ante de; on 30.5% bk be 09a Shon Oe e : . . = y i ‘ — t - ——- iY — : ; : \ ‘ 2 ‘ ; , : \ \ = am - \ mt °: ‘ : : REPORT OF THE ~~ 65S & OF THE \% 2s, NP” ss] wae Se ee / BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD, AT EDINBURGH IN AUGUST 1871. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1872, PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. CONTENTS. Oxssects and Rules of the Association ...........00sseesaeeie ee Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .........555 XXiV Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from RGMTAPACHCEIEMY) fs /crels she Sere es biNe a8 oad das tae Gh 4 tgh OA Het Lads XXX Biv AOTUTES 6 his bk adh Ais RES Hess Lov ER Wat fatten XXXIX Lectures to the Operative Classes ...........05 meee ees acees ‘ xii Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at previous Meetings. . xiii Treastifer’s ACGOUNE iii ices t kee e case ect sees eel eek xliv Officers and Council, 1871-72 cccs ec ic ieee ease ete tte eteeen xly Unicers of Sectional Committees 2.0... .. 0. . eect eee xlyi Report of the Council to the General Committee..............45 xlyii Report of the Kew Committee, 1870-71 0... 0... cece ees 1 Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports and Researches in Science. ii. eid ci eee eee ete ect ease ee lxix Synopsis of Money Grants... .... sac vecdeuseuesteecesuss inns xxiv General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific RMSE Ss. Fates aot s ers as bis nah, yore kk il 4 ae MOD lxxvi Arrangement of the General Meetings ...... Levi tedsssedeus an lxxxiii Address by the President, Sir William Thomson, Knt., LL.D., F.R.S. Ixxxiy REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Seventh Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- shire,—the Committee consisting of Sir Cuartus Lyn, Bart., F.R.S., Professor Puituirs, F.R.S., Sir Jonn Luszocx, Bart., FR. S., JoHN a 2 li CONTENTS. Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, Groréz Busk, F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp Dawetns, F.R.S., Wreriam Aysurorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., and Wii11Am PENGELLY, FR.S. (Reporter) .....0c cece ee cece cece ee ce eisae Fourth Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Locali- ties of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor Evererr, at the request of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wirr1am THomson, F.R.S., Sir Cuartes Lyett, Bart., F.R.S., Professor J. Crurx Maxwett, F.R.S., Professor Puitites, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, '.M.S., Dr. Batrour Srewart, F.R.S., Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor A. Grrxre, F.R.S., James Guatisoer, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, E. W. Bryyey, F.R.S., Grorez Maw, F.G.S., W. Peneetry, F.R.S.,8.J.Macuin, F.G.8., Epwarp Hutt, F.R.S., and Professor Evurrrr, D.C.L. (Secretary) .. Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71. By a Com- mittee, consisting of Jamus Guatsuer, F.R.S., of the Royal Observa- tory, Greenwich, Roperr P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Arexanper 8, Herscuet, F.R.A.S., and Caartzs Brooxr, F.R.S., Secretary to the Mekeorolapical Sockehy.. =. a\. 5. ei sees Pane stones eee ate eats Siaieeee em Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S., F.Z.8., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., and R. Eruepipen, F.R.S., on the Struc- ture and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea, drawn up by Henry RWoopmamn; BUGS BUZ.6. ain oscis oo chino aes eee aes Report of the Committee appointed at the Meeting of the British Asso- ciation at Liverpool, 1870, consisting of Prof. Jevons, R. Dupiny Baxter, J. T. Danson, James Hrywoop, F.R.S., Dr. W. B. Hopeson, and Prof. Watry, with Epmunp Macrory as their Secretary, ‘ for the purpose of urging upon Her Majesty’s Government the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of ready and effective comparison ” © @ « be « a @ fou "saw 6 ye. © nv) ere eie Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of Superintending the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers. The Committee con- sists of Prof. A. W. Witt1amson, F.R.S., Prof. H. E. Roscor, F.R.S., Prof. KE. Franxianp, F.R.S. C2 Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of Change. The Committee consists of the Rey. T. W. Wess and Epwarp Crosstry, Secretary Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals. By Prof. Tarr Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, by a Committee, consisting of C. Brooxz, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. Guatsuer, F.R.S., Prof. Pures, F.RS., J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., R. W. Myzyz, C.E., F.BS., T. Hawxsrey, C.E., Prof. J. C. Apams, F.R.S., C. Tomnryson, E-B.S., Prof. Sytvuster, F.R.S., Dr. Poxx, F.R.S., Rogurs Finny, C.E., and G. J. Symons, Secretary a ee er CCI aC Ne NCS CC i uC Oe Ph he keene Cheol: bh ta SOAPS CE CEE 6 ae 8 e's 6 6 48 Fe. a haw! wien |e 16) © (wins) eens Third Report on the British Fossil Corals. By P. Marry Duncan, F.BS., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London ..... 14 26 53 57 59 60 97 98° 116 CONTENTS. Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the process of Arteria- lization. By Arrnur Gamexn, M.D., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Physiology in the Extra-Academical Medical School of Edinburgh............ Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of Physiolo- PPE SeICHUMCNGHWON J) 2. ens ee gees Mase cwdt pes erscce. Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Compounds. By Bengsamin Warp Ricuarpson, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. .0.... eee eee Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for the purpose of showing their Struc- ture by means of Photography. The Committee consists of Jamzs Tomson, F.G.S., and Prof. Harxnuss, F.RS. 1.2... ke ee ee es Second Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report on the yarious Plans proposed for Legislating on the subject of Steam-Boiler Explosions, with a view to their Prevention,—the Committee consisting of Sir Wittram Farrsarrn, Bart., C.K., LL.D.,{F.R.S., Jounw Penn, C.E., F.R.S., Freperick J. Bramwertt, C.E., Huea Mason, Samuren Riesy, THomas Scuorrerpd, Cuartes F, Breyer, C.E., Tomas WEzsTErR, Cr and, Lavineron BE. Frercamn, CB. 20.560 dees toes eccase Report of the Committee on the “Treatment and Utilization of Sewage,” consisting of Ricnarp B. Granruam, C.E., F.G.S. (Chairman), Pro- fessor D. T. Ansrep, F.R.S., Professor W. H. Corrretp, M.A., M.B., J. Baitey Denton, C.E., F.G.S8., Dr. W. H. Grisert, F.R.S., Jonn THorn- nt Harrison, C.E., Taomas Hawxstey, C.E., F.G.8., W. Hors, V.C., Tieut.-Col. Lracu, R.E., Dr. W. Oprine, F.R.S., Dr. A. Vortcxer, F.R.S., Professor A. W. Wittramson, F.R.S., F.C.S., and Sir Jonny Meenas, Dart, MP. WBS. (Preasurery). . ec ows eee wees wee Betters from M, Lavorstmmr to Dr. BLACK .....02 ccc cece ess scccees Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Anton Domry, Professor Rox- LEston, and Mr. P. L. Scrater, appointed for the purpose of promoting the Foundation of Zoological Stations in differert parts of the World: See porier,, Dr. DOHRM, oo. pete a ras eeepc HOO Ge canoe ote Preliminary Report on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlo- qeue, “By James Dewar, F.BSB.. e005 See ts. te eee es Report on the practicability of establishing “ A Close Time ” for the pro- tection of indigenous Animals. By a Committee, consisting of Prof. Newton, M.A., F.R.S., Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.R.S., J. E. Hantine, F.LS., F.Z.8., Rey. H. Barnes, and H. E. Drussrr (Reporter) .... Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycz, F.G.S., Sir W. Tomson, F.R.S., D. Minye- Home, F.R.S.E., P. Macrarpans, and J. BrouGH ......-..+..-45- Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Bowrrye, F.R.S., The Right Hon. Sir C. B. Ap- DERLEY, M.P., Samvet Brown, F.S.S., Dr. Farr, F.R.S., Franx P. Fextowns, Professor Franknanb, F.R.S., Professor Hennessy, F.R.S., ‘James Herwoon, F.B.S., Sir Roperr Kang, F.R.S., Professor Leonz ili Page 137 144 145 165 166 166 189 192 193 197 197 iv CONTENTS. Levi, F.S.A., F.S.8., C. W. Smvrens, F.R.S., Colonel Syxzs, F.RB.S., M.P., Professor A. W. Wrttramson, F.R.S., James Yates, F.R.S., Dr. Grorce Grover, Sir Josepx Wurrwortn, Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Naprer, H. Drecxs, J, V. N. Bazatcerre, W. Surra, Sir W. Farrzaren, Bart., F.R.S., and Joun Rosryson :—Professor Lzone Levi, Secretary Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of promoting the extension, improvement, and harmonic analysis of Tidal Observations. Consisting of Sir Witt1am Tomson, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. J. C. Apams, F.R.S., J. OrpHam, Witr1Am Parkes, M. Inst. C.E., Prof. Ranxre, LL.D., F.R.S., and Admiral Ricwarps, R.N., F.RS.....50-:229223 NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Address by Professor P. G. Tarr, M.A., F.R.S.E, President of the Section .. MATHEMATICS. Mr. Ropert Stawett Batx’s exhibition and description of a Model of a Conoidal Cubic Surface called the “ Cylindroid,” which is presented in the Theory of the Geometrical Freedom of a Rigid Body ..............004. Professor CayLEy on the Number of Covariants of a Binary Quantic ...... Mr, W, K. CirrForp on a Canonicai Form of Spherical Harmonics .,...... Mr. J. W. L, GuaisHER on certain Definite Integrals .........+.eeeeeeees —_——_—_——_———— on Lambert’s Proof of the Ivrationality of 7, and on the Ivrationality of certain other Quantities ........cseee ee eeeeee eevee Mr. C. W. MerriFretp on certain Families of Surfaces ........0+000+ cous Mr. F. W. Newman on Doubly Diametral Quartan Curves ......-+esseeees Professor PursER’s Remarks on Napier’s original Method of Logarithms. ... Mr. W. H. L. Russext on Linear Differential Equations..........0s0e0005 ——_————— on MacCullagh’s Theorem ...........ssseeeseeee Mr. J. J. Sytvester on the Theory of a Point in Partitions ..........++.. Sir W. THomson on the General Canonical Form of a Spherical Harmonic of the nth Order .,..., STROM E ckea o’ efe\n a a-e ae Ge ans tnd ake retake: «his ga elute setae Page . 198 201 1 CONTENTS, v GENERAL Paystcs, Page Mr. Ropert Stawett Batx’s Account of Experiments upon the Resistance of Airto the Motion of Yortex=rings .....25 becuse ees eetceeclecgerbess 26 Mr. H. Deacon’s Experiments on Vortex-rings in Liqnids ............. bey P29 Professor J. D. EvERETT on Units of Force and Energy............0..005 29 Dr. J. H. Guapstone and ALFRED TRIBE on the Corrosion of Copper Plates Rep EAETOL SULUAE yaraig-etceierorstelelarole love's see he & oldie, ciaverele Phebe ewietsiaeelel 29 ML Janssun’s Remarks on Physics ........002.ccc cee c eee cveceeueeccues 29 Mr. T. M. Lrypsay and W. R. Smiru on Democritus and Lucretius, a aoe tion of Priority in the Kinetical Theory of Matter...............5. siaisies, Professor JAMES THomsoNn’s Speculations on the Continuity of the Fluid State of Matter, and on Relations between the Gaseous, the Liquid, and the Solid “UNOPS pn gcogeady abate a oeo 6 iS esi OREO eee Sa Debs DEE eee paribus co i 50 ———_—_—_—_——— Observations on Water in Frost Rising against Gravity rather than Freezing in the Pores of Moist Earth ............. . dt Astronomy. Professor CLirForp on the Secular Cooling and the Figure of the Earth .... 34 Dr. Gix’s Observations on the Parallax of a Planetary Nebula............ 3 M. Janssen on the Coming Solar Eclipse ........... 0. cc cece cece ee eeees 34 Mr. J. Norman Lockyer on the Recent and Coming Solar Eclipses........ 34 Mr. R. A. Proctor on the Construction of the Heavens...............05. 34 Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS on Artificial Coronas........... 0. see eee eee 3 Mr. H. Fox Tatzor on a Method of Estimating the Distances of some of the HILO BL, SUTS Shee aa Pe Oke Sie rae ca one Cee ee nemo amemetony 54 Professor Cartes V. ZENGER on the Nutoscope, an Apparatus for showing Graphically the Curve of Precession and Nutation ............eee cers 36 Lieut. Mr. Puttre BrawAm’s description of a Set of Lenses for the Accurate Cor- SMP MANGL SISBOh ore yn ues < o s\one osc Sate eae id ee Va Leela cua be Mr. THomas“STEVENSon’s description of a Paraboloidal Reflector for Light- houses, consisting of silyered facets of ground-glass; and of a Differential _. MOTAT Pondoiglad H6abi of Shinto oda up ot opin ooooticlooobinsiac ont 5 ror Professor G. G. Sroxss’s Notice of the Researches of the late Rey. William Vernon Harcourt; on the Conditions of Transparency i in Glass, and the Con- nexion between the Chemical Constitution and Optical en of dif- , ©9 vom PMI CIBBEES™ 5), 0... Ss vise teetanles Doses cscs ee vas Brat era. carat veers 38 Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney on one Cause of Transparency... .eeceseeeeee. Al ——______—— on the advantage of referring the positions of Lines in the Spectrum to a Scale of Wave-numbers.......+.ssseeeeeeee 42 Professor Wi1LLIAM Swan on the Waye-lengths e the Spectra of the Hydro- GLO TOME deb bindebSnapipemodeinc oo unboliveanGonerccpuemommonr oconmboenare 45 The AsB& Moreno on the Poste Photographique........+.++5 tetveweeees 44 Mr. R. Surron’s Account of a New Photographic Dry Process.....+...... 44 vi CONTENTS. - Page Heat. Mr. Donatp M‘Faruane’s description of Experiments made in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Glasgow to determine the Surface Conduc- tivity for Heat of a Copper Ball ..............00ccecaees Bpoui AanbSt Mr. Wirt1Am Lapp on a Respirator for Use in Extinction of Fires ........ Professor BALFouR StEwanT on the Temperature-equilibrium ofan Enclosure in which there is a Body in Visible Motion.........ccceceeeescccecees Professor Cx. V. ZENGER on a new SteaM-gauge ...sscsscsevseevsseveees ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. Mr. Tuomas Bioxam on the Influence of Clean and Unclean Surfaces in Vol- LACE ANCIAGIE araee atelete peices fete eteitictee levers icloss «sha Sane COG OUbooaddodae: , Mr. Latimer CLarxk on a new Form of Constant Galvanic Battery ........ Dr. J. P. JoutE’s Notice of and Observations with a New Dip-circle ...... Professor Tarr on Thermo-electricity...........ccceeceee ceeees abbas Be Mr. C. F. Variry on a Method of Testing Submerged Electric Cables...... Professor Cu, V, ZENGER on a New Key for the Morse Printing Telegraph .. METEOROLOGY. Dr. Buys Bauuor on the Importance of the Azores as a Meteorological Sta- LOL, es assis agep th ety ovals #\sce 'dinle.4'> iaisis Dive wet Wiagthe Gime jacneem ae ea Dr. ALEXANDER Brown on the Mean Temperature of Arbroath. Lat.56°33'35"' North, Long. 2° 35' 30” W. of Greenwich Dr. Witi1am B, Carpenter on the Thermo-Dynamics of the General Oceanic AGM AGOH OF, G'S ae sos wie nance eee eas eee aac Veen eet ea ee Rev. Professor CHa.iis on the Mathematical Theory of Atmospheric Tides . Professor Cotprne’s Remarks on Aérial Currents.......... #9 enous asia Professor J. D. Everett on Wet- and Dry-bulb Formule ......... v's oan la —_———————_—— on the General Circulation and Distribution of the Atmosphere ... 00000. Baka sycamore cheecesmins dareln ta iois/ ste errs olarsieters AIRES Ge oe ate M. JANssEN’s Observations Physiques en Ballon Mr. W. PENGELLY on the Influence of the Moon on the Rainfall ..... S006 Mr. R. Russevxt on the Inferences drawn by Drs. Magnus and Tyndall from their Experiments on the Radiant Properties of Vapour ............ dace Mr, Wititam A, Trait on Parhelia, or Mock Suns, observed in Ireland .. Tuk PRroGREss oF SCIENCE. Lieut.-Col. A. Strange on Government Action on Scientific Questions .... Rey. W, TuckwE.t on the Obstacles to Science-Teaching in Schools ...... CHEMISTRY. Address by Professor ANDREWS, F.R.S.L, & E., President of the Section.... Mr. Tuomas ArNswortTH on the Facts developed by the Working of Hama- tite Ores in the Ulyerstone and Whitehaven Districts from 1844-71,..... 59 66 CONTENTS. Dr. AxprEws on the Dichroism of the Vapour of Iodine on the Action of Heat on Bromine................0000055, Professor Apsoun’s Remarks upon the Proximate Analysis of Saccharine RM fala alse eth ie’ stare alt vo.0.8 ft ary eM T wioaeelbid a aI, M. Gustav Biscuor on the Examination of Water for Sanitary purposes Mr. Pump Brawam on the Crystallization of Metals by Electricity........ Mr. J. Y. BucHanan on the Rate of Action of Caustic Soda on a watery Solu- Pememermmararentc Acid at NOOF Co ase as oiaye «0 0je «su sus wgarecbraenm cen ts Dr. F. Cracr-Catverrt on the Estimation of Sulphur in Coal and Coke.... Mr. Joun Daze and Dr. T. E. Toorre on the Existence of Sulphur Di- LU STLEE 5 5 HE SERRE RB eR ae a aig saa ea? Mr. Henry Dracon on Deacon’s Chlorine Process as applied to the Manufac- ture of Bleaching-powder on the larger Scale Professor DELFFS on Sorbit a BE o Ore 0 © 6 60s 0). 8.18. ole) aval wh wale) © vs ela ek 8 Bee ofa a ee ale, 5, 6,6 0) Oidlelnieintaluia’ sie.ele,u) a) acutelete a Dr. J. H. Guapstonr and ALFRED Tripe’s Experiments on Chemical Dy- MT A. 30 tall lax Abielea,) eWicteee 1. Habe O AMIR eT Dr. J. H. Guapstone on Crystals of Silver .......ccccccscccccsuccuce PreOHIN GOODMAN Om FABTIN 6.62. cece oye ogee sneubinces oho ooh Oper ic Mr. Wittram Harxness’s Preliminary Notice on a New Method of Testing Beret at WOOO Nu Rite: ce. fechas on os cmitin vie «icing pats dsdieais.a wdoues a o% oie The Rey. H. Higuron on a Method of Preserving Food by Muriatic Acid .. Dr. J. Styciuarr Hoxpen on the Aluminous Iron-ores of Co, Antrim Professor N. Story Maskrtyye on the Localities of Dioptase —_—— on Andrewsite .......... ° Dr. T. Morrar on Ozonometry............ sibipo.Lc ee ee ee ee er Dr. T. L. Purpson on Regianic Acid 0 Pee enee Dr. J. Emerson Reynoxps on the Action of Aldehyde on the two Primary Ureas et soe NEP ERE SUS) Ore TENS) Sata: e) etaile chee) 's 6 eis eota atecale! a) ‘sterpial ele) e! cals ataliea: w eie nc ——_——_—————— on the Analysis of a singular Deposit from Well- “EEL pe ican CS as St ie Een Co IOI A eeaceic track rice rico" tr Seon oR Dr. Orro Ricutenr on the Chemical Constitution of Glycolic Aleohol and its Heterologues, as viewed in the new light of the Typo-nucleus Theory .... Mr. Witi1amM CHANDLER ROBERTS on the Molecular arrangement of the Alloy of Silver and Copper employed for the British Silver Comage........... Mr. E. C. C. Sranrorp on the Retention of Organic Nitrogen by Charcoal . . Mr. Jonn Smytu, Jun., on Improvements in Chlorimetry . Ae Dr. T. E. Toorrx’s Contributions to the History of the Phosphorus Chlorides Mr. C. R, C. Trcuzornz on the Dissociation of Molecules by Heat . Mr. C. Tomumson on the behaviour of Supersaturated Saline Solutions when exposed to the open air ........ eUatet at atatsh clave e's: a'eto' aver Mr. J. A. WANKLYN on the Constitution of Salts........... eon i cise ace ar C. Gizpert WHEELER on the Recent Progress in Chemistry in the United tates eeeeverereret eee treet ee ease eene sores erereeereoe eer eee ape ses Vill CONTENTS. : Page Mr. C. R. A. Wriaur and Cuartns H. Presse on the Oxidation products of the Essential Oil of Orange-peel, known as “ Essence de Portugal” ..,, 83 Mr. C. R. A. Wricut on certain new Derivatives from Codeia.,..... » angina GEOLOGY. Address by AncHIBALD Gerxim, F.R.S., President of the Section .......... 87 The Rey. J. F. Buaxe on the Yorkshire Lias and the Distribution of its PACT OUIUOS PME pomp site eof evo oets's one's evele oie. ote: ehevetoncterevel er ctetctis test toEstee 90 Mr. D. J. Brown on the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland .......... 93 on the Upper Silurian Rocks of the Pentland Hills and Mdpsmiah aso ire oe Jame Mert tsa leeia ce cs ys arene sifee oot stare rmaeenes 93 Dr. Ropert Brown’s Geological Notes on the Noursoak Peninsula and Disco Nsland ins Worth iGmpenland..) ris stete"s sisis s'ale s'sie vlelele ober aisvenp 128 ——__——_-——-——-. on the Geographical Distribution of the Floras of North- BYESE AMOTICR oe ececssssecececs nc Se Seamntenbadoed cd i at anneates x CONTENTS. Page The Rey. THomas Brown on Specimens of Fossil-wood from the Base of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks at Langton, Berwickshire........ neopets 128 Professor A. Dickson’s Suggestions on Fruit Classification. ......++6+..+++ . 128 Mr. W. T. TutsELTon DyER on the minute Anatomy of the Stem of the Screw-Pine, Pandanus utilis so... ccccvccccccesencsssscenees satereisie othe 128 on the so-called ‘ Mimicry’ in Plants ........ 128 Mr, A. G. Mork on Spiranthes Romanzoviana, Cham. ..ccccccscecceceeres 129 ———— on Eriophorum alpinum, Linn., as a British Plant ........ 129 Dr. James Munrtre on the Development of Fungi within the Thorax of Living Ii Kis go oantee te Sono bdr eps ase adddon SP Ia ee Saneoies aid og 129 Dr. J. Brrxseck Nevins on the Changes which occur in Plants during the ripening of the Seeds, in order to ensure the access of the Air and Light as well as Heat, which are generally requisite for this purpose, without the loss of the Seeds before the ripening is completed ..........0.eesee eevee 130 —_—_—_—_——-—— on the Nature of the Cruciferous fruit, with refer- NICO NTO! EE OPEV EPI 7, 0xa1 falar efaceies sveceis ace: ove: sj cdeverajocsietrs«,sc0ysieystesateds ett eereN 180 Mr. J. Sapien on the Species of Grimmia (including Schistidium) as repre- > sented in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh..........ccceeeeseeeeeeeees 181 Mr. Nem Srrwanrt’s Observations on the intimate Structure of Spiral ducts in Plants and their relationship to the Flower ........cseeseeseeeeeees 131 ———_—_—_—_——_ Inquiry into the Functions of Colour in Plants during different Stages of their Development........... ale legecevesnieseieh ee eer 131 Prof. W. C. Wrix1AMson on the Classification of the Vascular Cryptogamia, as affected by recent Discoveries amongst the Fossil Plants of the Coal- measures ...... Jaane Hoes Tivoo" S500 OODOe a Terennen sieiegerare Spdddote Poe tail ZooLoey. Professor J. Duns’s Notice of two Specimens of Echinorhinus spinosus taken in the Firth of Forth .......... HOD OUOEEOHOORMC HS NOnOMT. Ma Tccqg 7b OC 132 —————__——- on the Rarer Raptorial Birds of Scotland.............. 132 Dr. GriERSON on the Carabus nitens of the Scottish Moors........++++++5: 132 Mr. W. SavititE Kent on the Zoological Results of the Dredging Expedition of the Yacht ‘ Norma’ off the Coast of Spain and Portugal in 1870 ...... 132 Mr. A. W. Lewis’s Proposal for a Modification of the strict Law of Priority in Zoological Nomenclature in certain cases .......0ee0e0s ea sat. ture. oe 138 Dr. Curist1An LUTKEN on some resent Additions to the Arctic Fauna (a new Antipathes and a new Apodal Lophioid) ........... ce eee eee eens tein tt 138 Mr. A. G. More on the occurrence of Brown Trout in Salt Water.......... 183 —— on some Dredgings in Kenmare Bay ........seeeeeesunes 138 Mr. C. W. PEAcH on the so-called Tailless Trout of Islay ...........0000. 188 Colonel Prayrair on the Hydrographical System of the Freshwater Fish of A @CTIa |. citemieis iio’ 5 SH OS DODO AGO DOO BDAMODOn DO 6 cd ondcetcn Ae nici ve. 134 Dr. P. L. ScuaTrr’s Remarks on a favourable occasion for the establishment of Zoological Observatories........cssscceccsccscccsccvess Fiorano sc 134 Professor WYVILLE THoMSON on the Structure of Crinoids ...... Gc 18 — on the Paleeontological Relations of the Fauna of the North ‘Atlanti¢sgeseccicccccccacedaeaendeues cede eaten 184 CONTENTS. x1 Page Mr. Rotanp Tren on a curious South-African Grasshopper, Trrachypetra bufo (White), which mimics with much precision the appearance of the stones among which it lives ...........- Sitoose -5 SRS Ac oS CRO GOEe 154 Professeur VAN BENEDEN sur les Chauves-souris de l’époque du Mammouth et de Vépoque actuelle ..... cece cece ee ee eens a Borer nin SSSA nik 135 The Rey. R. B. Wartson’s Notes on Dredging at Madeira .......ceeeeseee 137 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. Professor A. BucHANAN on the Pressure of the Atmosphere as an Auxiliary Force in carrying on the Circulation of the Blood .......+.seeeeeveeeee Dr. Joun Curenr’s Experimental Inquiry into some of the Results of Inocu- lation in the lower Animals ..........000eeeees Sideiateeisteente = pndaqode .. 138 Professor W. H. Frowrnr on the Composition of the Carpus of the Dog .,., 188 Dr. ARTHUR GAMGEE on the Magnetic and Diamagnetic Properties of the SUOOUL sscUR OGG jedgde SoacoorePicddommgt EUV Us Sree tarentr ee ates Segeiclo rn 138 Sir Duncan Grsp on the Uses of the Uvula .........+..45 SRN NESSY SII ——__ on some Abnormalities of the Larynx........+se+05 Pena loo Professor Humpury on the Caudal and Abdominal Muscles of the Crypto- DDEAHEM 6,60. .4:0 » A dade Sou e oot aodto bao Bob bo cao con se ddpraaeen nodose 140 Mr. E. Ray LAnKEsTER on the Existence of Hemoglobin in the Muscular Tissue, and its relation to Muscular Activity ........ 2 uO OCPOKRDEROAICIG OF 140 Mr. B. T. Lown on the Ciliated Condition of the Inner Layer of the Blasto- derm in the Ova of Birds and in the Omphalo-mesenteric Vessels ...,..., 140 Professor A. MACALISTER on the Bearing of Muscular Anomalies on the Dar- winian Theory of the Origin of Species ...... Wares ae ace itve Lens neal cee LO Dr. M‘Kenprick on a New Form of Tetanometer ..........+ Dr. Witu1aM Manrcer on the Nutrition of Muscular and Pulmonary Tissue in Health and in Phthisis, with Remarks on the Colloid Condition of Mat- 32s orion ‘Goode capduor Ae OB. DOIN. 0 DIDIDE- DIDOOSCK GUhOOD= aie Spee LAO Dr. Epwarp Smirx on Dietaries in the Workhouses of England and Wales. 141 Professor STRUTHERS on some Rudimentary Structures recently met with in the Dissection of a large Fin-Whale .............0.. Fir cougae eeeeee ——_———_——- on the Cervical Vertebree in Cetacea ...........+0+.. 142 Professor R. H. Traquair on the Restoration of the Tail in Protopterus an- MECLENS weevsvuveee sete eeeees Pee eater eter ene ee resent tesenesvenne Dr. J. Barry Tuxe and Professor RUTHERFORD on the Morbid Appearances noticed in the Brains of Insane People Professor TURNER on the Placentation in the Cetacea..... Sp ocean pire 144 —_-—____—_——’s Notes on the Cervical Vertebree of Steypirethyr (Bale- proper a, Std AIA) } tee ee ee eT ‘WwW sorg *uo7] TUN FY "WU 'M ag Biles sinlonis einai G eve «amelie ae casten - Pieeeseeeeeeeneeeseeeeeerees guBDY gUMOOSTA *[OMOISU'T JO [Lay S'U'ad “ASSOU AO Tuva oy, "SPST ‘83 OUNEG “ATLSTHONV . . ‘ . ete eee *ornre herpes ‘ . . ‘ar . fours ‘ 3 By . . 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Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS, 1832. Oxford ...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S....;)Rev. H. Coddington. 1833. Cambridge |Sir D. Brewster, F.R. cit babes Prof. Forbes. 1834. Edinburgh |Rev. W. Whewell, THURS spstinacae' Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS, 1835. Dublin ,.....{Rev.:Dr. Robinson..............60. Prof. Si W. R. Hamilton, Prof. Wheatstone, 1836. Bristol ...... Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S..../Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W. Jerrard. 1837. Liverpool ...|Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S............. W. S. Harris, Rey. Prof. Powell, Prof. Stevelly. 1838. Neweastle...\Sir J. F, W. Herschel, Bart.,/Rey. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine, E-.R.S. Prof. Stevelly. 1839. Birmingham|Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.RB.8. ....../J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof. Stevelly. 1840. Glasgow ...|Prof. Forbes, F.R.S. ..........000+- Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch. Smith. 1841. Plymouth.../Rey. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.8, .|Prof. Stevelly. 1842. Manchester |Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,|Prof. M ‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. E.R.S. W. Scoresby. 1843. Cork......... Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.1.A. --/J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly. 1844. York......... The Earl of Rosse, RGB: f2 005s Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly. 1845. Cambridge, |The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely .|Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. 1846. Southampton|Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.,)John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G. F.RB.S. Stokes. 1847. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. Powell, M.A., F.R.S. .|Rey. H. Price, Prof. Steyelly, G. G. Stokes. 1848. Swansea ....|Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ........./Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. 1849. Birmingham|William Hopkins, F.R.S........../Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W. Ridout Wills. 1850. Edinburgh..|Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., 8ec.|W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. . R.S.E ae iy Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Sto 1851. Ipswich...... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S.,|S. J nea W. J. Macquorn Rankine, &e. Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. 1852. Belfast ...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S.|Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran- L. & E, kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndail. 1853; Hull eeys.., The Dean of Ely, F.R.S. ...,...../B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt, Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh. 1854. Liverpool...|Prof. G, G, Stokes, M.A., Sec.|J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof. RS. Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh. 1855. Glasgow ...|/Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S./Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D, Gray, Prof. L. & B. ; Tyndall. 1856. Cheltenham|Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. .../C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull. 1857. Dublin ...... Rey.T. R. Robinson, D.D.,F.R.S.,/Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A. M.R.LA, Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Stevelly. ee PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, XXX — En SS Date and Place. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1832. 1833. 1834, 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845 y 1846.Southampton|Michael Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.8.|Dr. Miller, 1847. Leeds Aberdeen ... Oxford ...... Manchester . Cambridge... Neweastle... Birmingham Nottingham Dundee...... Norwich ... Liverpool ... Edinburgh . Presidents. Secretaries. Rey. W.Whewell, D.D., V.P.R.S./Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Stevelly, H. J, 8. Smith, Prof. Tyndall. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.J.8. RS. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.RB.S....... Rey. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison, Prof. Stevelly. G. B. Airy, M.A, D.C.L., F.R.8.|Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Prof, Stevelly. ay J.58. Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S.)Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof, Fuller, F. Jen- The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,|J. E.R.S Smith, Prof. Stevelly. C.E., F.BS. kin, Prof. Steveliy, Rev. C. T. Whitley. Prof. Cayley, M:A., F-.R.S.,/Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G. F.R.AS Buckle, Prof. Stevelly. W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.,|Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G. F.R.AS. 8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, J. M. Wilson. Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S./Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Rey. 8. N. Swann. Rey. G. Buckle, Prof. G. OC, Foster, Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan. Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley, R: B. Hayward. Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward, W. K. Clifford. Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford, Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen Whitworth. : Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomiey, Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D. Everett, Rev. R. Harley. CHEMICAL SCIENCE. Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D., F.RB.S. J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., LL.D., E.RB.S. Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...... COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I1.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY. Oxford Cambridge.. Edinburgh... Dublin Bristol Liverpool... Newcastle... Birmingham Glasgow ... Plymouth... Manchester. few eeenee Oxford John Dalton, D.C.L., F.RB.S....... James F. W. Johnston. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....,../Prof. Miller. Dy SHO Ped vederorscssovsnsccasecnensee Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison. SECTION B.——CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. .........|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston. Rev. Prof. Cumming.......0..000- Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Heraz path. Michael Faraday, F.RB.S. .........|Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr. Reynolds. Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S....|Prof. Miller, R. L. Pattinson, Thomas Richardson. Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ........- ......|Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson. Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S. ... Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark, Dr. L. Playfair. Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ........-2.:--.(J- Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M, Tweedy. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.B.S....... Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham. .....|R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny. R. Hunt, W. Randall. Rey.W.V.Harcourt, M,A., F.R.S.|B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly. XXX REPORT—187 iE. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. Date and Place. | Presidents. Secretaries. Swansea ...'Richard Phillips, F.R.S. .........2. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williaa. Birmingham John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......... R. Hunt, G. Shaw. Edinburgh .|Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ....../Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson. Ipswich ...'Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S....\T. J. Pearsall, W. 8. Ward. Belfast ...... Thomas Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. ./Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof. Ronalds. (sft Dae eee Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,/H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J. F.R.S Pearsall. Liverpool ...| Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.|\Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Price. Glasgow ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .|Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe. Cheltenham |Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...... J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof. Voelcker. Dublin ...... Prof. eet, M.D., F-.R.S.,!Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- M.R.L. livan. Leeds ...... Sir J. i 'W. Herschel, Bart.,|Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey- D.C.L. nolds. Aberdeen ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S..|J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D. Liveing, Dr. Odling. Oxford ...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...... A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, A. B. Northcote. Manchester .|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S./A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing. Cambridge .|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.|H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof. Roscoe. Newcastle...|Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, ¥.R.S.|Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C. Stevenson. aBAEH coeacasee W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.)|A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R. Biggs Birmingham Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S./A. v Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof. Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills. Nottingham|H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. ...|J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J. Russell, J. White. Dundec _...|Prof.T. Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E.|A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing, W. J. Russell. Norwich ...!Prof.E.Frankland, F.R.S.,F.C.S./Dr. A. Cram Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus- soll, F. Sutton. Exeter ...... Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...!Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. W. J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson. Liverpool.. ‘er e E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S.,|Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., A. E. Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell, Edinburgh Prof . “Andrews, M.D., F.B.S. |\J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T. E. 1871. 1832, Thorpe. GEOLOGICAL (ann, unrit 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. Oxford ...... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......... 1833, Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. 1834, Edinburgh . “Prof Jameson 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. eee weer ener eesareees John Taylor. .. |W. Lane! John Phillips. Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie, Rey. J. Yates. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. Dublin ...... OCU ocncsepcssseste vine emtcs Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie. Bristol ...... Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-| William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, T. J. graphy. R.1.Murchison,F.R.S.|_ Torrie. Rey.Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Geo-|Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Gco- graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.| graphy. Captain H. M. Denham,R.N. C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—Geo-|W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.— graphy. Lord Prudhope. Geography. Capt. Washington. Birmingham a br. “Bakland, E.R. 5 Geo-'George Licyd, M.D., H. E. Strickland, graphy. G.B,Greenough,F.B.8.| Charles Darwin. Liverpool... Newcastle... PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Tate and Place. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. Glasgow Plymouth . Manchester Cork York Cambridge }. 1846. Southampton 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. . Ipswich 2. Belfast . Hull . Liverpool . 5. Glasgow 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859, 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864, 1865, Oxford ...... Swansea Birmingham Edinburgh * Cheltenham seeeee Manchester Cambridge Newcastle . Bath Birmingham Presidents. ee eg ee F.R.S.— Geogra- phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. 1H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......... Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S., M.R.LA. Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres. Geol. Soe. Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. LeonardHorner,F.R.S.— Geogra- phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S. ...(Sir H. a De la Beche, C.B., E.R Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S.' .|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S. ... (Sir R.I. Murchison, F.R.S. ..... Sir Roderick I. Murchison,F.R.8. XXX Secretaries. W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh Murray, H. E. Strickland, John Scoular, M.D. W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D., R. Hutton. E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R. Lloyd, H. B. Strickland. Francis M. Jennings, H. ©. Strick- land. Prof.:Ansted, E. H. Bunbury. Rey. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay, Rev. W. Thorp. Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D., Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C. T. Beke. Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C. Ramsay, J. Ruski Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof. Ramsay. J. Beete des, Prof. Oldham, Prof. A.C. Ramsay. A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro- fessor Nicol. SECTION C (continued),—GEOLOGY. .../William Hopkins, M.A., F.R.S... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. .........06. Prof, A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. . The Lord Talbot de Malahide ... William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D., E.BS. ../Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., E.R.S Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D., E.BS., F.G.S8. D.C.L., Sir R. Murchison, LL.D., F.R.S., &e. J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.RS.... ..|Prof. Warington W. Smyth, E.R.S., F. GS. ae re ‘Phillips, LL.D., F.BS., rae Murchison, Bart.,K.C.B. C. J. F. Bunbury, G@. W. Ormerod, Searles Wood. James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol. Prof. Harkness, William Lawton. ..|John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall. James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol. ..|Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hepworth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T.Wright. Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro- bert H. Scott. Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. Shaw. Prof. a eee Rev. J. Longmuir, H. Eye Prof. eee Edward Hull, Capt. Woodall. Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru- pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod. ...|Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, Hi. C. Sorby. E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sor- by, Thomas Sopwith. We B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly. Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E. Myers, H. C, Sorby, W. Pengelly. * At the Meeting of the General Committee held in Edinburgh, it was agreed “That the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to consti- tute a separate Section, under the title of the ‘‘ Geographical and Ethnological Section,” for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxvi. XXXIV RePort—187 F. Date and Place. 1866. Nottingham 1867. Dundee...... 1868. Norwich ... 1869, Exeter 1870. Liverpool... 1871. Edinburgh .. 1832. Oxford ...... 1833. Cambridge * 1834. Edinburgh 1835. Dublin ...... 1836. Bristol 1837. Liverpool .. 1838. Newcastle... 1839. Brimingham 1840. Glasgow 1841. Plymouth... 1842, Manchester 1 SAB GON ..i/,%. 14? Vork......... 1845. Cambridge 1846. Southampton) 1847. Oxford....... Presidents. Prof.A.C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.B.S8. Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S. R. a - Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., Prot e ‘Harkness, E.R.S., F.G.S.| Secretaries. R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil- son, G. H. Wright. Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry Woodward. Rey. O. Fisher, Rey. J. Gunn, W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood. W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rey. H. H. Winwood. Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton,/W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood, Bart., M.P., F.R.S Prof. a Geikie, ERS. Gas W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton. \R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. MeKenny Hughes, L. C. Miall. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY. Rey. P. B. Dunean, F.G.S. Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.LS... Prof,; Graharitegiis.cch sae sisudsesses Wiss inc Deny jeesssteccasscnecsass Sir W. Jardine, Bart.......... sane Prof. Owen, F.R.S. eee eee eee ...\sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D .......... John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.. Hon. and Very Rey. W. Herbert, LL.D., F.L.S. William Thompson, F.L.S. ...... Very Rey. The Dean of Manches-) ter. Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ...... Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. H. E. Strickland, M.A, F.R.S.... ..|Rey. Prof. J. 8. Henslow. .|C. C. Babington, D. Don. W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett. J. Curtis, Dr. Litton. J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8. Rootsey. C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W. Swainson. J.E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr. Richardson. E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson. Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat- terson. J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson. Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A. Turner. G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R. Pat- terson. Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, Dr. Tankester. Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston. Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H. Wooldridge. Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V. Wollaston. SECTION D (continued),.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections and the temporary Section EH of Anatomy and Medicine, see pp. xxxv, xxxyvi.] 1848. Swansea 1849. Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh. . 1851. 1852. Belfast ...... U5 ie 5 bad ee Be 1854. Liverpool .. 1855. Glasgow Tpswich...... ..[L. W. Dillwyn, FBS. «0.0.0.0... | William Spence, F.R.S............. Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. &E, ai ‘Rey. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.S. W. Ogilby iC. C. Babington, M.A., F.RB.S... eeee PCOS eee eee eee rere Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen- frey, Dr. Lankester. Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell. Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan- kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan. Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E. Lankester. Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr. Edwin Lankester. .|Robert Harrison, Dr. B. Lankester. .|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....... ...|Rey. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. Isaac Byerley, Dr. E, Lankester. ..(William Keddie, Dr. Lankester. _* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p- XXXV. Se PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXXV Date and Place. —-. 1856. Presidents. Cheltenham .|Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.$.... Secretaries. Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman, Dr. Lankester. 1857. Dublin ...... Prof. W.H. Harvey, M.D., F.R.8./Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. EH. Lankester, Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele. 1858. Leeds......... C. ©. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....,Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. H. Perceval Wright. 1859. Aberdeen .../Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. .| Prof. noe M.D., Dr. BE. Lankester, Dr. Ogilvy. 1860. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.LS. ....../W. 8. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. 1861. Manchester..|Prof. C. C. Babington, F-R.S. ...|Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright. 1862. Cambridge...|Prof. Huxley, F.R.S._ ......... Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 1863. Newcastle ...|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S. ....../Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. 1864. Bath ......... Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. ...... H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T. Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 1865. Birmingham/T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ......[Dr. J. Anthony, Rey. C. Clarke, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. SECTION D (continued).—BIOLOGY *. 1866. Nottingham.|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.—|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H. Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum-| B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B. phry, M.D., F.R.S.—Anthropo-| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright. logical Dep. Alfred R. Wallace, : E.R.GS. 1867. Dundee...... Prof, Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr. Dep. of Zool. and Bot. George| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H. Busk, M.D., F.R.S8. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner. 1868. Norwich .../Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.—|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr. Dep. of Physiology. W. H.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T. Flower, F.R.S. Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram, Dr. B. P. Wright. } 1869. Exeter ...... George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.—[Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster, Dep. of Bot. and Zool.C. Spence) M.D., E. Ray Lankester, Professor Bate, F.R.S.—Dep. of Ethno.| Lawson, H.'T’. Stainton, Rey. H. B. Bi. B. Tylor. Tristram. 1870. Liverpool ...|Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,)Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans, E.\R.S.,F.L.8.—Dep. Anat.and| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H. Physio. Prof. M. Foster, M.D.,) T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.L.S.—Dep. of Ethno. J.| C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan- Evans, F.R.S. kester. 1871. Edinburgh |Prof.Allen Thomson,M.D.,F.R.S.|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, —Dep. of Bot. and Zool. Prof.| E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.—| H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake, Dep. of Anthropo. Prof. W.| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne Turner, M.D. King. ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.— ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 1833, Cambridge...|Dr. Haviland .........:.c0ceeeee ey-+[Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget. 1834. Edinburgh...|Dr. Abercrombie ..........6.0000 |Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson. : SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE. 1835. Dublin ...... Dr Pritchard) Saville sess Dr, Harvison, Dr. Hart. 1836. Bristol. ...... Dr: Roget, F-RS. ....ce00 aikdeoe Dr. Symonds. 1837. Liverpool ...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ............ Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. -* At the Meeting of the General Committee at Birmingham, it was resolved :—‘ That the title of Section D be changed to Biology;” and “That for the word ‘Subsection,’ in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted.” XXXVI REPORT—1871. Date and Place. 1838. Newcastle ... 1839. Birmingham 1840. Glasgow ... 1841, 1842. Manchester. 1843. 1844. 1850. 1855. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. B 1865. Birminghmf. | Plymouth... Cork; ..cs.ss MORK, on, ose Edinburgh Leeds Oxford ...... Manchester. Cambridge . Newcastle... ath see eeeee Presidents. T. E. Headlam, M.D. John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ...... James Watson, M.D................ P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.S. Edward Holme, M.D., F.LS. ... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.......... J. ©. Pritchard, M.D. ............ Secretaries. \T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. Dr. J. Brown, Prot. Couper, Prof. Reid. ...|Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S. Sargent. Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent. Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent. SECTION E,— PHYSIOLOGY. 1845. Cambridge .|Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ......... 1846.Southampton/Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......... 1847. Oxford* .,./Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S.'.........;Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P. PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. ..|Prof, Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart..F.R.S. Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S. ... Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S. Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E.... Cembiebaret, IMD: i. .scstessea0se5 hs Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. ... Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.R. Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R. Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster. C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent. Ormerod. OF sECTION D. Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers. Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern. C. G. Wheelhouse. Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith. Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. |Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES. [For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section O, p. xxxii.] 1846.Southampton 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. Oxford ...... Swansea Birmingham ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS |Dr. Pritchard saareocge.scstessccnst ‘Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. OF sEcTIoN D. Dr. King. Prof. Buckley. G. Grant Francis. Dr. R. G. Latham. Edinburgh. ./Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm ...{Daniel Wilson. Belfast ...... Liverpool... Glasgow Cheltenham SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., Pres.'R. Cull, Rey. J. W. Donaldson, Dr. R.G .G.S. Col. Chesney, R.A. D.C.L., E.RB.S. R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., F.R.S ...(Sir d. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B. Norton Shaw. 'R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton Shaw. ... R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. [Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr. Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw. ‘Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H. Rum- | sey, Dr. Norton Shaw. * By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were incorporated under the name of “Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” (see p. xxiv). The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography. t Vide note on preceding page. ee as en ee — PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXXVil Presidents. Date and Place. 1857. Dublin ;..... Rey. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres. R.1.A. 1858. Leeds ...... Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S., F.RB.S. 1859. Aberdeen ...!Rear-Admiral Sir Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S 1860. Oxford....../Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., 1861. Manchester. E.R.S. Jobn Crawfurd, F.R.S..........00- 1862. Cambridge . Francis Galton, F.R.8: ............ 1863. Neweastle.../Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., E.RS. 1864. Bath......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., F.R.S. 1865. Birmingham 1866. Nottingham Major-General Sir R, Rawlinson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart., LL.D. Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G:S. ...... Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N,, F.R.S. 1867. Dundee 1858. Norwich ... James Clerk Secretaries. R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad- den, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal- laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas Wright. Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr. Norton Shaw. Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C. Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw. Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode. J. W. Clarke, Rey. J. Glover, Dr. Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright. C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield, C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson. H.W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright. H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright. H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R. H. Major, Clements R. Markham, D. W. Nash, T. Wright. H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R. Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock. T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark- ham, T. Wright. SECTION E (continwed).— GEOGRAPHY. 1869. Exeter F.R.G.S. Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D.,/H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham, J. H. Thomas, 1870. Liverpool ...|Sir R, I. Murchison, Bt., K.C.B.,/H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. J. Mott, Clements R. Markham. 1871. Edinburgh. |Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. ...|Clements R. Markham, A Buchan, J. IL. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston. STATISTICAL SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS. 1833. Cambridge .|Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. ............ 1834. Edinburgh .|Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. ......... J. E. Drinkwater. Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean. SECTION F.—STATISTICS. 1835. Dublin Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ... 1836. Bristol Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S. tenes eeeees 1837. Liverpool...|Rt. Hon, Lord Sandon eee een eens 1838. Neweastle...|Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. 1839. Birmingham|Henry Hallam, F.R.S. Pete ee eeene 1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, E.RB.S., M.P. 1841. Plymouth.../Lieut.-Col. Sykes, FR.S. ......... 1842, Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...... 1843. Cork ..,...... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...... 1844, York..... ».../Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S. 1845. Cambridge .|Rt. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam... 1846. Southampton|G. R. Porter, F.R.S. 1871. eee e ee eet enone iW. Greg, Prof. Longfield. Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp, James Heywood. W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C. Tayler. W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood. F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C. Tayler. C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W. Rawson. Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R. W. Rawson, Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr. W. C. Tayler. Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock. |J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D, J. Fletcher, F. G. P.-Neison, Dr. W. C. Tayler, Rey. T. L, Shapcott. d XXXvVili REPoRT—1871., Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 1847. Oxford ...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...|Rey. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G. P. Neison. 1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ......|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede : 1849. Birmingham|Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton ......... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F, G. P. Neison. 1850. Edinburgh ..|Very iy. eee John Lee, /|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. - Ipswich...... Sir John > Boileau, Bart. .... . Belfast ...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James V.P.R. Stark, .-|d- Fletcher, Prof. Hancock. Dublin. MacAdam, Jun. 1853. Hull ......... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S..../Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch. - 1854. Liverpool ...|Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ...........- E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H- 1856. Cheltenham |Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. .../Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr. W. N. Hancock Newmarch, W. M Tartt. : 1857. Dublin ...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W. Dublin, M.R.1.A. Newmarch. 1858. Leeds......... Edward Baines RECT EEL COTE, T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown, Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang. 1859, Aberdeen ...|Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ........./Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A.M. Smith, Dr. John Strang. 1860. Oxford ...... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......... Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch, Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. 1861. Manchester |William Newmarch, F.R.S. ....../David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie, E. Macrory, Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. 1862. Cambridge. .|Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ............ H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory. 1863. Newcastle ...|William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ..(T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy, James Potts. 1864. Bath.......... nr Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,/E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy. E.RS. 1865. Birmingham|Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,|G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston, M.P E. Macrory. 1866. Nottingham |Prof. i. HDS Rogers... oi. 1.000.052 R. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leone Leyi, E. Macrory. 1867. Dundee...... M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. ......... Prof. Leone Leyi, E. Macrory, A. J. Warden. 1868. Norwich ...\Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit. Ac-[Rev. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi. tuaries. 1869. Exeter ...... ‘Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-|Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy, cote, Bart., C.B., M.P. Charles T. D. Acland. 1870. Liverpool...|Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A. ../Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, ©. Macrory, J. Miles Moss. 1871. Edinburgh |Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.............! J. G. Fitch, James Meikle. MECHANICAL SCIENCE. SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 1836. Bristol ...... |Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S..../T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West. 1837. Liverpool .../Rey. Dr. Robinson Roddagtaawssvcases Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. 1838, Newcastle ...|Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ........./R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster. 1839. Birmingham Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robert|W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, Tho- Stephenson. mas Webster. 1840, Glasgow ...\Sir John Robinson..:...s0ccccecee0e J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod, C. Vignoles, 5. Glasgow ...../R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ..... Duncan, W. Newmarch. J. A. Campbell, E, Cheshire, W. New- march, Prof. R. H. Walsh. SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS: XX¥X1X Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 1841. Plymouth...|John Taylor, FVR.S. .........000068 Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster. 1842. Manchester .|Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. .........\J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, Charles Vignoles. 1843. Cork ......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A......./James Thomson, Robert Mallet. S44, York «..,..+: John Taylor, F.R.S. .........0.0:- Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. 1845, Cambridge ..|George Rennie, F.R.S. ..........6- Rev. W. T. Kingsley. 1846, Southampton/Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. ./William Betts, Jun., Charles Manby. 1847. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier. 1848. Swansea ..... Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A., F.R.S./R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé. 1849. Birmingham|Robert Stephenson, M.P., F.R.8.|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall. 1850. Edinburgh ..|Rev. Dr. Robinson. ......+........ |Dr. Lees, David Stephenson. 1851. Ipswich...... William Cubitt, FR.S........0.... John Head, Charles Manby,. 1852, Belfast ...... John Walker,C.E., LL.D., F.R.S.\John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock, Charles Manby, James Thomson. 1853. Hull ...... ++-|William Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S..|/James Oldham, J. Thomson, W. Sykes Ward. 1854. Liverpool .../John Scott Russell, F.R.S. .......John Grantham, J, Oldham, J. Thom- son. 1855. Glasgow ...|W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E.,|L. Hill, Jun., William Ramsay, J. EBS. homson. 1856. Cheltenham |George Rennie, F\R.S. ............ C. Atherton, B. Jones, Jun., H. M. Jeffery. 1857. Dublin ...... The Right Hon. The LHarl of|Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate, Rosse, ¥.R.S. James Thomson, Henry Wright. 1858. Leeds......... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ......|J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright. 1859. Aberdeen ...|Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. .|R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H. Wright. 1860. Oxford ...... Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|P. Le Neve Foster, Rey. F. Harrison, LL.D., F.R.S. Henry Wright. 1861. Manchester .|J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....... P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H. Wright. 1862. Cambridge ..|William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.)W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster. 1863. Newcastle .../Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. . ms Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, J. . Spencer. 1864. Bath ......... J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. ...........- P. Le Hove Foster, Robert Pitt. 1865. Birmingham|Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,|P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P. F.R.S. Marshall, Walter May. 1866. Nottingham |Thomas Hawksley, V-.P.Inst.|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M. C.E., F.G.S. A. Tarbottom. 