Calamites were very unlike anything Inown among living acotyledonous plants. The most important characters were obtained by botanists from the fructification. The author had obtained, through the kindness of Dr. Hooker, sections of vegetable structures prepared by Mr. Binney, whose extensive acquaintance with coal-plants was well known. In some of these he had discovered fruits which belonged to Calamites so beautifully preserved that the most minute details could be deter- mined, and with the help of his diagrams he described their structure, and illus- trated the various points in which they agreed with, and differed from, the fruits of Equisetacee. He then described the foliage which had been found connected with Calamites, and which had been named Asterophyllites; and he showed that as similar fruits had been found associated with Annularia and Sphenophyllum, which differed from Asterophyllites only in the amount of cellular tissue spread out on the veins, there could be no doubt that these also were the foliage of members of this large genus or tribe of plants. Notice of an “ Esker” at St. Fort. By Rozrrr Cuampers, LL.D., RSL, On the Geology of North Formosa. By Dr. Cortinewoon, M.A., F.L.S. The author presented a geological section, made by himself, across the north part of the island of Formosa, from Tam-sug in the west, to Pe-ton Point in the east. The neighbourhood of Tam-sug was remarkable for an abundant collection of angular and rounded boulders, imbedded in a thick deposit of alluvium. Turther west calcareous grit prevailed, rising into hills, where the strata cropped out at an angle of 15° to the north-east. Among these hills sulphur springs were found, in which the sulphur issued in a sublimed state with jets of steam from crevices in the rocks. On the north-eastern side of the island Red Sandstone rocks prevailed, having the same inclination, and among them were situated the coal deposits, which rendered Kelung an important harbour. On the Geology of the Islands round the North of Formosa. By Dr. Cottixewoon, M.A., FDS. The author described the geological structure of several small islands which he had visited, including the Pescadores (or Ponghou archipelago), which presented some remarkable basaltic formations, resembling in character the Antrim coast. Haitan islands, on the Chinese coast, composed of whinstone trap, granite, and other volcanic rocks ; also two small groups of islands north-east of Formosa, seldom visited, consisting of Craig, Pinnach, and Agincourt islands, and Hea-pin-su, Tia-usu, Pinnacle Rock, and Raleigh Rock, respectively. The complicated struc- ture of some of these islands was described by the aid of diagrams. Notes on the relation of the Glacial Shell Beds of the Carse of Gowrie to those of the West of Scotland. By the Rey. W. H. Crosskey. On the Calamine Deposits of Sardinia. By ¥. Gorpon Davis, Mining Engineer. The deposits of calamine are invariably situated in Silurian limestone, on or near the sumniit of a mountain, and often forming the saddle between two high eaks. The direction they take (with only two exceptions) is north and souta, parallel to the strike of the limestone, and connected with north and south lead lodes, though not often actually in their run. he deposits vary from five to twenty-five fathoms in width, and fifty to eighty fathoms in length ; sometimes several deposits are situated in a line, and thus form runs of ore ground 250 to 300 Se tt TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 fathoms in length. The depth to which these deposits extend has not yet been ascertained. At Monte Poni mine calamine forms the cap of the rich lead deposit. The ore is a mixture of the silicate and carbonate of zinc. The author considers that the deposits are being worked in too reckless a manner. —. Ss On some Mammalian Remains from the submerged Forest in Barnstaple Bay, Devonshire. By Henry 8, Extis, FRAN. The author exhibited a collection of bones, teeth, charcoal, masses of oyster and cockle shells, flint flakes and cores, unbroken flints, masses of peat and clay, broken pebbles, and specimens of bog-oak and other trees, found by him in a certain part of the submerged forest in Barnstaple Bay ; also a part of a stake of the row referred to in the paper. The paper was illustrated by a map and sections. The submerged forest is situated outside the Northam Pebble Ridge, and is of considerable extent; but the bones, flint flakes, charcoal, and shells have as yet been found in a spot (only a few yards square) at the northern end of it, at a dis- tance of about 200 yards from the Pebble Ridge, and about 300 yards from the newly-erected baths. The author states that during the last few years patches of clay and peat have become exposed on the surface of the previously smooth sandy beach of Northam —that whilst on a visit to the adjacent newly-built watering place, Westward Ho, in the summer of 1866, he discovered large quantities of flint flakes underneath some of the patches referred to—that in the summer of this year (1867) he found, near the same spot, the bones, teeth, charcoal, &c. exhibited to the Section. The author’s diagram showed that the patches of clay and peat were laid bare, and stood eight or nine inches above the level of the sand, and at about that depth the flint flakes are found imbedded in the clay; that the bones, teeth, and charcoal are in some places mixed with them, but generally underlie them, and that the large masses of cockle-shells and comminuted oyster-shells lie underneath the whole. Some of the bones and teeth have been examined by an eminent comparative anatomist, who pronounces most of them to be those of Cervus elaphus, and sug- gests that a fragment of one of them belonged to some bird. The bones are, for the most part, in good condition, having sharp fractures, and some of them appear not to have lost their animal matter. The flint flakes and cores are generally admitted to be remarkably good specimens of the well-known type described by Sir John Lubbock, as those of the first stone period. The flakes vary in length from half an inch to two inches (those found in the peaty clay are purple, but those from near the masses of cockle- and oyster-shells are opaque-white). All have very keen edges, and are not serrated, a fact which doubtless arises from each dake being separately imbedded in clay. Some of the patches of peaty clay con- tain roots and prostrate branches of trees, and others leaves of a large ris, in perfect condition, only faded in colour. The common yellow Iris, or flag (Iris pseudo-acorus) grows luxuriantly in the immediate neighbourhood. The author mentions that deers’ antlers have been occasionally dredged up in the bay, and quotes a local tradition that the oak-trees used for the roof and seats of the church of Braunton (which is situated on the northern edge of the delta of the Taw) grew in a forest which formerly occupied the site of the Northam Burrows, and that the trees, when felled, were drawn to the church by reindeer. A species of red deer still exists in its wild state on Exmoor. The author submits that the collection is of interest on account of the various objects, in such a good state of preservation, having been found associated together in a locality which is covered by the sea at every tide to a depth of at least twelve feet, and at so great a distance from the present boundary of dry land. He admits that the burial of the bones in peaty clay underneath sand would naturally tend to their long preservation and protection; but he thinks the general belief of the parishioners of Northam, that the sea is constantly and rapidly encroaching on the land, is worthy of much consideration in forming an estimate of the remoteness of the period when man left those interesting indications of his existence. 60 REPORT— 1867. Notes on the Perseberg Iron Mines, Sweden. By C. Lz Neve Foster, B.A., D.Sc., #.GS. ‘These mines are situated near the town of Philipstad. The ore, which is mag- netite, occurs in the form of more or less thick deposits, parallel to the bedding of the surrounding rock. The rock, or “country,” is Aédlleflinta, which is regarded by Swedish geologists as a very fine-grained gneiss. In the immediate neighbour- hood of the ore, however, the “country” consists of a rock made up of garnet, hornblende, epidote, and varieties of augite ; limestone is sometimes present. The author then compared these Swedish deposits with some very small beds of mag- netic iron ore found in the Crown’s Rock, Botallack Mine, St. Just, Cornwall. The magnetite occurs here under very similar conditions. Both deposits were considered to have existed originally in the form of beds in sedimentary rocks, like the Cleveland iron ore for instance, and to have been since metamorphosed ; the fact that the ore is accompanied by garnet, hornblende, &c., is explamed by the supposition that it was the ore that furnished the iron which enters into the composition of these minerals. An Account of the Progress of the Geological Survey of Scotland. By A. Guixir, FR. The author showed the mode in which the survey is carried on, describing par- ticularly the manner of filling in the geological features of each district of the country on the Ordnance Survey Maps. Upwards of 8000 square miles altogether have already been surveyed. Hitherto the work has been kept back by the small- ness of the staff and the backward state of the Ordnance Survey; but the staff has now been largely increased, and as the Ordnance Survey Maps of the whole of the south of Scotland are now ready, the work will be much more rapidly proceeded with. The area geologically surveyed includes the district from the mouth of the Tay to Berwick on Tweed, and from the eastern end of Strathearn to the sources of the Tweed; also portions of the counties of Ayr, Wigtown, Kurkeudbright, Lanark, and Renfrew. Five sheets of the one-inch map have been published, and others are in preparation. Maps on the scale of six inches to one mile have been issued for the coal-fields of Edinburgh, Haddington, and Fife, and others for the Ayrshire coal-field are engraving. Two sheets of horizontal sections across Edin- burghshire and Haddingtonshire haye been published ; also one sheet of vertical sections of the Edinburgh coal-field. Three memoirs, descriptive of Sheets 32, 33, and 34 of the one-inch map have appeared. Large collections of fossils and rock- specimens haye been made in the course of the survey. On Tertiary and Quaternary Deposits in the Eastern Counties, with reference to Periodic Oscillations of Level and Climate. By the Rey. J. Gunn, M.A., F.GS. The author stated that periodic changes in the level of land and water and of climature had been assigned by men of science to astronomical causes; and that under the impression that if such were the fact, the effects of such periodic changes might still be traceable, he had examined the Tertiary strata in the Eastern Counties. He specified and described at length three several oscillations of level from the period of the forest-bed to the termination of the glacial epoch; and after pointing out advantages in many respects derived from thus tracing the sequence of strata, he expressed a hope that others might be led to male a similar inquiry in older beds, so as to ascertain whether the supposed relation between astronomical and geological cycles holds good or not. The author was of opinion that, considering the length of time that had elapsed since the commencement of historical evidence, during which scarcely any geo- logical change was perceptible, the precessional cycle was too short, and that such changes must be referred to a longer cycle, to which the precessional was sub- ordinate; and he further indulged in the hope that, if the leneth of the cycle were ascertained, and the numbers of such oscillations counted, supposing, of course, that TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 the relation between the two were established, an approximation could be made to the age of certain portions of the crust of the earth. On the Coniston Group of the Lake District. By Professor Harkness, /.2.S., and Dr. H. A. Nicnorson, F.G.S. After describing the range of the Coniston Limestone, a group of strata the position and age of which had been pointed out many years ago by Prof. Sedg- wick, the authors referred to a mass of black shales which rests conformably on these limestones, and which have yielded them a series of fossils new to the horizon in which they occur. These fossils consist of eleven species of Graptolites ; five of which belong to the genus Diplograpsus, five to Graptolites, and one to Rastrites. These black shales, which are conformable to the Coniston Limestone, are also conformably succeeded by the Coniston Flag group of Prof. Sedgwick, and they are intercalated with the lower portion of this group. Upon the Coniston flags the Coniston grits of Prof. Sedgwick occur, and the latter are also conform- able to the former. The Coniston grits have fossils in them, some of which have not been hitherto found in the Upper Silurian rocks of Great Britain; this circumstance, taken in connexion with the conformability of the whole of the Coniston series, induce the authors to infer that there exists in the Lake country a mass of rocks which pro- bably attain a thickness of nearly 7000 feet above the Bala limestone and below Lae Upper Llandovery which have no equal representatives elsewhere in the British sles. On the Old Sea-clif’s and Submarine Banks of the Frith of Forth. By D, Mityz Homn. The author explained the line of old sea-cliff along both sides of the Frith of Forth, which had been formed before the last change in the relative levels of sea and land. He mentioned that its height at the lower parts of the estuary was about 15 or 14 feet above the present high-water spring-tides, whilst near Stirling it was about 31 feet, and to the west about 35 or 40 feet. The author also specified two higher and older cliffs at heights of about 60 feet and 130 feet respectively. He referred to the places where skeletons of whales and seals had been found at heights varying from 18 to 25 feet above the present level of high-water mark, and stated that sea-shells were found in two conditions—viz. first, in undisturbed beds now 14 and 15 feet above high-water mark, where they were entire and perfect ; and, 2ndly, in beaches, where they were broken. He also referred to the ancient deltas, or heaps of gravel and débris at the level of the old cliff, to be seen at dif- ferent places, as at Menstrie, Alva, and Tillicoultry. He explained the origin of the estuary of the Frith, by the great east and west fractures in the country adjoining to the north and south. He said that in the Fife coal-field, the downcasts were almost all on the south side of the fractures, and amounted altogether to nearly 2000 feet ; and in the coal-field of the Lothians, Linlithgow, and Stirlingshire, the downcasts were, on the other hand, to the north, and even to a greater extent, thus peucing a trough or hollow, now filled by an arm of the sea. The rocks in this ollow were covered by various drift-deposits, the oldest being boulder-clay, and, over it beds of stratified clay, sand, and gravel. The gravel was generally on the top, which was accounted for by the water of the estuary shallowing, whereby the ewrents became more powerful, and thus gravel was laid down where only mud or sand could be laid down before. The author next proceeded to describe a long ridge of gravel running four or five miles through Callendar Park, by Polmont eastward towards Linlithgow. He stated that its height was from 30 to 60 feet, and, judging from the materials com- posing it, he considered it had been formed by sea-currents. He said that these gravel ridges were very numerous in our open valleys, and that their direction or course was invariably parallel with the axis or sides of the valley. Though he had not seen the ridge of gravel at St. Fort, described in Dr. Chambers’s paper, he could not help thinking it was to be accounted for in the same way, viz. by marine cur- 62 REPORT—1867. rents, and not as an effect of ice action. He exhibited some Admiralty charts, showing the submarine banks and spits existing in the English Channel, all of which were in like manner parallel to the sea-coast. If this bank was formed in that way, the sea must have stood at least 350 feet higher than now; and, in that view, an explanation was afforded of several phenomena in the district, such as the smoothed appearance of the hard whinstone rocks of Stirling, Craigforth, Airthrey, Castleton, and Logie. He thought it, however, not at all improbable that ice then floated on the sea; otherwise he could'not account for the position of some enormous boulders which he described situated to the east of Stirling, and which evidently had been in some way carried to their present positions. He next adverted to the fact of the old beach-line sloping upward to the westward, there being a rise of at least 20 feet. He did not consider this owing to any unequal rising of the land ; he thought it might be explained by the laws of tidal action. He knew a different explanation had been given of the old beach-lines of the Altenfiord of Norway ; but, whatever may be the case there, this theory of unequal elevation need not be resorted to for the estuary of the Forth. He next adverted to the opinion recently expressed, that the last change of relative levels between sea and land had occurred since the occupation of this country by the Romans. In that opinion he could not concur, Several facts militated against it. Ifthe sea covered the extensive plains to the west of Stirling, up to the old sea-cliff shown on the map, it would have been impossible for the Romans to have had their road, which had been discovered across the moss of Kincardine, or to have had their fort on the banks of the river below Stirling. Moreover, the caves hollowed out by the sea at Wemyss, in Fife, before the last change of the relative levels, must then have been occupied by the sea, and therefore the remarkable sculptures found on their walls, lately described by Sir James Simpson, must have been executed since the Romans left our island, a notion which, he believed, all archeologists would repudiate. In conclusion, he expressed a hope that some one would undertake a survey of the old sea-cliffs con- nected with the estuary of the Tay, as he had no doubt they would lead also to interesting conclusions, and serve to check the results he had arrived at after exa- mining the estuary of the Forth. On the Structure of the Pendle Range of Hills, Lancashire, as illustrating the South-easterly Attenuation of the Carboniferous Sedimentary Rocks of the North of England. By Kowarp Hurt, B.A., F.BR.S., of the Geological Sur- vey of Scotland. (Communicated with the consent of the Director-General.) The author stated that the completion of the Geological Survey of a large por- tion of South Lancashire had enabled him to arrive at the conclusions stated in this paper. Atter describing the general trend of the Pendle range of hills throughout a distance of about thirty miles, from the neighbourhood of Lathom Park on the south-west to that of Colne on the north-east, the author showed that along this range, and especially at Pendle Hill itself, the “sedimentary” strata of the Car- boniferous group attains a vertical development surpassing that of the same beds in any part of Great Britain, Several carefully-measured sections in the neigh- bourhood of Burnley gave the following results :— 1. Middle Coal-measures (only partially represented in this district). 2. Lower Coal-measures ....=....... RP NAAR: 2,000 feet thick. f. NGAUISEONG= CTE SOMES er ise ese gles gig ye Whine ae 55005. es Ay Voredale sentes soap sce ci veka we sea Sa Gan 5,026 «5° bean Total 12,525 ,, ,, And if to this be added the heds of the Middle and Upper Coal-measures which occur in South Lancashire, but have been removed by “denudation from off the Burnley district, a total thickness of 18,785 feet would be the amount of thickness which the “sedimentary” beds alone of the Carboniferous group originally attained in this part of England. This estimate excludes the Carboniferous limestone, which, for special reasons, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 the author maintains ought not to be classed with the truly “sedimentary” portion of the group. Comparing the thickness of these beds in the Pendle district with that of the same formations in the direction of the Midland Counties, as ascertained during the progress of the Geological Survey, the following were found to be the relative proportions :— North South North Lancashire. Lancashire. Staffordshire. Leicestershire, Coal-measures.... 8,260 .... 7,635 .... 6000 .... 