1867. Dundee...... Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith, LL.D., E.R.S. W. W. Urquhart. 1868. Norwich ...|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S. .../P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C. Manby, W. Smith. 1869. Exeter ...... C. W. Siemens, E,R.S. ............ P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman. 1870. Liverpool ...|Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S. .|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T. King, J. N. Shoolbred. 1871, Edinburgh |Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S....|H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J. P, Smith. List of Evening Lectures. Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse. 1842, Manchester .| Charles Vignoles, F\R.S.......... The Principles and Construction of Atmospheric Railways. Sir M. T. Brunel ........s:00008--| The Thames Tunnel. R, I. Murchison, ..................| The Geology of Russia. 1843. Cork ....1.:::| Prof. Owen, M.D., F-B.S. ......] The Dinornis of New Zealand. Prof. E. Forbes, F.RS. ...,.... | The Distribution of Animal Life ia the AXgean Sea. Dr, Robinson ...csss..sscseess-44-| Lhe Earl of Rosse’s Telescope. : d 2 xl Date and Place. 1844. 1845. Yorko scutes: Cambridge .. 1846.Southampton 1847, 1848. 1849. 1853. . Ipswich.... . Belfast . Aberdeen . . Oxford Oxford ...... Swansea Birmingham 50. Hdinburgh. . Liverpool ... . Glasgow...... . Manchester . 2, Cambridge . REPORT—1871. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse. Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........0.- Geology of North America. Dr. Falconer, F.R.S. ............ G. B. Airy, F'.R.S., Astron. she: R. I. Murchison, BR. inte Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R. 8. Charles Lyell, ERS. ras codeenee W. KR. Grove, F.R.S. sere eeeereee Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. . Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S. Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S. ...| John Perey, M.D., F.R.S. W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. Dr. Faraday, F.R.S......+......4.- Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.., F.R.S.E. Dr. Mantell, F.R.S.......sc0ccee0e ... Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S. Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S. E.G.S. Robert Hunt, F.R.S. ............ Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.... Col. &. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson Col. Sir H. Rawlinson ............ W. RB. Grove, F.R.S. ...00s000 Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ..... Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D,C.L. .. Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., ERS. Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ... .| Sir R.I. Murchison, D.C.L. .... Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. .... Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...... Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. . Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S. G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. . Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S. .. Prof, Odling, IaSeenereeate peeeee The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik Hills in India. Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism. Geology of Russia. -| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles. ..| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi. Properties of the Explosive substance discovered by Dr. Schénbein ; also some Researches of his own on the Decomposition of Water by Heat. .| Shooting-stars, Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno- mena. ...| The Dodo (Didus ineptus). .| Metallurgical operations of Swansea and its neighbourhood. ...| Recent Microscopical Discoveries. Mr. Gassiot’s Battery. Transit of different Weights with varying velocities on Railways. Passage of the Blood through the minute vessels of Animals in con- nexion with Nutrition. Extinct Birds of New Zealand. Distinction between Plants and Ani- mals, and their changes of Form. Total Solar Helipse of July 28, 1851. Recent discoveries in the properties of Light. Recent discovery of Rock-salt at Carrickfergus, and geological and practical considerations connected with it, ;|Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo- logy and Physical Geography of Yorkshire. The present state of Photography. Anthropomorphous Apes. Progress of researches in Terrestrial Magnetism. Characters of Species. Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities and Ethnology. Recent discoveries in Assyria and Babylonia, with the results of Cunei- form research up to the present time. .| Correlation of Physical Forces, .| The Atlantic Telegraph. Recent discoveries in Africa, The Tronstones of Yorkshire. The Fossil Mammalia of Australia. ..| Geology of the Northern Highlands. .| Electrical Discharges in highly rare- fied Media. Physical Constitution of the Sun. Arctic Discovery. Spectrum Analysis. The late Eclipse of the Sun. .| The Forms and Action of Water, Organic Chemistry, LIST OF EVENING LECTURES, rh Date and Place. Lecturer, Subject of Discourse. 1863. Newcastle- | Prof. Williamson, F.R.S. ...... The chemistry of the Galvanic Bat- on-Tyne. tery considered in relation to Dy- namics. James Glaisher, F.R.S. .........| The Balloon Ascents made for the British Association. 1864. Bath ......... Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S........:000000 The Chemical Action of Light. Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. .......0+ Recent Travels in Africa. 1865. Birmingham] J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S............ Probabilities as to the position and 1866. 1867. extent of the Coal-measures beneath the red rocks of the Midland Coun~ ties. Nottingham.| William Huggins, F.R.S..........) The results of Spectrum Analysis applied to Heavenly Bodies. Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S..........| Insular Floras. Dundee...... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......... The Geological origin of the present Scenery of Scotland. Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S....| The present state of knowledge re- garding Meteors and Meteorites. 1868. Norwich ....| J. Fergusson, F.R.S. oe... Archeology of the early Buddhist Monuments. Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. ........... Reverse Chemical Actions. 1869. Exeter ......| Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.| Vesuvius. J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.......| The Physical Constitution of the Stars and Nebule. . Liverpool ...| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| The Scientific Use of the Imagination. Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,| Stream-lines and Waves, in connexion LL.D., F.R.S. with Naval Architecture. 1871. Edinburgh |F. A. Abel, F.R.S. .....cccceeeeeeee On some recent investigations and ap- plications of Explosive Agents. Pee Ley lOr eb evielonenssese races: On the Relation of Primitive to Mo- dern Ciyilization. Lectures to the Operative Classes. 1867. Dundee...... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force. 1868. Norwich ....] Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. ...| A piece of Chalk. 1869. Exeter ...... Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ......{ Experimental illustrations of the modes of detecting the Composi- tion of the Sun and other Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum. 1870. Liverpool ...] Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,| Savages. xlii REPORT—1871. Table showing the Attendance and Receipts Date of Meeting. Where held. Presidents. Old Life | New Life Members. | Members. POST CD27 neg:| MOLK. .ctnccncentvesnsge The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. ... Ape Rog2,OUMe Co) oil OXPOLG (ace setasdesa2- The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.8. .. wee 1333, June 25 ...|Cambridge ......... The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.... aaa 1834, Sept. 8 ...| Hdinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L. ...... ee ROSG PAUP ATO? yss| DUDLI Nis. Jeeeecssenss The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. wwe Tsg6,,Aur. 22.7.) BYIstol scscaseenmeoees The Marquis of Lansdowne ...... a 1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Burlington, F.R.8. . is | 1838, Aug. 10 ...! Newcastle-on-Tyne..) The Duke of Northumberland... dns 1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham ......... The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt . TY, 1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow ............ The Marquis of Breadalbane ... 354 a 1841, July 20 ...| Plymouth ............ The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.... 169 65 1842, June 23 ...| Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton ...... 323 169 SSM PATI Ty ee COLK stacass gente sacsis The Harl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...... 109 28 HOAA (Sept. 26...) YORK ....csssenceearess The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ...... 226 150 1845, June rg ...|Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. . 313 36 1846, Sept. to ...|Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241 Io Mody veune 23. 5...) OXf0rd vseccsascsesns: Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart. ...... 314 18 1848, Aug. 9...... Swansea .........000..- The Marquis of Northampton... 149 3 1849, Sept. 12 ...| Birmingham ......... The Rey. 'T. R. Robinson, D.D.. 227 12 1850, July 21 ...|Hdinburgh ......... Sir David Brewster, K.H. ...... 235 9 TORT WY G2: sc0.0- IPSWICH searasccns.tsar G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Royal . 172 8 MeSzmwseptyt ..+| Bellasis .sretidnc=.%4 Liecut.-General Sabine, F. B.S. ... 164 Io GSC Dg cae GLU ceisehectsstassya William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S. . 141 13 1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Karl of Harrowby, F.B.S. .. 238 23 1855, Sept. 12 ...| Glasgow ..........:: The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...... 194 33 1856, Aug. 6...... Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.... 182 14, MSG 7 eAUeAZ Orv scl Diblin: 1.5 /ncssesesens The Rey. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. 236 15 TSSS WN pb. 228 w.c}| Mueeds 222. ,c5.c2-.caeee Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. ... 222 42 1859, Sept. 14 ...| Aberdeen ............ H.R.H. The Prince Consort ... 184 27 K260; dune 27 ...) Oxford ...........-+.- The Lord Wrottesley, M.A....... 286 21 1861, Sept. 4 ...| Manchester ......... William Fairbairn, LL.D.,F.R.S. 321 113 moO2,1OCh. it 5... Cambridge ......... The Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A. ... 239 15 1863, Aug. 26... Newcastle-on-T'yne ..| Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. 203 36 POOAS INE Pt MUG he ptl WEBUN. wn eneesestcessnnc Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.... 287 40 1865, Sept. 6 ...| Birmingham ......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.... 292 44 1866, Aug. 22 ...| Nottingham ......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207 31 1367, Sept.4 ...| Dundee ........:..3..- The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167 25 MSCS AUCs EO! sen) NORWAGM | ess. e-ans Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. . 196 18 WAeg, PAUP. 18 4c] Wxebersseaaeeestes es Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ...... 204, 21 1870, Sept. 14 ...| Liverpool ............ Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... 314 39 BOX pen Ue. 2) nenee Hdinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.... 246 28 ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. xhil at Annual Meetings of the Association. . Attended by Amount /S¥™s paid on . Account of secerved Grants for Old New during the) Qoiontifi Annual | Annual | Associates.} Ladies. |Foreigners.| Total. | Meeting. Dats me : urposes. Members. | Members. tae se Qi eo Me Petes «| Beeps aeeme He Re uae re Ber GOP Gb lie Wore ssene gwetat arate as ee fcc ies aa BEI Pa SA he jos Sr 20 0 O : $k ecall tbe good 67 “a (0 Togo) theses saa 434 14. 0 500 oot 1840 Genet. g18 14 6 1100* SK: ZA0O" Bit Weeeces ss 956 12 2 34 DAQGM SP cok cateos 1595 11 O Se igs dec ae 40 Tae te ~|\F settee: oe 1546 16 4. 46 317 Ate 60* Me Bore. lites. spas 1235 10 II 75 376 331 331* 28 MR ae SoehscCae 1449 17 8 71 185 Gor 160 onc USBI dimesceto. nice 1565 10 2 45 190 gt 260 ees ATE | reco ee 981 12 8 94 22 407 172 35 7 yhye pace cron 839 9 9 65 39 270 196 36 Berm Cle srewege 685 16 o 197 40 495 203 3 Tp lfou weal | adoceoe. 208 5 4 54 25 376 197 15 929 7o7 00| 275 1 8 93 338) 447 237 22 1071 96300] 35919 6 128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 00} 345 18 0 61 47 244, 141 37 710 62000] 391 9 7 63 60 510 292 9 1108 1ogs 00] 304 6 7 56 57 367 236 6 876 g03 00 | 205 0 O 121 121 765 524 be) 1802 1882 00 | 33019 7 142 Io1 1094. 543 26 2133 2311 00| 48016 4 104. 43 412 346 9 T1115 1o98 OO} 73413 9 156 120 goo 569 26 2022 2015 00] 507 15 3 111 gt 710 509 1g 1698 1931 00] 618 18 2 125 179 1206 821 22 2564 27820 0| 684 11 I 177 59 636 463 47 1689 16040 0| 1241 7 O 184. 125 1589 791 15 3139 39440 0/1111 5 10 150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 © | 1293 16 6 154 209 1704 1004. 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 00] 1289 15 8 215 149 766 508 23 1997 222700] 1591 7 10 218 10S 960 771 II 2303 2469 00|175013 4 193 118 1163 771 7 - 2444 2613 0 0 | 1739 4 0 226 117 720 682 145 2.004. 2042 00 | 1940 0 O 229 107 678 600 17 1356 1931 00 | 1572 © O 393 195 1103 gio 14 2878 3096 00 | 1472 2 6 311 127 976 754 21 24.63 2575 0 0 * Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843. t Tickets for admission to Sections only. ¢ Including Ladies: xliv “TSI ‘3 asniny IL & 6&¢cF ‘THOOMSILLOdS “A Il * 6EosF Z OL G16 "i , IL 6 ‘* daInsvary, exaU9y Jo spury ut ( ysng'9 € 6 WF 09% xooqqnyT ‘szrvqoy ‘sissopy ye * sLojIpnE ‘SNVAG NHOL G JI 19SHF YULg tojsurwysa\\ pur uopuoy ye oouereg -Z *Sny i ‘ANU VI Id NAWUVA & FL 990% ‘TL8T }a1100 punoy pur pauwuexg 9 seers sTosuog “yuad Jad ¢ QOGH ‘paseyoind yooyg * 0 0 008 “"'"' *a8eaag Jo UOEZIYA pue yusWyveLy, UO 99}3TUIMIOg “4 Lvl —— 9 @ 00 07 ue + squaystog UrIssNeZ a © 6 WSL Mt gaggmmmog yerata9 0 0 00T vs pl i ge 2 Joodiaary Jo uonepusmmoday aad se ‘ademag jo AER Gal pete tustadead UONLZI], PUB FUOUUQRaIT, 24} UO vazTIMMOD Woy 2 -0104 Oy ‘suorjag S[V10H [Isso “ Z I cP Coed ser ee seec ese eee seeeenscnscegecescecnee doUuvySISoy 0 0 02 srerees gga (qQ ceunT s TeoHe[ JO Spaupurjg wo sytodey oy apvut Oye) 8 + sas se “« quBig JO eouTleq Suloq ‘uoswetAy Iosseforg sad “s i ane suotwIO [dx aTO FH 8quayy a 0 0 04 “ed tad Baa a ee SuLayy Jo uolyepunday 0 0 4¢ verses TTRFULey YS TeOyn.Y a2 Uo sjustedxg Suyonpuod soz 9 6b Ba aie ae a bea ale “ epPVUl yULIL) JO JUNOWL cuUTaq ‘Aa[XNFT IOssajorg 10d “ 0 9 ae Je pyeop Deer Wann 2 Fee Een aa ROB eR 0 0 ee 5 BAOTT TISSOG ¥ UL Sasey JO uorsodm0g ay} SuyeS4saaut roy 0 0 O0T -” SuOHBATOSAO TSPhL : QPLUL 4ULIH JO adUL[eq Suioq ‘puelyuesg “aq sad = TSU BN Git ss Same Be Sumer naS HE i ; koe8 “ sapIxo out, zo squerearnbyy [eu y, wo 909910 0 O OOL (qQOoY ApPUBKXITY “APY 99VT VY WOAf ABSIT 0-6 00l = “* pdooayy [RALsOTOOT €L Ig 00c% " "FIT TUUULOD) [ROLL TAL & 9 0 BZ citttes**or “qr0day 07 saxapuy 0 0 OO 777" Augsrutoy Jo ssaatorg Jo sjroday ATyIUoTT BL GZ vesettteteseeeesesesseeeneneneess sarod 0 0 o09R *ArOyRATEBYO AO Jo QuoUTYsITquyssp Sururezure py 6 SI 63 ; toe ie —"ZIA “SUT29 I Jood.a “I 4@ OpeUl syURID é cA te caged tea ge ance Gk ae ss aaa ae “ : * (avad [) satieye I I YOLL 82! 0 ‘a faa ee . A cekee cence (loyaxa), s 0 0 0It OVP 0931p ‘syayoLy, Sa}eloossy “ 7 TITAXXX ‘1OA ‘Suns9qy ys¢e Jo yxoday ‘Sutaviasug ‘Suyumg Once CSR haere opp Op ‘suoydiiosqng jenuuy uf 9 8 Lop ce sasuadxg Ayag jequaptouy pur ‘Sursyzeapy 0 0 8&P sours pus Anyeap) joodreayy qv suoimsodmog Ot] 40} poatsoay ‘Zurpurg ‘Sunurg Axpung ose ‘Surjoopy [ood.oavy Jo sosuadxg preg e ic) 7c¢ rs quNOdDY 4se] WOIT AY SNoIq vour[eg oy, eee "SLdILOTY Oe "SLNANAVd (HOUOANIGH) IZ81 wusny puz 0} (Surat TOOMUAATT JO Wowsousmwmos) Q/g, Joqwmeajdeg WIP] Wo TNQOOOOV SMAYASVAUL TVYANAD AHL ‘AONHIOS AO INANGONVACY FHL YOX NOILVIOOSSV HSILIGd AHL LIST OF OFFICERS. xlv OFFICERS AND COUNCIN, 1871-72. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). General Sir EpwarpD Sabine, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S, Sir PHILIP DE M. Grey EGeERrOoN, Bart., M.P., F.2R.S. PRESIDENT. SIR WILLIAM THOMSON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.SS.L. & E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. VICE-PRESIDENTS. His Grace The DUKE oF BuccLevcn, K.G., D.C.L., | Sir RopErtcK I. Muncutson, Bart., K.C.B., E.R.S. G.C.82.8., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Right Hon. The Lorp PRovosr of Edinburgh. | Sir CHARLES LYELL, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8. The Right Hon. Jonn Ina@uis, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord | Dr, Lyon PLAYFAIR, M.P., C.B., F.R.S. Justice General of Scotland. Professor CHriSTISON, M.D., D.C.L., Pres. R.S.E. Sir ALEXANDER GRANT, Bart., M.A., Principal of | Professor BALFOUR, F.R.SS. L. & E. the University of Edinburgh. PRESIDENT ELECT. DR. W. B. CARPENTER, LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. The EArt or CuIcHESTER, Lord Licutenant of the | The Right Hon. The DukE oF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., County of Sussex. D.C.L., F.R.S. The DUKE or NoRFOLK. Sir Jonn LubBocK,Bart.,M.P.,F.R.S.,F.L.8.,F.G.8. The Right Hon. The DUKE oF Ricumonp, K.G., | Dr. SHarpry, LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S. P.C., D.C.L. J. PREsrwicu, Esq., F.R.S., Pres. G.S, LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRIGHTON, CuARLES CARPENTER, Esq. The Rey. Dr. GRIFFITH. HENRY WILLE1T, Esq. LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRIGHTON. WILLIAM HENRY HALieEtTt, Esq., F.L.S. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.B.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S. BEDDOE, JouN, M.D. NortHucorr,Rt.Hon.Sir SrarrorpH.,Bt.,M.P. Debus, Dr. H., F.R.S. * Ramsay, Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. Evans, Joun, Esq., F.R.8. RANKINE, Professor W. J. M., LL.D., F.R.S. Fircu, J. G., Esq., M.A. Siemens, C. W., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. Foster, Prof. G. C., F.R.S. Snuwon, Dr. Jorn, D.C.L., F.R.S. Foster, Prof. M., M.D. SPRACHEY, Major-General, F.R.8. GALTON, FRANCIS, Esq., F.R.S. SrRANGE, Licut.-Colonel A., F.R.S8. Gassior, J. P., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. Sykes, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S. Gopwin-AustTEy, R. A. C., Esq., F.R.S. TYNDALL, Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. Hirst, Dr. T, A., F.R.S. WALLACE, A. R., Esq., F.R.G.S. HuGains, WILLIAM, Esgq., D.C.L., F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor Sir C., F.R.S. JEFFREYS, J. G., Esq., F.R.S. WILLIAMSON, Professor A, W., F.R.S. Lockyer, J. N., Esq,, F.R.S, EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secrctarics, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former years, viz. :— Rey. Professor Sedgwick. The Rey. HW. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Phillips, M.A., D.C.1T. The Duke of Devonshire. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. William R. Grove, Esq., F.R.S. The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B. G. B. Airy,Esq.,AstronomerRoyal.| The Rev. Professor Willis, F.R.S. | Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Professor Stokes, C.B., D.C.L. The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A.,LL.D.| Prof, Huxley, LL.D. The Duke of Argyll. GENERAL SECRETARIES. Dr. THOMAS THOMEON, I'.R.S., F.L.S., The Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. Capt. DouUGLAS GALTON, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W. ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow. GENERAL TREASURER. WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Erq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 0 Grosvenor Place, London, 8. W. AUDITORS. G. Dusk, Esq., F.R.S. Warren De La Rue, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. John Evans, Esq., F.R.S. xlvi REPORT—1871. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE EDINBURGH MEETING. : SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. President.—Professor P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. Vice-Presidents.—Professor J. C. Adams, F.R.S.; Professor Cayley, F.R.S.; Rev. Professor Challis, F.R.S.; J. P. Gassiot, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Professor R. Grant, LL.D., F.R.S.; Dr. Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, LL.D., F.R:S. ; Professor W. J. M. Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S. L. and E. ; Dr. Spottiswoode, F.R.S.; Rey. Professor Kelland, F.R.SS. L. and E.; Professor Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Professor Sylvester, LL.D., F.R.S. Secretaries.—Professor W.G. Adams, F.G.S.; J. T. Bottomley, M.A., F.C.S. ; Professor W. K. Clifford, M.A.; Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S.E.; Rev. R. Harley, F.R.S. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS. President.—Professor T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.SS. L. and E. Vice-Presidents—Professor Abel, F.R.S.; Professor Apjohn, F.R.S.; Professor Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S.E.; Dr. Ronalds, F.R.S.E.; Professor H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S.; Dr. J. Stenhouse, F.R.S.; James Young, F.R.S.E. Secretaries—J, Y. Buchanan, F.R.S.E.; W.N. Hartley; T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.E. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. President.—Professor Archibald Geilie, F.R.S., F.G.S. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. J. Bryce, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. ; Thomas Davidson, F.R.S.; Sir Richard Griffith, Bart., F.R.S.; Professor Harkness, F.R.S.; D. Milne Home, F.R.S.E. ; J. Carrick Moore, F.R.S.; William Pengelly, F.R.S.; J. Prestwich, F.R.S., Pres. G.S. Lond. ; Professor J. Young, M.D. Secretaries—R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.8.; Ai Geikie, F.R.S.E.; T. M‘Kenny Hughes, M.A., F.G.8.; L.C, Miall. SECTION D.—BIOLOGY. President.—Professor Allen Thomson, M.D., F.R.SS. L. and E. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.; Professor W. Turner, M.B., F.R.S.E.; Professor Owen, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.; Dr. Beddoe; Dr. Hughes Bennett; Dr. Carpenter, LL.D., F.R.S.; Dr. Sharpey, F.R.S. Secretaries.—Dr. 'T. R. Fraser, F.R.S.E.; Dr. Arthur Gamgee, F.R.S.E.; E. Ray Lankester, B.A. ; Professor Lawson, M.A.; H. T. Stainton, F.R.S.; C. Stani- land Wake, Dir. A.I.; Dr. W. Rutherford, F.R.S.E.; Dr. Kelburne King. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. President.—Colonel H. Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. Vice-Presidents—Sir Walter Elliot, K.C.S.I.; Sir Arthur Phayre, K.C.S.L; Major-General Sir Andrew Waugh, F.R.S.; Dr. Rae, M.D.; Admiral Sir Edward Belcher, K.C.B.; Sir James Alexander, K.C.M.G. Secretaries.—Clements R. Markham, C.B., Sec. R.G.S.; A. Buchan, F.R.S.E. ; J. H. Thomas, F.R.G.S.; A. Keith Johnston, F.R.G.S. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—Lord Neavyes. Vice-Presidents.—The Lord Advocate, Sir John Bowring, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Samuel Brown, Baron Eotyés, of Pesth; Edward 8. Gordon, M.P.; Sir Alex- ander Grant, Bart.; Sir Willoughby Jones, Bart.; James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S.; Duncan M‘Laren,!M.P.; Sir William Stirling Maxwell, Bart.; Lyon Playfair, M.P., LL.D.; W. Neilson Hancock, LL.D. ; General Sir Andrew Scott Waugh, K.C.B., F.R.S. Secretarves.—J. G, Fitch, M.A,; James Meikle, F.LA., F.S.8. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlvi SECTION G.—-MECHANICAL SCIENCE. President.—Professor Fleeming Jenkin, C.E., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.; Admiral Sir E. Belcher, K.C.B.; F. J. Bramwell, C.E.; Peter Le Neve Foster, M.A.; Professor W. J. Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S.; C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Thomos Stevenson, F.R.S.E. ; Professor James Thomson, LL.D. , Secretaries—H. Bauerman, F.G.S.; Alexander Leslie, C.E.; J. P. Smith, C.E. Report of the Council for the Year 1870-71, presented to the General Committee at Edinburgh, on Wednesday, August 2nd, 1871. At each of their meetings during the past year the Council have as usual received a report from the General Treasurer, as well as one from the Kew Committee. A résumé of these Reports will be laid before the General Committee this day. The Council have had under their consideration the several resolutions, five in number, referred to them by the General Committee at Liverpool. They beg to report as follows upon the action they have taken in each case :-— First Resolution—“ That the discontinuance of the maintenance of Kew Observatory by the British Association having been determined on, the President and Council be authorized to communicate with the President and Council of the Royal Society, and with the Government, so that the future use of the buildings may in 1872 be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society, in case the Royal Society should desire it, under the same con- ditions as those buildings are at present held by the British Association.” A copy of this resolution was forwarded by direction of your Council to the President and Council of the Royal Society. The following is the reply which one of your General Secretaries has received from Dr. Sharpey, Secretary of the Royal Society :— “The Royal Society, Burlington House, July 8, 187 « Dear Dr. Hirst,—In reply to your letter of the 10th December, 1870, enclosing a copy of a resolution of the General Committee of the British Association relative to the future occupation of the buildings at Kew now held by the British Association, I am directed to acquaint you that the _ President and Council of the Royal Society are ready to take possession of _ the Observatory at Kew on the terms it is at present held from Her Majesty’s Government, as stated in a letter dated 26th March 1842, addressed to the President of the British Association from the Office of Woods, &c., viz. :— ‘ during the pleasure and upon the conditions usual on such occasions, that no walls shall be broken through, and no alterations made that can affect the stability of the building, and alter its external appearance, without the previous sanction of the Board of Works.’ I have further to acquaint you that the President and Council have appointed a Standing Committee of Fellows of the Royal Society for the management of the Kew Observatory in accordance with the terms of the Gassiot Trust, consisting of the following gentlemen :— Mr. Warren De La Rue. Sir Edward Sabine. Mr. Francis Galton. Colonel Smythe. Mr. Gassiot. Mr. Spottiswoode. Admiral Richards. Sir Charles Wheatstone. and that £600 from the income of the Gassiot Fund has been placed at the disposal of that Committee to meet the expenses of the establishment for the ensuing year. “T remain, yours very truly, (Signed) “ W. Saarpry, M.D., Secretary R. S.” xlyili REPORT—1871. Through the munificence of Mr. Gassiot, therefore, the Association can, without detriment to science, give up possession of the Kew Observatory at once instead of in 1872, as was originally contemplated. Your Council accordingly recommend that Government should be informed without further delay of the desire of the Association to see the direction and maintenance of the Kew Observatory transferred to the Royal Society. Second Resolution.—* That the Council be empowered to cooperate with the Royal and Royal Astronomical Societies, in the event of a new appli- cation being made to Government to aid in the observation of the Solar Eclipse of December 1870.” On the 4th November a Joint Committee of the Royal and Royal Astro- nomical Societies decided to make a second application; on the 5th of November your Council selected a few of their body to accompany the new deputation to Government which the above two Societies had resolved to send. The necessity for any such deputation was subsequently obviated through the intervention of private individuals, and, as is well known, aid was promptly and liberally granted by Government to the Eclipse Ex-~ pedition. Third Resolution.“ That the Council be requested to take such steps as they deem wisest, in order to urge upon Government the importance of introducing scientific instruction into the elementary schools throughout the country.” A Committee of your Council haying considered the subject, recommended the appointment of a deputation to wait upon the Lord President of the Council in order to urge upon him the desirability of including elementary natural science amongst the subjects for which payments are made by the authority of the Revised Code. The Council accordingly formed themselves into a deputation, and on the 13th of December 1870 had an interview with the Right Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P., Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education, who was pleased to express his concurrence with the objects of the deputation and his willingness to carry out those objects so far as circumstances would permit. Fourth Resolution. That the Council of the British Association be authorized, if it should appear to be desirable, to urge upon Her Majesty’s Government the expediency of proposing to the legislature a measure to insure the introduction of the metric system of weights and measures for international purposes.” The Council deemed it expedient to postpone the consideration of this resolution. Fifth Resolution —* That it is inexpedient that new institutions, such as the proposed Engineering College for India, should be established by Govern- ment, until the Royal Commission now holding an inquiry into the relation of the State to scientific instruction shall have issued their report. That the Council of the British Association be requested to consider this opinion, and, should they see fit, to urge it upon the attention of Her Majesty’s Govern- ment.” The Committee appointed without loss of time to consider and report on this resolution were informed at their first meeting that the arrangements for the establishment of the College had been virtually completed. Your President, however, in accordance with the wishes of this Committee, entered into unofficial communication with the authorities at the India Office, relative to the proposed examination for entrance into the new Engincering College, and succeeded thereby in gaining for natural science, as compared with REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlix classics, a recognition, in the form of allotted marks, which it previously did not possess. Your Council has given considerable attention to the important question (raised at the last mecting) of a revision of the regulations relating to the proceedings of the several Sections at the annual meetings of the Association. Hitherto, it has been justly urged, these proceedings, from not haying been sufficiently pre-arranged, have frequently been of too desultory and mixed a character. It is hoped that by a proper observance of the Revised Regu- lations which are this day to be submitted to the General Committee for _ approval, and by increased vigilance on the part of the Sectional Committees, ~ _ much of this may be obviated, and that greater prominence may be given to, and a fuller discussion secured for, the really important communications which are annually made to the several Sections. The Council has pleasure in informing the General Committee that the Association at length possesses a central office in London. The Asiatic Society has, in consideration of a yearly rent of £100, granted to the Asso- ciation entire possession of four of their rooms at 22 Albemarle Street, and the use of another room for meetings of the Council and Committees. Your Council, moreover, acting under the power given to them by the General Committee at Liverpool, have engaged Mr. Askham as clerk at a salary of £120 ayear. He is in attendance daily, and there transacts much of the business which was formerly done at the office of Messrs. Taylor and Francis, the printers to the Association. With the exception of certain works of reference, the whole of the books and MSS. formerly deposited at Kew have been transferred to 22 Albemarle Street, and are being catalogued and rendered available for reference by Members of the Association. One of the four rooms not at present in use has been sub-let. to the London Mathe- matical Society. The Council having been informed by Dr. Hirst of his desire at the close of the present Meeting to resign his office as Joint General Secretary of the Association, appointed a Committee, consisting of the General Officers and former General Secretaries, to select a successor. This Committee unani- mously recommended the appointment of Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.S. The Council, entirely agreeing with the Committee as to the high qualifications of Captain Galton for the office, cordially recommend his election by the General Committee at their meeting on Monday next. The Council cannot allow this occasion to pass without expressing their sense of the great services rendered to the Association by Dr. Hirst; but they abstain from saying more, as they are unwilling to anticipate a more mature expression on the part of the General Committee. _ The Council have added the following names of gentlemen present at the last Meeting of the Association to the list of Corresponding Members :— Professor Van Beneden. H. H. the Rajah of Kolapore, Dr. Crafts. M. Plateau. Dr. Anton Dohrn. Professor Tchebichef. Governor Gilpin, Colorado. The General Committee will remember that Brighton has already been selected as the place of meeting next year. Invitations for subsequent meetings have been received by your Council from Bradford, Belfast, and Glasgow. The Council, lastly, recommend that the name of Professor Balfour be added to the list of Vice-Presidents of the present Meeting. 