26500 Millstone series .. 5,500 .... 2,500 .... 1000 .... 50 Yoredale rocks. .. 5,025 .... 2,000 ..., 2000 ..,. 50 18,785 12,135 9000 2600 These figures showed, in the author’s opinion, a gradual thinning away of the strata towards the centre and east of England, as far as the Carboniferous rocks can be traced in that direction, till lost from view beneath the more recent formations, The author pointed to the above sections as bearing out his views regarding “the south-easterly attenuation of the Carboniferous sedimentary rocks” of England, as explained at the Manchester Meeting of the Association, and more fully stated in the Journal of the Geological Society of London, yol. xvi. ; and also as having an important bearing on the question of the extension of the coal-fields under the Triassic formations of central England. Observations on the relative Geological Ages of the principal Physical Features of the Carboniferous Distret of Lancashire. By EKywarp Hutt, B.A., R.S., of the Geological Survey of Scotland. In this paper the author endeavoured to show that the upheaval of the Lower Carboniferous rocks along the Pendle range corresponded in time, and nearly in direction, with that which upraised the same beds along the northern boundary of the Yorkshire coal-field ; and that this upheaval, running in a line about E.N.E., dates as far back as the interval between the Carboniferous and Permian periods. 2. That the occurrence of small areas of Permian beds on the northern base and slopes of the Pendle range, and resting unconformably on the Lower Carboniferous ticks, as at Clitheroe and Bispham, showed that the upheaval of the Carboniferous rocks took place before the Permian period, and that the amount of denudation must haye been very great. According to the authoyr’s calculation, no less than 19,000 feet of Carboniferous strata have been removed in the Vale of Clitheroe before the commencement of the Permian period. (See thickness of these beds in pre- ceding paper. ) 5. Thatithe upheaval of the Millstone and Yoredale beds along the eastern border of Lancashire, and which resulted in dissevering the coal-field of this county from that of Yorkshire, was later than the period of upheaval of the Pendle range, being in all probability at the close of the Permian and commencement of the Tri- assic epochs. The general direction of this upheaval was north and south. 4, That the disturbances which produced the system of faults ranging N.W., for which the Lancashire coal-fields are so remarkable, were of later date than either of those above-named; and were to be considered in all probability as having occurred at the close of the Jurassic epoch—certainly later than that of the Lias. These three systems of upheaval were shown to correspond to the sides of a triangle, of which the first and earliest lay about 20° north of east, the second about north and south, and the third and latest about N.N.W. On some New Cephalaspidean Fishes. By HW. Ray Lanxesten. Mr. Lankester described a new fish, known formerly by fragments as Plectrodus pustuliferus. THe also briefly noticed a new and large Cephalaspid from the Down- ton Sandstones discovered hy My. Lighthody. A diagram of a restored Cephalaspis, showing some new points in the morphology of the genus, was also exhibited. 64 REPORT—1867. On the Goldfields of Scotland *. By W. Lauper Linosay, ID., PRS L., PLS, The author’s conclusions are based on— 1. Personal survey of the gold-fields of New Zealand. It was while visiting in 1861 the auriferous districts of the Province of Otago that he was struck with the similarity, as respects physical geography and geology, between that country and many parts of Scotland, and with the probable parallelism as respects the distribu- tion of gold. 2. Personal comparative survey of Scotland, and its principal outlying islands, since his return to Scotland in 1862, in order to determine how far such a paral- lelism really exists. 3. Inspection of the specimens of gold and gold-rocks in the principal inter- national exhibitions and national museums of Britain and France, Australia, and New Zealand. 4, Comparative study of the literature of gold in Scotland and other auriferous countries. His special conclusions as regards the Scottish gold-fields are founded mainly on— 1, The similarity of the rocks (Lower Silurian) of a great part of Scotland to those of most other auriferous countries. 2. The abundance in Scotland of the minerals with which gold is most commonly associated in the richest auriferous countries; ¢. ¢., a, Metallic oxides (iron and copper): magnetic ironsand, containing (or not) oxide of titanium. 6. Metallic sulphides (iron, copper, lead ; and zinc). 3. The actual discovery of gold, both in recent and former times, at various points between the extreme north and south of Scotland. His propositions concerning the gold-fields of Scotland are, that— I. Gold is much more extensively or generally diffused over Scotland than has been hitherto supposed. II. The Scottish gold-fields may be divided geographically or topographically into two great areas, viz. the (A.) Great Northern, which is naturally subdivided by the Caledonian Canal. The northern half occupies the longitudinal axis of the northern penin- sula of Scotland, and comprises the greater part of the counties of Sutherland and Ross, and of Inverness and Argyle north of the Cale- donian Canal. ‘The southern half lies between the said canal and the valley of the Tay, and forms a transverse belt across Scotland, com- prising a great part of the shires of Inverness and Argyle south of the canal; and of Aberdeen, Banff, Kincardine, Perth, Forfar, Stirling, and Dumbarton-shires. (B.) Southern—includes great part of Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigton, Ayr, Selkirk, Peebles, and Lanark-shires; and more particularly parts of the districts of Nithsdale, Annandale, Eskdale, Ettrickdale, T'weeddale, and Clydesdale; Carrick; and the Lammermuirs (in Haddington and Berwick)—all south of the Forth. III. Actual discoveries of gold have been made at different times in the follow- ing localities :— (A.) Sutherlandshire—Kildonan on Helmsdale Water. (B.) Perthshire—l. Breadalbane: area of Loch Tay and head waters of the Tay (Tyndrum and Taymouth). 2. Upper Strathearn: area of Loch Karn and head waters of the Harn (Glen Lednock: streams falling from the north into Loch Earn; Ardyoirlich, south side of Loch Earn ; Glenturrit). 3. Glenalmond: Glenquoich and other valleys of the Grampians. (C.) Forfarshire—Clova district; “ Braes of Angus,” Edzell, and Glenesk. (D.) Aberdeenshire: area of the Dee (Braemar, Invercauld, coast about Aber- deen). * Details will be found in a paper on the “Gold and Gold Fields of Scotland” in the Transactions of the Geological Society of Edinburgh for 1867-68, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 (E.) Argyleshire : Dunoon. / (F.) Lanarkshire: Headwaters of the Clyde, including the rich Crawford Moor or Leadhills district (Elvan water, Glengonner, Glencaple, Mennlock and Wenlock, Short Cleuch, Lamington Burn). (G.) Peeblesshire: Headwaters of the Tweed (Mannor water, which flows north to the Tweed; Megeet water, which flows south to St. Mary’s Loch ; various feeders of the Yarrow; Glengaber). (H.) Dumfriesshire: Headwaters of the Annan Ce. streams falling into Moffat water; Hartfell range above Dobbs Linn). IV. The richness of the Scottish gold-tields is illustrated by the following facts * :— (A.) The limited area of the Leadhills yielded at one time (sixteenth century), to systematic working, half a million worth of gold. (B.) In various public or private museums nuggets of Scotch gold are exhibited of the following weights :— (1) 2lbs. 3 0z.=27 0z.=12,960 ers.; worth at current price of gold in Australia (= £4 per oz.) £108: Leadhills: collected about 1502: the largest mass of native gold recorded as having been found within historic times in Scotland. (2) 2.0z.=960 grs.: Breadalbane. 3) 1 oz. 10 dwts.=720 ers. : Leadhills. (3) 10 dwts. =240 grs.: Kildonan. (5) 30grs.: Leadhills (1863). (6) 6 grs.: Moffatdale (1863). (7) Nuggets of 2 or 3 grs. are frequently found at Leadhills at the pre- sent day. V. Geologically the area of the Scottish gold-fields corresponds to that occupied by the Lower Silurian strata and their drifts: in the south represented by the greywackes and graptolitic slates of the Lowthers; in the north by the micaceous schists of the Grampians. VI. Gold in Scotland is not, however, necessarily confined to the Silurian area. In other countries it has been found in rocks of so many different characters and ages, that it is impossible to predicate gold will not be found in any given district or rock in Scotland. In particular, gold has been found in Lawrentian rocks in Canada, Nova Scotia, and Sweden; hence it may at least be looked for in the area of Laurentian gneiss in Scotland, viz. in the Hebrides and western seaboard of Sutherland and Ross-shires. In Canada it occurs also in Upper Silurian strata ; so that it is possible our Pentlands may prove to be auriferous. In California, Australia, New Zealand, and other auriferous countries, gold occurs in rocks of more recent age, as well as in granites, syenites, sandstones and limestones, and their débris, apparently of very different ages. VII. The area of diffusion of gold in Scotland, and the extent to which it occurs, can only be determined by systematic investigation, equivalent at least to the < po ecting” of gold-diggers. VIII. Hitherto, with certain limited and local exceptions, there has been no such systematic gold “ prospecting” in Scotland. IX. “Prospecting” for gold should form part of the duties of the staff of the National Geological Survey of Scotland. From its simplicity it is, moreover, an operation quite within the powers of all classes of the community, who possess, with the necessary interest in the subject, the requisite leisure and local opportunity. X. There are indications (if they do not always amount to proofs) of the exist- ence in Scotland of auriferous guartzites—of gold in situ—as well as of auriferous “drifts” and “alluvial gold.” Gold in its matrix has been apparently found at least in Leadhills, Tweeddale, and Breadalbane. XI. At the present high rates of wages for skilled labour, and with the present rude appliances for its collection, gold-gathering in Scotland is not apparently remu- * T am further informed by Dr. Hill Burton, the learned historian of Scotland, that the gold torcs and other ornaments of prehistoric age found in different parts of our country were, there is eyery reason to believe, the produce of native gold. 1867. 5 66 REPORT—1867. nerative as aregular and separate industry. It is remunerative onlyto those classes of the population the value of whose labour does not exceed 3d. per day, the wages of lead-mining averaging 15s. perweek. But the Leadhills miners find it a profitable occupation for their leisure hours, and they obtain a ready market for considerable quantities at prices varying from 5d. to 73d. per grain=£12 to £15 per oz. Gold to the extent of 500 to 1000 ers. is occasionally collected in Leadhills in a few days for the local proprietors. “ XII. Before it can be properly discussed how far, or whether gold-washing is destined again to become a national industry in Scotland, it must be determined what is the extent and richness of the Scottish gold-fields. Present data are of the most imperfect and unsatisfactory kind for determining this point. XII. Many improvements have been made of late years in the process of extract- ing gold from its matrix and drifts; their effect has been to render it remunerative to collect gold which exists in quantities formerly considered too small to be profitable to work. Hence, in so far as the processes hitherto adopted in Scotland have been of the most primitive kind, it is possible it may yet be found expedient systematically to work on the most modern plan some, at least, of the gold- deposits of Scotland. egarding it as a type of the Scottish gold-fields, the author described in detail the gold and gold-rocks of Leadhills (to which he made a special visit in the autumn of 1863), pointing out the numerous parallelisms between it and the Tuapeka gold- field of Otago, New Zealand. He instituted certain other comparisons, e.g. between the gold-fields of Scotland and those of Hungary (Transylvania), especially as regards the remunerativeness of gold-washing to gipsies and other idle or nomad classes of the population. In. conclusion, he indicated the present vigorous ope- rations of gold-mining or washing companies in Wales and Ireland as an encourage- ment to systematic investigation in Scotland. Sur V Ancien Glacier de la Vallée d’ Argelés dans les Pyrénées. Par Cuartes Martins et Enocarp CoLLome. Tous les géologues sont d’accord pour admettre que les vallées des Alpes, des Vosges et des Pyrénées ont été occupées pendant |’époque quaternaire par d’im- menses glaciers qui descendaient souvent dans les plaines voisines. La carte de V’ancienne extension des glaciers des Alpes et des Woke a été faite; celle des glaciers pyrénéens ne l’est point encore. Dans ce travail nous commencerons & combler cette lacune en décrivant le plus grand des glaciers du versant francais des Pyrénées, celui qui provenant des sommets les plus élevés de la chaine centrale s'est avancé la plus loin dans Ja plaine. C’est autour des pics de Neouvielle, Long, de Vignemale, et dans les cirques de Gavarnie et de Troumouse, qu’on retrouve encore les faibles restes du grand gla- cier qui occupait jadis la vallée d’Argelés et ses affluens; il descendait de la créte des Pyrénées frontiére de la France et de l’Espagne et ses racines s’étendaient de Youest 4 Vest depuis le Pic de Cujé-Palas jusqu’a celui de Serre-Mouréne. La vallée principale, celle d’Argelés, aboutissait en se ramifiant aux vastes cirques de Gavarnie, des Oulettes, d’Estaubé et de Troumouse ou d’Héas. Ces cirques déja trés-élevés, sont dominés par des sommets dont l’altitude est comprise entre 7500 et 9760 pieds anglais. Le glacier principal avait trois grands affluens: celui de la vallée de Cauterets, celui de la vallée d’Arrens, et celui de Barréges. Sa longueur totale depuis les Tours de Marboré, jusqu’au village d’Adé dans la plaine de Tarbes, ou sont ses derniéres moraines terminales, était de 85 milles marins. Cette longueur n’a rien qui doive nous étonner, puisqu’il existe encore dans l’Hymalaya des gla- ciers plus longs que celui de la vallée d’Argelés, Pour étudier les traces que cet ancien glacier a laissées aprés lui, transportons- nous au centre du cirque de Gavarnie. Sur les assises crétacées et tertiaires qui forment les gradins de cet immense amphithéatre, nous voyons encore les glaciers qui sont les restes de celui que nous allons étudier; mais ils ne dépassent pas les bords des gradins qui les supportent. Dans le cirque méme de Gayarnie nous trouvons la derniére moraine terminale de l’ancien glacier composée de blocs cal- caires, de grés nummulitiques et de bréches fossiliféres, elle sépare la portion la, plus reculée du cirque de celle qui la précéde du cété du village de Gavarnie. La Lod TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 vallée qui, succédant au cirque, s’étend de ce village 4 celui de Gédre, présente deux longues terrasses paralléles, élevées de 2050 pieds environ au-dessus de la vallée, L’une 4 droite, appelée la Montagne de Coumely, forme le piédestal des pies de Piméné et de Larrue ; c’est une ancienne moraine dont la surface ondulée est cou- verte de paturages et parsemée de granges 4 foin. La terrasse opposée, appelée Montagne de Saugué, est composée de schistes bruns et de quartzites, & formes moutonnées, quelquefois polies et striées par l’action de V’ancien glacier. Sans s’élever sur ces terrasses, le géologue peut se convaincre sur la grande route de Gavarnie 4 Gédre que le glacier a poli et usé les escarpemens de la gorge ow se trouve l’éboulement appelé le Chaos, et avant d’y arriver il remarquera sur la droite de la route un monticule composé de roches moutonnées, polies, striées et por- tant des blocs erratiques. Je semblables roches se remarquent encore sur la droite de la route & la descente sur le village de Gédre. Prés de ce village, M. Emilien Frossard a vu dans les déblais entrepris pour le tracé de la nouvelle route, des blocs erratiques de grés cretacé jaune et friable, avec Ostrea carinata, provenant du cirque de Gavarnie. Entre Gédre et Luz, on remarque en aval du triple pont de la Scia, prés du torrent de Lassariou, un rocher schisteux entiérement couvert de blocs granitiques. Arrivé 4 Luz, Vancien glacier de la vallée d’Argelés recevait le puissant affluent de la vallée de Barréges. I] était intéressant d’étudier les traces qu’il a laissées dans ce point. Placé sur le Pont de Luz a St. Sauveur, le voyageur peut apperce- voir les blocs erratiques blancs qui entourent les gvanges @’Abié. Ces granges sont construites en granite, et l’un de nous s’est assuré par le barométre que les derniers blocs étaient & 2770 pieds au-dessus du gave sous le Pont Napoléon. Pénétrons dans létroite gorge de Pierrefitte, et nous y verrons des lambeaux morainiques recouverts de gras piturages plaqués contre le flane gauche de lamontagne. Au sortir de la gorge, sur la droite et au niveau de la route, les schistes sont polis sur leur tran- chant, lustrés et creusés par des marmites-de-géant (pot-holes) & section circulaire, La le glacier recevait le plus puissant de ses affluens, celui qui lui apportait les matériaux erratiques les plus nombreux et les plus indestructibles, les granites de la vallée de Cauterets. Le Pie de Viscos, siremarquable par sa forme pyramidale, était le promontoire au pied duquel se réunissaient les deux glaciers, comparable & PAbschwung, qui sépare les glaciers actuels du Lauteraar et du Finsteraar, dont la réunion forme le glacier de 1’Aar, si bien étudié par MM. Agassiz, Desor, Vogt, et Dollfus-Ausset. Une immense moraine latérale gauche, parfaitement dessinée sur la feuille 251 de la carte de France, s’étend de l’entrée de la gorge de Cauterets jusqu’a St. Savin. L’un de nous en compagnie de Mr. Arthur Jones, a étudié plus spécialement son extrémité méridionale au-dessus du village d’Arcizans, situé prés d’Argelés d’ot l’on apergoit les flancs de la montagne d’Escorne-Crabe déchirés par des ravins creusés dans des terrains meubles. Pour un ceil exercé ce sont d’an- ciennes moraines formant une terrasse dont le niveau moyen est 4 2375 pieds au- dessus du Pont de Filhos, prés d’Argelés. Du haut de cette terrasse on s’assure que le Pic de Gez qui domine Argelés et s’éléve & 3290 pieds au-dessus de la mer, est entiérement couyert de blocs granitiques, preuve que le glacier & acquis sur ce point i une 6poque de grande extension l’épaisseur considérable de 2045 pieds au moins. La ville d’Argelés est elle-méme bitie sur une moraine granitique fort basse corres- pondante & l’époque de retrait du glacier: couverte de chataigniers elle s’étend sous la forme d’une longue colline en aval d’Argelés jusqu’au village d’Oost jouant a la fois le réle de moraine latérale gauche pour le grand glacier d’Argelés, et celui de moraine terminale pour celui affluent par la vallée de Salles. Nous voici parvenus & l’extrémité inférieure de la Vallée d’Argelés; 4 droite est le Pic de Jer qui s’éléve & 2895 pieds au-dessus de la mer. Dela route on apper¢oit les blocs qui sont restés suspendus & ses flancs; mais ils ne montent pas jusqu’au sommet ; le barométre nous apprit qu’ils s’arrétaient 4 1300 pieds au-dessus du Gave de Pau. C’est donc ]’épaisseur maximum du glacier en ce point, et la moraine dont nous venons de mesurer la hauteur était sa moraine latérale droite. La moraine médiane a recouyert d’un nombre immense des blocs la Montagne de Béout, qui s’éléve & 2415 pieds au-dessus de la mer, mais seulement & 1236 pieds au-dessus de la riviére. Sur cette Montagne de Béout, le géologue pourra observer les blocs erratiques dans toutes les positions et avec tous les accidens qui ont été depuis long- Be 68 REPORT—1867. temps signalés en Suisse ; les uns se sont brisés en deux dans leur chute ; les autres sont suspendus sur des pentes trés-fortes, un grand nombre reposent sur des blocs plus petits, et quelques-uns sont perchés sur des piédestaux de trois pieds de hauteur environ, La montagne calcaire du Béout a été en effet érodée par les eaux atmo- sphériques, elle présente ces profonds sillons que les Suisses appellent Karrenfelder, mais certaines parties protegées par de gros blocs granitiques n’ont point été atta- quées, et le bloc se trouve élevé sur un piédestal comme ceux qui sur les glaciers actuels forment la corniche d’une colonne de glace dont ils ont empeché la fusion. La moraine latérale gauche du glacier se trouve dans la vallée de Batsouriguiére, au pied d’un céne calcaire dénudé appelé Esch, elle est & 1230 pieds au-dessus du Gave de Pau, et la vallée elle-méme est, pour ainsi dire, remplie de blocs de granite. Sortons maintenant de la vallée d’Argelés, et étudions la moraine terminale telle qu'elle se développe au nord de Lourdes: elle forme un grand are de cercle, passant par les villages de Peyrusse, Loubajac, Adé, Tuloz et Arcisac-les-Angles. Rendons- nous d’abord avec la foule des pélerins crédules ila grotte miraculeuse, ou la jeune Bernadette pretendit avoir vu la Vierge le 14 Février 1854. Le calcaire jurassique exploité le long de la route est arrondi, poli et strié partout ot les travaux des ou- vriers ont mis 4 nula surface de la roche. Ces striés sont dirigées du 8.8.E. au N.N.O. L’église elle-méme est construite sur une roche moutonnée, et au dela, la route présente la coupe @’une moraine avec cailloux rayés et blocs de granite, de schiste, de calcaire et d’ophite. Pour étudier la portion occidentale de la moraine terminale du glacier de la vallée d’Argelés, il faut suivre le chemin de fer de Lourdes’ Pau. Prés dela Gare du rail- way on trouve les grés cretacés du cirque de Gavarnie a1’état erratique, et partout dans les tranchées des granites, des marbres blancs, des schistes, et des gros blocs de cal- caires noirs, rayés et empatés dans la boue glaciaire, Si l’on s’éléve sur les collines qui dominent le chemin de fer, on les trouve également couvertes de blocs presque tous granitiques, et dont quelques-uns ont jusqu’d quinze pieds de longueur. De ces collines on découvre le petit lac de Lourdes; il a 1760 yards de long, et est élevé de 1270 pieds au-dessus de la mer. C’est un lac morainique: il est barré a sa partie inférieure qui se termine par une tourbiére, et se déverse en amont comme d'autres lacs morainiques, ceux d’Orta, de Varése, de Céme, au revers meridional des Alpes, de Gérardmer dans le Vosges, de Llyn Llydaw prés du sommet du Snowdon dans le pays de Galles, Si l’on se dirige de Peyrusse vers Mourles, propriété de M. Fould, on suit le bord de la moraine, et l’on reconnait que toutes les collines qui entourent le lac sont couvertes de blocs erratiques, abondans surtout dans les parties couvertes des fougéres (Pteris aquilina) et dans le bois de chénes ou de chataigniers. Les plus gros blocs sont entre le lac et le village de Poueyferré ; l'un d’eux de granite blanc avec mica noir, 4 30 pieds de long sur 22 de large. Sur les bords de la route de Lourdes & Tarbes, on voit également & un mille et demi de Lourdes, un bloc pyra- midal de lumachelle, qui marque, pour ainsi dire, la limite de la région des blocs, La vallée de Lourdes 4 Adé, que le chemin de fer de Tarbes parcourt dans toute sa longueur, forme, pour ainsi dire, l’axe de la moraine terminale de l’ancien glacier. Entre Lourdes et Adé, sur une longueur de deux milles le chemin de fer coupe sept moraines parfaitement reconnaissables. La derniére aprés le village d’Adé, a 50 piedsde haut; elle est comme les autres entiérement formée de matériaux meubles —sables, cailloux, blocs mélés confusément, et porte a sa surface de gros blocs de quartzite et de granite. A la suite de cette moraine, la plaine est nivelée et recou- verte d’un sable argileux jaune, semblable au loess de la vallée du Rhin, La pre- miére colline coupée par le chemin de fer aprés Adé est composée de schistes méta- morphiques traversée par un dyke d'ophite dont les parties exposées a l’air se décom- posent en boules. Le loess se prolonge dans la direction de Bordeaux jusqu’a Aire, sur une longueur de 43 miles. Surla carte géologique de France de MM. Dufrénoy et Elie de Beaumont il est colorié comme les sables des Landes dont il différe notablement. La partie orientale de la moraine terminale de l’ancien glacier d’Argelés ne pré- sente rien de remarquable; seulement nous signalerons les nombreux blocs qui recouvrent les collines qui bordent la vallée entre Lourdes et Arcisac-les-Angles, sur la route de Lourdes 4 Bagnéres de Bigorre. D’une maniére générale la moraine s'est beaucoup plus étendue yers l’occident que vers l’orient, ce qui devait étre par- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 ceque les affluens du glacier étaient beaucoup plus nombreux et plus puissans sur la rive gauche que sur la rive droite. Quant a la distribution des matériaux, j’observe que les grés cretacés et les schistes dévoniens avec Retepora du cirque de Gavar- nie caractérisent la moraine médiane de l’ancien glacier; les granites blancs a cristaux de Tourmaline de la vallée de Cauterets, la moraine latérale gauche ; les ophites et les quartzites la moraine latérale droite. Cette distribution se retrouve dans la moraine terminale qui s’étend au nord de Lourdes dans la plaine sous-pyrénéenne. Nous terminerons ce mémoire en fournissant une preuve zoologique de la période de froid qui a déterminé l’ancienne extension des glaciers pyrénéens. Notre ami M. Lartet, qui connait si bien le bassin sous-pyrénéen, qu’il a longtemps habité et ot il a fait ses plus belles découvertes, nous a donné la liste des animaux de l’époque qua- ternaire, déterminés par lui dans'le sud-ouest de la France. Tous ont été trouvés dans le diluvium et dans les cavernes et méme dans les alluvions modernes. Tous co- existaient avec les animaux qui habitent actuellement le pays; mais les uns sont maintenant relégués dans les régions septentrionales de 1’Europe ou dans |’extréme nord; les autres ont complétement disparu. Le caractére général de la faune est boréal, et indique un climat plus froid que celui qui existe actuellement; on en jugera par la liste suivante. Taste des Animaua éteints ou émigrés trouvés dans les terrains quaternaires et les cavernes du sud-ouest de la France. (Hid. Lartet.) MAMMIFERES. Elephas antiquus, Fale. Alluvions quaternaires de la Réolle (Gironde). Elephas primigenius, Blum. Alluvions quaternaires de l’Arriége, du Gers, haute Garonne ; cavernes du sud-ouest de la France. Rhinoceros Merckit, Kaup. Alluvions anciennes du plateau de la Roque, Bor- deaux ; cavernes de la vallée de Campan et de la Dordogne. Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cuv. (R. antiquitatis, Blum.). Cavernes des Pyrénées; alluvions de la Garonne et de la Charente. Bos primigenius, Boj. Alluyions quaternaires, et cavernes dans tout le sud-ouest de la France. Bison Europeus, Cuy. (B. priscus, Boj.). Alluvions quaternaires, et cavernes de toute la région. Ovibos moschatus, de Bl. (B. moschatus, Gmel.). Sous des abris de rochers, Gorge d’Enfer et de la Madeleine (Dordogne). Cervus megaceros, Hart. (C. hibernicus, Owen). Bréche de l’Estalient prés Bag- néres, Sepulture d’Aurignac; alluvions de Clermont (haute Garonne); Station de Laugerie-haute (Dordogne). Cervus tarandus, L. Cavernes des Pyrénées, Rebenac, Espalangue, prés de Lourdes, sépulture d’Aurignac, haute Garonne, &e. Capra hispanica, Schimp. (Bouquetin). Cavernes diverses des Pyrénées, de la Dordogne, de Tarn et Garonne, vivait alors dans les plaines. Antilope rupicapra, Erxl, (Isard, Chamois). Cavernes des Pyrénées, de Tarn et Garonne, de la Dordogne, &c. Antilope Saiga, Pall. Représenté seulement par des cornes dans les cavernes de Tarn et Garonne, et de la Dordogne. Castor Europeus, Brandt. Cayernes des Pyrénées, de Tarn et Garonne, et de la Dordogne. Arctomys marmotta, L. Bréche de l’Estalient prés Bagnéres. Arctomys, sp.n. Grotte de Lacombe-Tajac (Dordogne). Spermophilus, voisin du Sp. erythrogenys, Brandt, ou Parry, Richards. Grotte des Eyzies (Dordogne). Ursus speleus, Rosenmiiller. Cavernes des Pyrénées; abondant dans celles de l’Arriége, Tarn et Garonne, Dordogne, &c. Felis spelea, Goldf. Cavernes des Pyrénées centrales, sépultures d’Aurignac; alluvions anciennes de Clermont (Arriége) ; cayernes de la Dordogne, &c. Felis Lynx, L. Caverne de Massa (Arriége), des Eyzies (Dordogne). Felis, voisin du Léopard. Cavernes des Pyrénées; grotte supérieure de Massat et de Bourchette (Arriége). 70 REPORT—1867. Hyena spelea, Goldf. Alluvions quaternaires du plateau de la Roque, prés Bor- deaux ; cavernes des Pyrénées, de la Dordogne, &e. Hyena striata, Zimm, (H, prisca, Marcel de Serres). Bréche de l’Estalient, prés Bagnéres. OISEAUX DES CaVERNES. (Alph. Milne-Edwards.) Gypaetes barbatus, Temm, Cayernes de la Dordogne, Milvus regalis, Vieill. Cavernes de la haute Garonne, Falco tinnunculus, Vieill. Cavernes de la Dordogne, Buteo cinereus, Gmel, Cayerne d’Aurignac, Nyctea nivea, Vieill. (Strix lapponica, Gm.). Dordogne, Hirundo rupestris, Temm. Cayerne de Lourdes. Corvus corax, Vieill, Dordogne. Corvus pica, Temm, Dordogne. Pyrrochorax alpinus, Vieill, Dordogne. Tetrao lagopus, L, Cavernes de Lourdes. Tetrao albus, LL. Dordogne. Tetrao urogallus, LL. Dordogne. Grus primigenia, Alph, Milne-Edwards. Dordogne. Parmi ces animaux les Eléphans, les Rhinocéros, le Cerf d’Irlande, les Spermo- philes, l’Ours des cavernes, les Felis, l’Hyéne, et la Grue ont disparu; d’autres ont émigré, soit vers le nord soit sur les hautes cimes des Alpes et des Pyrénées. Ce sont le Renne, le Boeuf-musqué, l’Aurochs, le Bouquetin d’Espagne, le Chamois, la Marmotte des Alpes, le Castor, le Lynx, la Chouette de Laponie et les Tetruo. Le caractére général éminemment arctique de cette faune nous montre que le climat des Pyrénées était & cette époque plus rigoureux qu'il ne lest actuellement. La zoologie confirme donc complétement les données de la géologie. On the Cambrian Rocks of Llanberis with reference to a Break in the Conform- able Succession of the Lower Beds. By Guorcr Maw, F.G.S., FLAS. Se. A section was exhibited of the lower part of the Cambrian series along the southern bank of Llyn Padarn, which was not visible at the time the Llanberis district was mapped by the Geological Survey. A cutting on the branch railway from Carnarvon, now in course of formation, has exposed the structure of the lower beds and the most complicated part of the series. Underneath the beds worked for slates in the Dinorwic and Glyn quar- ries there occurs a considerable thickness of a compact rock obscurely banded with dark olive-green and dull buff, which rests unconformably on the upturned edges of a still more ancient slate-rock. Many of the similar dark-green bands inter- stratified with the workable slates of the higher series, and which have been grouped with the Cambrian grits and pebble-beds, contain isolated fragments of altered slate, and wherever they are in contact with the blue or purple slates a thin course of altered green slate occurs at the junction. Towards the lower part of the Upper series in the Glyn quarries the green matter occurs as a multitude of thin fanta, in contact with which the slate has been altered to a pale green. The dark-green bands were found on analysis to exhibit a totally different com- position to that of the slate-matrix, and appeared to haye been derived from a different source. With reference to the condition of fusion under which the dykes of greenstone were intruded, judging from the kind of alteration produced in the adjacent slate, the heat could not have been sufficient to effect a purely vitreous liquefaction, as experiments proved that the slaty matrix was fusible at a lower heat than that at which the greenstone was refractory. On Tertiary and Positertiary Action in the Pyrenees. By P. W. Srvarr Muyruars, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7a On the Nature and Systematic Position of the Graptolitide. By Henry Atryne NicHorson, D.Se., M.B., F.GS., He. The author of this paper, after stating the views of those who had referred the Graptolitide to the Cephalopoda, the Actinozoa, the Polyzoa, and the Foraminifera, stated the reasons which induced him to class them with the Hydrozoa, a view originally put forth by Prof. M‘Coy. This opinion was shown to be supported by the morphology of the Graptolitide, and especially by the existence of a ‘‘ common canal” corresponding to the “ ccenosare” of the Hydrozoa, from which arose the separate cellules or polypites. As a special morphological point, it was also indi- cated that the “central disk” of some Tetragrapsi and Dichograpsi would find a feasible homologue in the “float” or “ pneumatophore” of the Physophoridee, - an order of the oceanic Hydrozoa. ‘Passing from the nutritive to the generative system, the author drew attention to the bodies originally described by himself as the “ovarian vesicles” of Grapto- lites, and also to those previously described by Hall, pointing out their close affinity with the “ gonophores” of the recent Hydrozoa. The reference of the Graptolitide to the Hydrozoa was further shown to be supported by their mode of existence and by the determination of allied forms. As regards the former point, proofs were adduced that the great majority, if not the whole, of the Graptolitidz were free and unattached, an almost fatal objection to the belief that they were referable to the Bryozoa. As to the second point, attention was drawn to the existence of a form (originally described by the author under the name of Corynoides calicularis) which was closely allied to the Grap- tolites, but which probably represented the Corynidee or Tubularide in the Silurian seas. The author, in conclusion, declared his belief that the Graptolitide could not he referred to any existing order, or even subclass, of the Hydrozoa, standing there- fore in the same relation to the latter that the Trilobites do to existing Crustacea, In the present state of our knowledge it seemed, therefore, most advisable to con- sider the Graptolites as constituting a new subclass intermediate in position between the oceanic and the fixed Hydrozoa; and there were some reasons for the belief that they perhaps represented the original stock, from which the above existing sections of our living Hydrozoa have primarily diverged. On the Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates. By Henry Atteyne Nicworson, D.Se., M.B., F.GS., Se. The author of this communication gaye a brief description of the Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates, a group of rocks forming the base of the great Silurian series of Cumberland and Westmorland. These Graptolites had been described in 1863 by Mr. Salter, who gave a list of thirteen species. Rejecting some of these, the author was now enabled, by the researches of Prof. Harkness and himself, to de- seribe twenty-three species, of which number thirteen are well known in the Quebec group of Canada, three are new, and the remainder occur elsewhere, either in the Lower or Upper Llandeilo rocks. The author pointed out various peculi- arities in the forms and distribution of the Skiddaw Graptolites, and showed that by their aid we were able clearly to correlate the Skiddaw Slates with the Quebec roup in Canada. The Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates were shown to be referable to six genera certainly, perhaps to eight. The genus Dichograpsus, Salter, was represented by four species, viz. D. Logant, Hall, D. octobrachiatus, Hall, D. multiplex, Nich., and D. reticulatus, Nich. Of the genus Tetragrapsus, Salter, four species had also been identified, viz. T. bryonoides, Hall, T. quadribrachiatus, Hall, 2. Headi, Hall, and T. crucifer, Hall. The genus Dendrograpsus, Hall, was doubtfully represented by branching frag- ments apparently referable to D, Hallianus, Prout, from which D. furcatula of Salter appears undistinguishable. The genus Pleurograpsus, Nicholson, was also doubtfully represented by a single new species, provisionally named P. vagans. Of the genus Diplograpsus, M‘Coy, four species are known from the slates, viz. 72 REPORT—1867. D. pristiniformis, Hall, D. mucronatus, Hall, D. antennarius, Hall, and D. tere- tiusculus, His. Of the genus Didymograpsus, M‘Coy, seven species are found, viz. D. nitidus, Hall, D. patulus, Hall (=D. hirundo, Salter), D. serratulus, Hall, D. bifidus, Hall, D. sextans, Hall, D. geminus, His., and D. V.-fractus, Salter. Of the peculiar genus Phyllograpsus, Hall, two species had been recognized, viz. P. angustifolius, Hall, and P. typus, Hall. Of the genus Graptolites, Linn., four species had been stated to occur by Mr. Salter, viz. G. sagittarius, Linn., G. tenuis, Portl., G. Nilssoni, Barr., and G‘. latus, M‘Coy; but these determinations had been in all probability founded upon frag- ments of the compound forms, On the Geology of India. By Dr. OtpHam. On Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness and Sutherland, with notices of some new to those Counties. By C. W. Pracu. The author first mentioned Pterichthys as being abundant in Orkney, but until 1863 not a vestige of it had been found in Caithness or Sutherland, when in June of that year he was fortunate enough to turn up, in the thin flaggy beds inter- calated amongst the coarse sandstones near John O’Groat’s, an exceedingly small species, with small spined arms, delicately but beautifully sculptured. One specimen had two horn-like appendages, which turn right and left at right angles, and, like the others, differs from those found in Orkney, and, if a new species, the author intends to name it after his late valued friend Robert Dick, so that at least one thing belonging to the Old Red Sandstone, for which he did so much, might bear his worthy name. After a full description of the above, he mentioned Coc- costeus, describing C. pusillus of M‘Coy, of which he had got nearly a perfect specimen at Murkle, near Castlehill. In one he pointed out that the tail was covered either with scales or a tuberculated skin, a fact not before observed. Coccosteus trigonaspis of M‘Coy he considered not a good species, it being made from the lozenge-shaped ventral plate of the above species. M‘Coy himself was doubtful about it. From Wick Head he had obtained Osteolepis brevis of M‘Coy. Dipterus he found was a true bony fish, as might be seen by the specimens produced, showing vertebral column, ribs, processes, and interspinous bones. Of Acanthodes he ha obtained a third species, the Acanthodes pusillus of Agassiz. Holoptychius Sedgwickii he felt sure was also a true bony fish, as seen by the specimen he exhibited, showing similar internal bones to those noticed as occurring in Dipterus. All the above fishes were found in Caithness, and as well, probably, a new Cheiracanthus and spines of Diplacanthus longispinus. At Dornoch, in Suther- landshire, he had found scales of Holoptychius in the sandstones near the sea. Tristichopterus alatus was next alluded to. This really handsome fish was described by Sir Philip Egerton in Decade X. of the Geological Survey, from im- perfect specimens exhibited by the author at the British Association at Aberdeen, in 1859; and although described as a true bony fish, its true place could not be positively made out, from the absence of paired fins, bones of the head, teeth, &e. Specimens of all these were produced, and fully bore out the conclusion which Sir Philip Egerton had arrived at when describing the one got in 1859. After men- tioning the probability of his having found (as well as the above) Annelides in Caithness rocks, he stated that he fully agreed with Sir R. I. Murchison, in his triple arrangement of the Old Red Sandstone in the counties of Caithness and Sutherland. On the Geology and Fossils of the Lingua Flags at Upper Mawddach, North Wales. By Joun Prayr. Mr, R, Stisr0n’s collection of Crustacea was exhibited. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 On the Internal Heat of the Earth. By Dr. Jutrvs Scuvarcz. * On the Relation of the Upper and Lower Crags in Norfolk. By J. E, Taytor, Hon. Sec. Norwich Geol. Soc.