1 REPORT—1871. Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1870-71. The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Council of the British Association the following statement of their proceedings during the past year :— (A) Work ponz py Kew OxnsERVATORY UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE Britisn Assocration, 1. Magnetic work.—In their last Report the Committee stated the plan on which they proposed to reduce their Magnetic observations ; they now report that with reference to the reduction of the Magnetic Disturbances from January 1865 to December 1869, the period following that which has already been published, the discussion of Declination and Horizontal Force Disturb- ances is nearly ready for presentation to the Royal Society, and that of the Vertical Force is in progress ; when that is completed, the whole period, 1865 to 1869 inclusive, will have been discussed at Kew. The tabular statement, which is herewith presented (see Appendix I.), exhibits the exact state of the reduction. Two Dipping-needles by Dover and one by Adie have been tested for Mr. Chambers, Superintendent of the Colaba Observatory; and one needle has been procured from Dover and tested for Prof. Jelinek, of Vienna. A Dip-circle by Dover has been verified and forwarded to Prof. Jelinek, who ordered it on behalf of the K. K. militiir-geographisches Institut. Major-General Lefroy, Governor of Bermuda, haying applied for the loan of a Dip-circle, one has now been prepared for his use, and will be forwarded to Bermuda as soon as possible. A Dip-circle has been obtained from Dover, and, after verification, will be forwarded to the Survey Department, Lisbon. At the request of Prof. Jelinek the Committee have undertaken to examine a Dip-circle by Repsold. It is of a large size and has eight needles, but Prof. Jelinek reports that the results obtained by them are very discordant. Copies of certain specified magnetograph curves have been made and for- warded to the late Sir J. Herschel, M. Diamilla Miiller, of Florence, and Senhor Capello, of Lisbon, at the request of those gentlemen. The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con- tinue to be made by Mr. Whipple, the Magnetic Assistant. The Self-recording Magnetographs are in constant operation as heretofore; also under his charge. 2. Meteorological work.—The meteorological work of the Observatory continues in the charge of Mr. Baker. Since the Liverpool Meeting, 113 Barometers (including 17 Aneroids) have been verified, and 2 rejected ; 1320 Thermometers and 215 Hydrometers have likewise been verified. Two Standard Thermometers have been constructed for Owens College, Manchester, one for the Rugby School, one cach for Profs. Harkness and Eastmann, of the Washington Observatory, four for Dr. Draper, of the New York Central Park Observatory, one for Major Norton, of the Chief Signal Office, Washington, one for Mr. G. J. Symons, and three for the Meteorolo- gical Committee. Three Thermograph Thermometers have been examined for Mr. Chambers, of the Colaba Observatory, and three for the Meteorological Committee. REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. li Two Standard Barometers have been purchased from Adie, and tested at Kew, one of which has been forwarded to the Chief Signal Office, Washington, and the other to Prof. Jack, of Fredricton, New Brunswick. Tubes for the construction of a Welsh’s Standard Barometer on the Kew pattern, together with the necessary metal mountings, and a Cathetometer, have been made under the superintendence of the Committee for the Chief Signal Office, Washington. The Committee have likewise superintended the purchase of meteorological instruments for Owens College, Manchester, and for the Observatory attached to the University of Fredricton, New Brunswick. The Kew Standard Thermometer (M. 8. A.), divided arbitrarily by the late Mr. Welsh, and employed for many years past as the standard of reference in the testing of thermometers, was accidentally broken on the 3rd of January. Since then a Kew Standard, of the ordinary construction, made in 1866, and which had been compared on several occasions with M. 8. A., has been used to replace it. Copies of some of the meteorological observations made at Kew during the years 1869 and 1870 have been supplied to the {Institution of Mining Engineers at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the Editor of Whitaker’s Almanac, the cost of the extraction being paid by the applicants in both instances. A set of self-recording meteorological instruments, the property of the Meteorological Committee, have been erected in the Verification-house, and are now undergoing examination.~ The self-recording metereological instruments now in work at Kew will be again mentioned in the second division of this Report. These are in the charge of Mr. Baker. 3. Photoheliograph.—The Kew Heliograph, in charge of Mr. Warren De La Rue, continues to be worked in a satisfactory manner. During the past year 362 pictures have been taken on 205 days. The prints from the negatives alluded to in last Report have been taken to date, and the printing of these has become part of the current work of the establishment. A paper by Messrs. Warren De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy, embodying the position and areas of sun-groups observed at Kew during the years 1864, 1865, and 1866, as well as fortnightly values of the spotted solar area from 1832 to 1868, has been published in the Philosophical Transactions, and distributed to those interested in solar research. A Table exhibiting the number of sun-spots recorded at Kew during the year 1870, after the manner of Hofrath Schwabe, has been communicated to the Astronomical Society, and published in their ‘ Monthly Notices.’ An apparatus is being constructed under the direction and at the expense of Mr. Warren De La Rue, and it will shortly be erected on the Pagoda in _ Kew Gardens, in order to be employed in obtaining corrections for optical distortion in the heliographical measurements. 4. Miscellaneous work.—Kxperiments are being made on the heat produced by the rotation of a disk in vacuo. A daily observation has been made with the Rigid Spectroscope, the _ property of Mr. J. P. Gassiot. _ Observations have been made with two of Hodgkinson’s Actinometers, the property of the Royal Society, in order to compare them with the Actinometers deposited at the Observatory, for reference, before forwarding them to India. The Committee have superintended the purchase of optical apparatus, chemicals, &c. for the Observatories at Coimbra and Lisbon. In REPORT—187 1. An inventory has been made of the apparatus, instruments, &c. at present deposited in the Observatory, and forms Appendix ITI. of the present Report. In Appendix II. a list is given of the books at present in the Observa- tory, the property of the British Association. List B (Appendix II.) is a rough inventory of books, the property of the British Association, which have been transferred from the Observatory to the rooms of the Association in London for the purpose of being catalogued. (B) Work poye at Kew As THE CrntrRaL OBSERVATORY OF THE MereoroLogicaL CoMMITTEE, 1. Work done at Kew as one of the Observatories of the Meteorological Com- mittee—The Barograph, Thermograph, Anemograph, and Rain-gauge are kept in constant operation, Mr. Baker is in charge of these instruments. From the first two instruments traces in duplicate are obtained, one set being sent to the Meteorological Office and one retained at Kew. As regards the Anemograph and Rain-gauge, the original records are sent, while a copy by hand of these on tracing-paper is retained. The tabulations from the curves of the Kew instruments are made by Messrs. Page and Nigby. 2. Verification of Records.—The system of checks devised by the Kew Committee for testing the accuracy of the observations made at the different Observatories continues to be followed, as well as the ruling of zero lines in the Barograms and Thermograms suggested by the Meteorological Office. Messrs. Rigby and Page perform this work, Mr. Baker, Meteorological Assistant, having the general superintendence of the department. 3. Occasional Assistance.—The Meteorological Committee have availed themselves of the permission to have the occasional services of Mr. Beckley, Mechanical Assistant at Kew; and he has lately been visiting the various Observatories of the Meteorological Committee. The self-recording Rain-gauge, as mentioned in the last Report, has been adopted by the Meteorological Committee, and instruments of this kind haye been constructed for the various Observatories. A series of comparative observations was commenced in April 1870 of two Anemometers erected in the grounds attached to the Observatory, in order to compare the indications of a large and small instrument; but as a discussion of the result showed them to have been greatly affected by the influence of the neighbouring buildings, the instruments were dismounted in January last and re-erected in an open part of the Park, at a distance from the Observatory. Three months’ observations were made in this posi- tion, and as these proved satisfactory, the instruments have been dismounted. The cost of this experiment has been defrayed by the Meteorological Committee. Owing to his duties in Manchester, and to a railway accident, Dr. Stewart has not been able during the last year to devote much time to the Observatory. During his absence his most pressing duties were dis- charged by Mr. Whipple in an efficient manner. The Observatory was honoured on the 9th of July by a visit from the Emperor and Empress of Brazil. Their Majesties were received, on behalf of the Committee, by Sir E. Sabine and Mr. W. De La Rue. In the unavoidable absence, through illness, of Dr. Balfour Stewart, the Emperor was conducted over the Observatory by the above-named gentlemen, and the various instruments &c. were explained by Mr. Whipple and the other members of the staff of the Observatory. Hourly Tabulations from Traces. By Tabula- |By Subsidiary tor. ae ontal Declination. Vertical Force. REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, Scale. 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870* 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870* 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870* APPENDIX I. Tabular statement showing state of Magnetic Reductions at the present date. Correct Monthly Means. eeneee eeveee seeeee sevens see eee liti Disturb- Lunar ances ex- | Diurnal cluded and! Variation aggregated.| Tables. 1865 1865 1866 1866 1867 1867 1868 1868 1869 1869 TEGO 0 ices SEGA ier a Be) TRG ha gels rye 1868 TEBQ USE |e se Tables of Secular and Annual Variation. Solar Diurnal Variation Tables. ences oeeees feeeee wet eee eevase weraee eenee eeeeee eeeeee eee eee tereee * The reduction of the tabulations for the year 1870 is being performed in Sir E. Sabine’s Arrears of Work. office. Hourly Tabulations from Traces. By Tabula- |By Subsidiary tor. 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 (1858 1859 1860 1861 1858 Declination. Horizontal Force. Ls Vertical Force. n Scale. 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 Correct Monthly Means. 1858 1859 1860 1861 Beeeee seeeee fee eee eens Se enee Disturb- ances ex- cluded and aggregated. 1858 1859 teeeee Lunar Diurnal Variation Tables. 1858t seeeee eeeeee Tables of Secular and nual Variation. t These have been already published by Sir EH. Sabine. Solar Diurnal Variation Tables. seeeee tenons aeeeee serene liv REPORT— 1871. APPENDIX IL. BOOKS AT PRESENT IN THE KEW OBSERVATORY, THE PROPERTY OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. LIST A. Books to be retained at Kew for reference. British Association Reports, 1 vol. for the following years :— 1831-32, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847, 1848, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1860, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 1866, 1867, 1868, 1869. Philosophical Transactions .......0.cccescsceseueee 88 vols. si i (AbsigntiE) e055 OT eee 6%; Proceedings of the Royal Society .................05- 12 5; Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers .......... 4 9 Philosophical Magazine (half-yearly) ................ 21 Ss 93 aa (anbount) «4.4.45 00s e-eeae 11 parts. Logarithmic Tables (various) ..........000eeceeueee 6 vols, Royal Astronomical Society’s Proceedings ............ 13 45 Buchan’s Meteorolopy.\ yy .sc acd vh save 8d baa ser apes 2 5 Dalton’s “eget te Peis ee 5,3. di Kaemtz’s Bie ein La pueiaters ish = es iGo sce vere daeee ee 1 Moveordlonial Papers sibs ass eus saa esubee ONE 27 nos. Metoordlozy OF Bineland ...5s40s00. 0+. sess 0mm ceed 18 nos. Papers relating to the Meteorological Department of the Sitar NRE og icky bev & ph)» omaha Ee 39! Instructions for taking Meteorological Observations (Col. D TERM ities svi 5).hs vs s se 4 ee Ce ea 1 vol. Quarterly Weatger Reports ..........cccueceeevues 3 vols, Brertish A TNBBI tues ee ciek sak st «lohes URE ey eee 2 REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. lv Miller’s Elements of Chemistry............... Ae, of 2 vols. Williamson’s Chemistry for Students ...-............ 1 vol. Elements of Chemistry (Sir R. Kane) ................ 1 ae Mathematics (Royal Military Academy Course) ........ 2 vols. Kuler’s Letters on Mathematics and Physics .......... 2 ee Barlow on Magnetic Attraction..........5.....-+--06- 1 vol. Treatise on Electricity (De La Rive) ................ 3 vols. iwaodnouse’s Astronomy «00. Las es erte ll oe eens 1 vol. The Heavens (Guillemin, edited by Norman Lockyer) .. 1 ,, Art of Photography (Lake Price) ...............-006- 4 Fie Meteorological Tables, Smithsonian (Guyot) .......... as Treatise on Mathematical Instruments (Heather) ...... 1 ,, Sabine’s Pendulum and other Experiments ............ 2 vols. Bmaverers AStFONOMY: £52... see fe oe oa ee ee ne DS ex Timbs’s Year-Book of Facts, 1861-1871 .............. le Wayiors Scientific Memoirs: . 2.0)... we ld ee ee on pipes a Manual of Surveying for India, by Capts. Smythe and PINT RSET HA ANE CSL pans ole olga aan 1 vol. Nichol’s Cyclopedia of Physical Science .............. Be sg Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry .............. Me Dictionary of Terms of Art (Weale).................. eer Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at :— te Helonai.: 4 i. 25 mn eNa ane os Fa ROTATE 3 'ekenet es\‘eF 3 vols. SL OTOH LOC? teeta M aT alate. Soe ie fon c¥er PEt he reis casele.s Diggs ELODARUGTS ARAVA True og enIBS Gea deve Be 5, Rape DOG eOd Tepe 63.24. OU ced MMe ood od as 1 vol. Observations during Magnetic Disturbances, 1840-1841.. 1 ,, Magnetic and Meteorological Observations, Unusual Dis- RRM ATOON Ha. SAAN SR oa eles /oie laos erawiedaie'e Masi Plates to Magnetic and Meteorological Observations .... 1 ,, Report of the Astronomer Royal to the Board of Visitors.. 40 nos. Theory of Errors of Observations, by Airy ............ 1 vol. Wodirunters Conic Sections’ 22.22... oe. ek eailscwecees a istaiat Shaimbotion Of Heat (Dove) 252%... 055 secs tlesesecee LES Bantam ONCEIRY) Lah Lies hs TE Lo Ee Cen atper sav encts aye cefeisia.e es Camus on the Teeth of Wheels............ 00.2 e evens sy Simmonds’s Meteorological Tables .............00005 OBES Observations of Sun-spots (Carrington) .............. . are RUE CPA ERUREOUPNIEL “POS 3/512 2.8 iS eacd ates capgesra daar hei Mlesavesoia) ase ie. Symons’s British Rainfall and Meteorological Magazine. . Expériences sur les Machines 4 Vapeur (Regnault) .... 2 ,, Cours Elémentaire de Chimie (Regnault) ............ _ ee e2 lvi REFORT—1]87]1. LIST B. Books to be sent to the London Office, 22 Albemarle Street. British Association Report, 1831-32 ...........%.... 20 vols 55 _ ESSA, «60a toate pater 20 Key 5 x DOE So ose peer nte 20) hes 5 a 1,839 6 din ti ascagt aide ey eee 20:5 ss os Ns IBSG tetuit. ale ts ain Wee + oA =y NEST corshpinaittt ade systrtalt Gene 20-55 6 7 1B oi its Ethel tc sep eee 20 55 5, a DSO wish tahoe hanacctels eee 2D ei : a: DE i. o's 0.5 ah ieee eres 20 sy ‘ a DAL 5 teats te alta Ae es, Teen OE nine 2D sab gg hs 2 Se eee T Ber Te rt 2 20 5, - * EEL sliver » reidhe ayer} SRC eR | ee es 2 NES eae ks Sap aah eiciuta: sag CeO 205; i = ABAD, 8 fecthidtts ts athosantie 20) i535 3s 3 LAG, 5): ei nsinth hey Some 20:i 453 i i LGET.t: SEY PER Ey. ieee hae LO. 55 e s3 BAB in FS lon be Secs BE Bae LO, aes . iy MD injec Shs 3s 2 oe 1 ee fi: 33 PSU © 2 ee ol tage 18", o es LEI 0: whan aiw ee, chante 19 «; ss ¥ TB BE). sn « «ate Oa eh ee ae 20° 55 ES ws Lets 5 are ns pes Fee Soe ft Pheags ” ” 1854 Buc faye aye exes) és leluie) ble elei bun 21 ” be a ae 5... an ne Oe eee 22+ gs ” is AE aE nie's's,24 Singers gthsicoels 28 setheg a 53 ibe a a ey: Tapes, 22 segs te _ POG nae siacuhuslih Rd oe 22. say ~ 3 UAE cs wires dee eek pees Dee das ” ai LEGO": .. . Uinehby date Tee B20: 4 - Es PS Ros Gu eaee eee by 3 EGO2'S. : ahaaee dnt dicate eae wa. es - + 1BCS BL Ete toa sh cena eee 2 cas - ; Eel OAS elnino a 23 95 by * TSG Cores. soc nt eae 22, 5 53 IBGG lee foc de aatatt tae oe ie 55 sg UE og Son it. AE inn € See 22 5, “ - Lbs Re PO ee nena 22 was s a WG Ss sp ad Sa eins ee 22. 5 Lalande’s Catalogue (MS. Calculations) 2 Maa eee Le =} a (MSccepy)’.". .: 222558 eee os La Place’s Celestial Mechanics ...................... 1 vol. Armagh Eliges pr Stars 2.0 civ... pa caP ic ede lt ee Radcliffe Observatory Catalogue of Stars for 1845 ...... toe Paramatta Catalogue of 7358 Stars .................. se Groombridge’s Catalogue of Circumpolar Stars.......... 3 vols Edinburgh Astronomical Observations ................ 4s Astronomical Observations at the Cape of Good Hope.... J REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. (MSS.) Apparent Places of Principal Stars ............ 1 vol. British Association Catalogue (MS. copy).............. Dg! (MSS.) British Association Catalogue (Calculations) .... 24 vols. (MSS.) British Association Catalogues, Synonyms and Notes 23 ,, (MSS.) Lacaille’s Catalogue (Calculations) ............ 24: ° 55 Lacaille’s Catalogue (MS. GOAN vias. se EE ms wares RE 1 Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.... 33 nos. Ordnance Survey, Comparisons of Standards of Length . .. 2 vols Radcliffe Observatory, Meteorological Observations .... 3. ,, Makerstoun, Meteorological Observations and Tables .... 10 ,, "3 Abstracts of Meteorological Observations .. 3. ,, Srmpridee: Observations. ... 6s cccee cece vo sageesns Siow; Pisytairs Natural;Philosophy ......... #/2. lived ves Levelling in England and Wales ............eeeeeeee Hiss (Abstract)eth ten nares : ear r Levelling i in Scotland. Ea Sar ais ana eerd hat, 2 Laeey nr GADSiVACE)P sci Se etetellstenetetsy oiiele + = Tings Pasley on Measures, Weights, and Money ............ bits Cork Savings-bank Tables............ccce eee ee eees Dish Weld’s History of the Royal Society................-- a Bombay Magnetical and Meteorological Observations, i 52 NA rue Par a oe a be aa kes LLL oe aR AE AL Ps Meteorological Results, Toronto ..........ee cece eee Binos Pmeeriwich OUSCEVAGIONS. «.12.. sess sods teeepee cence BBG 4; Se (Appendices &e.) .......0 40. 125 ,, Catalogue of Reference, Manchester Free Library ...... Leiinss Brisbane’s Star Catalogue ......... 2. cee cece ee eee 2 ake Johnson and Henderson’s Star Catalogue.............. 2 (MSS.) Hartnup Star Catalogue ............--.-000. Leis: ieyces Sine Catalosue oo) fie D. Ae Sie) dee. Uy ie 5 Wrottesley s Star Catalogue... 0.0666 2. NU tie 5! Taylor’s Ra aE Barhy SO RO ALE MESED Runa sat. Ts ro he as Everest’s Survey of India Rick BOR coi Soe Soe owe 23); Manis Survey iy 12. HOS. ees Ed 8 Gers Extension of Triangulation into Belgium and France.... 2. ,, Verification and Extension of Lacaille’s Arcof Meridian .. 2 ,, Schlagintweit’s India and High Asia ................ Aimy Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical Engineers .... 8 ,, 5 Ss na Ste UIOSS Modern Geology Exposed A ORR REN. 2 1 vol. Melbourne Magnetic and Meteorological Observations ... 3 vols Extracts from the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India 5 ,, Madras Meteorological Observations LE SETI a 2 ee Ee Bt ee eg ee Ret 33 nos. Calcutta Hourly Meteorological Observations .......... Aptis Bengal Meteorological Reports PENSE, b= ktiesks Stahgh Od 0 aa i) lviii REPORT—1871. Statistics of New Zealand ............ ce eeeccececece 9 nos. Tide Tables for English and Irish Ports ...........-.. a Reports and Transactions of the Devonshire As ociation.. 3 vols. Annual Reports of the Royal Polytechnic Society ...... LT 3 Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and CHOSHITON 2 cicode iiece ate chases ee AIMED eel en paaeele Lvl Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts ...... 10 sys Results of Trials on H.M. Ships ........-.-eceeeeeee Ags Trigonometrical Survey of England and Wales ........ Sia Determination of Longitudes of England and Wales .... 2 ,, La Place’s Mathematical Works .........e.eeeseeees Ge Gs Lagrange’s ¥ pate isuiveisescar eel o HOR ae Otis Euler’s Mathematical Works..........0cseceecceuses 4 Simpson’s,, a eee ce ein thd hs Di lags Dupin’s 5s ZUR old Ries BMG 1 vol. Carnot’s EF ea elt dogeion t. Sante Joie TDioags Shipbuilding, by Rankine... 2... ccscce eens de wills sa: Dublin Magnetical and Meteorological Observations .... 1 ,, Maxima and Minima (Ramchundra) ...........-.0505 Dart, Meteorological Results Toronto, 1862 .........0+5 005 thas Army Meteorological Register ..........--22+---+--- LAS Mathematical Tracts from Library of the late Mr, Christie Magnetical and Meteorological Observations at Lake Athabasca. Sundries (English Pamphlets). U. S. Coasts Survey, Report of Superintendent ........ 26 vols. Annals of the Dudley Observatory ........ see reeees Megs Transactions of the Albany Institute .........0s0005: B45 Proceedings of the American Geological and Statistical Ramey.) oie os< J5 Reese's Wes yess EN RR RES 1O how Reports of the National Academy of Sciences ....,..... By Sy Documents of the U. 8. Sanitary Commission .,........ isles State Transactions of the Historic Society of Wisconsin... 6 ,, Report of Geological Reconnaisance of Arkansas........ Qoigi Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,... 45 ,, a of the American Association for the Advance- mont of Science)... a. 0cavcrwe osetia walenn lass Monthly Report of the Commissioners of the Revenue of TR Aa 5s os Gee ed es coe eo AO ee Bag Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Bitiences :Aeniees See Sera ache cocaine fone 20. 53 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society...... BO Papers relating to Harvard College .........-++--++0: G0n0g Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-_ - ELL AER geen aR Sg, egy a Pi lie Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections ...........++++- PO oie s Contributions to Knowledge..........0+-: 26ui5; Memoirs of the American Academy .........-+-s0+405 Bwaj Washington Astronomical and Meteorological Observa- 4100S . Vaeeas ceo ee “PE CASS; Soa ee Quik Maury’s Sailing Directions .........0cseesseeeerees Siaw Transactions of the American Philosophical Society .... 6 ,, REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, lix Sundry Volumes (various subjects) ..........+++ +) LO "Vols. Smithsonian Reports ......... ee cess rene erence eees Bo ,, Explorations and Surveys, Senate, U.S.A. ........--.- 4 ,, Reports of the Department of Agriculture, U.S. | ae i tats a Geology of Towa... 1.1... se ce eee t ee ee eet rene tnees Bs, Catalogue, Army Medical Museum, U.8.A........-.+-- de '55 Sundries, (American Pamphlets.) Bulletin de la Société de Géographic........ eee ee eens 4D 5 i Bee AIDE ee ee 4 84 nos Mémoires de l’Académie de Dijon ..........++ eee 13 vols. Bulletin de la Fédération de la Société de Horticulture de Mminiquaicse seeks ec Geeta os eee eee ees agers esd lila Actes de la Société Helvétique ........... Pere bat caer Mémoires de l’Académie Royale de Metz.........-.... 3 Résumé Météorologique pour Genéve and Le Grand St. IRORN ANGUS a Watatgse acters Sats eee eet tale SR ETS = Extraits de ’ Académie Royale de Bruxelles .......... 10 nos. Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise........ cece eee ee eee a Mémoires de la Société des ScienceS.......-.20-05000- ‘(ats Revues des Cours Scientifiques ........ secre eee sees iS jee Panhellenium..sc;c2cccesrseteee shee het Pagia gees 20 ,, Quetelet sur le Climat de la Belgique ............-4-, Ife ees Extraits de l’Académie de Belgique .........-+---005- 54 ,, Commission Hydrométrique de Lyon .......-.-0+5-55 RG}; Bulletin de 1’Association Scientifique de France ........ 140 ,, Mémoires de Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Mont- palliom fo. REEL E TE. Pe ie Seas OEY Atlas Météorologique de l’Observatoire Impérial, 1866- TOGO OR, 28 POS PED aU Oe PRE tds ok 4 ,, La Belgique Horticole ..........2eceeeceeeerseeers GN; Compte Rendu Annuel ......... 6c cece eee e ee tenes 15 vols. Annales de l’Observatoire Physique Central (Russia) ,... 35 ,, Annuaire Magnétique et Météorologique (Russia) ...... eee Annuaire Météorologique de France ......-++seeeees Pivy, (CISTI: Jao RII iis Ie ceo beacuse Rca Sa a ae Aoi ifeseNtondes; ESG3—/0)-2, 26.) ey ss cs ccs end ete ove es Bie, 4 Tables de la Lune, par Hanseen ........5-sseseeeees 1 vol. Traité de Calcul Différential, par Lubbe .............. Lees Histoire Céleste, par Lalande ........ eee e ee eee eee 1 no. Sundries. (French Pamphlets.) Oversigt over det K. D. V. Selskabs af Forchhammer.... 33 ,, Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter.........2 eee eeeeee 6 vols. Sundries. (Dutch Pamphlets.) Archives Neerlandaises. Meteorologische Waarnerningen ..........++eeeeeees BONS; Helsingfors Magnetical and Meteorological Observations.. 6 ,, Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennice .............+., Bites Fe ss Indo-Neerlandsch.........+ Biosys Norsk Meteorologisk Aarbog.......... 00.0 seer cree Acie, Meteorologische Jagttagelser paa Christiania Obserya- AGRAUITII Sg Sic vw ABU gee aM a aN atla Dn OHS oe) onan Bb 3 lx REPOoRT—1871. . Meteorologische Beobachtungen Aufgezeichnct auf Chris- GiehHE MODBEEVATOTIOM « «cis. saa. 0. en), > 2) apebs totes 3 vols. Beretning om en Botanisk Reise af H. L. Lorensen...... Cuates Index Scholarum in Universitate Christiania .......... Goon Sundries. (Norwegian Pamphlets.) Sitzungsberichte der Mathematisch Naturwissenschaftliche Classe der Akademie der Wissenschaften.......... 280 .,, Sitzungsberichte der K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften 78 ,, Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern 11 ,, Monatsberichte der K, P. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu IB Elise pee rot tec etove eet nena ishines Gh ais axe Ren TOE le 80 ,, Annalen fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus ........ Gen; Beobachtungen Meteorologische an der Wiener Stern- SWAEUO ge < ie eys eb te dvs cite ORE Oty oiela Es chaste ee ee BO aes Verhandlungen der Allgemeinen Schweizerischen Gesell- schaft der Naturwissenschaften...............e0% IG s., Zeitschrift der Osterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Mete- PUR IG pe ake io atl i os oye,o hse 5 ceed ar hs eee ae SOI ea55 Reise der Osterreichischen Frigatte Novara, Magnetische (BEOPACHGUN OEM | 2 2 yas. c.-uays se bye SabaseNay Retna Sines Magnetische Beobachtungen in Wien .............25- A Tageblatt der 32 Versammlung der N. W. A. in Wien, SID ee oan te soos hea eit ale GEER Ede pee Jahrbucher der K.-K, Central Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus in Wien. 1856-1859, 1 of each, tSGG—ISGOF hol eAgh! Ay. Met ran.e sentysuleteteciee = ot 10 nos. Det Kongelige Norske Univyersitets Aarberetunger, 1856 bo UG58 et. Se. esse b attain 9 cl, ris tice fags 8 vols. Travaux de la Commission pour fixer les mesures et les poids de l’Empire de Russie .............2.e0e0: Sie. Abhandlungen der Math-Physikal Classe der K. B. Aka- demie der Wissenschaften, .)....55 003 seesaw eels « -t Bulletin der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Miinchen. 47 7 Sundries. (German Pamphlets.) Annaes do Observatorio do Infante D. Luiz............ AG. x55 Trabalhos ¥ Bost teh Yee SEE REECE Dittys Mémoires de Académie Reale de Sciences de Lisboa Sy tt Annaes da Academia das Sciencias Lisboa ............ 12545 Coimbra, Observacoes Meteorologicas ..........00000 4 Oe Sundries. (Portuguese Pamphlets.) Rassian\ NeauticaliMagamney by silsind. 2s sds 4 sale ae GS iis Harmonia Mensuram. SEES VATE W. CLAMS wes. vo cusvslsleis sraveue sane tei siete eevee ae 1 vol. Specdiam Hartwellianum. «oc... . ....0.» s+ «@eieiggenees ‘Bee Diverse Machine( Ramelli) ........ ixanicameine es aateek dey 3 Memorie dell’ I. R. Istituto Lombardo................ 5 vols. Memorie della Societa Italiana delle Scienze .......... Sm gs Memorie dell’ Osservatorio del Collegio Romano........ 10:38 Memorie del Reale Istituto Lombardo ................ Al tie Atti dell’ Accademia Pontificia de’ Nuovi Lincei........ 90 nae REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTYE. lxi Atti della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Napoli...... 7 vols. Bulletino Meteorologico dell’ Osservatorio del Collegio ROMANO ap fepeee se idale: cero chao Ae, Sata dey Mae, oft Gn Be) Shs Orr. Giornale dell’ I. R. Istituto Lombardo................ 44 ,, Rendiconti del Reale Istituto Lombardo .............. LL Zele, Sundries. (Italian Pamphlets.) APPENDIX TER Inventory of Apparatus and Instruments at present in the Kew Observatory, with the names of Owners ov Funds by which they were purchased. May 1871. [Abbreviations adopted in col. 2:—Brit. Assoc. for British Association; Don. Fund for Donation Fund; Gov. Grant for Government Grant Fund; Met. Com. for Meteoro- logical Committee; Par. Ex. Fund for Paris Exhibition Fund; Roy. Ast. Soe. for Royal Astronomical Society ; Royal Soc. for Royal Society. ] Entrance Hall. Eaves ofppe urchase A Bird’s Mercurial Thermometer ..........0+05 - Royal Soap Captain Kater’s Hygrometer, by Robinson ....+... 3 Dr. Lind’s Portable Wind Gauge .............. a4 Huygens’s Aerial Telescope (twelve parts)........ by itayecens 8 Object-glass ...... 1. ese ee es oleate is Huygens’s Object-glass, with two Eye-glasses by oO ae ee eee ee 2 } 2 Flamsteed'’s Object-glass (Venetian) ............ sf Dollond’s 42-inch Transit, with a cast-iron stand .. 3 Short’s 36-inch Reflecting Telescope, with an Object- glass Micrometer by Dollond (nine parts) ...... 2 Kater’s Convertible Pendulum, with the Agate Planes ¥ Captain Sabine’s Cylindrical Pendulum, vibrating on ] Planes; with the Knife-edges................ if 2 Apparatus, with Leaden Balls, by Paull of Geneva | SRIF) be 5s adores Oraednah Moran « » wtctariotak tt J is Nairne and Blunt’s 12-inch Dipping Needle (two on re eco eerr © genie } 1 A 12-inch Variation Needle..............0..00+ 9 Dr. Godwin Knight’s Battery of Magnets ........ re Air-Pump, with Double Barrel ................ By Nairne’s Air Condenser (three parts) ............ 5 Ramsden’s Great Theodolite, with other Instruments and Apparatus employed by Major-General Roy in the Trigonometrical Survey (sixty-six parts, in four ” SSeS) TRCOBUNCTO. , occ susie nei aede class 4a Ixii REPORT—1871. Cary’s Large Levelling Instrument(twenty-one parts) Royal Soc. Troughton and $i CEN Y DALLA) | se ate gnie'n eles aunt Steep a orice a or sx a3 Adams’s 5-inch pee he (two parts) .......... F Bowles’s Trigonometer (four parts) ............ 5 Troughton’s Repeating Circle, of 1 foot diameter .. 3 Ramsden’s 10-inch Protractor, with Vernier to 1’.. is Bird’s 12-inch Astronomical Quadrant (fifteen parts) 2 Mordyer s Hydrometetcc. stvulve ws we epee ees ote 55 Cole’s Orrery, explanatory of Eclipses............ ee Mw iManerss (COMPASSES i atel-teeynvlct.te rs) ghereucesbarsnetieere : Armed Loadstone .|. 2-1. ps cis s dale pe oN Ay hee ge. a ihe (Certs sbrass Unstrumenterve ts «te ste + erste ieee es Curious Steel Callipers for very accurate measure- ment, by Paull of Geneva: 1777 ............ ‘3 Rowning’s Universal Constructor of Equations ..,. _ Chronometer Stove, for ascertaining the Infiuence of Temperature on the Rate of Chronometers (six a: PALES) “Teer ee debe cic ets = aim Beker We Rint: ea Wedgewood’s Pyrometer ; or Thermometer for mea- suring high degrees of heat (sixty-six parts).... } "a Tyo purom= Brass Pilloys. 