* On a new Phosphatic Deposit near Upware, in Cambridgeshire. By J. F. Warxer, B.A., F.GS. fc. At the Meeting of this Association at Nottingham, the author communicated a paper on a phosphatic deposit in Bedfordshire; further light has been thrown upon the nature of that bed by the discovery of another deposit near Upware. The most remarkable difference between these deposits is, that the shells, which the author regarded as proper to the beds, exist’at Sandy and Potton in a ferruginous condition, but in a calcareous condition near Upware. The reason why the same fossils occur in different conditions in these beds is probably due to the proximity of a coral-reef to the Upware bed; for the coral rag occurs at Upware, and a large supply of calcareous matter would be derived from this source. At Sandy the casts of the shells are impressions in the ferruginous sand, which forms the matrix in which the fossils and nodules are imbedded, whilst at Upware casts of these shells occur composed of carbonate of calcium. The author referred to the water- worn condition of the phosphatic casts at Potton in his former paper, but the fer- ruginous nature of that bed was unfavourable for the preservation of the shells pees to the deposit ; in the Upware bed, however, the calcareous nature of the eposit is highly favourable for the preservation of the shells proper to the deposit ; and therefore the difference between the phosphatic casts and the shells proper to their respective beds is more marked at Upware than.at Potton. Bryozoa, Serpule, &c. occur on several of the phosphatic nodules at Upware, having evidently grown on them, the animal having followed the outline of the nodule,which circumstance would tend to show that the nodules have been deposited in a hardened condition in the place where they are found. Remains of the same fishes that are found in the Bedfordshire deposit occur in this bed; also of the reptiles, including Dakosaurus and Iguanodon. The author gave sections of the Upware deposits in the ‘Geological Magazine’ for July 1867, also a list of the fossils; among these there are a great many species of Brachiopoda, including three new species—W. Woodwardii, W. Davidsonii, and T. Dallasi (since described in Geol. Mag. October 1867). The known species of Brachiopoda found in this deposit are of the Lower-Green- sand age, including 7. Sella, T. prelonga, T. depressa, T. Fittoni, W. Moutoniana, &e., R. Gibbsiana, R. antidichotoma, &e. This bed likewise contains numerous fine specimens of sponges, Bryozoa, &c., resembling those found at Farringdon; and during a recent visit to the latter locality the author obtained several shells which he has also found at Upware. The author considered these beds at Potton and Upware to be a drift of the age of the Lower Greensand, containing fossils of that age as well as extraneous specimens. On some Carboniferous Fossil Trees imbedded in Trappean Ash in the Isle of Arran. By HK. A. Wunscu. On the Gradual Alteration of the Coast-line in Norfolk. By J. Wyatt. * See Appendix. 74 REPORT—1867. BIOLOGY. Address by the President, Professor Wini1am Suarrzy, M.D., Se. RS., FRSA. I NEED scarcely remind you that Biology, or the science of the living economy, in its widest sense comprehends whatever relates to the organization, functions, and mode of life of living beings, whether plants or animals, as well as their natural history, that is, their distinctive characters, mutual affinities, systematic classification, and distribution. On account of the extent and variety of the sub- jects which come under these heads, the Section of Biology in the British Asso- ciation has been divided on this as on former occasions into departments, which have been determined, not with a view to logical symmetry of arrangement, but for the convenient transaction of business, The department of Anatomy and Physiology, over which I have undertaken more immediately to preside, will include the structure and functions of man and animals; that of Zoology and Botany comprehends the natural history of animals and plants, and will be pre- sided over by Mr. Busk. Our special science has fully shared in the general advance of human know- ledge, wick goes onward from year to year with steady progress. The area of ascertained truth is continually widening; the line of contiguity between the known and the unknown is perpetually extending ; hence more ample room and multiplied opportunity for passing the frontier and gaining fresh acquisitions in the unexplored region beyond. It has been said that in some fields of science the harvest has been already reaped, and that those who now come after the great discoverers of older times are but the gleaners of what they have left behind. To this opinion I feel sure you will not assent. We, of course, cannot gauge the absolute amount of work remaining to be done in any sphere of mental activity ; but, viewed in relation to man’s power of research, the unexplored ground in every field of scientific inquiry may be deemed practically inexhaustible. The increasing number of cultivators and the mutual aid which different branches of science lend to each other must naturally quicken the rate of advance, Discoyeries in one department speedily find application in other directions, and contribute to onward progress, One step made in advance renders another possible, and the way is thus prepared even for those more conspicuous achievements, in discovery of fact or invention of theory, which at rarer intervals command our admiration. In short, with means of free intercommunication and durable record, the advance of natural Imowledge, although not equable and uniform, becomes unbroken and continuous. In adverting for a few moments to the present state of anatomy and physiology, we cannot fail to be impressed by the general prevalence of improved methods of investigation, and the general use of instrumental and other appliances of greater power or greater precision in scrutinizing the intimate structure of the body, and in observing, estimating, and recording physiological phenomena, We see further marks of advance in the increasing application of the other sciences, especially chemistry and physics, to the elucidation of the living economy, and in the readi- ness with which new discoveries in these sciences are taken advantage of for the prosecution of anatomical and physiological research. Through these means more extended and more precise data are obtained for the discovery or recognition of prevailing laws ant the construction of rational theory; and physiology is ac- quiring more and more the character of an exact study. It is now two centuries since the microscope was first used in anatomical and physiological inquiries, and yet I can remember the time when its use might have been considered exceptional —when, at any rate, it was confined to a very few hands; but now it might almost be said that no physiologist or naturalist is without one. Great improve- ments are continually being made in the potency, precision, and convenient appli- cation of the instrument; and signal advantage has been gained from the use of appropriate reagents for facilitating microscopical investigation. We need not look abroad for examples; some of the most important fruits of recent micro- scopical inquiry are due to the zeal and sagacity of our own countrymen. I need refer {only to the discoveries concerning the intimate structure of the nervous system; and, without invidious selection, I may more especially signalize the well- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 75 known researches of Mr, Lockhart Clarke on the nervous centres, which, I am happy to say, he continues successfully to prosecute,—the discoveries of Professor Beale on the structure of ganglions and of nerve-fibres, and their ultimate distri- bution in the tissues and organs,—and the interesting observations of Mr. Hulke on the retina, By using high microscopic powers, with the greatest address and skill, Dr. Beale found out exquisitely minute fibrils in the peripheral branches of the nerves, and traced their distribution in various tissues. These inquiries have been followed up by the German histologists, and now it is maintained that nerve- fibres may be traced even into the particles of epithelium. Be this as it may, it is satisfactory to know that, as the functional influence of the nerves has been found to govern in a higher degree and more direct manner than formerly suspected the circulating, secreting, and other nutritive processes, so our knowledge of the anatomical domain of the nervous system is being correspondingly extended. As a marked instance, I may refer to the recent observations on the termination of nerves in the secreting epithelium of glands. In proceeding to say a word on other instrumental applications, I may pass over the continued investigations into the electricity of nerves and muscles, and new determinations, by new methods, of the velocity of nervous/excitation, as well as new observations with the ophthal- mometer, ophthalmoscope, laryngoscope, and the newly invented cardiograph, and shall content myself with specializing the investigations made in this country into the phenomena of the wile, in health and disease, by means of the sphygmo- graph, and the important experimental inquiries of Dr. Sanderson on the influence of the thoracic movements on the circulation of the blood, carried on by means of the hemadynamometer and additional ingenious apparatus contrived by himself. The account of his observations is contained in the Croonian Lecture for 1866, delivered by him before the Royal Society, which will shortly be published in the Philosophical Transactions. An important contribution to the physiology of respiration was, not long since, derived from a combined chemical and optical investigation, by Professor Stokes, into the oxidation and deoxidation of the colouring-matter of the blood. Spectrum analysis promises much aid in physio- _logical inquiry, It has been already employed by Dr. Bence Jones and Mr. Dupré, in a most remarkable and extensive series of experiments on the time required for the absorption and elimination of foreign matters by the living tissues. ‘The sub- stance used was a salt of lithia, and it was traced into and out of the non-vascular as well as the vascular tissues. The continued employment of chemical means in physiological inquiries scarcely requires any comment. I must nevertheless make an exception in regard to some recent experimental results which lead to an impor- tant modification of the views heretofore generally entertained as to the generation of muscular force, From an experiment, now well known, by Fick and Wislicenus, in an ascent of the Faulhorn, these observers concluded that the mechanical force and heat developed in muscular exertion cannot be derived solely or principally from oxidation of the proper muscular tissue. Dr. Frankland has subjected their data and conclusions to a careful chemical criticism, in which he determined ex- perimentally the heat, and consequently the mechanical force, produced by the oxidation of albuminoid substances; and, on comparing this with the results of the Alpine experiment, he has fully confirmed the conclusions drawn from it. It would therefore seem as if a muscle ordinarily uses other materials, probably hydrocarbonous, to be oxidated in the production of force, as a steam-engine uses fuel, and not its own substance. More lately Professor Parkes has made, at the Netley Hospital, two series of very careful experiments, in which the whole of the discharged nitrogen was exactly determined; and his experiments, which are related in two recent Numbers of the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ lead to the same general inference as those of the Swiss inquirers; but Dr. Parkes has further found that nitrogen is retained during the actual performance of work, perhaps even taken up in some form by the muscle and assimilated, and that the discharge of it mainly takes place in the period of rest which succeeds exertion. Without unduly protracting these rather desultory remarks, I may be permitted to speak of a new and curious method of research quite recently introduced by a foreign experimenter, which has as yet been especially employed for tracing the more intimate distribution of the ducts in the liver and kidney, but is possibly 76 REPORT—1867. applicable to the solution of other anatomical and physiological questions. It consists in injecting into a vein or introducing into the stomach of a living animal a colouring-matter, which may, after a certain lapse of time, be found filling, and so rendering conspicuous, the gland ducts through which it is being eliminated from the system. It is needless to pursue these considerations further, and it is not my purpose to attempt anything in the nature of a general survey of the recent work done in our science. The number of active workers has so greatly multiplied, and the published results of their labours have become so immense in extent and variety, that, to me at least, it would be a hopeless task to present within reason- able compass any consistent and intelligible summary. In one of the lately pub- lished annual reports on the progress of anatomy and physiology, I find that the writers referred to as having contributed to these sciences within the year are between five and six hundred, and a good many of them are cited for two or more contributions. One fruitful source of this increased production has been the insti- tution in recent years of physiological laboratories in various continental seats of learning, in which practical instruction is given in histological and physiological studies, and where many able and well-trained young men, ambitious of scientific distinction, are engaged in prosecuting original inquiries. No one, of course, can doubt the gain to science thus immensely accruing; at the same time it must be admitted that the eager publication of immature results and hasty conclusions to which some are tempted, and the corrective, or at least diverging statements of others, equally confident, which speedily follow, present in not a few cases an amount of contradiction and confusion most bewildering to any one who desires to master the existing state of knowledge of the subject. But although this is undoubtedly a drawback, it is trifling in comparison with the advantage of mani- fold activity and accelerated progress. Anatomical and physiological journals, and other channels for the publication of physiological papers, have of late years been on the increase abroad, and augmented facilities are thus afforded for dis- seminating new matter; and we admire (I might almost say envy) the number and excellence of the graphic illustrations with which they are furnished. Such advantages are not so freely offered to the anatomists and physiologists of this country. Anatomical and physiological memoirs, for the most part, require elabo- rately executed figures for their illustration, and the expense of a journal illus- trated fully and fitly is found to be a serious obstacle to its maintenance, with the limited circulation which a purely scientific periodical has heretofore obtained in Britain. It has sometimes occurred to me that a publication fund might be esta- blished, which, under unimpeachable management and control, might be applied especially to defray part of the expense incurred in illustrating scientific memoirs. Such a purpose, I venture to think, is not unworthy of consideration by those who desire to promote knowledge by pecuniary foundations. Finally, let me say a word on the influence of the British Association in the promotion of our science. The British Association carries on its work in various ways. One most important line of action is the appointment of committees, or individual members, to draw up reports on the progress and existing state of par- ticular branches of science, or to investigate particular scientific questions by actual observation or experiment, and report thereon; and every year sums of money are voted to meet the expenses of such investigations. These reports are published i extenso in the annual volume, and are, for the most part, of great and acknowledged value. Biological science has fairly participated in these advan- tages, and has further profited through the example set by the British Association, which has led other influential bodies to set on foot investigations by similar means. Doubtless it might be held that the same or like advantages might be obtained through a stationary scientific institution, and without such local gather- ings and annual visitations as that which we are now attending; but it has been justly said that the periodic meetings of the British Association in different places serve not only to freshen the interest and stimulate the activity of the habitual cultivators of science, but also to render the study more widely attractive, and enlist fresh energies in the pursuit; and then it must be remembered that the subjects for reports and particular lines of inquiry are for the most part suggested or determined by the discussions that take place at these meetings. It must be TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 confessed, indeed, that the published proceedings (as distinguished from special reports) of the Section of Physiology make no great show in the series of volumes issued by the Association; but, without undervaluing the reports of these pro- ceedings, I would venture to say that they are not, and cannot well be, a just measure of the useful work done. Much of the good effected by the sectional meetings can neyer be recorded. I remember being present at an assembly of the German Association of Naturalists at Berlin in 1828, and of hearing Oken, one of the most distinguished members and original founders of that institution, declare that the great purpose of the Association was, not to listen to long and elaborate communications, but rather to bring men of kindred pursuits from dif- ferent parts into friendly relation with each other, affording them the opportunity of freely exchanging information, exhibiting new and interesting specimens and experiments, offering mutual suggestions, and establishing useful correspondence. All, I feel sure, will admit that this promotion of friendly intercourse among men engaged in the pursuit of science and those interested in its advancement is (and let us hope it will long continue to be) one of the great benefits conferred by the British Association. On the Preservation of Fishing Streams. By Sir Jamus E. Arnxanper. Notes on the Structure of certain Hydroid Meduse. By Professor Artman, M.D., FBS. I, SLABBERIA. It is well known that in Slabberia there occurs upon each of the four radiating’ canals a definite oval enlargement, which so closely resembles, in external appear- ance and in fposition, the generative pouches of Obelia, and of several other Hydroid Medusz, that a similar function has been hitherto, without hesitation, assigned to it. It has, however, nothing to do with generation; it consists of a mere thickening of the walls of the canal, and in no case could any trace of ova or spermatozoa be detected in it. It is in the walls of the sanubrium that the generative elements are developed, and the manubrium becomes enlarged by their presence for a definite extent, exactly as in Sarsia. Nothing, however, has been discovered which seems capable of throwing further light on the import of the enlargements of the radiating canals. It will be thus seen that Slabberia belongs to that group of Hydroid Medusee which produces its generative elements in the walls of the manubrium instead of in special generative buds developed from the radiating canals. In other words, it belongs to the true “gonophore” rather than to that form of Medusa to which the author had elsewhere given the name of “ blastocheme.” Forbes, the founder of the genus, misled by the peculiar dilatations of the radiating canals, and not recognizing the presence of generative elements in the manubrium, regarded Slabberia as a blastocheme; and this view has since been accepted, although the presence of distinct ocelli and the absence of lithocysts might have raised doubts as to its justice. It may be noticed that Agassiz describes dilatations of the radiating canals in a North American Pennaria, and regards them, though with some hesitation, as generative sacs. There can, however, be little doubt that the medusa of Pennaria is a true phanerocodonic gonophore, having its generative elements developed in the walls of its manubrium ; and it is by no means improbable that the dilatations ae radiating canals in Pennaria may have the same significance as those in labberia. Il. On some peculiarities in the Structure of OBELIA. The little medusa which forms the subject of the present notice is produced by the very common hydroid Obelia (Laomedea) geniculata, from whose gonangia it may be seen escaping in shoals during the whole of the spring and summer months. The marginal tentacles in the recently liberated medusa are twenty-four in number. Of these four are radial, being situated in the same meridional planes with the radiating canals, and between every two radial are five interradial ten- 78 REPORT—1867. tacles; they have all a very distinctly chambered axis, composed of a single series of cells whose contiguous walls form the transverse {partitions. Each chamber contains a clear homogeneous fluid, with a nucleus which is usually seated on the centre of the partition wall, and imbedded in a mass of granular protoplasm, which is frequently continued through the axis of the cell in the form of a filament. The chambered axis of the tentacle becomes slightly thicker towards the proximal end, and is here continued into the substance of the umbrella, through nearly the entire of whose thickness it runs. The terminal cell of the tentacle root thus plunged into the gelatinous mass of the umbrella is much larger than any of the others which form the axis of the tentacle. Like the other cells of the axis, it frequently presents a nucleus on