3s sts sy epee ee 28 : Bird’s 4-feet Refracting Telescope ...........+++ * Dies tiydrenicter 3.5 Hoes «ck. ee ee eR es Hadley’s Metal for a Newtonian Reflector, with several wooden Eyepieces, but without Tube or <3 Mounting). 2s hss ease beta gra. seed eee eens Troughton and Simms’s 6-inch Circular Protractor. . Baily’s Pendulum, No.2 :. sy; .neoee ss 47 FERS Roy. ‘Ast. Soc, Standard Wrought-iron bar used in Mallet’s Expe- ‘ rimenta, 1838-41842...0 4.060 iesessseieens ae } Brit, Astbh, Observing Telescope used by Schlagintweit. Experimental Tubes employed in the construction of Gas; Cees Welsh’s Standard Barometers ......,...65.. OF) Va aan Six 39-inch Glasp Slabs. Sixty Lamp Chimmbys? 995 5\'25..5G) 72a vive seo Brit. Assoc, Hight 14-inch Magnets. Sundry Lamps, Plate Boxes, Daguerotypes and Ap- paratus employed with Ronalds’s Self-recording + Donat. Fund. Barograph and Magnetograph................ Sundry Chemical Apparatus used with Addams’s Car- Got aS bonic acid Gas Generators ........-.0055000. OF, Baas Three large Magnetometers with Marble Slabs, Pil- lars, Reading Telescopes, &c. Two Thermometer Testing-jars (damaged)........ Brit. Assoc. Two 6-inch Bull’s-eye Lenses. Sir W. Thomson’s Portable Atmospheric Electro- } Prof. Sir W. metery cok . deeded cd ey ca fd LP eee Thomsen. Sir W. Thomson's Recording Atmospheric Electro- meter 2.5. FUER es Ra ”? Various pieces of Electrical Apparatus .......... SirF.Ronalds. Sundry Lenses, REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, Galton’s Dial Anemometer, with Battery, &c. erMBEIar HOTEOM 6 (cod ee ee Ce SE Heliostats and Reflectors used in Mr. Galton’s Sex- tant Testing Apparatus ............4. es aa Apparatus for Trisecting an Arc. Mamssures Hysrometer . nie coed. cee ee Seven-inch Protractor, by Jones. Marine Barometer. Two Patent Compensated Barometers, by Harris. One 30-inch Steel Bar. Two Kriel’s Self-recording Barometers, with Spare EM Niche So choke soca ei Pakage 2 a] 8m ge Tube of Ronalds’s Photo-barograph Glass Receiver (damaged). Model of Sheerness Tide-gauge ..........y0eee: Mallet’s Model of the Descent of Glaciers. Several Models, not named. Appold’s Automatic Hygrometer..............., Appold’s Automatic Temperature Regulator Lindley’s Patent Central Thermometer, Lindley’s Model of Fire Escape. Perspective Instrument Barrow’s Dip Circle, No. epmson’s. G-inch Circle . ... os s.ne\: vais eas tye Two Unifilars and a Declinometer, by Gibson Seven Tripods Balance of Torsion. A Watchman’s Clock. Oertling’s Balance RMMPEAHONA css oi ae sc ke es NY Cees OF Wooden Wind-pressure Gauge SUPER OAT oii ac es Sg sees os ss Be wy Ronalds’s Atmospheric Electrical Apparatus ...... Model of Mr. De La Rue’s Tower for supporting Huyghen’s Aerial Telescope-lenses_ .......... Model of a design for Photoheliograph Mounting .. Leyden Jars Sep e sees wine € ays sue Oe gel wl ey eee clas lelylale eh6 «ays ae) «, asia «es 8 8 Spiel. wi 2 CY Ce ous @ eieteve s tle g ee ee whe whe Oe 8 go ds Testing Room, Six frames exhibiting Kew and Lisbon Magnetic UGVES , < . Aoted e ern Ene as Eee eens eee we Two Welsh’s Standard Barometers BRM TERDOLOE “(es <0ren Soh MRR Ooh ye ae ales od Receiver for testing Barometers, with Air-Pump, &c. Apparatus for testing Thermometers ........,... Newman’s Standard Barometer, No. 34 aeons Mural-Qaadrant. «2 vciwsiadss os eRe oils R% Spare Tubes for Standard Barometer construction . . Thomson’s Galyanometer and Apparatus employed by Dr. Stewart in Rotating Disk experiments Siemens’s Air-Pump Sprengel’s Air-Pump ed Ce i lxili Met. Com. Sir E. Sabine. } Geogr, Soc. SirF. Ronalds. Brit. Assoc. Goy. Grant. Royal Soe. Royal Soc, 3) Sirk’. Ronalds, Sir E. Sabine, Goy. Grant. 99 9 Sir I. Sabine. Gov. Grant. Par, Ex.Fund. Brit. Assoc. Mr. Gassiot. Brit, Assoc. Gov. Grant. 5) Observatory. Gov. Grant. +E} lxiv REPORT—1871. Parts of Ronalds’s Magnetographs .............. Air-Thermometer (incomplete) _................ MSS., Books, Papers, Documents, and Correspondence referring to Meteorological work. Transit Room. Thermometer-waxing Apparatus ...........005 Photographic Paper Waxing Apparatus.......... Thomson’s Atmospheric Recording Electrometer .. PRELIM GOT APE estes Pie ote aoin aie ioe ee relayevere ag ee tetere Chronometen;-ATHOW . ss. chase ccsec ech eee eee Envariahle Pennine Aes aes Seat ot aos Silo Pendutara: (NONO: cet nce skis fctess.e Mera, steed, oye ets Dig Ree POY SOL psc vicisic eh a einls os so Oe aes se Declinometer, by Robinson and Barrow.......... Five Daniell’s Hygrometers.............0.0000 Four Declinometers (various makers)............ AE iebetell EATIAOR. Bay i ete yareis smre oan wine ene mie iite, COLT BTORLORA s niciy cists tgs + ashe asialcinateps, 0 cc ot Three Herschel’s Actinometers ..............4. LO=nch vAvammth: COMPASS che sie sv.0 + veers co cle ere Vertical Force Magnetometer ..........:....05- PURO ORTAL «<< Stanaiaie a6 oo eleysssiee Sook sie Seinen Three Dip Circles and one Fox’s Circle .......... Several old Observing Telescopes and incomplete Maenewe AGparaous. Brite eAssace Ixvi REPORT—1871. DeflectinsrAGparatys (toys va os es bees ose ae te Brit. Assoc. Eee UE Yee ce bes tens oe bees eae Met. Com. Ie UePeMETOSEOPOs. ..2. . 2 's Mens Mr. Atkinson. memerrowing Pablo: 24... 6. £04 idaue ze ee cise: Gov. Grant. oS VASES AID dee ie ss Sundry Packing-cases. Enclosure. Self-recording Rain-gauge ...........e0eeeseue Met. Com. Beasn-sauge (Ordinary)... -~ ssi. cyis yp oit ow este Brit. Assoc. Eworial Anemometers : 1353.00 Xo oss vise aaa oe Met. Com, Mowing Machine and sundry other Garden Tools.. Brit. Assoc. Verification House. Stone Pillars for erecting Self-recording Magneto- Don. Fund. Sa eee cs A gee ete ee Self-recording Barograph, Thermograph, and Anc- Rat, Com mograph (undergoing examination)............ 4 ; In the Custody of B. Loewy, Hsq., 11 Leverton Street, N.W. Mr. De La Rue’s Micrometer for measuring Astronomical Photo- graphs (in use for measuring the photographs obtained with the heliograph). REPORT—1871. lxvil Tt St L61F 0 0 GL OL 8I Tf € 91 OF Bae” SF see e eee e reese seceeeesees AOU VT ad NVM Baas hes eadageusececaraprese veccencsVabaresexsveesr sre ROTIUTOR Sumpoy *' squnoddy uado uo ancy Tenteereceeeeseseusseereeess AQGY 8B QOURIEE ‘TLS ‘81 Ain ‘sauyrqnry Buapunjsno “TLST 22e Yar ‘aouadaary} pue sdurptys use4x1s spunod £z10; Futaq yavMmoyg IMojeg ‘Jorg 0} onp odueyeq ayy ‘3091100 puNoj pue siayONOA oy} YIM poutMEXG Yiom Surpusyuredns s0y souvmore ‘0j1q ET 99T TL8L 9ST “Sn 07 “OL8T IST 990 “JaVMarg “g OF, —? ‘o2p ‘saliuleg QOL OF etter gremagg mmopeg ‘Jorg 0} onp sourreg O £ FISIF 0 0 iat ci onteeesrrscegesmpass*sse*ss°KIOIBATOS() 0} payorsye puey jo quay POO meee eee reet eH PO Hee esee tHe HHH eaeeeeestsaeeee S}UBISISSe Ayerout € 8 GFE } -nusodns Aq pus sino0y 2.14X9 4e JUOp sMOTyEINGLy [eOYOUSe I O L bp octrrresssseseeerere-sinoy ajXxe 48 QUOP YOM [eo1Soyo100;0 8 al 0g FORO eee ee rere mses sees es aeeeee eee eeesenee sasuadxa Ayjad pue 93019}10g L al 99 gacebcndbar easiconese'cs eres *ereenast) ‘Azappuryg ‘sosuodx asnoy 68 moc" # seereteaerssessessersees STBOD PUL SUA) ¢ c ce Cee ecesececcsstecertsece bh)) ‘g3v,s0g ‘syoog ‘Argu0tg ‘Bunuiig ¢ cI 6 Ronugdeneectescseseseseusressbenetnng ‘dost ‘raqyuadieg ‘JaBuouUoIT I L 2g POP e mere rna terre teereas te teaereeeee hy.) ‘s[00 J, ‘s]e119qe yA ‘snqvivddy OR Ot Beer ee 0 9T og TLL 1 Sny 09 ‘Osst ‘1 “Sny ITH “V b SL Ih oT TLS ST “Sny 09 ‘Ost ‘T 490 ‘soy “¢ 0 0 S@t ** TL8t ‘T “Say 03 ‘OLS ‘ot “Buy ‘Aappag “y 8 9 gc . seers ‘op ‘op ‘Kqany ‘Vv * &L 99 oes eeeseeeeseee ‘op ‘op ‘aatg “a 8 9 €8 Peereesesreseee ‘op ‘op ‘rayeg 7 bE FOL ILET ‘Tay 09 “OL8T ‘T 390 ‘addin “D 0 0 OL ‘*sasuadxa Burpaavsy Ay0d roy soURMOTTe 07}1(T TLZT “4ST “Buy 09 ‘OL8T 4ST “990 ‘aaqqtU F SL 99T 4 ~WlOg JeorZopor109,0 7 9} ITA payooUN0D F °° oF 3 “SINGWAVd O £ PISIF Ahem erence seer tenn eeeee © 91 OF verses gouDrege LT tL ene suorssttmmmoo Arpuns Woy 4YOIg L 9 OG criritrtteenteseseeststseesesecesesetaceeteeeneessereee SuOTONpA onousepy 0} pardde pur 10j apquplear 41eMajg Inojeg tossajoig Aq Ayotoog [esoy oy} WO’ paatooor yuBAT Jo aoUBLEg O19 7229 0 OL ZL cu QUueySISsY Jo saorAsas 10,7 9 € 89 ‘*****SOAIND UO Sout] [eIONpry Zurpns 107 BQ GES rreecsseeseceeees “= wnuue rad OOFF 38 ‘syguour uaz ‘Ar04vAIEsSqO [e1yuUIg SB MOY 0} DOUBMOTTL BIYXT 8 9 80 “*UnuuUe sad QgezF 4e ‘904910 [eoIZopO109j9T{ 9} JO Sat10zeAIVsqQ 9} JO OUO SB SYJUOU OT 10J VDULMOTTY —! 901JQ [eodofo10aj0~—y OY} WOT, 0 OLIL tt siaqaMouseyy, parpurys JO UOTONAZSUOD 94} 10, 0 OL G “ttt ttsss syuammnsysuy Teoeuse yy JO UOTPOH WEA oY} 10,7 6 91 SoL 6 SL IZ “vt sxaqjo pue suriondg mo1g 0 F FG “tt ADIYO [eoFolo109,0 qq OZ WIT —: SUL “NIYSUT [BoBo[o1oaya. JO UWoONVoyIIAA 94} JOT 0 0 ONG titties Jomnsvary, [eIOUIH ay} WLOI peateoay pee dee “S©dIGOTa "LLSL ‘g asnbny 02 “OLST ‘GT waquazday wouf woynossp ysywg ay2 fo aagnruuog may oyp fo spunoo0p RCOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, ]xix RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT THE EDINBURGH Meerine In Aveust 1871. [When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary, except there is a specific nomination. ] That in future the division of the Section of Biology into the three Depart- ments of Anatomy and Physiology, Anthropology, and Zoology and Botany shall be recognized in the programme of the Association Meetings, and that the President, two Vice-Presidents, and at least three Secretaries shall be nominated, and that the Vice-Presidents and Secretaries who shall take charge of the organization of the several Departments shall be designated respectively before the publication of such programme. Dr. R. King’s motion, “that a Subsection for Ethnology be formed,” was rejected. That the Apparatus, Instruments, &c. mentioned in Appendix III. of the Report of the Kew Committee for the past year be transferred to the charge of the Royal Society. That the Electrical Apparatus belonging to the British Association, now in possession of the Committee of Electrical Standards, be placed in the Physical Laboratory of Cambridge, in charge of the Professor of Experimental Physics, the apparatus remaining the property of the Association and at the disposal of the Committee. [For Regulations relating to Organizing Sectional Proceedings, vide p. xix. ] Recommendations Involving Grants of Money. That the sum of £300 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main- taining the establishment of the Kew Observatory. That Professor Cayley, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Professor Stokes, Sir W. Thomson, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be a Committee for the purpose of re- porting on Mathematical Tables, which it may be desirable to compute or reprint ; that Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be the Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. _ That Mr. Edward Crossley, Rev. T. W. Webb, and Rey. R. Harley be a Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change; that Mr. Crossley be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor Tait, Professor Tyndall, and Dr. Balfour Stewart be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Thermal Conductivity of Metals ; that Professor Tait be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the Committee on Tides, consisting of Sir W. Thomson, Professor J. C. Adams, Professor J. W. M. Rankine, Mr. J. Oldham, Rear-Admiral Richards, and Mr.W. Parkes, be reappointed; that Colonel Walker, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Trigonometrical Survey of India, be added to the Committee ; and that the sum of £200 be placed at their disposal to defray the expenses of calcula- tion during the ensuing year. That the Committee for reporting on the Rainfall of the British Isles be reappointed, and that this Committee consist of Mr. Charles Brooke, Mr. Glaisher. Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. R. ieee Mr. IT. Hawksley, Professor J. C.. Adams, Mr. C. Tomlinson, fae 7 lxx | REPORT—1871. Professor Sylvester, Dr. Pole, Mr. Rogers Field, Professor Ansted, and Mr. Buchan ; that Mr. G. J. Symons be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose, That a Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Sir William Thomson, Professor Everett, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Mr. Glaisher, Rev. Dr. Graham, Mr. George Maw, Mr. Pengelly, Mr. 8. J. Mackie, Professor Edward Hull, and Professor Ansted, be appointed ; that Professor J. D. Everett be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the Committee on Luminous Meteors, consisting of Mr. Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. Alexander Herschel, and Mr. C. Brooke, be reappointed, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Huggins, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Dr. Reynolds, Professor Swan, and Mr. Stoney be a Committee for the purpose of constructing and printing tables of Inverse Wave Lengths, Mr. Stoney to be reporter; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor A. W. Williamson, Professor Roscoe, and Professor Frank- land be a Committee for the purpose of superintending the Monthly Reports of the progress of Chemistry; and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir W. Thomson, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Professor G. C. Foster, Mr. Abel, Professor Fleeming Jenkin, Mr. Siemens, and Mr. R. Sabine, with power to add to their number, be a Committee for the purpose of testing the New Pyrometer of Mr. Siemens, by whom the chief instrument will be supplied; and that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Gladstone, Dr. C. R. A. Wright, and Mr. Chandler Roberts be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the chemical constitution and optical properties of essential oils, such as are used for perfumes ; that Mr, Chandler Roberts be the Secretary, and that the sum of £40 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown, Professor Tait, and Mr. Dewar, be reappointed for the purpose of continuing experiments on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ; and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Duncan, Mr. Henry Woodward, and Mr. Robert Etheridge be a Committee for the purpose of continuing researches in Fossil Crustacea; that Mr. Woodward be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. - That Sir C. Lyell, Bart., Heafeksor Phillips, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Mr. J. Evans, Mr. E. Vivian, Mr. W. Pengelly, Mr. G. Busk, Mr. W. B. Dawking, and Mr. W. A. Sandford be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the Exploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay; that Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor Harkness and Mr. James Thomson be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the investigation of Carboniferous Corals with the view of reproducing them for publication ; that Mr. Thomson be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. G. Busk and Mr. Boyd Dawkins be a Committee for the purpose of assisting Dr. Leith Adams in the preparation of Plates illustrating an account of the Fossil Elephants of Malta; that Mr. Busk be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal fer the purpose. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixx1 That Professor Harkness, Mr. William Jolly, and Dr. J. Bryce be a Committee for the purpose of collecting Fossils from localities of difficult access in North-western Scotland, that the specimens be deposited in the Edinburgh Industrial Museum, and that duplicates be deposited in such Museum as the Association may designate ; that Mr. William Jolly be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the - purpose, That Professor Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Professor J. Young, Professor Nicol, Dr. Bryce, Dr. Arthur Mitchell, Professor Hull, Sir R. Griffith, Bart., Dr. King, Professor Harkness, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. Hughes, and Mr. Pengelly be a Committee for the purpose of ascertaining the existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or Boulders, indicating on Maps their position and height above the sea, as also of ascertaining the nature of the rocks composing these blocks, their size, shape, and other par- ticulars of interest, and of endeavouring to prevent the destruction of such blocks as in the opinion of the Committee are worthy of being preserved ; that Mr. Milne Holme be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed _ at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Stainton, Professor Newton, and Sir John Lubbock be a Com- mittee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Literature ; that Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at then disposal for the purpose. . That Professor Balfour, Dr. Cleghorn, Mr. Robert Hutchinson, Mr. Alexander Buchan, and Mr. John Sadler be a Committee for the purpose of taking Ob- servations on the effect of the Denudation of Timber on the Rainfall in North Britain ; that Dr. Cleghorn be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Sharpey, Dr. Richardson, and Professor Humphry be a Com- mittee for the purpose of continuing investigations on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Compounds ; that Dr. Richardson be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor Michael Foster, Mr. W. H. Flower, and Mr. Benjamin Lowne be a Committee for the purpose of making Terato-embryological inquiries ; that Mr. Lowne be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor M. Foster, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, and Mr. E. Ray Lankester be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the amount of Heat gene- rated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialization; that Dr. Gamgee be the Secretary, and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. - That Professor Christison, Dr. Layeock, and Dr. Fraser be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Antagonism of Poisonous Substances; that Dr. Fraser be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal _ for the purpose. That Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., the Rev. Dr. Ginsburg, Mr. Hepworth Dixon, Rey. Dr. Tristram, General Chesney, Rev. Professor Rawlinson, and Mr. John A. Tinné be a Committee for the purpose of undertaking a Geogra- phical Exploration of the country of Moab; and that the sum of £100 be. placed at their disposal for the purpose, in addition to the sum of £100 granted last year, but not expended because it was found to be insufficient for the purpose. . Be mx: , . " That the Metric Committee be reappointed, such Committee to consist of Sir John Bowring, The Right. Hon. Sir Stafford H. Northcote, Bart., C.B., f2 Ixxil REPORT—1871. M.P., The Right Hon. Sir C. B. Adderley, M.P., Mr. Samual Brown, Dr. Farr, Mr. Frank P. Fellowes, Professor Frankland, Mr. James Heywood, Profes- sor Leone Levi, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Professor A. W. Williamson, Dr. George Glover, Sir Joseph Whitworth, Bart., Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. J. V. N. Bazalgette, and Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart.; that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary, and that the sum of £75 be placed at their disposal for the pur- pose of being applied solely to scientific purposes, printing, and corre- spondence. : That Professor W.J. Macquorn Rankine, Mr. Froude, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Mr. C.W. Siemens, Mr. Bramwell, Mr. L. E. Fletcher, and Mr. James R. Napier be a Committee for the purpose of making experiments on instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and Currents by means of the difference of height of two columns of liquids; that Mr. Fletcher be the Secretary, and that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. R. B. Grantham, Professor Corfield, M.B., Mr. J. Bailey Denton, Dr. J. H. Gilbert, Mr. J. Thornhill Harrison, Mr. William Hope, Lieut.- Col. Leach, Dr. A. Voelcker, and Professor A. W. Williamson be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the investigations on the “ Treat- . ment and Utilization of Sewage ;” that the balance of the funds raised by the Committee appointed at Exeter, and now in the hands of the General Treasurer, be placed at their disposal for the purpose. Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money. That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Sir W. Thomson, Professor Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and Professor J. C. Maxwell, be reappointed to effect the determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. That Sir W. Thomson, Professor Everett, Professor G. C. Foster, Professor J. C. Maxwell, Mr. G. J. Stoney, Professor Fleeming Jenkin, Professor Rankine, Mr. Siemens, and Mr. Bramwell be a Committee for the purpose of framing a nomenclature of Units of Force and Energy. That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, Professor Hirst, Rey. Professor Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J. 8. Smith, Dr. Spottiswoode, Mr. R. B. Hayward, Dr. Salmon, Rey. R. Townsend, Professor Fuller, Professor Kel- land, Mr. J. M. Wilson, and Professor Clifford be reappointed a Committee (with power to add to their number) for the purpose of considering the pos- sibility of improving the methods of instruction in elementary geometry; and that Professor Clifford be the Secretary. That Mr. W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on recent progress in the theory of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions. That Mr. Carruthers, Dr. Hooker, Professor Balfour, and Mr. Dyer be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Fossil Flora of Britain. That Rey. Canon Tristram, Professor Newton, Mr. H. E. Dresser, Mr. J. E. Harting, and Rev. H. F. Barnes be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of continuing the investigation on the desirability of establishing “a close time” for the preservation of indigenous animals; and that the Rey. Canon Tristram be the Secretary. That Dr. Rolleston, Dr. Sclater, Dr. Dohrn, Professor Huxley, Professor Wyville Thomson, and Mr. E. Ray Lankester be a Committee for the purpose of promoting the foundation of Zoological Stations; and that Dr. Anton Dohrn be the Secretary. That the Committee appointed last year “ to consider and report on the various plans proposed for legislating on the subject of Steam-boiler Explosions RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxili with a view to their prevention” be requested to continue their labours ; such Committee to consist of Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., Mr. John Penn, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. Hugh Mason, Mr. Samuel Rigby, Mr. Thomas Schofield, Mr. C. F. Beyer, Mr. T. Webster, Q.C., Mr. Lavington E. Fletcher, and Mr. Edward Easton, with power to add to their number. That Mr. Bateman, Mr. Le Neve Foster, Mr. Merrifield, Mr. Edward Easton, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. W. Hope, and Mr. H. Bauerman be a Committee to consider the mode in which new inventions, and claims for reward in respect of adopted inventions, are examined and dealt with by the different Departments of Government, and to report on the best means of removing any real causes of dissatisfaction, as well as of silencing unfounded complaints. That a Committee be appointed— 1°, to consider and report on the best means of advancing science by Lectures, with authority to act, subject to the approval of the Council, in the course of the present year, if judged desirable. 2°, to consider and report whether any steps can be taken to render scientific organization more complete and effectual. That the Committee consist of the following Members, with power to add to their number :—Professor Roscoe, Professor W. G. Adams, Professor Andrews, Professor Balfour, Mr. Bramwell, Professor A. Crum Brown, Mr. Dyer, Sir Walter Elliot, Professor Flower, Professor G. C. Foster, Professor Geikie, Rev. R. Harley, Professor Huxley, Professor Fleeming Jenkin, Dr. Joule, Colonel Lane Fox, Dr. Lankester, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Dr. O’Callaghan, Professor Ramsay, Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr. Stainton, Professor Tait, Mr. J. A. Tinné, Dr. Allen Thomson, Sir Wiliam Thomson, Professor Wyville Thomson, Professor Turner, Professor A. W. Williamson, Dr. Young ; and that Professor Roscoe be the Secretary. Resolutions involving Applications to Government. That the President and Council of the British Association be authorized to cooperate with the President and Council of the Royal Society, in whatever way may seem to them best, for the promotion of a Circumnavigation Expe- dition, specially fitted out to carry the Physical and Biological Exploration of the Deep Sea into all the Great Oceanic areas. That the President and General Officers, with power to add to their number, be requested to take such steps as may seem to them desirable in order to promote observations on the forthcoming Total Solar Eclipse. Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of the Association. That the letter of Lavoisier to Black, referred to in the Address of the President of the Chemical Section, be printed in the Annual Report; and that the letter dated 19th November, 1790, be published in facsimile. That Mr. Bramwell’s paper ‘‘On Experiments made with Carr’s Disinte- grating Flour-mill” be printed 7m ewxtenso in the Transactions of the Associa- tion. Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if it seem desirable. That it is desirable that the British Association apply to the Treasury for funds to enable the Tidal Committee to continue their calculations. Ixxiv REPORT—187 1. That it is desirable that the British Association should urge upon the Government of India the importance for navigation and other practical pur- poses, and for science, of making accurate and continued observations on tho Tides at several points on the coast of India. That the Council of the Association be requested to take such steps as to them may seem most expedient in support of a proposal, made by Dr. Buys Ballot, to establish a telegraphic meteorological station at the Azores. That the Council be requested to take into consideration the desirability of the publication of a periodic record of advances made in the various branches of science represented by the British Association. _ That the Council of this Association be requested to take such steps as may appear to them desirable with reference to the arrangement now in contem- plation to establish “leaving Examinations,” and to report to the Association -on the present position of science-teaching in the public and first-grade schools. That the Council be requested to take such steps as they deem wisest in order to promote the introduction of scientific instruction into the elementary schools throughout the country. Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the General Committee at the Edinburyh Meeting in August 1871. The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the - General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed. Kew Observatory. The Council.—Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Obser- Bopygiory? CMa veri s Bas. 24h ees peel rsee ea eee 300 0 0 Mathematics and Physics. - Cayley, Professor.—Mathematical Tables ................ 50 0 0 *Crossley, Mr.—Discussion of Observations of Lunar Objects.. 20 0 0 *Tait, Professor—Thermal Conductivity of Metals.......... 25 0 0 -*Thomson, Professor Sir W.—Tidal Observations .......... 200 0.0 = Brooke, Min-——brtish Raininile = sss Pee eon eee ee 100 0 0 *Thomson, Sir W.—Underground Temperature ............ 100 0 0 *Glaisher, Mr.—Luminous Meteors ................c0eee- 20.0 0 Huggins, Dr.—Tables of Inverse Wave-lengths .......... 20 0 0 Chemistry. *Williamson, Prof. A. W.—Reports of the Progress of Chemistry 100 . Williamson, Prof. A. W.—Testing Siemens’s new Pyrometer. 30 Gladstone, Dr.—Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils *Browyv, Dr. Crum.—Thermal Equivalent of the Oxides of Chicrine”. eee eee ee ees | es ee, Meena oe oe 15 ey =) o| so" o-oo ole er oo * Reappointed, — SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. Ixxv Geology. : & ss. d. rae TOMWaAN gs a cst sie ee eek Ms ses Sica are « 1020 0 0 *Puncan, Dr.—Fossil Crustacea ...5.:........; Pi ee 25 0 0 *Lyell, Sir C., Bart.—Kent’s Cavern Exploration .......... 100 0 O *Harkness, Professor.—Investigation of Fossil Corals........ 25 0 0O *Busk, Mr.—Fossil Elephants of Malta (renewed) .......... 25 0 0 Harkness, Professor.—Collection of Fossils in the North-west RMON 7, < sx eleecate Get ROKR Ls cer: itaale eee eee 10 0 0 Ramsay, Professor.—Mapping Positions of Erratic Blocks and Re SS PTET ys Ae ee eee 5 cam RES oe manliness LG >'O- a0 Hourly Meteorological Observa- tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8 Fossil Reptiles ......seccsecoserese 118 2 9 Mining Statistics ......s00e0--, 50 0 0 S595, 10 1840. Bristol Tides ........0ce+0s sccoseeeee 100 0 0 Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 Heart Experiments ...ccccssessees 18.19 0 Lungs Experiments ......+++... we 8H13) 10 Tide Discussions ...... pedaenaden oo 00) 10:20 Land and Sea Level .......,...+006 6.11.4 Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0 Stars (Lacaille) ...sec.sceossesssceee 415 0 Stars (Catalogue) ......... Syttoses 264 0 0 Atmospheric Air .......++ ssecorss! MLO, ie BaD Water on Iron ......s0008 deedeetuny 10 0 0 Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0 Meteorological Observations..... se R226 Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... ey Working Population ....++......04. 100 0 9 School Statistics....... easesveceseses 50 0 0 Forms of Vessels ...sccccsssseecees 184 7 0 Chemical and Electrical Pheno- Mena oo... Secerees evsscssecesea oe EOL NO 50 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth 252... cces0 soecssoseee 80 0 O Magnetical Observations ....,.... 185 138 9 £1546 16 4 ee ec a 1841, Observations on Waves...... cesses OO 0 0 Meteorology and Subterranean Temperature ....... setereresereee 8 8 O Actinometers......+++.0. seevecease - 10 0.0 Earthquake Shocks ...,.....s0s00+ Lier 10 Acrid PoIsonsis-snee---cese=e Soe 6 0 0 Veins and Absorbents ..........4. 3.0 «0 Mud in Rivers ....... “paces seosee OO) OO Marine Zoology......+ Seneavcosereus 15428 Skeleton Maps, .<.2-c.s2..t. OLOL 0140 Researches on the Solubility of Dal iSdeviwerscsecerce ca CORREO OO 30 0 0 Researches on the Constituents of Manures... sococonsves 25 0 0 Balance of Captive Balloon Ac- COUNUS, sicccsetescssevsocsecessceses, 0 Ula (6 £1241 7 0 1861. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ...csccseeee 500 0 0 Earthquake Experiments,,....... 25 0 0 Dredging North and East Coasts OLSCOUANG ecscikteessteadinees.ch? (20 2n0INIO Dredging Committee :— 1860 ...... £50 0 0 72 0 0 ESB1 ccive022 addin tA Excavations at Dura Den..... 20 0 0 Solubility of Salts .........ceceeeee. 20 0 0 Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0 Fossils of Lesmahago ......e00cee 15550 40 Explorations at Uriconium ..... = 0) 10, 40, Chemical Alloys ....cccsesecevees 20) 20:20 Classified Index to the Transac- TIQUS uacasecaressisesseessvsncessae 100 0 0 Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 0 0 PDIP MCILClE ress cn gsceasinsctessinceaages 30 0 O Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0 IEMISOUOLACE osccsstectseesenvaseoss we 20 a a0) Gauging of Water.......... devvnnne 10 0 0 Za PING NSCENtStsncteassapeneretsewe One JL Constituents of Manures ......... 2p 0. 0 SLi SS st0 1862. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ............ 500 0 0 RatentWuaWSy. caress esesestes eee 2t 6 0 Mollusca of N.-W. America...... 10 0 0 Natural History by Mercantile MATING areeasacrecaresssteens saaaty Dw or O Tidal Observations ........ cosseme, 000. (0 Photoheliometer at Kew ........ By AOD) 30 Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0 Rocks of Donegal ........0..sce008 25 0 0 Dredging Durham and North- umberland Songeicisescegon cores, 20 0 O Connexion of Storms......... hae 20 0 0 Dredging North-east Coast ‘of Scotland......... sacrecrecsscccssee 6 § _6 Ravages of Teredo .....css0cessse 311 6 Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 0 0 Railway Accidents ............00 10 0 0 Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10570 0 Dredging the Mersey ............ o 0 0 Prison Diet | ceseesdciceeseete nsec 20 0 0 Gauging of Water........sseeee0e 1210 0 25 oR eh Steamships’ Performance......... 150 0 0 Thermo-Electric Currents ...... DOO £1293 16 6 1863. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 0 Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0 Fi NYOZO8 «ic etassswaceanideeceaeherees 25 0 0 Coal TOSsils casissnctsndteeeeee woe cen 20 ORO ELEMRIN 2 Siscipwsisncarsessenceie Aono oc 20 0 0 Granites of Donegal............+5 Peete i (8) Prison Dietsaerea- ees cesescessussne V2 OREO Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13 0 0 Dredging Shetland .,............. 50 0 0 Dredging North-east coast of Scotland (5)... csacosscacaseeeene 25 0 0 Dredging Northumberland and Duran. ci es esecs sneer eee 17 310 Dredging Committee superin- TENGeNce ..ces..-cee. svsetcansess LOL eo Steamship Performance ......... 109 0 0 Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 Carbon under pressure............ LOO 0) Volcanic Temperature ............ 100 0 0 Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 0:40 Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 Construction and distribu- HON... tinacwesecah ate eaBeee 40 0 90 Luminous Meteors ............... 17 0 0 Kew Additional Buildings fer Photoheliograph ......s0...00 100 0 0 Thermo-Llectricity ....... ausahese 15: - Bee Ra Seber’ elo sb out telly Oh temmged mt oo OS ie a tentigran tif ai cieadigyed onto nelbaapary , ie oboe aii Ehurer, tortiaga Yo erslud ob: sites u Abinder rere se ant 9 Ss he Sa c: Sapisicwes dest si dedads nt wie dai ieart Debeeng me, Wer estiypinnt wi isgo id: Saad Se aged ad vee af swe « 1 fen Lodsdinsl aay ipa slong baanaphg hi idee atictegit Lin Ae yagi a : dea tosa thins . dill ant. gctifatovrces vtige: eas tgihory +i pin odd RE. | PEs AP thesia noe wilaloe t oT eid bed re G8: Byiiadoen uyrnd lives wavmATTL. wom: meaty ah, ere aewtieds tieks il eihighines civil wiuiy, Gina ape, PMT TOL gil tiiul) wal AsL:o vpn gate (fh Meat yay ea, visto: Senedd’ gctsicr titted head rota, donend Bh aegendl ihiy ‘aedse pnt tilt: etioweat relate ct Hever sodeod,. cls pte whey ik.“ a tool eidbepdh rialberidsiyodiuen ocach odicdguordt eaten Dy atte } Binet alii so ator lem itify: oF Janae ‘ionyeaee seelieae Li alonera greed Tie -Seatt rinoenton! ie a ote 0h : tae y traky apis ae yin deve ai oni ah SMe shut 7 * re ieaarsest dienlep abt}, idficien. fot Pe iy ind oe Agpartyat wai Ftp’ 6 ssigarie Wik pont andl cersy: Yel wk dead ead “era bng (A ah ding Phir o. 4h wert Late h oa af thaifir. y Tae. wD ohgeries nee crs oral ail ea 2 ay Dlitiaah sete) ett acted ihe or polmen ond a, Aer Ay, nO dsfewa leonnce eis, 0 Ree 2, Solty stab IE doves medi abeardtons ri. wirld) dnd ats) epee a . PRE i? hye “ith nar: i> toad rat mead cro tree 0 4 1s lets (eit! pes ee mag rat aif ins Petinaeaiet( volarage sh, Gal ee i aon sneak Ob Diepenket aniguicnetst Sttomae tail We wading score hott apntivstse beni mec a ‘hegaineca + {cowieobaee oobetbe aulind: apf Remi ites Grea sisal he @ Aheape Méanleyr inva hb ob beer AE: apaettenily ; vena if gl? tele footages Hers TAR» fae ie Jeipoginn’, Tod! Sowa daria ook r Z fet fed wrndert mets: a hemtinsl “ai a Td pptiy ries atest: y cent heepertad aay ult whine) +:4; ile ond sara xi ini ' REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Seventh Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- shire,—the Committee consisting of Sir Cuartus Lyset, Bart., F.R.S., Professor Puiiurres, F.R.S., Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, Grorce Busk, F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., Wittiam AysHFrorpD SanrorD, F.G.S., and Witu1amM Pencetty, F.R.S. (Reporter). Dvcrine the year which has elapsed since the Sixth Report was sent in (Liverpool, 1870), the Committee have without intermission carried on their researches, and have strictly followed the mode of working with which the exploration was commenced in 1865. The Superintendents have con- tinued to visit the Cavern, and to record the results daily; they have, as from the beginning, sent Monthly Reports to the Chairman of the Com- mittee ; the work has been carried on by the same workmen, George Smerdon and John Farr, who have discharged their duties in a most efficient and satisfactory manner; and the Cavern is as much resorted to as ever by visitors feeling an interest in the researches. In June 1871, Mr. Busk, a Member of the Committee, spent some time at Torquay, when he visited the Cavern accompanied by the Superintendents, who took him through all its branches, explored and unexplored. Having carefully watched the progress of the work, and made himself familiar with all its details, he spent some time at the Secretary’s residence, examining and identifying a portion of the mammalian remains which had been disinterred. In November 1870 the Superintendents had also the pleasure of going through the cavern with Mr. W. Morrison, M.P., who takes so active an interest in the exploration of the caves near Settle in Yorkshire. Besides the foregoing, and exclusive of the large number attended by the guide appointed by the proprietor, Sir L. Palk, Bart., M.P., the Cavern has been visited during the year by the Earl and Countess Russell, Sir R. Sin- elair, Bart., Sir C. Trevelyan, Mr. C. Gilpin, M.P., Governor Wayland, U.S., Colonel Ward, Major Bryce, U.S., Rev. Mr. Dickenson, Rev. E. N. Dumble- ton, Rey. J. P. Foster, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Dr. Ashford, Dr. Tate, and es S. Bate, R. Bellasis, L. Bowring, W. R. A. Boyle, W. Bridges, 1871. B o REPORT—1871. C. Busk, A. Champernowne, Channing, Chaplin, F. A. Fellows, T. Fox, T. Glaisher, J. Harrison, Howard, W. Jones, C. Pannel, Richie, W. Spriggs, KE. B. Tawney, G. H. Wollaston, and many others. Smerdon’s Passage—The Committee stated in their last Report that, in excavating the “North Sally-port,’” they had been led to a third External En- trance to the Cavern, in the same limestone cliff as the two Entrances known from time immemorial, but at a considerably lower level, where it was com- pletely buried in a great talus of débris. After adding that it had not been thought necessary, or desirable, or even safe to dig through the talus to the open day, they stated the facts which left no doubt of their having pene- trated to the outside of the Cavern. During the winter of 1870-71, the question of the existence of the third Entrance was put beyond all doubt; for, after a considerable rainfall, that portion of the talus which the workmen had undermined fell in, and thereby laid open the Entrance. This cavity was at once filled up, in order to prevent any one from intruding into the Cavern. It was also stated last year that the new or low-level opening was the External Entrance not only of the North Sally-port, but of another and unsuspected branch of the Cavern, to which had been given the name of «“Smerdon’s Passage,” the exploration of which had been begun. This Passage was found to consist of two Reaches, the first, or outermost, being about 25 feet long, from 3 to 10 feet wide, and having a northerly direction. Near its entrance, or southern end, there are in the roof a few circular holes, from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, apparently the mouths of tortuous shafts extending for some distance into, or perhaps through, the limestone rock, The roof itself and the adjacent portions of the wall bear traces of the long-continued erosive action of running water, but below the uppermost 12 or 18 inches the walls have many sharp angular inequa- lities. Further in, the roof has an irregular fretted aspect, apparently the result of the corrosive action of acidulated water, whilst the walls retain the angular appearance just mentioned. The Second Reach runs nearly east and west, is about 32 feet long, some- what wider than the first, and its roof is several feet higher. At its outer or eastern end the roof and walls are much fretted; further in, there are holes in the roof similar to those just mentioned, with the exception of being larger. Some of them contain a small quantity of soil, resembling Caye-earth, and firmly cemented to the wall; whilst adjacent to others there is a considerable amount of stalactitic matter. Still further in, the roof, which has the aspect of a watercourse, is covered with a thin veneer of white stalactite; and near the inner end there is a considerable hole in the roof containing a large accumulation of the same material. At the western or inner end of this Second Reach, the limestone roof gave place to one consisting of angular pieces of limestone cemented with carbo- nate of lime into a very firm concrete. In breaking this up, the workman thrust his iron bar up through it, and found he had thereby opened a pas- sage into the easfern end of that branch of the Cavern known as the “Sloping Chamber,” the concrete floor of which was at the same time the roof of the Passage. At the outer or eastern end of the Second Reach there was found another Low-level Entrance, about 20 feet from that previously mentioned, and having no marks of the action of water. Narrow ramifications extend through the limestone rock from both Reaches of Smerdon’s Passage (westward from the first, and southwards. from the ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 3 second) and intersect one another; their roofs are also perforated with holes, and exhibit traces of the action of running water, Throughout both Reaches there were in certain places strips of Stalag- mitic Floor extending continuously across from wall to wall, and varying from a quarter of an inch to 6 inches in thickness. The most important of these strips was about 8 feet long. Elsewhere the Cave-earth was either completely bare, or had on it here and there what may be called conical scales of stalagmite, from 3 to 12 inches in diameter at the base, and from 1 to 4 inches in thickness at the centre. From them, and generally near the middle, there not unfrequently rose one or more rudely cylindrical masses of the same material, sometimes 9 inches high, 6 inches in circum- ference, and locally known as ‘“ Cow’s Paps.” In almost every instance of the kind there depended from the limestone roof, vertically over them, a long, slender, quill-like tube of stalactite, occasionally reaching and uniting with the “Paps.” Such tubes occurred also in certain places where there were no “ Paps,” and in some spots there was quite a forest of them, ex- tending from the roof to the Stalagmitic Floor. Wherever it was possible to excavate the deposit beneath without breaking them, they were left intact. In some cases the Stalagmitic Floor, or the Cave-earth where the latter was bare, reached the roof; and where this was not the case, the unoc- eupied space was rarely more than a foot in height. About midway in the Second Reach there was on each wall a remnant of an old floor of stalagmite, about 8 inches above the floor found intact, fully 6 inches thick, about 6 feet in length, and within a few inches of the roof, The mechanical deposit in the Passage was the ordinary red Cave-earth, in some places sandy, but occasionally avery compactclay. It contained a considerable number of angular fragments of limestone, numerous blocks of old crystalline stalagmite, and a few well-rolled pebbles of quartz, red grit, and flint. The masses of limestone were not unfrequently of considerable size; indeed one of them required to be blasted twice, and another three times, in order to effect their removal; and some of the blocks of stalagmite measured fully 15 cubic feet. From the entrance of the First Reach to about 10 feet within it, the upper surface of the Cave-earth was almost perfectly horizontal; but from the latter point it rose irregularly higher and higher, until, at the inner end of the Second Reach, the increased height amounted to about 9 feet. There were no tunnels or burrows in the deposit, such as occurred in both the Sally-ports, and were described in the Fifth and Sixth Reports (1869 and 1870). Near the inner end of the Second Reach the Caye-earth adjacent to the walls was cemented into a concrete. The deposit in the lateral ramifications of the Passage was the same typi- cal Cave-earth, containing blocks of old crystalline stalagmite and angular pieces of limestone, but without any Stalagmitie Floor. It was stated in the Sixth Report (1870), p. 26, that at the third External Entrance, 2. ¢. the first of the low-level series, the deposits were of two kinds—the ordinary Cave-earth, with the usual osseous remains, below; and small angular pieces of limestone, with but little earth and no fossils, above. Materials of precisely the same character, and in the same order, were found at the new low-level Entrance, at the eastern end of the Second Reach of Smerdon’s Passage, as already stated. Besides a large number of bones, portions of bones, and fragments of antlers, a total of fully 2900 teeth were found in the Passage andits rami- B2 A REPORT—1871. fications, of which 700 were reported at Liverpool*. The remaining 2200, exhumed since the end of August 1870, belonged to different kinds of animals, in the ratios shown in the following list :— Ayena i. 666s. 335 per thousand. | Bear 2.4..5..%. 18 per thousand. Horse IE PP. 295 5 Oa are a ac 12 A Rhinoceros .... 161 a Ton, #2520 RAS on by “Trish Elk”.... 55 55 Reindeer ...... 5 M Ome Cie ren 2a 35 Z, Wolf “7. 24 eya 4 z Meer!) LPF I4 27 4 ar) as 2 Badger)! 22 “5 Rabbit ¢ View A 1 Pe Elephant ...... 20 + Dog (?) .. less than 1 E On comparing the foregoing list with those given for the Sally-ports in the Sixth Report (pp. 19 and 24), it will be found to differ from them in containing neither Sheep nor Pig, and in the diminished prevalence of Rabbit and Badger. Many of the teeth are in fragments of jaws, which have, in most cases, lost their condyles and their inferior borders. They belong to individuals of all ages, from the baby Elephant, whose molar crown was no more than ‘8 inch long, and the Hyzna, whose second set had made their appearance before the dislodgement of the first, to the wasted remnant of an adult tooth of the Mammoth, and the canine of the Bear worn quite to the fang. Many of the bones and teeth are discoloured, a large number are gnawed (generally, no doubt, by the Hyzena, but occasionally by some smaller animal), and a considerable proportion of them, at all levels, are more or less covered with films of stalagmitic matter. On some of the specimens are peculiar markings, produced perhaps by fine rootlets of trees having grown round them. Some marked in this way were found with living rootlets surround- ing them. Coprolitic matter was by no means abundant, only one example of it having been met with in the entire Passage. In various parts of the Passage considerable heaps of small bones, some- times agglutinated, were found here and there on the surface, or but little below it. In one instance as many as 8400 were picked out of 120 cubic inches of material. At the junction of the two Reaches of the Passage, a large ledge or cur- tain of limestone projected downwards from the roof considerably below the usual level. On the inner or northern side of it there was found a wheel- barrow full of bones, fragments of bones, and teeth, of a considerable variety of animals, all huddled together. It was stated in the First Report (Birmingham, 1865+) that the Cayve- earth was excavated in “ Parallels,” the length of which was thesame as the width of the Chamber &c., where this was not excessive, breadth in- variably 1 foot, and depth 4 feet, where this gave the men sufficient height to work in comfort, or 5 feet where it did not; that each parallel was divided into successive horizontal “ Levels,” a foot in depth ; and that each level was subdivided into lengths or “ Yards,” each 3 feet long and, from what has been stated, a foot square in the section, thus rendering it easy to define and record the position of every object discovered. Smerdon’s Passage and its lateral branches contained 78 “Parallels” of * See Sixth Report, 1870, p. 27. t See pp. 19, 20. _ —— ed ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 5 Cave-earth, and, as it was necessary to excavate to the depth of 5 feet*, a total of 390 separate “ foot-levels.”” The following Table shows the distri- bution of the teeth of the different kinds of animals in the various “ Paral- lels” and “ Levels.” | _|# Bi 3S : 2 H 4 3) oe] q g So | F o | 4 : . | os 2 7S la. aol ea loset all meces x | © 1S.) 3 mel ich Wtete lai leet = BS ot | u : o rs 2 oS 4 .S I Oo |+/-Q} 40 Hitia@ lr |/é6/Als@lelalaelslie/e eligea Sreiloles es: 71| 68| 60| 29 | 43/23/14] 27) 99/14/11} 11| 9 \1lels icc ..... aa 44092 16 }-16) oF IL |e | @l mie, bei ioe aaa Bal | 49/11/23) 7| 2) 1 ot or at Pees len > 43| 37| 83/16/13} 7| 2] 9/10] 4] 6] 4] 4/0 Ile mike... 98} 922} 9/13] 7/...1 51 5| 4/ 21 5/3 RRB icy cao, FON AERO IO eve Goh Bila WasBiles 4ahe Behucde by Bok ae Total Levels ...|188|176/139| 49 | 71 | 33 | 15 | 40 | 34 | 18 | 13 | 14 | 10 /1l2l3 By way of explanation, it may be stated that teeth of Hyzna, for exam- ple, were found in 71 of the 78 “parallels,” at all “levels,” and in 188 *‘ foot-levels,” or very nearly one half of the total number ; and,so on for the other kinds of animals. A glance at the Table shows that, in the case of the most prevalent animals—Hyzena, Horse, and Rhinoceros—their teeth were most frequently met with (not necessarily met with in greatest numbers) in the second “ foot-level,” below which they were less and less frequent as the level was lower ; that the Badger was most frequently met with in the uppermost *< foot-level,” and never found below the third; that teeth of Lion were not found in the uppermost “level,” and occurred most frequently in the third; that those of Wolf did not present themselves in the lowest or fifth “ foot- level; ” that Bat and Rabbit were restricted to the uppermost “ level,” the former to one “parallel” and the latter to two; and that the Hyena had the widest distribution, both as regards “ parallels” and “levels.” Twelve Flint flakes and chips were found in the Second Reach of the Passage—=3 in the first or uppermost “ foot-level,”’ 3 in the second, 3 in the third, and 4 in the fourth; there were none in the First Reach, or in the lateral branches. Compared with the fine specimens met with in previous years in other parts of the Cavern, they are perhaps of but little value. Some of them are rather chert than flint, and with one exception (No. 3554) —a well-designed but roughly finished lanceolate implement—they are all of the prevalent white colour. In the Second Reach there was also found a lance-shaped bone tool _ (No, 3428), 2-7 inches long, 1-1 inch broad at the butt end, flat on one face and uniformly convex on the other, reduced to a thin edge all round the margin except at the butt end, where it was cut off sharply but somewhat obliquely, tapering gradually to a rounded point, and -4 inch in greatest thickness. In short, it closely resembled in form and size many of the lanceolate flint im- plements of the Cavern series, with the single exception that it was not cari- nated on the convex face. It was found on October 5th, 1870, in the first “foot-level” of Cave-earth, lying with 6 teeth of Hyzna, 1 of Rhinoceros, _ * In two or three “ Parallels” it was requisite to go to the depth of 6 feet, in order to pass under the “Curtain” of limestone mentioned above. 6 REPORT—1871. 1 of Bear, 1 of Horse, 1 of “ Irish Elk,” 2 jaws of Badger containing four teeth, bones and fragments of bone, some of which were gnawed and some invested with films of stalagmite. It has been already stated that at its eastern extremity the Second Reach of Smerdon’s Passage terminated in a “ low-level”? External Entrance, filled with true Cave-earth below, above which lay an accumulation of small an- gular stones with but little earth. In the lower deposit the ordinary mam- malian remains were found, including teeth and bones of Hyzna, Horse, Rhinoceros, “ Irish Elk,” Ox, Elephant, Bear, and Reindeer; but the only thing met with in the materials above was an amber bead, ellipsoidal in form, but somewhat thicker on one side than the other, -9 inch in greatest dia- meter and ‘5 inch in least, and haying at its centre a cylindrical perforation about *2 inch in diameter. The excavation of Smerdon’s Passage was completed on December 31st, 1870, after very nearly five months having been expended on it. From its prevalent narrowness, the labour in it had been attended with much dis- comfort ; but probably no branch of the Cavern had, on the whole, yielded a larger number of mammalian remains. Minor Ramifications of the North Sally-port.—It was stated in the Sixth Report (1870)*, that there were one or two ramifications of the North Sally- port which had not been excavated, having been passed intentionally in the progress of the work. To these attention was given on the completion of Smerdon’s Passage, and they were taken in the order of their proximity to the “‘ Third External Entrance,’’—the first discovered of the low-level series. The first was a small opening in the east wall of the last Reach of the North Sally-port, having its limestone floor very slightly above the top of the deposit in that Reach. It proved to be a tunnel in the limestone, having a rudely triangular transverse section, from 2°5 to 3 feet in height and breadth, and extending eastwards or outwards towards the hill-side for about 8 feet, where it terminated in material of the same character as that found above the Cave-earth in the first and second low-level External En- trances, from the first of which it was about 12 feet distant. There is no doubt that it is a third of these low-level Entrances, and, to use the time- honoured phraseology in descriptions of Kent’s Hole, it may be termed the “Oven” Entrance. It contained but little deposit, and the only noteworthy objects found in it were one tooth of Horse, a few bones and bone fragments, and a grit pebble. The second of these small lateral branches was in the south wall of the immediately preceding or penultimate Reach of the Sally-port, and was too narrow to admit of being excavated in “ Parallels” and “ Levels.” In it were found 7 teeth of Hyzna, 10 of Horse, 3 of Rhinoceros, 1 of Bear, 1 of Lion, 1 of “ Irish Elk,” 1 of Ox, 16 of Badger in parts of 4 jaws, 10 of Rabbit in parts of 2 jaws, portion of an antler, a right femur of Beaver, bones and fragments of bone, a bit of charcoal, and a grit pebble. It is noteworthy, perhaps, that the fine specimen of Beayer’s jaw meutioned last yeart was found about 4 or 5 feet from the femur just named, and in the fourth “ foot-level.” The third and last of these lateral ramifications was near that part of the Sally-port termed the “Isiands”t. It yielded 2 teeth of Hyena, 1 of Horse, 3 of Rhinoceros, 1 of Bear, 3 of “ Irish Elk,” 4 of Deer, 2 of Badger, 4 of Rabbit, an astragalus of Ox, bones and bone fragments, and, in the uppermost ‘‘ foot-level,” 2 land-shells, * See p. 25. t See Sixth Report, 1870, p. 24. t Ibid. p. 21. ————? ae —— oe ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 7 - On January 17th, 1871, the workmen finally and gladly emerged from the labyrinth of low narrow passages in which they had been engaged from day to day from November 13th, 1869, or upwards of 14 months. In this time they had not only excavated and taken to the day the deposits, to the depth of 5 feet, in all the extensive and ramifying branches known as the North Sally-port and Smerdon’s Passage, and exhumed eartloads of the remains of various animals, including 5900 of their teeth, as well as 20 flint implements and flakes, but, beyond the first Reach of the Sally-port (27 feet long), they had actually discovered the whole of these branches, including three new entrances to the Cavern itself, and had thus added greatly, not only to the extent of Kent’s Hole, but to a knowledge of its structure. The completion of these branches concluded the excavation, to the depth of 4 feet generally, and 5 feet in some instances, below the Stalagmitic Floor, of the whole of the Eastern Division of the Cavern. The Cavern Entrances.—Before proceeding to a description of the branch which next engaged attention, it may be of service to devote a few words to the Entrances of the Cavern, of which there are now known to be five (two at a high and three at a low level), all in the eastern side of the hill, and within a horizontal distance of 53 feet. Those at the high-level (known from time immemorial) are about 53 feet apart, almost exactly on the same level, and about 189 feet above mean tide. The most northerly of them is that invariably spoken of in all early descriptions of the Cavern as “ The Entrance.” Those of the lower series are also at very nearly the same level with one another, but from 18 to 20 feet below the former two. Being lower in the sloping hill-side, they are about 24 feet outside or east of the vertical plane passing through the higher entrances. The most southerly ones in the two series are nearly in the same east and west vertical plane. In order to distinguish them, they are respectively termed :— _ 1. **The Entrance,’’=the more northerly of the upper series, and, from its form, sometimes termed the “Triangular Entrance.” It opens into the “ Vestibule.” 2. The “ Arched Entrance,”=the more southerly of the upper series. It opens into the ‘* Great Chamber.” 3. The “ First Low-level Entrance,”=the middle one of the lower series— the first discovered. It opens into the “ North Sally-port” and the “ First Reach of Smerdon’s Passage.” 4, The “ Second Low-level Entrance,”=the most northerly of the lower series—the second discovered. It opens into the “‘ Second Reach of Smerdon’s Passage.” 5. The “Oven Entrance,”=the most southerly of the lower series—the last discovered. It opens into the “ North Sally-port.” The Sloping Chamber.—That branch of the Cavern termed the “ Sloping Chamber” by Mr. M‘Enery was, prior to the Committee’s exploration of the “ Great Chamber,” the largest apartment in it, and is still, perhaps, more ealeulated than any other to impress visitors. It is the only connexion of the two great divisions of the Cavern, and measures 80 feet from east to west, 25 in greatest breadth, and, since the excavation of its deposits to the depth of 4 feet below the base of the Stalagmitic Floor, 25 in greatest height. Its name was derived from its floor, which, from 20 feet from its eastern side, sloped rapidly towards its western side, falling as much as 14 feet in 60, or at an average angle of 13°-5. Its ceiling sloped more rapidly still, being, as already stated, 25 feet high near the eastern wall, but not more than 6 feet at the western. This ceiling, though representing the 8 REPORT—1871. dip of the limestone strata in a general way, is extremely rugged,—here re- treating into deep cavities whence huge masses of limestone have fallen, and there ornamented with numerous and heavy masses of Stalactite. Indeed the finest Stalactites in the Cavern occur in it ; and one known as the “‘ Chan- delier” has always been much admired. A very strong light is required, however, to bring out all the features of the ceiling. During the autumn of 1866, the upper, or eastern, or level portion of this Chamber was explored, and the results were described in the Third Report (Dundee, 1867). Mr. M‘Enery, too, had made extensive, no doubt his most extensive, diggings near the foot of the incline, where he “ succeeded in sink- ing a shaft to the depth of 30 feet at the bottom of the slope, with the view of reaching the original floor ”*, which, however, was not realized. Having broken the floor for his shaft, and finding the work very laborious, he availed himself of the opening thus made to extend his diggings eastward, keeping just beneath the floor, which he left spanning his broken ground like an arch, As it was obvious that a very considerable amount of deposit still remained intact, it was decided, on the completion of Smerdon’s Passage, to resume the excavation, not only in the hope of obtaining some of the paleontological treasures with which, according to Mr. M‘Enery, the Chamber abounded, but also as a pre-requisite to the exploration of the “ Wolf’s Den” and the “ Long Arcade,” into which it opened on the north and south respectively. The uppermost deposit, as in the adjacent parts of the Cavern, was the Black Mould so frequently mentioned in all previous Reports; and as the Chamber was the only capacious apartment near the Entrance, and the only road to the Western Division of the Cavern, which, from some cause, seems to have been more attractive than the Eastern to visitors in, at least, all recent times}, it might have been expected that many comparatively modern objects of interest would have been found in the Mould. In reality,how- ever, such objects were by no means abundant—a fact which may be ex- plicable, perhaps, on the hypothesis that they had been collected by Mr. M‘Enery and other early explorers. The only things found in this deposit (which, it may be stated, was of inconsiderable depth) were shells of cockle, limpet, and pecten ; two potsherds—one black and of coarse clay, the other brown, in which the clay was finer; a flint chip and a core of the same ma- terial ; a spindle-whorl of fine-grained micaceous grit, 1°5 inch in diameter, ‘5 inch in thickness, and having its external edges rounded off; and a bone awl, 3:7 inches long, ‘7 inch broad at the butt end, and partially covered with a film of stalagmite. Beneath the Black Mould came the ordinary floor of granular and lami- nated stalagmite, in which, as well as in the deposit beneath, the rugged character of the ceiling suggested that a considerable number of large masses of limestone would be found. Their presence in the floor, moreover, was indicated by the nature of its upper surface, which, though a continuous sheet, with one exception to be noticed hereafter, was so very uneven as to induce an early guide to the Cavern to confer on it the appellation of the ‘“ Frozen Billows.” Accordingly, the Floor proved to be, with an excep- * See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 248 (1869). t The following fact seems to be confirmatory on this point:—There are in the various branches of the Western Division (sometimes in places of difficult access) numerous initials and dates on the limestone walls and on bosses of stalagmite—some engraved, some smoked, and some merely chalked—while there are extremely few in the Eastern Division, ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 9 tion here and there, a brecciated mass composed of large and small pieces of limestone and blocks of the well-known old crystalline stalagmite, all ce- mented together and covered with a sheet of the cementing material. Near the upper part of the slope, and on its southern margin, a space about 14 feet long and varying from 3 to 12 feet broad was without any trace of floor, but occupied with large loose pieces of limestone. Elsewhere the sheet was perfectly continuous until reaching the area in which Mr. M‘Enery had dug his shaft. The Floor commonly measured from 12 to 30 inches in thick- ness, but adjacent to the southern wall it was fully 3 feet, and contained few or no stones. On being broken into small pieces and carefully examined, it was found to contain 2 teeth of Horse, a portion of a jaw, 2 bones, and half of a frac- tured flint nodule. About 30 feet down the slope, a series of dark parallel lines were observed in the Floor, the uppermost being about 2 inches below the upper surface. On the advance of the work, they proved to be continuous downward, and to have a greater and greater thickness of stalagmite over them. On careful examination, it was found that each represented what for a time had been the upper surface of the Stalagmitic Floor of the Chamber, and was due to the presence of comminuted charcoal and other dark-coloured extraneous matter. Such a “charcoal streak” also occurred, according to Mr. M‘Enery, in the “ Long Arcade,” within a few feet of the same spot*. The workmen were directed to detach a specimen of the Floor where the streaks were well displayed, and in doing so were so fortunate as to make their fracture at a place where a large cockle-shell lay firmly imbedded in the lowest streak, at a depth of about 8 inches below the surface. Whilst splitting up the Stalagmite on May 16th, 1871, two specimens of well-marked fern-impressions were found in it, about 3 inches below the surface, Nothing of the kind had ever been noticed before. Below the Stalagmite, as usual, lay the Cave-earth, in which, as was an- ticipated, pieces of limestone were unusually abundant. Some of them ~ieasured several feet in length and breadth, and were fully 2 feet thick. There were also numerous blocks of the old crystalline stalagmite, measuring in some instances upwards of 4 cubic yards, and not unfrequently projecting from the Cave-earth into the overlying granular floor. Though they were carefully broken up, nothing was found in them. In that portion of the Cave-earth which was found intact, there occurred, as usual, remains of the ordinary Cave-mammals, including about 550 teeth, which may be apportioned as in the following list :— Meeeenia....... 25... 39 per cent. | Reindeer.......... 2 per cent. lig 1) See 285 ap Osere ta. ie arte eisions 2 BS Rhinoceros ........ 