some part of its walls. The axis of the tentacle is surrounded by an ectodermal tube, composed appa- rently of membraneless cells, and having great numbers of minute, curved thread- cells immersed in it. Near the root of the tentacle its ectoderm is thickened into a cushion-like swelling, which becomes continuous with the umbrella margin. Between the ectoderm and the chambered core of the tentacle is a well-marked layer of longitudinal muscular fibres. The tentacle is thus absolutely solid in its entire extent, presenting nowhere any trace of an axile tube. There can be therefore no communication between it and the circular canal, which accordingly simply passes over the subumbrellar side of its root. The author had been unable to find any trace of a velum which, certainly at the period of liberation, does not present a visible rudiment, though in certain positions of the medusa the optical expression of the thickness of the umbrella produces a deceptive appearance which may be mistaken for a narrow velum. It will be thus apparent that there are two points in which Obelia contrasts most strongly with the great majority of hydroid Meduse, namely, (1) the structure of the tentacles, and their entire want of connexion with the gastrovascular system, and (2) the non-development of a velum. The condition of the tentacles in Obelia is entirely that of those organs in the very aberrant genus Cunina, where they are also inserted into the substance of the umbrella by a root chambered like the rest of the tentacle. The tentacles of Obelia, too, just like those of Cunina, are remarkable for their slight extensibility, their motions consisting chiefly in a spasmodic jerking up and down. The umbrella possesses but slight contractility, and the progression of the medusa would appear to be chiefly effected by the fin-like action of the tentacles. The habitually everted condition of the umbrella, which causes what is its inner surface in other medusee to become here convex, and its outer surface to become concaye, would seem to be connected with the non-development of a velum, Ill. The Structure of the Lithocysts in the Medusa of CAMPANULARTIA. In the medusa of Campanularia Johnstoni (a medusa referable to the deep- belled section of Gegenbaur’s genus Eucope) the marginal bodies or “lithocysts ” are situated on a chord-like structure which runs round the margin of the umbrella, and which presents a little oval enlargement at each of the points where it sup- ports a lithocyst. This chord-like portion has been noticed in other meduse, and has been regarded as a nerve-chord with ganglionic enlargements; but it is plainly nothing more than the ectoderm of the lower surface of the marginal canal. The lithocyst is immersed for a slight depth in the marginal enlargement which sup- ports it, and which sends a very delicate extension of its substance over the whole of its free surface; it consists of a spherical, transparent, and structureless vesicle, the greater part of whose cavity is occupied by a soft pulp. In this pulp, which has necessarily a spherical form corresponding to that of the containing vesicle, there is excavated at the distal pole, or that which is opposite to the basis of attachment of the vesicle, a pit-like cavity, and within this cavity, but not entirely filling it, is the spherical, highly refracting concretion. In the spherical pulp itself no trace of structure could be detected, but its surface is marked by twelve or fifteen delicate striae, which take a meridional course at exactly equal distances from one another. At the distal pole they all terminate distinctly in the margin of the pit-like excavation, and may be thence traced to within a short distance of TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 the opposite pole, the strie generally appearing light-ccloured when contrasted with the darker intervening spaces. On the nature of these strie no further light could be thrown; but the author had little doubt that they are what Hensen has incorrectly interpreted as “auditory hairs” in a medusa which he refers to the genus Obelia, but which probably belongs to the present type. It will be seen, too, that the structure of the lithocyst in Campanularia differs in many respects from that of the same body in the Geryonide as described by Heckel, though the meridional stri# with which the surface of the central pulp is marked in Cam- pandaria may suggest a comparison with the two supposed “ sense-nerves ” which Heeckel has observed running in two opposite meridians on the inner side of the wall of the capsule in Carmarina and Glossocodon. Notice of some rare Plants recently collected in Scotland. By Professor Batrour, M.D., M.A., PRS. In this communication Professor Balfour alluded to the localities for rare plants in Scotland, and referred to the statements made as to the supposed disappearance of plants from the zeal of botanical collectors. He stated that a prize had been offered by the Maharajah of Jeypore to the Botanical Class of the University of Edinburgh for the best collection of Scotch plants, and that the announcement of this had called forth a severe remonstrance from a London correspondent, who warns the University against allowing such a prize to be given on account of the risk of extirpating rare plants. Professor Balfour showed that such fears were groundless, and that the localities of rare plants had suffered, not so much from botanists as from nurserymen and others who collected for the purpose of sale, as well as from the improved cultivation of the country, drainage, and other agricul- tural improvements. One rare plant, Phyllodoce cerulea, had been nearly destroyed by the rapacity of a Scotch nurseryman; but Professor Balfour was happy to say the plant still existed on the Sow of Athole, and he showed a specimen which had been collected in August last. Drainage was affecting seriously the localities in which Corallorrhiza innata was known to grow, but several new stations had been found in Scotland. Pinguwicula alpina was becoming very scarce, owing to the drainage of the Black Isle. The greatest injury had been caused in the case of ferns, which were now cultivated for sale to a very large extent; and Professor Balfour knew of instances where English collectors had robbed stations for Woodsia hyperborea and ilvensis, Cystopteris montana, -Asplenium septentrionale, A. germanicum, and others. In these cases money-making was the object. He was glad to say, however, that new localities were constantly being discovered, and that botanists were now becoming cautious in their communication to ruthless vendors of plants. New localities had been found for Goodyera repens near Edin- burgh and near Melrose. Corallorriiza innata had been found in several places in Fife and Perthshire. Professor Balfour then noticed an addition to the flora of Scotland in the case of Apera interrupta, which occurred in large quantity on Dirleton Common, about twenty miles east from Edinburgh. He then gave an account of a trip to Dal- whinnie in August last, during which he and his party had visited the Sow of Athole, the Boar of Badenoch, Loch Ericht and Loch Laggan, Ben Aulder, and Corryarder. He described the occurrence of snow in large quantity on the hills, and mentioned that he observed Polypodium alpestre and P. flevile in abundance. He had gathered in Glen Tilt Dicranum Grevillianum and several other rare mosses which had been recently discovered by Miss McInroy of Lude. He had visited the station of Polypodium caleareum, near Aberfeldy, and observed the fern growing plentifully in an old limestone-quarry. He noticed also the occurrence of Aster salignus in considerable quantity in several stations on the banks of the Tay, par- ticularly near Dalguise and Seggieden. In the latter place it had heen’seen for many years by Colonel Drummond-Hay. : On the Claims of Arboriculture as a Science. By Witt1am Brown. The author said that those points in the scientific culture of trees the elucidation of which is so much wanted to guide and assist the practical forester, or those 80 REPORT—1867. influences, good or bad, which trees are found to possess over the soil and climate, had not been taken up by the Association. He wished now to claim for arbori- culture such a position in science as its importance deserved. He showed that trees occupied in Britain one twenty-second part of the whole area, or only one-third less than what is under green crops. To every eleven acres of cultivated land there is one of wood, and one to every sixteen of uncultivated. The gross yearly value of this wood-crop was stated to be no less than £2,500,000. The effects of trees on the climate were then explained, injudicious clearings or overplanting respectively causing aridity and humidity. The want of a due proportion of a country under a tree-crop is certain to cause irregularity of temperature, violent storms, and dry- ness ; while it may be, on the other hand, over-clothed, so as to bring about just the opposite effects. As illustrative of the effects of trees on the health of the eo reference was made to the districts of Grantown and Abernethy, in trathspay, which until of late were covered with close masses of plantation and natural forests ; but a regular system of thinnings and clearings having been carried out, the result has been a great and gradual decrease of deaths, in consequence, as he fully substantiated by statistics, mainly to the wood-surface having been brought down to a more healthy proportion. On British Fossil Cycadee. By W. Carrvutugrs, F.L.S., F.GLS. After describing the structure and peculiarities of living Cycads, the author gave a history of our knowledge of the known British fossil species. Two genera had been described, Clathraria and Cycadordea, Clathraria had a simple or bifurcated stem, with the internal structure of Cycas. The scars on the stem are alternately large and small as in the recent genus, and some fruits found in the same beds with them agree generally with those of Cycas. Four species have been found, Clathraria Lyellii (Mant.), C. Mantelli (Carr.), C. Buchklandi (Carr.), and C. Millert (Carr.) A new genus, Vatesia, was established for a fossil with a simple stem with uniform scars and having fruits in terminal cones. A single species was known of this genus in Britain, Y. Morisii (Carr.). Buckland’s genus Cycadoidea had bulbiform trunks with small branches permanently attached to the stem. Three species have been described, C. megalophylla (Buckl.), C. microphylla (Buckl.), and C. pygmea (Lindl. and Hutt.). A fourth genus, named Bennettites, in acknowledgment of the great assistance given to the author by J. J. Bennett, Esq., of the British Museum, was established for three remarkable forms, distinguished from all other Cycads in having an oval stem and a single woody cylinder from which the vascular tissue for each leaf separated in a single bundle. The fruit of the genus was described. This consisted of seeds borne on the ends of branched pedicels, which were deve- loped from the apex of short branches in the axils of the leaves. Three species were described, Bennettites Savbyi (Carr.), B. Gibsoni (Carr.), and B. Peachii (Carr.). Remarks on the Entozoa of the Common Fowl and of Game Birds, in their supposed relation to the Grouse Disease. By Dr. Cosnoxp, F.R.S., F.L.S, The author presented a list of upwards of twenty distinct forms of Entozoa which had been recorded as infesting this group of birds. Taking each bird sepa- rately, one entozoon only had been described as infesting the red-legged partridge ; . five had been found in the grey partridge, four in the quail, four in the common grouse, three in the black grouse, four in the pheasant, and, lastly, fourteen in the fowl. It would seem that the prevalence or absence of Entozoa in the grouse had no connexion with the so-called “ grouse-disease ;” that was an inflammatory dis- order of the blood terminating in gangrene and pyemia. The tapeworm of the grouse had been regarded as a distinct species; but the author had no doubt that it was identical with the Tenia linea, which also infested the partridge and quail. Observations on the Habits of Flyingfish (Exoccetus). By Dr. Cottinewoon, MA., F.LS, These observations were made with a view of discovering the object of the flyinefish’s aerial excursions, and also the mode by which they sustained them- —_ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 selves so long out of the water, and propelled themselves through the air. The results satisfactorily show that the {lyinglish never leaves the water except pressed by its aquatic enemies; and with regard to the second point, although their passage from the water to the air is always accompanied by a rapid vibration of the pectoral fins, such a vibration does not continue, nor does it recur unless the fish passes through a wave-crest, or in‘some manner wets its fins afresh. In this case a new vibration occurs, and it seems the stimulus of the sea-water produces the vibration in question. But the fish may progress with great rapidity for 70 or 80 yards, without any fresh vibration, although it never rises more than a foot or eighteen inches above the surface of the waves. On Pelagic floating animals observed at Sea. By Dr. Cottrnewooo, M.A., FLAS. In this paper the author gave an account of observations upon the occurrence and range of certain oceanic Mollusca, Pteropods, compound Tunicata, minute Crustacea, &c., which he had met with in a voyage of considerable duration, chiefly within the tropics. It was illustrated by specimens and coloured drawings. Notes on Oceanic Hydrozoa. By Dr. Cottinewoon, M.A., FDS. The various species of Lucernariadze and Physophoride formed the subject of this communication. The author referred to the circumstances under which they occa- sionally occurred in great profusion upon the surface of the ocean, usually all of the same species, at the same time. ‘I'he shoals embraced, on different occasions, Aurelia, Rhizostoma, Pelagia, Stephanomia, Physalia, Velella, and Porpita. He espe- cially described the magnificent species of Physalia, seen in some abundance near the Equator in the Atlantic Ocean, which were each accompanied by a number of small fishes, which harboured un ler the shelter of the long tentacles and polypites of the Physalie. On some remarkable Marine Animals observed in the China Seas. By Dr. Cortrnewoon, M_A., F.Z.S. The author stated that he had found many new species of Nudibranchiata, Pla- narian Annelids, Crustacea, Echinoderms, &c. upon the shores of China, Formosa, Borneo, and Singapore Straits, of which he exhibited specimens. He described the habits of some remarkable crustaceans which inhabit the sandy shores of these countries, and exhibited some new species of snapping shrimps (Alpheus) from China and Singapore. He announced also the discovery of some enormous Actiniz inhabiting the coral-reefs of the China seas, in which a number of fishes lived semiparasitically. He had met with these Actiniz on the submerged reefs of the China seas, and also upon the coast of Borneo, and had himself extracted a living fish from one of them. The paper was illustrated by a large series of coloured drawings, made by the author, from life, the greater part of them being of new species, to be afterwards described. On Trichodesmium, or Sea-dust. By Dr. Contincwoon, M.A., F.LS. The curious little Alga remarked by former observers as discolouring the sea in some parts of the world was observed by the author in greatest profusion in the China sea, where it formed a thick scum of many miles in extent. It never pre- sented the blood-red appearance of the two species of Zrichodesmium described by Montague and others, but was always of a uniform pale straw-colour. ‘The author believed that it was a different species from 7. Ehrenbergii or T. Hindsii; and stated that it was confervoid in character, exhibited no spontaneous movements, but was, in some parts of the Indian Ocean, associated with an Oscillatoria, which he also described with figures. Professor Dickson exhibited an abnormal Leaf of Prenes lauro~cerasus. 1867. 6 82 REPORT —1867. On the Morphology of the Arthropoda. By Anton Dourn, Dr. Phil. Jena. The author had studied the development of Palemon, Lithodes, Portunus, and more especially Mysis and Cuma. He considers the complex respiratory apparatus of Cuma as a high degree of elaboration of the simple form met with in Zoéa. The micropyle apparatus in the back of Cuma and the Edriophthalma is nothing but the remains of the dorsal spine of Zoéa, or rather of the larval form of the cirripeds, which he calls Archizoéa, as he believes Zoéa takes its origin from it. The larval membrane of Cuma and Edriophthalma is nothing but the last remains of the carapace of the Nauplius of the cirripeds. The trefoil-like appendages of Azellus are the last remains of the Zoéa state, representing the carapace, the spines on the sides of the carapace, and the respiratory apparatus of the Zoéa. The two pairs of antenna and the mandibles of the Crustacea are homologous with the three pairs of extre- mities of Nauplius. The plate and appendage which reach the top of the head in the Cuma embryo develope into the carapace and branchial apparatus. The plate in Cuma and Phryganea are identical. In Cwna it becomes the carapace, in Phry- ganea the head-plate ; whilst the appendage which in Cwma forms the top of the branchial apparatus, forms in Phryganea the antennee. Amblystegium confervoides, a Moss new to Britain. By Joun Frasnr, M.D. While visiting Dovedale, on the 29th of November 1866, for the purpose of exa- mining its mosses, the author was fortunate enough to find a small and in some re- spects an insignificant moss, but which has never before been observed in the British Isles. Ithas been submitted both to My. Wilson of Warrington and Pro- fessor Schimper of Strasburg, who are quite agreed as to what the moss is, and who are satisfied that this is the first time it has been recorded in this country. It has previously been found on the Alps and other parts of Europe. The romantic dale of the Dove is on the confines of Derbyshire and Staffordshire ; it consists of the Mountain Limestone, which rises on either side to a considerable elevation. The new moss was picked up in that portion of it which belongs to Staffordshire, growing in patches more or less extensive, not on the bark of trees, nor on the solid rock, but on detached stones of small size in shady places. It has not been found except in one place, and that over a small area and in small quantity. It is to be hoped that it may be found in other parts of the limestone in that district, as well as in other parts of England. The moss itself is one of the smallest species. It has much affinity to Hypnwm incurvatum, differing chiefly in its smaller size, hair-like depressed branches, and in the lax texture of the leaves, which are quite destitute of nerve. At first it was supposed to be Amblystegium subtile ; but this has a straight erect capsule, no cilia to the inner peristome, and leaves faintly nerved. The following description of it was drawn up for the most part by Mr. Wilson: —Amblystegium confervoides of Bruch and Schimper is moncecious, growing in patches on stones and in shady places; stems creeping, very slender, subpinnate, sparingly branched ; branches capilliform; leaves scattered, secund, more or less spreading, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, entire, nerveless; perichetial leaves longer, erect ; capsule cernuous oblong, slightly incurved, pale brown, semipellu- cid ; operculum convex, eee annulus small, deciduous ; inner peristome with Cilia; outer peristome yellow, fruit-stalk one-third of an inch long. Specimens and drawings of this moss were exhibited. On the Destruction of Plantations at Drumlanrig by a species of Vole. By Dr. Grierson. The ravages of one or more species of Arvicola or Vole in the plantations at Drum- lanrig in Dumfriesshire have been for years increasing. _ As far as the author can learn, such was not specially noticed until about the year 1852. Since then the de- struction might be represented by high figures. It would seem that the Voles have migratory habits, at times appearing in vast numbers in plantations where they had not been previously noticed, andwhich they almost completely destroy. The destruc- ticn is principally among the young oaks and ash. A ring of bark is gnawed from the tree close to the root, where it is covered with grass. The effect of this ring of SS TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 bark being removed is the destruction of the tree. Plantations are liable to be so injured until they are of more than twelve years’ growth. Should there be any trees of holly their bark is almost wholly removed. it is in the winter months that the