14 ¥ Hlephant.. ..ccee sO . MM st. ee eee 4 “*s Wrage Ae foe st st ce i Fe men Blk” ...... ee leah INEGI tess atk) ahs s Sore 1 A _ ASS aoe tons Dog (?) only one tooth. It is, perhaps, worthy of remark that though wild animals still frequent Kent’s Hole, and there is reason to believe that some of them have in recent times carried in the bones of others on which they preyed, though the Sloping Chamber is near and between the two high-level Entrances, though the Floor was broken up and thus gave the readiest access to the Cave-earth, and though Mr. M‘Enery discontinued his labours upwards of 40 years ago, of which more than 30 were years of quietude in the Cavern, there is in the * See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. pp. 236, 261, 262 (1869), 10 . REPORT—1871.. foregoing list not only neither Sheep nor Pig, but neither Badger, Rabbit, Hare, nor Vole, all of which have been found in other branches, in deposits accessible to burrowing animals. In the Cave-earth there were also found 52 flint implements, flakes, and chips,—-3 of them in the first or uppermost foot-level, 16 im the second, 15 in the third, and 18 in the fourth or lowest. Though none of them are equal to the best the Cavern has yielded in previous years, there are some good lanceolate implements amongst them. No. 3693 is of light brown translucent flint, 1-85 inch in length, *9 inch in greatest breadth, -175 inch in greatest thickness, nearly flat on one side, and carinated on the other. It was found with a few bones in the first foot- level, amongst loose stones, where there was no Stalagmitic Floor over it; hence it may be doubted whether it belongs to the Paleolithic series—a doubt strengthened by the modern aspect of the implement. No. 3754, of the usual white flint, is 4-2 inches long, -9 inch in greatest breadth, -3 inch in-greatest thickness, both longitudinally and transversely concave on one side, has a medial ridge on the other, from which, at about an inch from one end, a second ridge proceeds, and has a thin but uneven edge. It was probably pointed at each end, but has unfortunately been broken at one of them. It was found on March the 6th, 1871, in the second foot-level, with splinters of bone, beneath a Stalagmitic Floor 18 inches thick. No. 5430, also of white flint, as somewhat irregular in form, but 1 may be termed rudely lanceolate; it is 2°7 inches in length, 1°5 inch in extreme breadth, -3 inch in greatest thickness, slightly concave on one face and ir- regularly convex on the other. It was found on March 30th, 1871, with 2 teeth of Horse, 1 of Hyzena, and fragments of bone, in the second “ foot- level,” without any Stalagmitic Floor over it. No. 3732, a whitish flint, is 2°3 inches long, 1-1 inch in breadth, which is nearly uniform from end to end, slightly concave on one face, convex on the other, on which there are three slight, parallel, longitudinal , ridges, sharply truncated at both ends, but primarily thin at the sides. It was found on February 27th, 1871, in the third “ foot-level,” with a tooth of Hyena and fragments of bone, without any Stalagmitic Floor over it. No. 5435, a slightly mottled white flint, is 2-1 inches long, 1-1 inch broad, ‘4 inch in greatest thickness, flat on one face, strongly ridged on the other, abruptly truncated at one end, but thin everywhere else; and retains its width almost to the opposite end, which is bluntly rounded. It was found on 31st March, 1871, with a portion of Deer’s jaw and fragments of bone, in the third “ foot-level,” beneath a Stalagmitic Floor, 2 feet thick. No. 3687, a mottled flint with white prevailing, is 2°6 inches long, 1-2 inch in greatest breadth, -3 inch in greatest thickness, broadest near the middle, whence it tapers in both directions, somewhat pointed at one end but not at the other, nearly flat on one face and convex on the other, on which there are two ridges—one subcentral and the other nearly marginal. It was found on February 7th, 1871, in the fourth or lowest foot-level, with 1 tooth of Horse, 1 of Hyena, and a fragment of bone, without any Stalag- mitic Floor over it. No. 5475 so closely resembles No. 3732, mentioned above, as to need no further description. It was found February 27th, 1871, with 1 tooth of Hyena and fragments of bone, in the fourth “ foot-level,” but had no Stalagmitie Floor over it. In this connexion may be mentioned a piece of calcareous spar, which ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. il appears to have been tised as a polishing-stone. It was found March 8th, 1871, with 2 teeth of Hyena, 2 of Horse, 3 of Rhinoceros, gnawed bones, and a flint flake, in the fourth “ foot-level,’’ having over it a Stalagmitic Floor 18 inches thick. No such specimen had been noticed before. A piece of burnt bone was found on the 22nd of the same month, with fragments of bone and fxcal matter, in the second “ foot-level,” having a Stalagmitic Floor over it. Mr. M‘Enery appears to have excavated beyond the limits of his shaft, not only in an easterly direction, as has been already stated, but also, at least, north and south of it. So far as can be determined, the shaft was first sunk, and the material taken out lodged between it and the western wall of the Chamber, after which he undertook what may be called the adjacent hori- zontal diggings, and filled up the shaft with a portion of the excavated matter, thereby rendering it impossible to determine the exact site of the shaft itself, He does not appear to have taken outside the Cavern any portion of the deposit in order to ensure its more complete examination; hence it is not probable that all its contents were detected. Indeed, when speaking of his researches in this Chamber, he says, “ It was feared that in the ardour of the first search, facts of importance might have been overlooked. The mass of mould thrown up on the former occasion was therefore a second time turned over and care- fully searched, but nothing new was brought to light ’’*. This mass the Superintendents decided on taking out of the Cavern, partly to facilitate the excavation of deposits certainly intact beyond, and also because it was thought likely to be lodged on unbroken ground. Though there seemed but little prospect of finding any thing by subjecting it to a third search, such a search was nevertheless made, and did not go unre- warded. The heap, though mainly of Cave-earth, included fragments of the granular Stalagmitic Floor and portions of the Black Mould, and yielded hundreds of bones and portions of bones (one having an artificial hole lined with stalagmitic matter), fragments of antlers, the largest fragment of an Ele- phant’s tusk that the Committee have met with, 143 teeth of Hyzena, 153 of Horse, 45 of Rhinoceros, 27 of Deer, including “ Irish Elk ” and Reindeer, 6 of Bear, 5 of Ox, 5 of Sheep, 3 of Elephant, 3 of Wolf, 3 of Dog (?), 2 of Fox, 2 of Pig, and 1 of Lion, a few marine shells, several fragments of black pot- tery, 4 pieces of stalagmite with fern-impressions, and 13 flint implements and flakes,—all, with one exception, of the prevalent white colour, and two of them decidedly good specimens of the strongly ridged lanceolate forms. In short, the virgin soil, in some parts of the Cavern, has been less pro- ductive than was this mass which had been twice carefully searched, but by eandle-light only. As was thought probable, the mass of dislodged materials proved to be lying on ground which had never been broken. Between Mr. M‘Enery’s shaft and the west wall of the Chamber there was a space of at least 17 feet; and at 14 fect from the wall the Cave-earth was found to have not only the ordinary granular Stalagmitic Floor overlying it, but to be de- posited on another and necessarily an older Floor of the same material, but which, instead of being granular, was made up of prismatic crystals—posses+ sing, in short, the characters both of position and structure of the Old Crys- talline Floor found in the “ Lecture Hall” and “ South-west Chamber,” and described in the Fourth Report (Norwich, 1868),—a remnant, in situ, of the Floor which had furnished the large blocks of stalagmite found in the Cave-~ * See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol, iii. p. 289 (1869). 12 REPORT—1871. earth in the Sloping Chamber, as already stated. From the point where it was first seen, it was everywhere continuous up to the western wall. Its thickness has not been ascertained; for though it was partially broken up in cutting the four-feet section, the bottom of it was not reached. No objects of any kind were found in it. Had Mr. M‘Enery’s excavations been carried but a yard further west he must have encountered it, and would have been enabled to solve the problem of the blocks which he so often found in the Cave- earth, The Committee are most anxious to guard against the impression that, in any of the foregoing remarks, they have been unmindful of the service which Mr. M‘Enery rendered to science, or have the most remote wish to depre- ciate the value of his long-continued labours. Indeed, when they remember that the means at his disposal must have been very limited, and that he was amongst the pioneers in cavern searching, they cannot but feel that the extent and results of his investigations are richly entitled to the warmest praise. They venture, however, to take this opportunity of stating that, in order to a thorough and satisfactory investigation, cavern-deposits should be ex- cavated, not by sinking occasional shafts, but continuously in a horizontal direc- tion, to a uniform depth not exceeding 5 or at most 6 feet at first; that the material should be carefully examined in situ, and then taken to day- light for re-examination. Through not following the first, Mr. M‘Enery failed to understand the exact historical order of the Cavern-deposits ; and through not being able to accomplish the second, he passed over many speci- mens calculated to have modified his conclusions, and which he would have been delighted to have found. For example, when speaking of the Sloping Chamber, he says, “ The [Stalagmitic] crust is thickest in the middle... . for opening the excavation, the same means were employed as to break up a mass of ancient masonry. Flint blades were detected in it at all depths, even so low as to come in contact with the fossil bones and their earthy matrix, but never below them” *. During the last six months, however, the ex- cayations made in the same Chamber, and in the immediate neighbourhood of his, have brought forth Flint implements from every level of the Cave-earth to which the work has been carried, and they were actually found in greatest numbers in the lowest levels. To this may be added the fact that in his heap of refuse-matter, which he had twice examined, there were, as has been already said, upwards of a dozen flint blades, such as he stated never occurred 7m the Cave-earth. Had the soil been examined in daylight, they could not have been overlooked; for, instead of being specimens of little value, they are better far than some of those which he figured ; and it is but right to add that many of those found by the Committee were thus detected. Again, Mr. M‘Enery was keenly watchful for extraneous objects in the Stalagmitic Floor; and, from his silence on the question, it may be safely concluded that he never saw fern-impressions in it; nevertheless his refuse- heap contained four small slabs of the floor, in each of which was a well-marked impression, requiring not additional manipulation, but simple daylight for their detection. Indeed every specimen of this kind has been recognized outside the Cavern only. The four slabs just mentioned, as well as the two found by the Committee in the Floor they broke up, have been submitted to Mr. W. Carruthers, * See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 247 (1869). ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. lo F.R.S8., of the British Museum, who has kindly furnished the following note respecting them :— “ British Museum, 10 July, 1871. “ The ferns are specimens of Pteris aquilina, Linn., and have belonged to very luxuriant plants; they do not differ from those now growing in Eng- land. It is possible that the fragment ;,, may be another species, but it is too imperfect to determine, and it may only be a barren portion of the Pteris, with shorter and broader pinnules than the other specimens. (Signed) « Wa. CARRUTHERS.” Returning for a moment to the Old Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor beneath the Cave-earth, it was observed that, like the modern and granular one, it had here and there on its upper surface conical bosses rising above its gene- ral level, and that there were corresponding protuberances vertically above them on the upper floor. The same fact had been noticed in the other branches of the Cavern where the two Floors occurred in the same vertical sections,—a fact apparently warranting the conclusion that the drainage through the Cayern-roof underwent no important change during the entire period represented by the two floors and the intervening Cave-earth. When to this it is added that such bosses are, at least in most cases, verti- cally beneath Stalactitic pendants on the ceiling, it may be further inferred that the ancient and modern lines of drainage are, in the main, identical. On the completion of the work in the Sloping Chamber, on July 11, 1871, the excavation of the “‘ Wolf’s Den,” which opens out of its northern side, was begun. It was in this Den that Mr. M‘Enery found the canines of Machairodus latidens, which have excited so much attention. No such specimens haye been met with during the present investigation up to this time. The Committee, believing it possible that the subject might prove to be ‘connected with their researches, have from time to time mentioned the -occasional occurrence of living animals in the Cavern*. Indeed, Kent’s Hole is not better known to the paleontologist as a store-house of mamma- Jian remains, than to the Devonshire naturalist as a home of the Great Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum, Leach) ; and every visitor, be- fore the present exploration, must have frequently seen them hanging from the walls of the more retired branches. The following facts have presented themselves during the last twelve months :— Whilst the excavation of one of the lateral branches of Smerdon’s Passage was in progress, a considerable number of fresh spindle-shaped feeces, about *6 inch long and -2 inch thick, were observed lying on the surface of the Cave-earth, while between it and the roof there was an interspace just sufficient to allow an animal about the size of a Badger to pass. The workmen having observed that the candles were much nibbled during their absence, that the greasy wooden candlesticks were sometimes carried off and some of them, after a few days, found secreted in small holes, set a suit- ably baited gin for the suspected offender. Their efforts were rewarded the next morning by finding a rat dead in the trap. Old newspapers cc. are occasionally sent to the Cavern for the purpose of wrapping up small boxes of specimens, or such delicate objects as need more than ordinary care. On November 28th, 1871, the workmen, using in this way a part of a copy of the ‘ Saturday Review,’ unintentionally left one complete and sound sheet, 7. ¢. two leaves, near the spot where they had been at work. * See Reports Brit. Assoc. 1869, p. 204, and 1870, p. 27. 14. ei REPORT—1871, The next morning they found the paper precisely where they had left it, but with about one-fifth of one of the leaves gone, and the broken margin of the remainder apparently nibbled. There was nothing to prevent the whole from being taken off, and it was noted that, though left in a preca- rious position, it had not fallen down. The broken leaf was then torn off and preserved, whilst the unbroken one was allowed to remain as a further experiment. The next morning no trace of it was to be seen. That eyen- ing a rat-trap was set at the spot, and very near it another leaf of paper was placed, haying on it a small stone, which it was supposed a rat, but not a smaller animal, might be capable of moving. The next morning the paper was found where it had been put, but very much nibbled, whilst the trap and the grease with which it was baited appeared to have not been touched. Before leaving work, the men baited the trap with a tempting end of candle, and placed it on a leaf of paper; whilst another leaf, weighted with a lump of earth, was placed near. On the following morning both pieces of paper were found to be considerably eaten or torn; and it was noted that the injury done to the former was within the margin of the trap placed on it, whilst the trap itself, as well as its bait, remained unaffected, further than that there were on it a few spindle-shaped feces about a quar- ter of an inch long. There can be no doubt that some animal, probably smaller than a rat, carried off the missing leaf to a recess in the Cavern, where it may serve to make its nest comfortable, and perhaps hereafter to puzzle a cavern searcher who may discover it. Fourth Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in vari- ous Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Prof. Everett, at the request of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wm. Tomson, F.R.S., Sir Coartes Lye, Bart., F.R.S., Prof. J. Churx Maxwe tt, F.R.S., Prof. Puruures, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, F.M.S., Dr. Batrour Stewart, F.R.S., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. A. Geikiz, F.R.S., James Guatsner, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, E. W. Binney, F.R.S., Grorcze Maw, F.G.S., W. PEence.ty, F.R.S., 8. J. Mackin, £.G.S., Epwarp Huu, F.R.S., and Prof. Everert, D.C.L. (Secretary). In last year’s Report, the intention was expressed of boring down at the bottom of Rosebridge Colliery, if the Association would provide the necessary funds. The circumstances were exceptionally inviting, and the Association very liberally granted the sum asked. The Secretary thereupon paid two visits to Rosebridge, descended and to some extent explored the colliery, in company with Mr. Bryham, and, after a careful study of the plans and sec- tions, agreed upon a particular spot where the bore was to be sunk. Tra- cings of the plans and sections were kindly sent by Mr. Bryham, who in every way cooperated most cordially, and gave much valuable assistance in arranging the scheme of operations. Several weeks elapsed, which were occupied in making and testing a very large spirit thermometer, suitable for reading in the bad light of a mine, and capable of being read, by estimation, i ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 15 to the hundredth of a degree, from 90° to 110° F.; and on the 7th November the Secretary wrote to Mr. Bryham requesting him to commence operations. Unfortunately, during this brief interval, circumstances had changed. Ina neighbouring pit, where the workings were in the same seam of coal as at Rosebridge, though less deep by 200 yards, a considerable quantity of water was found in sinking into the strata underlying this seam. This was a very unexpected circumstance; and as any irruption of water at the bottom of Rosebridge pit, which is now quite dry, would be a most serious affair, Mr, Bryham was afraid to risk the experiment of boring down. Sub- sequent reflection has only confirmed him in the opinion that such a step would be hazardous, and the Committee have accordingly been most reluc- tantly compelled to renounce the plan. Mr. Bryham’s final refusal was received on the 28th February. Professor Ansted read a paper last year, in the Geological Section of the Association, upon the Alpine tunnel, commonly called the Mont-Cenis tun- nel, and in that paper some interesting statements were made regarding its temperature. Since that time, Professor Ansted has interchanged very numerous letters with the Secretary, and has furnished much valuable in- formation, gathered from Prof. Sismonda, of Turin, and from M. Borelli, the resident engineer of the tunnel. Observations which appear to be reliable have been made in bore-holes in the sides of the tunnel, and the tempera- tures thus observed have been compared with the estimated mean tempera- ture at the surface overhead, which in the highest part is a mile above the tun- nel, or 2905 metres above sea-level. It is directly under this highest part that the highest temperature is found in the walls of the tunnel, namely 299-5 C., or 85°:1 F., which is 9° F. lower than the temperature found at the bottom of the Rosebridge shaft at the depth of only 815 yards. But though the tunnel is at more than double this depth from the crest of the mountain over it, we must bear in mind that the surface-temperatures are very dif- ferent. In a paper published by the engineer of the tunnel, M. F. Giordano, the mean temperature of the air at the crest of the mountain (Mont Frejus) is calculated to be —2°-6 C., or 27°°3 F. Assuming this estimate to be correct, we haye a difference of 57°8 F. between the deepest part of the tun- nel and the air at the surface vertically over it; assuming further, as we did in the case of Rosebridge in last year’s Report, that the surface of the hill itself has a mean temperature 1° F. lower than that of the air above it, we have a difference of 56°-8 F., and the thickness of rock between is 1610 metres, or 5280 feet (exactly a mile). This gives, by simple division, a rate of increase of 1° F. for 93 feet ; but a very large correction must be applied for the con- yexity of the ground; for it is evident that a point in the ground vertically under a steep crest is more exposed to the cooling influence of the air than a point at the same depth beneath an extensive level surface. No correction for convexity would be needed if the temperature of the air decreased up- wards as fast as the temperature of the internal rock; but this is very far from being the case, the decrease being about 34 times more rapid in the rock than in the air. To form an approximate notion of the amount of this correction, we must determine, as well as we can, the forms of the succes- sive isothermal surfaces in the interior of the mountain. The tendency is for all corners and bends to be eased off as we descend, so that each suc- ceeding isothermal surface is flatter than the one above it. Accordingly, if we have a mountain rising out of a plain, without any change of material, the isothermals will be further apart in a vertical through the crest of the moun- tain than under the plain on either side; they will also be further apart 16 RrEPORT—1871. at the highest part of this vertical, that is close under the crest, than at a lower level in the same vertical. It would be absurd to pretend to fix the amount of the correction with accuracy; but it seems not unreasonable to estimate that, in the present case, the numer of isothermals cut through by a vertical line descending from the crest of the ridge to the tunnel itself is about seven-eighths of the number which would be cut through in sinking through an equal distance in level ground, other circumstances being the same. Instead of 1°in 93 feet, we should thus have 1° in 7 of 93, that is, in 81 feet. This is a slow rate of increase, and is about the same as Mr. Fairbairn found at Dukenfield. The rocks penetrated by the tunnel consist of highly metamorphosed material, and are described as belonging to the Jurassic series. No fossils have been found in them. For two-thirds of the length of the tunnel, beginning from the Italian end, they are remarkably uniform, and it is in this part that the observations have been taken. The following account of them has been given by Prof. Ansted (Pop. Sci. Review, Oct. 1870, p. 351) :—‘ The rocks on which the observations have been made are absolutely the same, geologically and otherwise, from the entrance to the tunnel, on the Italian side, for a distance of nearly 10,000 yards. They are not faulted to any extent, though highly inclined, contorted, and sub- jected to slight slips and slides. They contain little water and no mineral veins. They consist, to a very large extent indeed, of silica, either as quartz or in the form of silicates, chiefly of alumina, and the small quantity of lime they contain is a crystalline carbonate.” This uniformity of material is very favourable to conduction, and the high inclination of the strata (in which respect these rocks resemble those at Dukenfield) also appears to promote either conduction proper or aqueous con- vection, which resembles conduction in its effects. As regards Mons. Gior- dano’s estimate of the mean air-temperature at the crest, it is obtained in the following way :—The hill of San Theodule is 430 metres higher, and the city of Turin is 2650 metres lower than the crest; the temperature of the former has been determined by one year’s observations to be —5°-1 C., and that of the latter is 12°5 C. Ifa decrease of 1° C. for every 174 metres of elevation be assumed (1° F. for 317 feet), we obtain, either by com- parison with San Theodule or with Turin, the same determination —2°-6 for the air-temperature at the crest of the ridge over the tunnel. This mode of estimating the temperature appears very fair, though of course subject to much uncertainty ; and there is another element of uncer- tainty in the difference which may exist between the air-temperature and the rock-temperature at the summit. These two elements of uncertainty would be eliminated if a boring of from 50 to 100 feet were sunk at the summit, and observations of tempera- ture taken in it. The uncertain correction for convexity would still remain to be applied. It would therefore be desirable also to sink a boring, of about the same depth, in the plateau which extends for about a quarter of the length of the tunnel, beginning near the Italian end, its height above the tunnel being about a third of a mile. In November last, when very little information had reached this country respecting the temperature-observations in the tunnel, an urgent appeal was addressed, jointly by your Committee and by the Geographical Society (of which Prof. Ansted is Foreign Secretary), to M. Sismonda, requesting him to use his influence with the Italian authorities to-secure a series of accu- rate observations of the temperature in the sides of the tunnel, before time had been allowed for this temperature to undergo sensible change from its original ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 17 value. It was also suggested that the mean temperature of the surface overhead should be examined by boring. M. Sismonda speedily replied, stating that he fully recognized the impor- tance of such experiments, and had already made arrangements with the Government at Turin, and with the contractors for the railway works, to have them carried out as fully and fairly as possible. Had the communica- tion reached him at a time of year when he could have travelled without great inconvenience, he would have gone to the spot himself; but as that was now impossible, the Government Commissioner for the works, M. Salva- tori, had undertaken to see the experiments carried through by employés under his orders. M. Sismonda further stated that, from the commence- ment of the tunnel, the Academy of Sciences of Turin had instituted a series of scientific observations in it, in which observations of temperature were included. The results of these observations he promised to forward as soon as they were completed and tabulated. On the receipt of the final refusal to bore down at the bottom of Rose- bridge Colliery, inquiries were instituted as to the feasibility of executing a similar operation in the deepest part of the Alpine tunnel. The contractors have, however, declined to grant permission, as the operation would involve additional encumbrance of the very narrow space in which their works are proceeding. It appears that.a length of a mile or more in the deepest part of the tunnel has not yet been opened out to the full width, so that oppor- tunity may yet be given to excavate a lateral heading and bore down, if the Association encourage the plan. Mr. G. J. Symons has repeated his observations in the Kentish Town well, at every fiftieth foot of depth, from 350 to 1100 feet, which is the lowest point attainable. As the water begins at the depth of 210 feet, all these observations may be regarded as unaffected by the influence of the external air, and they have now been sufficiently numerous at each depth to render further verification needless. The following are the results finally adopted, and they do not differ materially from those first published (Report for 1869). Depth, in | Tempera- | Difference | Difference | Difference | Feet per feet. ture. for 50 feet. | from 69°-9. from 1100 ft.| degree. ft. j ft. - ft. Pe ao 1-9 13-9 750 54-0 : 115i) 12:0 700 58°3 450 59-0 1:0 10:9 650 59°6 500 60-0 9 9-9 600 60°6 550 60-9 2 3 9:0 550 61:1 600 61:2 “il 8°7 500 57°5 650 61:3 = 4 15 8:6 450 52°3 700 62:8 F 6 roi 400 56°3 750 63°4 ~ ; 3 65 350 53'8 800 64-2 ; ‘8 5:7 300 52-6 850 65:0 ¢ 900 65-8 8 4:9 250 51:0 1:0 4] 200 48-8 950 66°38 1:0 31 150 48-4 1000 67°8 1-2 2-1 100 476 Bee? walt pontine 9 9 50 55:6 1100 69-9 1871. c 18. REPoRT—1871. The numbers in the last column are the quotients of those in the two pre- ceding, and denote the average number of feet of descent for 1° F. of in- crease, as deduced from comparing the temperature at each depth of obser- vation with the temperature at the lowest depth. The earlier numbers in this column of course carry more weight than the later ones. The amount of steadiness in the increase of temperature of the water is best seen by inspecting the third column, which shows that the freest interchange of heat occurs at about the depth of 600 feet. This must be due to springs. The soil, from the depth of 569 to that of 702 feet, is described as “light-grey chalk, with a few thin beds of chalk-marl subordinate.” The soil consists in general of chalk and marl, from 325 to 910 feet, and below this of sandy marl, sand, and clay (see list of strata in last year’s Report, p. 41). The mean rate of increase in the former is a degree in 56 feet, and in the latter a degree in 49 feet. The mean rate of increase from the surface of the ground to the lowest depth reached is certainly very nearly 1° F. in 54 feet. Mr. David Burns, of H.M. Geological Survey, has furnished observations taken in the W. B. lead-mines, at and near Allenheads, Northumberland, by the kind permission of Thomas Sopwith, Esq., F.R.S., and with the valuable assistance of Mr. Ridley, Underground Surveyor, who continued the obser- vations after Mr. Burns had left. The mineral for which these mines are worked is galena. There are very extensive old workings at a lower level than the present workings, and filled with water, which is kept down by pumping; but the quantity daily pumped out is very small in comparison with the whole, so that the change of water is slow. From the offices of the lead-mines a small windlass with a supply of fine brass wire was obtained, which enabled the thermometer to be lowered steadily and quickly. The first observations were taken in Gin-Hill shaft, 8rd June, 1871. The observers proceeded as far down in the works as they were able, and took their station in a level leading from the shaft, 290 feet from the surface of the ground, and 38 feet above the surface of the water in the shaft. The following observations were then made :— Depth under Depth in Temperature. ground. de: water. Fahr. ft. iyi a SD cucerte keen - La ani sara at CuRi a i, 49°3 OAs OR ap ss es dial, ae Alar tc engese i 49-2 LOU ei dx oe kN GZ, te he sev cae 51:2 5) Ma 8 aR ay. OP SF... te ee 51:2 cL Ls Sr 1 pa RRR ch 51:3 BA Peas tates EE ot. ac. aoe 51:3 The mean temperature at the shaft mouth for the year ending 31st May 1871, was 44°-3, as derived from daily observations of maximum and mini- mum thermometers, without applying a correction for diurnal range. Add- ing 1° to this, to obtain the probable mean temperature of the surface of the ground, and taking the temperature at 400 feet of depth as 51°-3, Mr. Burns computes that the rate of increase downwards is 6° in 400 feet, or 1° in 66:6 feet. The data for this calculation are obviously in many respects very uncertain. On the 21st June Mr. Ridley took observations in another shaft in the same workings, called the High Underground Engine Shaft. It is sunk ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 19 from a level at the depth of 398 feet below ground, and the surface of the water in it is 899 feet down the shaft, or 797 feet below the surface of the ground. There are pumps in the shaft, but they had been stationary for more than 24 hours before the observations were made. Immediately after the observations they were started, and when they had been working for some time the temperature of the water lifted was found to be 65°-2. They draw their water at a depth of 957 feet below the surface of the ground. The following were the observations :— Depth under Depth in Temperature. ground. water. Fahr. ft ft. a ee OURS. J a, eae 65-1) oT eee LOGEE 2.22.22 be. 64-9 f RS as AS, laws DURE Eo siok wa ae « 65:4 2.) EOE eee GUODRTS eins aoe 65:7 ot Ferre I aS Sp RP 65:4 The thermometer could not be lowered beyond 857 feet without risk of losing it, by getting fast in the wooden framework with which the pumps were secured. Mr. Burns thinks that some of the temperatures here re- corded are too low, from the index being shaken down by reason of the im- pediments presented by the upper portions of the framework. The surface of the ground over this shaft is about 300 feet higher than over Gin-Hill shaft. IPf we allow 1° for this increase of height, and call the temperature of the surface of the ground 44°-3, as against 45°-3 at Gin Hill, we have, by comparison with the observed temperature 65°7 at the depth of 857 feet, an increase of 21°-4 in 857 feet, or 1° in 40 feet. On the 6th July Mr. Ridley took observations in another sump or under- _ ground shaft at Slitt mine, Weardale. This shaft is sunk from the lowest level in the working, and had been standing full of water during the five months which had elapsed since it was sunk. The only source of disturbance was