destruction chiefly takes place, especially when the ground is covered with snow. In the examination of hundreds of voles obtained from the Drumlanrig plantations the author distinguished two species : the one corresponds to the Arvicola pratensis, the other to the A. agrestis. The former bears but a small proportion in number to the latter. There can be little or no doubt that the enormous increase of voles is owing to the relentless extirpation of rapacious birds, and especially of the weasles. While nature gaye unlimited fertility to the Rodentia, she bounded their destructive increase by the carnivora; and it is not wise for man, for the sake of sport, to disturb that order. Nature will not suffer him with impunity; the forests will become blighted, and the land overrun with vermin, unless he ceases to destroy indiscriminately the hawks, the owls, and the weasles. On certain Simulations of Vegetable Growths by Mineral Substances. By Joun Draxin Heaton, M.D. Several observers have noticed the curious arborizations which are developed upon crystals of various salts when immersed in a solution of silicate of soda, varying in form and other characters. Sulphate of iron seems to be the salt whose crystals, when so immersed, produce the most free and beautiful forms; and_ the observations noticed had been made with this salt. If small fragments of these crystals be dropped into a solution of silicate of soda, formed by diluting the commercial solution with about twice its measure of water, and having a density -of about 1-065, very beautiful arborizations will soon begin to shoot perpendicularly upwards, attaining the height of 3 or 4 inches in a few hours, consisting of trunks subdividing and ramifying into branches of the greatest delicacy, and exactly re- sembling a miniature forest of leafless trees, or imitating a mass of conferve, the mode of ramification and the rapidity of growth varying with the density of the solution used. Ifa much weaker solution be used, formed by diluting that of the strength previously employed with two or three times its own measure of water, and the crystal be suspended by a thread just below the surface, instead of being allowed to drop to the bottom, roots will shoot downwards to the bottom of the glass jar containing the solution, but there will be no growth upwards. By using a solution of an intermediate strength the author had sometimes obtained contorted fibres, like roots, growing downwards, and stems growing perpendicularly upwards on the same crystal, suspended in the middle of the solution. The branches which erow upwards, like the ascending stem ofa plant, do not owe their tendency to ascend to their having a lower specific gravity than the liquid in which they are formed ; on the contrary, when broken from their support, they at once sink to the bottom of the liquid. The same is true with respect to the downward roots, which sink to the bottom when detached from the crystal on which they form. They are very friable, but have sufficient strength to retain their form for some days if not dis- turbed; but when lifted out of the liquid, they collapse and fall to pieces. Both silex and the salt of iron enter into their composition, as is evidenced by their colour, which is various tints of olive or bluish green, and their brittle insoluble character. The weaker the solution the more silex and the less iron enters into their composition, the branches being of a paler colour, or almost white, according to the strength of the solution. Examined microscopically, the ultimate ramifica- tions are found to be cylindrical, but gradually tapering to fine needle-like extre- mities, and tubular throughout; the walls being formed of a delicate inciustation, have no appearance of crystallization, but are finely granular. They subdivide like the branches of a tree ; sometimes they are irregularly contorted ; sometimes two - adjacent parallel branches unite, and again separate just as we see in the threads of microscopic confervee, the tubular formation, however, being continuous through- out. The tubular character is equally apparent in the roots; but their terminations are more abrupt, sometimes club-shaped, These phenomena present strong resemblances to the modes and forms of growth of bodies belonging to the vegetable kingdom of organic nature. The Ge 84 REPORT—1867. ascending and descending growths of the stem and root of a plant are exactly imitated by these formations, influenced by some force which is neither that of gravitation nor the molecular attraction of crystallization. The growth of these formations is likewise interstitial, like that of an organized living tissue ; otherwise how can the conical tubular extremities be carried forwards as the branches elon- gate ? or how can these tubular branches unite and again separate, the continuity of the tubes remaining unbroken? ‘hese curious formations present another ex- ample of the approximation of dead matter to living organizations in the modes in which they increase, and in the forms which they assume ; and they seem to increase the difficulty of defining even between the primary division of organized living beings and inorganic substances. If these forms, or an exact photographic tran- script of them, were offered to an observer previously uninformed of their true nature and origin, they would in all probability be pronounced to be vegetable. Or supposing such purely mineral substances to have been formed in bygone geological eras, and to have been accidentally fossilized in some primary or other ancient rock, they would very probably, when discovered by recent investigation, be pronounced to be an evidence of organized beings having existed contemporaneously with the formation of such rock. On the occurrence of Aster salignus ( Willd.) in Wicken Fen, Cumbridgeshire. By W. P. Hiern, M.A. The above plant was found on the 25th of August 1867, growing in company with Cladium Mariscus, Thalictrum flavum, Peucedanum palustre, Carduus pratensis, Agrostis canina, Lastrea Thelypteris, and several salices. On the same fen, about two months previously, the author also found the very rare orchid Stwrmia Leselit (R.). The soil of Wicken Fen consists of a thickness of eight feet or more of peat over- lying a basin of gault. The peat arises from the decay of various aquatic plants, and carbonate of lime is stored in the ditches by the Charas that grow in them. Attention was drawn to the habit of the specimens which accompanied this paper, for they have the appearance of wild plants. The spot where the Aster grows is in the midst of sedge, and no house is near it. A living specimen has been placed under the care of the curator of the Cambridge Botanical Garden. The following is the name, with references, and the description of the plants :— Aster salignus (Willdenow), Species Plantarum, tom. iii. pars iii. p. 2040. n. 66 ; Nees, Gen. et Sp. Asterearum, p. 90. n. 66; Gren. and Godr. Fl. de France, vol. ii. p- 102; DC. Fl. Fr. vol. v. p. 470; Rehb. Flor. Germ. et Helvet. vol. xvi. p. 7; vol. xvii. pl. emviii. fig. 1; Fl. Dan. vol. xiv. pl. 2475. Rhizome perennial, creeping. Stem 1-1} ft. high, solid, herbaceous, leafy, smooth, nearly glabrous, purplish towards the base, erect, simple below, branched above, racemosely panicled ; branches five-ranked, corymbose. Leaves sessile, lan- ceolate, half clasping, not fleshy, bright, scabrous on margins, serrate in the middle, 1-veined ; lower leaves attenuate at base, those of the branches linear, entire. Phyl- laries loose, linear, nearly equal, outer ones not reflexed, Receptacle slightly con- vex, alveolate. Florets of the ray ligulate fertile, pale lilac. Florets of the disk yellow tubular. Pappus filiform, dirty white. Fruit compressed, pubescent with longitudinal ribs. Habitat. Wicken Fen, Cambridgeshire. Flowers in August. Willdenow’s definition of the species is as follows :— “ A, foliis lineari-lanceolatis sessilibus integerrimis margine scabris, inferioribus lanceolatis apice serratis, caule paniculato glabro erecto, calycibus laxis imbri- catis, —W. “ Habitat in Germania ad ripas Albis, etin Hungaria, % (v.s.). “ Corolla radiis albis, demum czerulescens.” The species salignus of the genus Aster belongs to the section Genwint, which con- tains, according to Nees (a.p. 1833), 69 species, and of these none but this species and perhaps another (A. riparius, N. ab E.) are natives of Europe ; 65 of them belong to the middle regions of North America, and 2 to tropical America. The present species is a native of Germany, Denmark, and Thingary (?), where it grows in marshy places by the banks of rivers. It may be considered either as TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 long ago brought from America to Europe in order to furnish a representative of the section to which it belongs, and as afterwards lost from its original habitat, or as the last species of the section remaining in Europe after all its allies had been destroyed. But whatever happened in early ages, the present geographical distribution of Aster salignus is not inconsistent with its extending to Britain, where it might be expected to occur in such a locality as Wicken Fen. Professor Balfour exhibited in 1865 specimens of a Scotch Aster, apparently Aster salignus (salicifolius), before the Bota- nical Society of Edinburgh. Note.—A specimen of this plant was found by Mr. Brown of Cambridge, on Wicken Fen in 1864, and given to the Professor of Botany ; but it remained un- named until after the reading of this paper. On the Boring of Limestones by certain Annelids. By E. Ray Layxester. The author drew attention to the boring of Sabella calcarea (already noticed by Spence Bate and by De Quatrefages), and also to the more interesting case of Leucodore, which was new. Leucodore is very abundant on some shores, where boulders and pebbles may be found worm-eaten and riddled by these worms. Only stones composed of carbonate of lime are bored by them. On coasts where such stones are rare they are selected, and all others are left. The worms are quite soft, and armed only with horny bristles. How, then, do they bore? The author main- tained that it was by the carbonic acid and other acid excretions of their bodies, aided by the mechanical action of their bristles. The selection of a material soluble in these acids is most noticeable, since the softest chalk and the hardest limestone are bored with the same facility. This can only be by chemical action. If, then, we have a case of chemical boring in these worms, is it not probable that many mollusks are similarly assisted in their excavations ?~ The author did not deny the mechanical action in the Pholas and other shells, but maintained that in many cases the cooperation of acid excreta was probable. The truth was to be fouud in a theory which combined the chemical and the mechanical view. On the Anatomy of the Limpet. By E. Ray Lanxusrer. The author drew attention to several points in the anatomy of this interesting mollusk which had escaped previous observers, and which he had ascertained. Prof. Rolleston, of Oxford, had assisted the author in confirming his results and offering suggestions. The points noted were: Ist. The existence of a large yellow salivary gland with four ducts. 2nd. The absence of an oviduct. 8rd. The pre- sence of two capito-pedal orifices, perhaps the exits of the ova andseed. 4th. The structure of the large renal sac, which has two external apertures on either side of the anus, and a minute orifice communicating with the pericardium. The water ex- uded by the limpet when surprised on its rock probably is squeezed from this organ. On the Conservation of Forests in our Colonies. By W. Lauper Liypsay, M.D., PRSL., ELS. The main object of this paper is to urge the establishment of Boards of Commis- sioners or Inspectors of Woods and Forests in all the British colonies which are, or admit of being, more or less forest-clad—in order to the (1) Preservation and improvement of the primitive forests ; and (2) The systematic rearing of new forests by way of substitution or replacement as and before the old ones disappear. The author enters fully on the grounds which lead to the conclusion that a necessity exists for the establishment of such Boards, and that properly cultivated forests are of primary importance to the progress of all countries, young or old. The author’s attention was strongly drawn to the subject while travelling in New Zea- land in 1861. The observations he records were principally made in that colony ; but subsequent or prior investigation in Australia and various countries or islands of Europe, in ccnnexion with a study of the literature of the subject, lead him to believe that his suggestions will be found to apply mtatis mutandis to all our forest-clad colonies in at least the earlier stages af their settlement. 86 REPORT—1867. The main propositions of the author as regards New-Zealand forests were the following :— ; : oa 1. Its present forest area is extremely small in relation to what it evidently was in times comparatively recent. A variety of evidence points to the conclusion that nearly the whole country was at one period luxuriantly forest-clad, the exceptions being the snow-covered barren alps of the interior. _ p ; } 2. The remnants of the primitive forest still existing are rapidly disappearing under the following combinations of destructive agencies :— I, Natural. A, Current geological changes. 1. Alterations in relative levels of land and water—especially a. Local subsidence of former. 6, Encroachment by sea sand on the coasts. e. Erosion of coasts by the sea, and of the margins of lakes and hanks of rivers and streams, especially during the storms and floods of winter. B, Current meteorological or climatological changes—avalanches, glaciers, wind-storms, lightning, winter torrents and floods (direct agency). ©, Current zoological agencies—wild animals (e. g. birds and insects) eating bark, tearing up saplings, devouring seeds or seedlings, burrowing under the bark or within the timber. Il. Artificial. A. Indirect or accidental. (1) Cattle and wild pigs. (2) Bush fires. B. Direct or deliberate. (1) Bush-clearing for agricultural purposes. (2) Timber-cutting for (a) building, (4) fencing, (c) fuel. (3) Track-malking for men or cattle. 3. This destruction, which is more or less necessary or inevitable, is materially hastened by the reckless and improvident, or illegal and culpable, timber-felling both by colonists and natives,—more especially as regards the Corina by (1) The abuse of the wood-cutting license ; and as regards the latter by (2) Deliberate destruction in connexion with their superstitions. 4. With this improvident and unnecessary destruction there coexists a great scarcity of timber, both for fuel and building, in many parts of the colony, rendering expensive dnports indispensable. 5. No adequate legal check or provision exists for the prevention of abuses and the protection of the forest interests. On the other hand, (, There exists apparently, on the part both of Colonial Governments and colo- nists, a blind indifference to, or ignorance of, the importance of (1) Preserving to the utmost in a healthy state of growth the old or virgin forests. (2) Forestalling their inevitable disappearance, or replacing them, by the sys- tematic cultivation of new forests, whether of A. Indigenous, or . Exotic (acclimatized) trees. (3) Forest cultivation in relation to climate. 7, Many important problems await solution, affecting both (1) The economic value and applications of the existing indigenous timbers, and (2) The rearing of new forests, which scientific experts, or systematic experiment, are alone probably capable of solving, e. g.:— (1) A. The best season for felling native timbers in different localities. B. The comparative durability in salt and fresh waters. C. Their power of resistance to marine boring animals. (2) The determination of the species, indigenous or exotic, most suitable for the various purposes of building-timber, shelter, fuel, &c., as respects A. Rapidity of growth. B. Facility of acclimatization. C, Ultimate or permanent economical qualities. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 8. When the virgin forest is destroyed by natural or artificial agencies, the valu- able timber-yielding trees are not replaced by a young and vigorous growth of the same species, but generally by a different and inferior growth, sometimes wholly fruticose, occasionally only cryptogamic. 9. Future and permanent timber-supplies must be looked for from forests yet to be artificially reared and systematically cultivated, consisting in great measure of in- troduced or acclimatized (exotic) trees of a hardier growth than those which are indigenous. 10. There is an evident and pressing want of a Board of Forests in New Zealand, with a complete skilled staff suitable to the requirements of so large and so varied a colony ; while a similar want exists in all our colonies which are similarly placed. The author dwelt chiefly on the abuse of the bush license, on sacrifices to a blind and ignorant utilitarianism that are only too common, on indiscriminate and extra- yagant destruction of valuable timber arising from a loose colonial morality, or a tolerated evasion of the written law, and on those other errors of commission or omission on the part of governments or settlers which illustrate the necessity for the establishment of some authoritative form of supervision and protection over the forest interests. He instituted comparisons between the condition of New Zealand forests and the history of forest destruction and cultivation in Scotland, the Hartz Mountains, and India, pointing out the fruits of lavish waste and ignorant indifference, and indicating the present forest regulations of the Hartz district in Germany * as models for imitation in all our colonies. The paper concludes by showing the fertile and important results likely to accrue from acclimatization-experiments in relation to forest-culture in New Zealand, especially from the introduction on the large scale of certain of the hardier, rapidly growing trees of Tasmania and Australia. Ts Lichen-growth detrimental to Forest and Fruit Trees +? By W. Lauper Linnsay, M.D., FRS.E., PLS. The author’s object was on the one hand to direct attention to the radical differ- ences of opinion that exist regarding the effect of Lichen-growth on trees, and on the other to endeavour to reconcile those differences, and to indicate the inferences that are legitimately deducible from existing data. The paper, however, was in- tended to be suggestive rather than descriptive ; its aim was rather to call attention to the unsatisfactory paucity and character of the facts on record, and to invite the record of facts as contradistinguished from mere opinions, than to elaborate his own views or results. One group of scientific authorities regards Lichens as true parasites, and as such detrimental to the healthy growth of trees, and depreciative of their value; while another group describes them as non-parasitic, as making use of trees simply as bases of support—as innocuous, or even as beneficial, to their hosts. The former opinion is that unanimously held by arboriculturists and nurserymen—by all who are concerned with the cultivation of timber, bark, or fruit-trees; while the latter is that usually entertained by lichenologists. The principal propositions of the author were the following :— I. That Lichens must be regarded as trwe parasites, drawing certain at least of the constituents of their thallus from the objects on which they grow. In his work on ‘British Lichens,’ published ir 1856 (p. 50), the author had shown that the Lichen-thallus contains such bases as silica and alumina, iron and manganese, lime, potash, soda, and magnesia, which could not have been derived from the atmosphere, from which lichenologists assert Lichens derive their whole nourishment. II. That nurserymen discard as wnsaleable trees or shrubs that are Lichen- covered, * The author gave some description of these regulations after a tour through the Hartz Forest in 1850: vide Proceedings of Botanical Society of Edinburgh for 1853, and Phyto- logist, vol. iv. p. 988 (1853). + The subject may be found treated at greater length in ‘ Hardwicke’s Science Gossip,’ 1867, p. 241; or the ‘Farmer,’ Oct, 9, 1867, p. 403, 88 REPORT—1867. II. That foresters and tanners regard Lichen-coated oak-bark as of diminished value by virtue of such coating. IV. That arboriculturists consider Lichen-growth a disease, or as a cause or result of disease. Evidence is unanimous that Lichen-growth should never occur in forests or nur- series which are the subject of proper care ; where the conditions of healthy growth are sedulously provided ; where the trees or shrubs are properly thinned ; where the soil and manure are suitable. Further, the disease of Lichen-growth, when it ap- pears, can be removed or dissipated at will by placing the tree which it affects in more favourable conditions of development, such as transfer to a richer soil or the supply of proper manure. _ On Plant-Acclimatization in Scotland, with special reference to Tussac Grass *, By W. Lauper Linpsay, MD., F.RS.E., PLS. In May 1866 the author inspected the condition of the Tussac-grass plantations that had been established in 1845 by James Ritchie, C.E., of Perth, on the estates of Sir James Matheson in the Lews (Outer Hebrides). The main objects of his communication were on the one hand to describe the condition of limited planta- tions of a most nutritious and valuable exotic grass, which is capable of luxuriant growth on otherwise sterile shores in Scotland, and on the other to illustrate certain points in connexion with plant-acclimatization in Scotland that have not attracted that degree of attention which they deserve, viz. :— I. The necessity, as regards success, in acclimatization-experiments for ¢metating the natural conditions of growth; and II. The inevitable failure that must result from ignorance of or inattention to these conditions. From all the evidence he had collected, the author’s conclusion was that the Tussac experiment in the Lews was on the whole a failure, but one due solely to inattention to the proper care and cultivation of the grass. Tussae requires protec- tion and care like other crops, and not more so. Suitable regulations for both pro- tection and care were laid down by Mr. Ritchie; and so long as these were carried out or attended to, the plantations thrived, and they only failed after he left the island, and the conduct of the experiment was consigned to those who had a less intelligent conception of its importance, and an inferior interest in its success. The immediate causes of the destruction of the crops of Tussac, which were flourishing in 1852, appear to have been (1) non-protection by fences, and (2) the want of weed- ing. Cattle were allowed unlimited access, with the result that the plant was de- stroyed, partly by being trampled down, partly by the roots being grubbed up and eaten. Weeding was not attended to, and in general terms no care was bestowed on its cultivation. The author believes there is no ground for doubting that wth the same amount of care as is bestowed on other crops, such as turnips, Tussac grass may be successfully cultivated on many of the bleak and sterile islands and coasts of Scotland, to which it could not fail to become a boon of no insignificant kind. To what extent is Lichen-growth a test of Age? By W. Lavprr Linvsay, M.D., F.RSE., ELS. The opinion is, and has been long prevalent among poets, historians, and archzeo- logists, that trees and buildings are aged in proportion to the copiousness of their Lichen-covering ; that Lichen-growth may be regarded as a test of the antiquity of the natural objects or artificial structures on which it occurs. Poets constantly speak of trees, rocks, or towers as being “mossed with age ;” while archeologists have gone so far as to consider Lichen-growth diagnostic of antiquity. The popular name of Lichens, “ Time-stains,” shows that such a belief is, however, by no means confined to the classes of writers referred to. Botanical writers have fostered this belief by almost uniformly describing Lichens as of very slow growth, attaining to * The subject may be found treated at greater length in the ‘Journal of Agriculture,’ November 1867; or the ‘ Farmer,’ Oct. 30, 1867, p. 553. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 great age. The object of the author’s paper was to exhibit the result of certain researches on the subject of Lichen-growth in relation to the age of the structures on which it occurs, in order to determine how far the current opinions in question are founded on fact. His immediate object was to determine the rapidity of Lichen- development under favourable conditions, or, in other words, How soon might a fresh surface of wood or stone become so Lichen-clad as to assume the “ hoary ” or “time-stained ” appearance that is popularly associated with the idea of great age? In endeavouring to solve this question he assumed, as standards of comparison, the megaliths of Stennis in Orkney and Callernish in Lewis, both of which groups of prehistoric remains, undoubtedly of great though undetermined age, he had visited in May 1866, and of whose Lichen-Flora he had published an account in the Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh (vol. ix. p. 154). On the other hand, he noted the development of Lichen-growth on a variety of recent structures of known age, including I. Walls of buildings, gardens, and roads: bridges and other edifices of stone : as well as the mortar or cement used in their construction and in their repair from time to time. II. Fences of sawn timber around fields and gardens: posts, gates, and other struc- tures of fabricated wood. III. Young trees and shrubs in nurseries, plantations, forests, gardens, shrubberies, and cemeteries. The conclusion at which he arrives is that within a quarter of acentury, in periods ranging from two to five years and upwards, as copious a clothing of Lichens as that which covers the monoliths of Stennis or Callernish may be produced in favour- able conditions of growth, and hence that Lichen-growth furnishes no criterion of the antiquity of prehistoric or other structures. Additional corroborative evidence was adduced from the history of those Lichens which were or are still collected in Northern Europe, on account of their economi- cal applications, as food, fodder, or dye-stufts, e. e. Lecanora tartarea, Cetraria Islan- dica, and Cladonia rangiferina. Their collectors were familiar with the fact that they may look for replacement of the species they remove in a limited number of years, varying generally within a period of from three to five. The author draws a distinction between rapidity of primary development and slowness of subsequent growth, showing that the two phenomena may occur conse- cutively in the same individual—a circumstance which serves to reconcile on the one hand the facts observed as to the rapidity with which a fresh surface, whether of earth, stone, or wood, may hecome Lichen-coated; and on the other the current opinion among botanists that Lichen-growth is essentially slow, and its duration practically unlimited. On Polymorphism in the Fructification of Lichens*. By W. Lavper Linpsay, W.D., F.RS.E., F.L.S. Ten years ago, while engaged in researches on the secondary or complementary reproductive organs of Lichens, the author met with a number of instances of polymorphism or plurality thereof—especially of the occurrence in the same species of more than one form of spermogonium or pycnidium ; and since that date further instances have frequently occurred to him. The forms of polymorphism specially described or referred to in the present communication are the occurrence in the same species of—- I. More than one form of spermogonium. If. More than one form of pycnidium. II. Pyenidia in addition to spermogonia, or spermogonia in addition to pyenidia, IV. Pycnidia instead of spermogonia. V. Spermatia and sporidia in the same conceptacle. VI. Different sizes and forms of spermatia and sterigmata, or of stylospores and basidia. These multiple forms of reproductive organs or bodies were met with chiefly in * The subject may be found treated more fully in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Microsco- pical Science,’ January 1868, 90 REPoRT—186G7. the lower Lichens, in species, e. g., of the genera Verrucaria, Stigmatidium, Strigula, Calicium, Lecidea, Abrothallus, Opegrapha, Graphis, Arthonia, Trachylia, Lecanora, though they were also found in a few of the higher Lichens, e.g. in species of Parmelia, Roccella, and Alectoria. The following short catalogue of species, in which the author met with devia- tions from, modifications of, or additions to, the ordinary reproductive organs or corpuscles, illustrates the general subject of his paper, and may indicate the direc- tion in which future observation is likely to prove useful, either by correcting the errors of previous authors, or by confirming and extending their results :— I. Genus Verrucaria. V. Taylori, V. chlorotica, V. nitida, V. epidermidis, V. biformis: two or more forms of spermogonium or pycnidium. V. gemmata: spermogonia and pyenidia. V. glabrata: two forms of spermatia and sterigmata. V. atomaria: spermatia and sporidia in same perithecium. Il. Genus Arthonia. A, cinereo-pruinosa: two or more forms of spermogonium. A, pruinosa: pycnidia. A. pruinosa, var. spilomatia: two forms of stylospores and basidia. A. astroidea: spermogonia and pyenidia. A, astroidea, var. Swartziana: two forms of stylospores and hasidia. III. Genus Opegrapha. O. herpetica, O. vulgata: two or more forms of spermogonia. O. atra, O. varia: pyenidia. IV. Genus Lecidea. L. parasema, L, dryina: two forms of spermogonia. L. hiteola, L. petra, L. anomala, L. discifornus, L. albo-atra, L. Cladoniaria : spermogonia and pycnidia. L. enteroleuca: pycnidia in lieu of spermogonia. L. abietina : pycnidia, and two forms of spermogonia. L. flexuosa: pycnidia. V. Genus Lecanora. L. subfusca, L. atra, L. Ehrhartiana, L. varia, especially var. aitema : pyeni- dia, and two or more forms of spermogonia. LL. umbrina : pycnidia. LL. cerina: two or more forms of spermogonia. Similar reproductive irregularities occur inter alia in the genera Strigula and Abrothallus: Graphis scripta, Stigmatidium crassum, Trachyha tigitlaris, Roccella Montagnei, Parmelia sinuosa, P. saxatilis var. sulcata, Alectoria jubata, A. lata, Scu- tula Wallrothiit, Neuropogon melaxanthus vay. ciliatus. The pseudo-genus Pyrenothea may be regarded as an excellent illustrative group of the organs in question, especially those sections of the genus represented by the old species :— ‘ Pyrenothea vermicellifera. j P. aphanes. P. leucocephata. TIL. 4 P. rudis. Il. P. corrugata. |B. byssacea. The paper also notices certain resemblances in form between stylospores and sporidia, and points out that pycnidia are much more prevalent among Lichens than is at present supposed. The author describes at length the anatomical or structural distinctions between spermogonia and pycnidia: and makes certain observations on their presumed respective functions, and in general on the physiology of the secon- dary reproductive organs and corpuscles of Lichens. It would appear, from the author’s researches, that links connecting the Lichens with the Fungi more and more closely are constantly being discovered; and that in particular the same plurality of reproductive organs which characterizes the latter will be found probably to a less extent to characterize the former*. * Videalso the following papers by the author :— I. In Transactions of Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxii. p. 101, “ Spermogonia and Pyenidia of the Higher Lichens ;” vol, xxiv. p, 407, “New Zealand Lichens and Fungi.” > NG Riisaattte ere Y TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 The Abnormal forms of Ferns. By HK, J. Lown, FLRS., F.LAS., PGS. The following facts have come under the author's notice during the series of inves- tigations on this interesting subject. Ist. As regards the various abnormal forms that species will assume. It is a singular fact that most of our British ferns put on appearances closely in imitation of each other, that the varieties of each species have many characters in common, and that a certain law of form of variety seems to extend more or less through both British and exotic species. The more usual forms running through nearly all our British ferns are those having the fronds crested, crisp, imbricated, confluent, corymbiferous, multifid, acuminate, narrow, plumose, interrupted, depauperate, ramose, and dwarf; and not only this, but we have the multiple of these, or the combining together of two or three characters in one frond, such as the narrow-crisped, the multifid-crisped, or the narrow-multifid, as examples. Most of these abnormal varieties have been been found wild, and a large propor- tion in localities where the species is neither abundant nor luxuriant in growth. Of course, springing from an individual Hank, it occupies time and care in raising duplicates from spores; and in doing this, singular accidental sports haye been raised and a new method of obtaining yarieties detected. 2nd. As regards the gathering and soyying the spores of these sports. It seems from these experiments almost an established fact that spores gathered from one portion of an abnormal frond will produce different varieties from those of spores gathered from another portion of the same frond; that if an accidental abnormal frond, or portion of a frond be fertile, it is not impossible to reproduce from its spores plants having fronds in imitation of the accidental abnormal form. If by cultural means we can induce the growth of singular fronds, we are very likely to perpetuate the variation of form from the spores. By removing the drainage from the roots of plants that had completed their autumnal growth and inducing an unnatural and sickly condition for several months, and only repottine and giving a generous treatment when the fronds were almost ready to unfold, this eaused them to produce abnormal fronds in both the British and exotic species. srd. Our knowledge of the reproductive organs of ferns is obscure, and it has been said that the fern Asplenium nucrodon is a hybrid between Asplentwn marinum and Asplenium lanceolatum, that Lastrea remota is a hybrid between Lastrea spinu- losa and Lasirea jilix-mas, and perhaps that Aspleniwm germanicum is a hybrid between Asplenium septentrionale and Asplenium ruta-mwraria. Now it does not appear that these ferns have ever been reproduced from their spores; and therefore (af we may accept these as hybrids) that hybrids of species are unproductive, whereas the varieties raised from a species can readily be reproduced by spores, On some Points in the Anatomy of the Thysanura. By Sir J. Luszocn, Bart., F.R.S., Pres. Ent. Soc. &e. The author remarked that the Thysanura, though extremely numerous, and in many cases very pretty little creatures, had attracted but little attention, owing, perhaps, to their great delicacy and the consequent difficulty of preserving them in a satisfactory condition. Under any decaying log of wood, under damp leaves, in long grass, in short, in almost any damp situation, the Thysanura form no small pro- portion of the population. Like other insects, they have six legs, but they never acquire wings. The tail is generally provided with two long appendages, which are bent forward under the body, and thus form a spring, by means of which the animal is enabled to jump with great activity. A Smynthurus, for instance, mea- suring one-tenth of an inch in diameter, will easily jump up twelve inches in the air. This, however, is due mainly, not to muscular power, but to the elasticity of II. In Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. iv. p. 174, ‘‘Spermogonia and Pyenidia of the Higher Lichens.” IiI. In Transactions of Linnean Society of London, vol. xxv. p. 498, “ New Zealand Lichens.” IV. In Journal of Linnean Society of London, vol. ix. p. 268, Arthonia melaspermella. V. In Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, January 1857, Abrothallus. 92 REPORT—1867. the spring. The muscles draw the spring forward and bring it under a small Jatch or catch; directly this is relaxed, the elasticity of the organ jerks the spring back, and throws the creature upwards and forwards. The author described in detail the muscles by which the spring is moved. Another remarkable peculiarity, and in the author’s opinion the special characteristic of the Thysanura, is the presence, on the first abdominal ring, of a process which acts as a sucker in the Poduride, and in Smynthurus gives rise to two long filaments which serve the same purpose, The author described the arrangements of the muscles by which this curious appa- ratus is moved. He then described the digestive and respiratory organs; and after pointing out that Smynthurus and Papirius, though very nearly allied in external character, differ entirely in their method of respiration, the latter genus being almost or entirely deficient in trachez, he proposed, therefore, to form for it a new family, which he proposed to call Papiriide. Remarks on Mr. J. G. Jeffreys’s Collection of Hebridean Annelids. By Dr. M‘Intosu. The total number of species amounts to fifty ; though this is not a large collec- tion, many of the species are very rare. Of the forms for the first time noted in Britain are Letmatonice filicornis, Kinberg (and this he believed to be the same as Dr. Baird’s LZ. Kinbergi), Praxilla pretermissa, Malmgren, Ithodine Lovéni, Mern., Amphicteis Gunneri, Sars, and Heteronereis fucicola, Qkysted. Those at present considered new are a second species of Amphicteis, a pecu- liar Lumbrinerets with eyes, a form allied to Travisia, but furnished with forked bristles, a Trophonia, and an Idalia. Report on the Invertebrate Marine Fauna and Fishes of St. Andrews. By Dr. M‘Iytosn, The richness of the coast-line at St. Andrews in marine animals was pointed out— astate in some measure due to the varied habitat afforded by a smooth sandy beach and a rocky border, with a large surface of tidal rocks. Its proximity to fertile co- ralline ground and the haunt of many deep-sea rarities, which are tossed on shore by storms or procured from the stomachs of fishes, all combine to render it a most interesting field for the zoologist. Lists of species in the various departments were given, and the most remarkable forms alluded to, such as Sagitta bipunctata, Mol- gula arenosa, and Pelonaia corrugata. 'The Mollusca number 170 species. On the Annelids of St. Andrews. By Dr. M‘Inrosu. The list of Turbellaria, Teretularia, and Annelida consists of 104 species, and besides there are 6 Gephyrea. One of the Turbellaria is new to Britain, viz. Vortex capituta, Girsted: one of the Teretularia is also new, viz. a Borlasia, from deep water. He mentioned that he had observed no structural difference between Cephalothrix rufifrons and C. filiformis, and none between Ommatoplea alba and O. rosea. The only “ Borlasia” purpurea, Johnst., met with in Britain is an Ommatoplean worm, which differs totally in structure from a true Borlasian. Amongst the Annelids new to Britain are Halosydna gelatinosa, Sars (Alentia gelatinosa, Malmgren), and Nerezs virens, Sars (Alitta virens, Malmgren), by far the largest British marine worm yet encountered. Nerets Sarsi?, Rathke, a distinct species, has been confounded with JV. brevimana, Johnst., and consequently has not been previously mentioned as British. The Sy/lis armillaris of Dr. Johnston in- sludes two species, one of which abounds under stones between tide-marks, whereas the second comes only from deep water. Other additions to the British fauna are Castalia punctata, CErsted, Notophyllum polynoides, Csrsted, Phyllodece gran- landica, Ofrsted, Eumida sanguinea, Airsted, Etcone pusilla, GErsted, Ammochares Ottonis, Grube (probably the Ops digitata of Dr. Carrington), and a Lezecephalus. The Terebella figulus of Dalyell is not T. constrictor, Montagu, but a distinct species with 24 pairs of bristle bundles, whereas 7. constrictor has only 17 pairs. Physelia zostericola, Ersted (Vicolea zostericola, Malmgren), is common. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 The new species comprise a Lumbrinereis and a boldy marked brown Autolytus. Other interesting though not new species are Harmothoé Malmgreni, KH. R. Lankester, Nychia cirrosa, Pallas, Sigalion boa and Mathilde, Dodecaceria conchu- rum, Sabella viridis, Scalibregma inflatum, and Maa mirabilis. Dr. M‘Inrosu exhibited some very beautiful drawings of Worms to be published by the Ray Society. Sur les Racines Aériféres ou Vessies Natatoires, la synonynue et la distribution géographique de quelques espéces aquatiques du genre Jussiea. Par CHARLES Martins, Professeur et Directeur du Jardin des Plantes de Montpellier*. On Polliniferous Ovules in a Rose. By Dr. M. T. Masters. In this paper a general review of the principal malformations to which the ovule is subject was given, together with the details of a case wherein the ovules in a rose (Jtosa arvensis) presented in some degree the structure and functions of the anther, there being present not only pertect pollen-grains, but fibrous cells such as are usually met with in the anther. A somewhat similar case has been recorded in a passion-flower by Mr. James Salter in the ‘ Linnean Transactions.’ Notice of Dredging by the late H. P. C. Moller, off Fair Isle, between Orkney and Shetland. By O. A. L. Mércn, of Copenhagen. (Communicated by J. Gwyn Jurrreys, /.2.S.) Hans Peter Christian Moller, the author of ‘Index Molluscorum Greenlandiv.’ was born at Elsinore on the 2nd of November 1810. When he had finished his academical studies his love for conchology took him to South Greenland, the mol- lusca of which he investigated in company with Captain Holboll from May 1838 to August 1840. After his return to Denmark, he spent several years there in con- chologizing and dredging. In April 1843 he made a second voyage to the arctic seas as Inspector for the Danish colonies in North Greenland. On his return home in 1844 he went to Italy for his health ; but, being seized with a fever at Rome, he died on the 11th of October 1845, at the early age of thirty-five. All his col- lections were presented by his father, Dr. T. Moller, to the University Museum at Copenhagen. uring his voyage to Greenland in 1843 he made some hauls with the dredge at Fair Isle (which he called Fairhill, in accordance with an old Danish chart); and the result may be of some interest to British conchologists. The following is a translation of an extract from a letter of his, dated Egedes- minde, 6th September 1845 :—“T had several times during the voyage opportunities of using my dredge, first in the Cattegat, then between Lindesnes and the Skag, and close to the coast of Norway. On the 19th of May we sighted Fairhill, and the same day Sumburgh Head, where we lay nearly two days dredging, with a calm sea and a beautiful sky. Although the bottom here is exceedingly uneven, and I was in continual fear of losing my dredge, I used my time weil, and was fortunate enough not to have any such loss. About two milest due east of Fairhill, in sixty fathoms, a haul yielded clear shell-sand, with Cardium echinatum, Cyprina Islandica, and numerous small dead shells. About half a mile nearer Fairhill another haul at about the same depth yielded fine shell-sand, with single valves of Macetra, Venus, &e. I got four large vessels full of clay and gravel, which gave me constant work until I arrived at Cape Farewell. ‘There were many interesting species; but most of the specimens were injured, I suppose in consequence of the stormy seas which are prevalent in that part.” Moller had himself labelled most of the specimens “ Fairhill ;” so that there can- not be any doubt in respect of the locality where he procured the species enume- rated in the following list. Those species to which an asterisk is prefixed were in a box of shell-sand marked “ Fairhill.” Some of the species have been determined and named by Mr. Jeffreys, and have the letter (J.) affixed to them. * See Appendix. t+ The Danish mile is equal to nearly 44 English miles—J. G. J. 94 REPORT—1867. ANDROGYNA. 1. Cylichna cylindracea, 2. C. (Tornatina) mammillata, 3. Atys Cranchit. 4. Acton tornatilis, *5. Odostomia turrita (J.). *6. O. acuta (J.). *7. O. diaphana (J.). 8. O. spiralis. 9, O. acicula, var. ventricosa (J.). 10. Eulima bilineata (J.). 11. Scala Trevelyana. 12. S. clathratula, *13, Heterofusus Flemingi. 14, H. Jeffreysit. DIOICA, Latr. TNIOGLOSSATA. 15. Rissoa parva. 16. R. (Anoba) striata. 17. R. soluta (J.). 18. R. (Alvania) punctura. 19. R. reticulata (J.). 20. R. (Alvania) Zetlandica, 21. R. cimicoides (J.). 22. Cyclostrema serpuloides (J.). 23. Turritella ungulina and var. alba. 24. Cerithium metula. 25. C. adverswm. 26. Aporrhais pes pelecani. 27. Trichotropis acuminatus. 28. Trivia europea. 29. Capulus ungaricus. 30. Nutica Alderi (J.). 31. Velutina heliotoides. RHACHIGLOSSATA. 32. Fusus (Neptunea) antiquus, var. sulcata. 33, F. (Sipho) gracilis. 34, Trito- nium undatum, and var. 8 cilatum, Sow. Tl. Ind. 35. Nassa incrassata. 36. Bue- cinopsis ovum. 37. Columbella nana (J.). 38. Pleurotoma costata (J.). 39. P. turri- eula, 40. Defrancia linearis (J.). 41. D. teres (J.). 42. Trophon truncatus (J.). EXOCEPHALA, Latr. *43. Cyclostrema nitens (J.). *44. Trochus occidentalis, 45. T. zizyphinus. 46. T. millegranus (J.). 47. T. tumidus. 48. Setssurella erispata, 49. Emarginula re- ticulata. 50. Chiton cinereus. *51. Dentaliwm entalis, young. ACHEPHALA, 52. Solen pellucidus. 53. Psammobia ferroensis. 54. Tellina pusilla. 55. Macoma calcarea, An exceedingly fine specimen, nearly 38in, long, 29in. lat. The epider- mis, ligament, and hinge-teeth are quite perfect. The inside shows traces of soft mud; so that the specimen was probably not taken alive, although it could not have been long dead}. The description given by Chemnitz of Tellina calearea agrees perfectly with this shell; but a species of Zhracia (probably 7. truncata) was in- advertently engraved in the plate. 56, Abra prismatica. 57. Mactra solida, var. elliptica (J.). 58. Venus casina. 59. V. ovata. 60. V. fasciata, young (J.). 61. Pul- lastra virago. 62. Goodallia triangularis. 65. Astarte danmoniensis. 64. Cyprina Tslandica. 65. Lucina borealis. 66. Thyatira flecuosa. 67. Montacuta substriata, on Spatangus purpureus. *68, Kellia suborbicularis, 69. Cardium echinatum. 70. C. fasciatum (J.). 71. Saxicava rugosa. 72. Arca tetragona. 73. Pectunculus glyei- meris. 74. Nucula tenuis. 75. Crenella decussata. 76. Modiolaria discors. 77. M. nigra, 78. Modiola umbilicata, Penn. (M. modiolus, L., is an Kast-Indian species). 79. M. phaseolina. 80. Pecten pusio (J.). 81. P. opercularis. 82. Lima Loscombu. 83. L. subauriculata, 84. L. elliptica (J.). 85. Anomia squamula. HECHINODERMATA. Fragments of a species of Antedon, Brvyozoa. (Named by Dr. F. A. Smith.) 1. Lepralia trispinosa, Johnst. (L. Jaquenotiana, Aud.). 2. L. ciliata, L. 3. L. levis, Flem. 4. Z. ovalis, Hassall (= coccinea, Abildg.). 5, ZL. Malucit, Aud. 6. Celleporaria ramulosa, LL. All the above are on Venus casina. 7. Lepratia Peachii, Johnst., var. coccinea. 8. Membranipora trifoliuom, Wood. 9. MM. Pouilleti, Ald. (Lepralia Malucit, Aud.). 10, Celleporatubiger, Busk. All these are on Pee- tunculus glycimers. On the future Administration of the Natural-History Collections of the British Museum. By Anprew Mornay, £.L.S. The author considered that the announcement of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, that he would, early in the next session of Parliament, submit a scheme for the sepa- ration of the Natural-History collections of the British Museum from the Library + Query? (Sce Intr. to ‘ British Conchology,’ vol. i. pp. xciy-xevi.)—J. G. J. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 and other collections, as so likely to be carried into effect, that the proper time had arrived for pressing on Government the necessity of some changes in the adminis- tration of that institution. The most important of these changes was the transfer of the control of the Museum from the Board of Trustees to a single officer appointed by Government and amenable to Parliament. While admitting the good which the Trustees had done, and that their intentions had always been to benefit the institu- tion, he maintained that the constitution of the Board, composed of men who, with one or two exceptions, felt no interest in natural history, rendered it impossible that they could do it justice. They naturally handed over their power to their chief officers, who were thus invested with power without responsibility and beyond appeal ; and although the public had great reason to be satisfied with the services of these officers, there were points on which difference of opinion existed which should not thus be placed beyond the reach of effectualremonstrance. The Board, from the same causes, were slow to alter the existing order of things, or to make the necessary alterations required by change of circumstances and times. He gave the following illustration of this phase of their rule:—When the Museum was young and within manageable bounds, it was placed under one or two head curators, minerals and fossils under one head, and zoology under another. Each of these heads was allowed an assistant, and it was made a rule that these assistants should not be above thirty years of age, the idea being that they should be a sort of apprentices, who should begin young, and, on their respective superior’s decease or retirement, be ready to take his place. This rule in itself was not a bad one. It secured always one good man and one learning to become a good man. If the superior officer died before his assistant was qualified to succeed him, it was not essential that the assistant should be put into his place ; and as the regulation as to age applied only to assistants, it was no barrier in the way of putting an older man in the upper place. But as the collection grew, it was found that more heads were wanted, and then came the error. Instead of appointing new heads coequal with the previous heads for each department, the number of assistant curators was increased, and one set apart to each different department, so that each department had, and has now, only one man to it. Ifany of them die or retire, there is no person to take their work; and being nominally assistané curators, although practically head curators, no one can be appointed to their place who is above thirty years of age—in other words, no one who knows his business ; for the study of the Natural Sciences is so vast that to constitute youth in such appointments a sine gud non, is really to say that the candidate must be appointed before he has acquired them, and before he has shown any power of acquiring them. The British Museum has thus the unenviable distinction of being the sole place in the whole world where ignorance of a man’s duties is not only no impedi- ment to his appointment but a qualification—nay, not only a qualification, but actually a sine guénon. Had the Trustees seen the working of this, they would, instead of ap- pointing assistant curators, have appointed head curators, with such assistant curators as were necessary. And then for each department requiring it we should have had two officers—one a competent, experienced man of position and weight in the scientific world, the other a young assistant, to whose charge ignorance of his duties could not be. laid, seeing that his duties were to learn, not to teach. The author considered it plain that we must come back to this original arrangement. These so-called assistant curators, who haye long adminstered their respective departments with credit to themselves and the Museum, must be recognized as head curators, and assistant curators, properly so called, supplied to them; while head curators, selected from the best ranks of men of science, should be, appointed to those other departments which require them. The author pointed out some of the defects and inequalities in the arrangement of the materials in the Museum— more especially in the Invertebrata. An immense deal had been done in procuring materials, but from want of hands the greatest part of it was practically useless to men of science. He considered that what was now wanted was less of the acqui- sition of novelties than the utilization of those which the Museum already pos- sessed ; and he pressed the importance of establishing, to a much greater extent than has hitherto been done, the system of exchange of duplicates with other museums and individuals which has been found so valuable by other institutions. 96 REPORT—1867. On the Nature and Systematic Position of the Graptolitide. By Henry Auteyye Nicunorson, D.Sc., M.B., F.GS. The author of this paper, after reviewing the various theories which have been held as to the nature and affinities of the Graptolitidee, endeavoured to show that they should be referred to the Hydrozoa—a view which he believed was supported by their morphology, development, and reproduction, by their mode of existence, and by the determination of allied forms. ‘The “common canal’ of the Graptolite was shown to be strictly analogous to the “ ccenosare ” of the Hydrozoa, no similar structure existing in any Bryozoon, whilst the “cellules” found their nearest re- presentative in the “ hydrothece” of the Sertularians. It was further pointed out that there existed, in several species of the genera Dichograpsus, Tetra- grapsus, and Diplograpsus, an organ which had been compared with the basal plate of Defrancia, a Bryozoon, by Prof. Huxley, but which was more probably homologous with the “ float” or “pneumatophore” of the Physophoride, an order of the oceanic Hydrozoa. As regards their reproduction the author drew attention to the bodies first de- scribed by Hall in America and by himself in Britain, and considered to be the “ovarian capsules” of Graptolites. He pointed out, ‘further, the resemblance of these to the “ gonophores” of the recent Hydrozoa, both in their shape, and as regarded the changes through which they were observed to pass. With regard to the mode of existence of the Graptolitide, it was shown that by far the majority must have been free and permanently unattached—a fact highly adverse to the belief that they belonged to the Polyzoa. Lastly, the author noticed the occurrence of a form, originally described by him- self under the name of Corynotdes calicularis, closely allied to the true Graptolites, but apparently representing the order Corynid (or Tubularide). Tn conclusion, the author stated it as his belief that the Graptolitidee could not be referred to any existing order, or eyen subclass, of the Hydrozoa, but that they stood in the same relation to existing forms that the Trilobites hold to the recent Crustacea. In their mode of growth, in the arrangement of their parts, and in the nature of their structural elements they were seen to resemble the Hydroid polypes ; but they were widely separated by their free “ hydrosoma.” On the other hand, they approximated to the oceanic Hydrozoa in the fact that they were free- floating organisms, and in the possession, by some forms, of an organ resembling a “float.” On the whole the author was of opinion that the Graptolitidze should be held to constitute a new subclass intermediate in position between the fixed and the oceanic Hydrozoa, and that they might possibly, on the derivative theory of development, be looked upon as the primitive stock from which the above existing sections of our living Hydrozoa had originally diverged. On the Fructification of Griffithsia corallina, found in the West Voe, Out- skerries, Shetland, By C. W. Pracn. In May 1864, when in Shetland with Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on a dredging excur- sion, Miss Jeffreys found some fine specimens of Girifithsia corallina, which, on examination, the author found in fruit and in fine condition. Under the micro- scope he observed a circular opening in the lower part of the joint above the fruit (tetraspores), from which opening the granular pulp of the joint was poured on the fruit under it. Harvey, in his introduction to his ‘ British Marine Aleve,’ gives a long account of the fructification ; but there is nothing in it that fully agrees with the above. On Naked-eyed Meduse found at Peterhead and Wick, N.B., and other Bri- tish Localities. By C. W. Pracu. The author first stated that during his residence in Edinburgh he had opportuni- ties of examining books not before accessible to him; by these he found that many of the naked-eyed medusz that he had found were new to the British list. He then described one he got in Cornwall in 1849, which he thought was Wellsia stel- lata of Forbes, but after careful examination, and comparing it with others, is satisfied that it is a new species, and has named it Willsia Cornubica ; it has only TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 twelve tentacles, Ilis next new one is a T’ma, which he has named Zima Furbesit, in memory of the late Professor EH. Forbes; the principal difference between it and Tima Bairdii is that instead of having only sixteen tentacles, in it they are numerous. Several others came in for their share of notice, and then he mentioned Goodsirea mirabilis, a new genus founded by Dr. T. Strethill‘Wright, and published by him in the second volume of the Transactions of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh. The author got this speicmen at Peterhead in 1851. He fully con- firmed Dr. Wright’s observations, and added that some of his specimens had two additional, but shorter tentacles than Dr, Wright’s ; he thought this only a sexual difference. He then described what he considered the most curious of all he had seen, a new genus (Stawrophora) to the British shores, and the largest naked-eyed Medusa hitherto noticed in our seas. It was first found in the Pacific by Mertens when on a voyage round the world ; since found by Agassiz in Boston Bay, America, in 1849, and was described by him in a paper entitled ‘Contributions to the Na- tural History of the Acalephe of North America.” The umbrella is crossed by four gastrovascular canals; from each of them hang two curtain-like masses; and, to appearance, it has neither mouth nor stomach. However, by parting the curtains both are to be seen. He described it at great length, and stated that he got it off Peterhead several times in 1851, and that it grew from £ in. in breadth to 32 in, in breadth between May and June. He has named it Stawrophora Keithii, to mark his respect for the founder of Marischal College, Aberdeen, it having been first uae near Keith Inch, Peterhead, once the property of the unfortunate house of eith, On the Zoological Aspects of the Grouse-disease. By the Rey. H. B. Trisrram, M_A., PRS. The rapid extension and epidemic character of the grouse-disease was attributed in great measure to the indiscriminate slaughter of predatory animals. These, it was true, destroyed game, but it was only the weakest and the most diseased ani- mals ‘that they could make a prey of. In this way disease was stamped out, as had been artificially done with the cattle plague. He commented severely on the encouragement given by landed proprietors to the destruction of wild animals, complaining that upon this question game-preservers were more open to be in- fluenced by ignorant gamekeepers than by naturalists. The grouse-disease had existed sporadically for at least two years before it was generally noticed. On Birds’ Nests and their Plumage; or the Relation between Sexual Dif- ferences of Colour and the Mode of Nidification in Birds. By Auyrep R, Wattact, F.R.GS., F.LS. The author pointed out the hitherto unnoticed fact, that whenever female birds resembled tke males in being adorned with gay and conspicuous colours, their nests were so placed or so constructed as to conceal the sitting bird. He showed that this generalization was supported by a vast number of facts in all the chief groups of birds, while the exceptions were few and unimportant, and concluded by point- ing out its correspondence with the general principle of protection in modifying colour, and by arguing that the whole of the phenomena could be well explained on the theory of the preservation of useful variations. ANATOMY AND PuystoLoay. On Protagon in relation to the Molecular Theory of Organization. By Prof. Hueuns Bennurr, M.D., YRS.E., of Edinburgh. The author pointed out that the progress of scientific discovery tended singu- larly to confirm the truth of the molecular theory of organization, which he had first laid before the Association at its Meeting in Glasgow twelve years ago*. The * Report of the British Association, 1855, p. 119, 1867. . 7 98 REPORT—1867. formation of a substance, named protagon, from the oleo-albuminous matter of the egg, by the action of alcohol, had recently been shown by Dr. Montgomery to be capable of enabling us to make out of its substance, artificially, on a glass slide, most of the elementary textures of animal bodies. The author had repeated Dr. Montgomery’s experiments with protagon, and placed upon the table a large num- ber of preparations, exhibiting organic forms and textures thus constructed. He regretted that neither the time nor the arrangements of the Section were of a kind which would enable the histologists present to examine them. He had displayed one preparation under the microscope, however, which he believed to he unique, as it demonstrated that molecules possessed in themselves the power of arranging themselves into nucleated cell-forms, without any previous cell-formations. The first step in the line of discovery which ralientod the physical conditions necessary for the formation of animal and vital textures was, in his opinion, made by Ascherson in 1840, who showed how the mere contact of oil and albumen produced a molecular membrane called haptogen membrane. The second step was the determination by Rainey of the influence of viscidity and limpidity in liquids, causing in them the precipitation of globular and crystalline forms. "4 ond Rr 7 At Oe ee Mafal owl v ue abe enil . at nt ee i So awe pe an hee, oe Mf i: AR Sr eS sont * Pewee Pitre treed