a little water running along the level across the top of the shaft, so as to enter the shaft (so to speak) on one side and leave it on the other. This may affect the temperature at 3 feet, but could scarcely affect the tempera- ture at 53 feet, which may be regarded as very reliable. The following are the obseryations ;— Depth under Depth in Temperature. ground. water. Fahr. ft. ft. BRED (sin, s\019 ARO aie SO 62) ae 64:5 Ae ene oy Re Se ee 64:5 20, Seeegoneegpaedaileae Tenis, achat sloces + 65:1 Se pth cde aan D2 oneness eon 64°9 Mr. Burns says “the surface-temperature at Slitt mine will be nearly the same as that at Gin-Hill shaft, judging from their relative elevations, aspects, and ‘exposure to the winds.” Assuming it then to be 45%3, and reckoning the temperature at 660 feet as 65°,we have an increase down- wards of 19°-7 in 660 feet, or 1° in 33:5 feet. The only datum that seems doubtful here is the surface-temperature. If, instead of 45%3, it be assumed °° . “i { ae , 1t gives an increase of 1° in a l feet, Mr. Ridley has also taken observations in Breckon-Hill shaft, which is near the river Allen, about 14 mile from Gin-Hill shaft, and at an elevation c2 20- REPORT—1871. not much above the bottom of the valley, but 1174 feet above sea-level. It was sunk some years ago, and has since stood nearly full of water, At the time of the observations the surface of the water was 24 feet down the shaft. The following are the observations taken in this shaft on June 13th :-— Depth under Depth in Temperature. ground. water. Fahr. ft. ft. x 5) UN ee ate OEE aoa, « eee 47-2 DOP Perseve¥. etree. PA NRT IE ici Gia 47-2 \ AOOw iy, Ho Setepsth. IH: AG Me SN Soh Se 46:9 NC Bao Re aoice GO 82.1. ye bats 46°8 LIME: Shae eats L260 Cages site cee eee 46°8 AOR. 3 I oer 126 46°7 200 i CAND 8 ere 46-6 POUMER: Soss Sis clo ate AGM M tte s sere 46:8 B00 Bi. n alain? Sonat GME. 0 Sut ea. 46°8 2 Rader lg aad er 2) ah eatresshe C 46:9 These observations were taken early in the morning, when the air and springs were so cold as to allow the maximum thermometer to be cooled below the temperature of the shaft. In order to test more thoroughly the apparent uniformity of temperature from 100 feet down to 350 feet, Mr. Ridley took a second series of observations, extending from the 22nd to the 27th June. In these observations the thermometer was lowered in a tin case filled with water colder than that of the shaft. The thermometer was supported within the case in a vertical position by a wooden frame, and prevented from shak- ing about. It was allowed to remain at each depth several hours, was then lifted, and read with all possible care. The following are the observations - thus obtained :— Depth under Length of Temperature before Temperature after ground. immersion. immersion. immersion. ft. h m = AD shits soridleae tee 3D, Discs ded dee AZO, ussesaaernte 46-5 O2BN Macioe sexe EL 20 rege bobse AAO ore Seibert 46°5 TARE ovo incke Td 40 > Meeasn. aust. ADA cdh. oo 46°6 gs sine Mio OR EIR erate eee AGT as aes 46-6 DAD cota AORY 6 2 AAO ARr CL aere eri cS eae 46°6 OP) toasts alee tre ES AO! sxe Mh os Ad Siete 46°6 5 eee Res 22 ae 5 aes aie AVA . isda 46:6 Here the temperature is even more uniform than in the first series. As to the causes of this uniformity, Mr. Burns remarks that the shaft is not connected with any working, but is cut through solid strata. It is a few yards to the east of the Allen, while, in the bed of that stream, and making a great spread on the west side of the valley, is a bed of limestone nearly 70 feet thick, and dipping at an angle of about 10° to the east. The top of this limestone was cut in the shaft about 40 feet down, which occa- sioned a great influx of water into the shaft, and drained a strong spring on the other side of the river. It will be observed that the chief difference between the two sets of ob- servations is just at the place where this limestone was cut. The second set were taken after and during much rain, and the first set after a week of very little rain. It appears probable that the difference of temperature at this a a ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 21 depth was due to the difference of temperature of the surface-water which soaked in through the limestone in the two cases. As regards the tempera- tures at depths exceeding 200 feet, it would appear that, in times of compa- rative drought (as in the first set), the heat of the soil at the greater depths has time to produce a little augmentation in the temperature of the water before it soaks away. This shaft is obviously not adapted for giving any information as to the rate of increase downwards. Collecting the best determinations from the other shafts we have :— Depth of Temperature. Calculated thermometer. Fahr. eau: ft. ‘ t. Gin-Hill Shaft.......... ‘1 lp Doebea Si eo ea 1 in 66-6 High Underground Engine 857 ...... Coes ote osieks dmg “S) ihn) Gr GGOs messes csr ac Gb cae. lin 33°5 Mr. Burns considers that little or no weight should be attached to the first of these determinations, as a pumping-engine was working in a neighbouring shaft communicating with it at the time when the ebservations were taken. The jump of 2° in descending from 340 to 390 feet also renders the inter- pretation of these observations difficult. The closeness of the temperatures in the other two shafts, at depths differ- ing by about 200 feet, suggests the idea that they are both fed by the same spring, and that the temperatures indicated are the temperature of the origin of the spring slightly modified by the different temperatures of the strata through which it has passed; but their positions appear to render this im- possible. Mr. Burns’s opinion from all the observations is that the mean rate of in- crease downwards at Allenheads is about 1° in 35 feet ; but this cannot at present be held as proved. The strata consist mainly of alternate beds of sandstone and shale, with a few beds of limestone intermixed. In Slitt mine there is also a bed of basalt 158 feet thick, overlying the vein of fluor-spar in which the workings are carried on, the workings being 55 feet down in this vein. Preparations are being made for taking observations in the dry part of the mines, by making shallow bores at different levels, inserting the thermometer, plugging up the hole for a few days, and then reading. Another gentleman connected with H.M. Geological Survey, Mr. R. L. Jack, has taken observations in a bore at Crawriggs, Kirkintilloch, near Glasgow. They were taken on the 29th November 1870, the temperature of the air being 34°. The surface of the water in the bore was 6 feet below the surface of the ground, the latter being 200 feet above sea-level. The following were the observations :— Depth from surface Time of lowering Time of withdrawing Temperature. of ground. thermometer. thermometer. Fabr. feet. hm h m ee 12 52 pm 1 7pm 47 LOOMS ene Le aes ee Ie ion 481 AE ai ock fac i LE ae Rr Ons DRI, os saalect ser sua 49} 1) ee by OSE 5 ceil coe at Sc 7 eee a 50 AU) rash Be sects I) OO DADS) 03 i 50 IO a aan chan eee ee re a BG ey aed oor 503 BAD aboie. ofa: i's SA os sve haih carols OU is Sein ipog tee 51 _ A few feet below 350 feet an obstruction in the bore prevented further 22 REPORT—1871. observations ; but the bore continues for about 70 feet further. We have here a total increase of 4° in 300 feet, which is at the rate of 1° in 75 feet ; but the intermediate steps are so irregular that not much weight can be attached to this determination. The Secretary has corresponded with the Smithsonian Institution respect- ing the great bore at St. Louis, which was described in last year’s Report, and also respecting the Hoosac Tunnel which passes under a mountain and will be 4? miles long, but the correspondence has not yet led to any definite result. . It was stated in last Report that application had been made to General Helmersen, of the Mining College, St. Petersburg, for information regarding the temperature of a very deep bore in course of sinking at Moscow, as well as regarding underground temperatures in Russia generally. A long delay occurred, owing to the General being absent from home for seven months, and not receiving the communication till his return; but shortly after his return he dispatched a very polite answer, from which the following passages are extracted :—“ We have an artesian well in St. Petersburg, bored in the Lower Silurian strata. At the depth of 656 English feet this well stops at the granite, a granite which perfectly resembles that of Finland. The lowest portion of these Silurian strata is merely a degraded granite, a grit combined with débris of felspar. About 353,000 hectolitres of water flow from the well per diem, and this water issues with a constant temperature of 9°8 Reaumur. .. i. 4% You are doubtless aware of the existence of a series of observations on the temperature of the soil at the bottom of a well which was sunk in the town of Yakoutsk in Eastern Siberia. This well has shown us that the soil of Siberia, at least in this part of its great extent, is frozen to a depth of 540 English feet. The mean temperature of Yakoutsk is —8°2 R. Atthe depth of 100 feet the temperature of the soil was found to be —5°-2. From this depth to the bottom the temperature increased at the rate of 1° R. for every 117 feet; whence it would follow that the soil at Yakoutsk is frozen to the depth of about 700 feet. ‘“‘It appears to me a very interesting circumstance that, according to ac- counts just received by the Academy of Sciences from Baron Maydel, traveller in the country of the Tchukchees [des Tschouktschi], there are found in those regions layers of ice, quite pure, alternating with sand and clay. The interesting letter of the Baron will shortly be printed in the publications of the Academy. It was in making excavations in search of mammoths that Maydel made this discovery.” If we assume the temperature of the surface of the soil at St. Petersburg to be 39°17 F., which, according to ‘ Herschel’s Meteorology, is the mean temperature of the air at the Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory, and if we take the temperature of the water as that of the bottom of the well, we have an increase downwards of 14°-88 F. in 656 feet, which is at the rate of 1° F. in 44-1 feet. If, on the other hand, we suppose the surface of the ground to be 4° F. warmer than the air (and the difference at Yakoutsk ap- pears to be greater than this), we deduce an increase at the rate of 1° F. in 60 feet. The rate of increase at Yakoutsk from the depth of 100 feet to the bottom of the frozen well at 540 feet is given above by General Helmersen as 1° R. in 117 feet. This is 1° F. in 52 feet. An account of the Yakoutsk well is given in ‘Comptes Rendus,’ tome vi. 1838, p. 501, in an extract from a letter by Erman (fils), who visited Ya- koutsk when the well had attained a depth of 50 feet. He gives the tem- ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 23 perature at this depth from his own observations, and the temperatures at 77, 119, and 382 feet from the subsequent observations of the merchant to whom the well belonged. His figures differ very materially from those given above; but it may fairly be presumed that General Helmersen’s account is the more accurate. Before the receipt of General Helmersen’s letter, the following communi- cation respecting the Moscow boring had been received by the Secretary from Mons. N, Lubimoff, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Moscow. « December $3, 1870. « Dear Srr,—lI beg your pardon for not having replied sooner to your letter. I am sorry to say that the information which I can now communicate is very deficient. The great bore of Moscow is not yet terminated, and the experi- ments on temperature which have been made hitherto are but of a preli- minary kind. It was in the hope of renewing the measurements under more satisfactory conditions that I delayed my answer; but as certain circum- stances did not permit me to resume the observations, which are therefore deferred to the spring of 1871, I must restrict myself to describing the old ones, « These were made, on my commission, by M. Schiller, B.A., in April 1869. The bore was then about 994 feet deep, and, from 56 feet to the bottom, full of water. A mercury thermometer of a peculiar kind was constructed, on an idea of my own. It consisted of a capillary tube of thick glass, ter- minating below in a large reservoir; at the upper end a funnel-like piece was adjusted, into which the mercury flowed off as soon as the temperature rose above a certain value [sketch annexed]. The whole was placed within a closed case, which was plunged to a chosen depth into the bore, and re- versed by means of a special arrangement. It was then brought again to the right position and drawn up to the surface, a portion of mercury having flowed away. Here the thermometer was plunged into a water-bath, the temperature of which was so regulated that the mercury attained the end of the capillary tube ; this was then the temperature required. “« The measurements were made at the depths of 175, 350, 525, 700, 875, and 994 feet. From 350 feet to the bottom the temperature throughout the bore was found to be nearly constant, namely 10°-1 C., with deviations of +0°1. The temperatures of the upper parts of the bore were not quite precisely ascertained, the chief attention being given, in these first experi- ments, to the deeper parts. The air-temperature at the surface for the time 17 - ,. 23 April ; Bb: bls a April to ee varied between +7°5 and —1°9 C, ‘* As soon as the boring is completed, and the present impediments removed from the bore, the observations will be resumed, and perhaps some new methods will be applied for the sake of verification, though the above de- seribed apparatus, previously tried, seemed to give very exact results. “I shall be very glad to communicate to you, as soon as possible, the re- sults of the new experiments. As to underground temperatures for Russia in general, there is, so far as I know, no place where regular and trustworthy observations have been made [should be made in original] except the Central Physical Observatory at St. Petersburg, the results of which are published by Dr. Wild, Director of the establishment, in his printed Annual Reports.” From the sketch annexed to the description in Professor Lubimoff’s letter, it appears that the enlargement at the open end of the capillary tube is quite ‘sudden, and not likely to retain any mercury when inverted. The idea of error from this cause may therefore be dismissed; but the instrument’is en- 24 REPORT—1871. tirely unprotected against the pressure of the water in which it is immersed, and it is important to consider what effect this pressure will have. In thermometers of the ordinary construction this pressure acts only ex- ternally, and produces much greater diminution of the internal volume than when, as in Prof. Lubimoff’s thermometer, it acts both externally and in- ternally, a mode of action with which we are familiar in the case of Cirsted’s plezometer. From Regnault’s experiments it appears that the apparent compression of mercury in glass, when the pressure is thus applied, is -000001234 per atmo- sphere, whereas the apparent expansion of mercury in glass for heat is‘0000857 per degree Fahrenheit. The latter number is 69 times the former ; it there- fore appears that a pressure of 69 atmospheres would be required to falsify the indications of Prof. Lubimoff’s thermometer to the extent of 1° F. The actual pressure at the bottom of the well is less than the half of this, and therefore should only produce an error of a few tenths of a degree. This, however, is on the assumption that the glass undergoes no change of figure, a condition which may easily fail of being fulfilled, owing to the want of perfect uniformity in the glass. Mr. Donaldson has written from Calcutta to the effect that the thermo- meter which was sent to him has been entrusted to a competent observer, who has taken numerous observations with it, which will be sent shortly. M. Erman’s letter above referred to is immediately followed in the ‘ Comptes Rendus’ by an account, by M. Walferdin, of some observations, which appear to be very reliable, taken in artesian wells in the basin in which Paris is situated. They were taken with maximum thermometers of the kind in- vented by Walferdin himself, in which the mercury overflows into a reservoir when the temperature exceeds a certain limit, the thermometers being her- metically sealed in glas¥ tubes to protect them from pressure. The observations which he first describes were taken in a well, newly sunk to the depth of 263 metres, at St. André, about 50 miles to the west of Paris, and which failed to yield a supply of water. The temperature was carefully observed at the depth of 253 metres by means of two thermometers, which were allowed to remain at that depth for ten hours. Their indications agreed to ‘03 of a degree Centigrade, and gave a mean of 17°95 C. For the sake of comparison, M. Walferdin observed the temperature at the bottom of a well 75 metres deep, situated at a distance of only 13 metres from the other well, and found it 12°-2C., showing a difference of 5°-75C. in 178 metres, which is at the rate of 1° C. in 30-95 metres, or 1° F. in 56-4 feet. He mentions that he also employed two Six’s thermometers (deux thermométrographes) enclosed in copper tubes to protect them from pressure, but both of these gave erroneous indications. The copper case of one was imperfect, and allowed a little water to enter. This one read 1°25 too high, owing probably to the effect of pressure; the other read 2°-15 too low, owing probably to the index being shaken down. The temperature at the depth of 400 metres in the puits de Grenelle at Paris was observed on two different occasions. The indications were 23°5 on the first and 23°-75 on the second occasion; and these M. Walferdin com- pares with the constant temperature 11°-7 in the caves of the Observatory at the depth of 28 metres. Taking the mean of the two observations, 23°°6, we have a difference of 11°-9 in 372 metres, which is at the rate of 1° C. in 31-2 metres, or 1° F, in 56:9 feet. Observations in the well of the Military School, at a distance of 600 metres from the puits de Grenelle, showed a temperature of 16°-4 C. at the depth of ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 25 173 metres. This gives, by comparison with the Observatory caves, an in- crease at the rate of 1° C. in 30°85 metres, or 1° F. in 56°25 feet. These three determinations are in wonderfully close agreement with each other. All three wells are sunk in the chalk of the Paris basin. In the case of the St. André well the thicknesses of the different strata were :— metres. Plas Cla Ye oo ste. ags sispce 3 souk 13°52 Whitesehnallc « sxirc ty annals 122°46 OUSREEY ICRU oman niga Bila al 29°24 GIAMCONIE boven cca tet sane ocokenieys 13:64 GHECNSANG on. cf5 shee bisis) alte ait: 84:36 263:22 The thermometer which the Committee have been employing for the last three years is a Phillips’s maximum, having so fine a bore that the detached column of mercury which serves as the index is sustained in the vertical position by capillary action, and will bear a moderate amount of shaking without slipping down. Numerous instances, however, have occurred in which the index has slipped in consequence of jerks or concussions sustained by the thermometer in hauling it up from a depth. During the past six months the Secretary has been in correspondence with Messrs. Negretti and Zambra respecting a proposed modification of the maximum thermometer known by their name, which occurred to him more than a year ago, and was described by him privately to some meteorological friends at the last Meeting of the Association. It was then supposd to be new, but it now appears that Messrs. Negretti and Zambra have made something of the kind for the last fourteen or fifteen years. Several changes, however, were necessary before the thermometer was adapted to the uses of the Committee, and the first complete instruments were received in June last. They are enclosed, like the thermometers previously used, in hermetically sealed tubes, for protection against pressure, and they have the advantages (1) of being able to bear more severe jolts without derangement of their indications, and (2) of pre- senting to view a much broader column of mercury, so as to be more easily read in a dim light. The instrument is to be used in a vertical position, with the bulb uppermost. Between the bulb and the stem there is a contraction, through which the mercury will not pass except under pressure. It is set by holding it with the bulb end lowest, and tapping this end on the palm of the hand, till the part between the contraction and the bulb is full of mercury. It can then be held with the bulb up, and the mercury in the stem will run down to the lower end, from which the graduations begin. In this position, the top of the column indicates the temperature of setting, which must be lower than the temperature intended to be observed. The instrument is then to be lowered into the bore to any required depth, and allowed to remain there for about half an hour, to ensure its taking the temperature of the surrounding water. The expansion of the mercury in the bulb with heat will force a portion of the liquid through the contraction, and subsequent cooling in hauling up will not cause any of it to return. The portion which has thus escaped from the bulb into the stem will usually be found remaining close to the contraction, when the thermometer has been hauled up. The instrument must then be gently inclined, so as to make the bulb end slightly the lowest, when the mercury in the stem will all unite ‘into one column, which will run down to its place on again raising the bulb. The head of the column will then indicate the required temperature. 26 | REPORT—1871. Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71. By a Com- mittee consisting of James. GuaisHer, F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Roprrt P. Gruc, F.R.S., ALEXANDER S. Herscuegr, F.R.A.S., and Cuartes Brooks, F.R.S., Secre- tary to the Meteorological Society. Tue object of the Committee being, as in the previous year, to present a condensed Report of the observations which they have received, and to indi- cate the progress of Meteoric Astronomy during the interval which has elapsed since their last Report, the reviews of recent publications relating to Meteoric Science which will be found in the sequel are preceded by a state- ment of the results obtained by the observers, who have during the past year contributed a valuable list of communications on the appearances of luminous meteors and regular observations of star-showers to the Com- mittee. The real heights and velocities of thirteen shooting-stars obtained by the cooperation of Mr. Glaisher’s staff of observers at the Royal Obser- vatory, Greenwich, during the simultaneous watch for meteors on the nights of the 5th to 12th of August last, are sufficiently accordant with the real velocity of the Perseids (as already previously determined by similar means, in the year 1863) to afford a satisfactory conclusion that the results of direct observation are in very close agreement with those derived from the astro- nomical theory of the August meteor-stream. Shooting-stars were observed to be more than usually frequent on the nights of the 17th of August and 24th of September last, accompanying on the latter night a rather brilliant display of the Aurora. On the nights of the 18th—20th of October last the sky was so generally overcast as to conceal the view of any meteoric shower which may have taken place on that well-established meteoric date. But on the mornings of 13th—15th of November last a satisfactory series of observations of the November star-shower (so far as its return could be identified) recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and at several other British stations, concurs with very similar descriptions of its appearance in the United States of America in showing the rapid decrease of intensity of this display since the period of greatest brightness, which it attained in the years 1866 and 1867. Notices of the extreme brightness with which it was visible in the following year (1868) are extracted from astronomical and meteorological journals kept in Switzerland and Scotland. A short view of the sky on the night of the 12th of December last was obtained at Birmingham, where the accurate divergence of the meteors observed by Mr. Wood from the radiant point in Gemini of the December meteors sufficed to verify the periodical return of that meteoric current. The state of the sky was not favourable for observations of meteors on the first two nights of January; but during two hours, when the sky was clear, on the night of the 20th of April last, the well-known group of April meteors was noted, on the periodical date, diverging in considerable numbers, and with the characteristic features of brightness, and leaving a persistent streak from the direction of a nearly fixed centre in the constellation Lyra. One meteor of the shower, simultaneously observed at Birmingham and Bury St. Edmunds, afforded sufficiently accu- rate materials for calculating its real distance from the observers, and the length and velocity of its visible flight relatively to the earth. The com- bined observations of the regularly recurring meteor-showers during the past year having at present proved successful in contributing some valuable materials to their history, the Committee propose to resume during the coming year a systematic watch for their return, and to provide observers OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 27 of the regular star-showers of August and November, and those of smaller interest and abundance in January, April, October, and December, with suitable maps and instructions to enable them to obtain, without unnecessary pains bestowed in preparations or expense, the most careful and complete records of their extraordinary displays. In order that the operations of the Committee may thus continue to be systematically directed towards the objects which have acquired important interest from the discovery of the as- tronomical connexion of shooting-stars with the orbits of comets, introducing the strictest methods of inquiry into the laws of their appearance, the Com- mittee earnestly desire the renewal, in the coming year, of the support which, since its first formation, by their correspondence and cooperation, observers have hitherto freely contributed to the British Association. Notices of the appearance of twenty-two fireballs and small bolides have during the past year been received by the Committee, fourteen of which were compared to the apparent size and brightness of the moon, and the latter include three detonating meteors of the largest class. -Descriptions of some of the largest of these meteors are contained in the accompanying list and in the following paragraphs of the Report. No notice of the fall of an aérolite during the past year has been received, although the occurrences of large meteors during the months of autumn and spring, preceding April last, were more than ordinarily frequent. Of one of these, which appeared with unusual prilliancy in Cornwall, Devonshire, and the south-western counties of England on the evening of the 13th of February, it is possible to estimate, at least approximately, the locality and the real elevation of its flight. Careful observations of such phenomena when they appear are, however, again recommended by the Committee to all observers who may have the necessary astronomical skill, and the rare opportunity to note their brilliant courses by the stars. In the discussion of some papers on Meteoric Astronomy which follow the foregoing observations, it will be seen that in the hands of its talented origi- nator, Prof. Schiaparelli, the cosmical theory of periodical shooting-stars has received fresh and valuable illustrations, and the apparently inexplicable grouping of radiant-points for several successive days in the neighbourhood of ageneral centre of divergence, if notexplained, appears to depend upon effects of planetary disturbances of a single meteoric stream from which the parasitic radiant-points have been derived. The discussion of such examples is sim- plified, and their complete explanation is, perhaps, not beyond the reach of the persevering application with which skilled astronomers in every country are now bent on the solution of the complicated and intricate geometrical problems presented to them by the distribution and features of the known radiant-points of shooting-stars. To a brief description of this interesting memoir are added, at the close of the Report, some notices of works which have recently appeared on the more general branches of meteoric science. I. METEORS DOUBLY OBSERVED. 1. A Table of the real heights of sixteen shooting-stars doubly observed in England during the meteoric shower of August 1870, independently of the observations recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, was presented in the last volume of these Reports. A comparison of the observations made on that occasion at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, with those recorded at the other stations, enables the real paths of thirteen meteors (ten of ‘which are new to the former list), seen by Mr. Glaisher’s staff of observers, to be satisfactorily determined; and the real heights and velocities of the 28 REPORT—187]1. meteors thus identified, together with the particulars of the observations from which they are concluded, are entered in the Table opposite. The accompanying diagram (drawn on the same scale as that in the last Report) readily exhibits to the eye the actual heights at appearance and dis- appearance (or the heights of the centres of the visible paths of the meteors Nos. 1, 4, 9) above the earth’s surface. The last vertical line on the right represents (as in the last Report) the average height at first appearance and that at disappearance of all the meteors regarded as identified in the present list, of which the approximate heights of those points have been satisfactorily ascertained. The resulting average heights are :— At first appearance. At disappearance. Of 16 meteors in the last Report.... 74-1 B.S. miles. 6 Of 10 meteors in the present list .. 71-7 55 54-4 Of 20 meteors observed in Aug. 1863 81-6 sd 57-7 Fig. 1. Reference numbers. 1 2846 “SMO OL 12.518 Heights above the earth’s surface in British statute miles. Heights above the earth’s surface in British statute miles. Heights at appearance and disappearance of thirteen shooting-stars simultaneously ob- served at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and at other stations in England, August 6th-11th, 1870. (Nos. 1, 4, 9 are calculated heights at the centres of the real paths.) The present average heights are somewhat less than those observed in the year 1863; but they agree more closely with the general average height at first appearance, 70-05 miles, and that at disappearance, 54-22 miles (as given in the Report for 1863, footnote on p. 328), of nearly all the shooting-stars [To face page 28. —(B.) Birmingham; (H.) Hawkhurst, Kent; (L.) Regent’s Park, ust, 1870. ee & o 2 . 5 Velocity | Position of the radiant-point. » ||in B.S. ° miles Observers, Remarks, &e. | 5 per Se), fe Xpprosimats by 3S . pproximate by a R. A. Deel the stars. eet ay = © { G. L. Schultz. «| conser Ml) RGABG sis sconcra |Meerccerccccce Aare | W. H. Wood 2 15 195 | +64 | « Draconis......... {RP Gee { W. Barber Course apparently gel| sees | terete | cereee | ceeeeeeeeeeeeeees FE Howlett. ascending? W. C. Nash. { A very doubtful PRISE SSE FOL TN |) PaaieNsinetie-nesisises dM Crumplen, 1 accordance. 5.| 123? 26 | +58 |e Cassiopeix ...... {a eee Be : W. C. Nash. 6! 73? Sol) |! 4-54. |'@ Bersei ....2.-.005. ‘A. @: Heseebel. : Pg aa B 7; 123? 23 | +58 |e Cassiopeix ...... 1 Lie ae Eas g2? 27 | +62 | 6 Cassiopeiz ...... ee Ae a Marriott, W. Barber. | hanes 40 | +71 | Custos Messium... es de aaa Biaoitet W. Barber. Ce es se A. S. Herschel. | Th oe re 462 |B Camelopardi... ve Wats Marriott, W. Barber. | : ae: ht, W. M t, W. Barb 39 4ov | 4257, hq? Bersel.....-:..0-+00 yas ieee: pedo giciic 52 54 | +67 | B Camelopardi... (i pe 37 Average velocity and position of the miles | 46 | +62 | Camelopardi ... radiant-point of the Perseids, per sec. Nos. 11, 12, 13 [To face page 28. Real Heights aud Velocities of Shooting-stars simultaneously observed at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich (Gr.), and at other stations in England—(B.) Birmingham; (H.) Hawkhurst, Kent; (L.) Regent's Park, London; (M.) Manchester ; (T.) East Tisted, Hants—on the nights of the 6th-11th August, 1870. ; z - Ble|é Obseryed points of s E q & e Approxi- | 4Pparent 2 3 Computed heights and places of Lenath | Velocity | Position of the radiant-point. 2 || & | APPS: | agnitude, ane Se z cnet, [in B. 8, lele|3 sete as per Colour. Rimes, ANG x Disappear- | © 3 on pat’ | miles Observers, Remarks, &. jels|e| fixed stars, its duration, Ppearance. | ““onee. | 3 Appearance. Disappearance. | 188 S:| her Bale || 2 Ke, Bal 2 * | second. g|8 N. wn |ea| 8 |BS. B.S. N. | Approximate by B ala BoA! Dect, |B A+! pect, | “| Z| atiles.|N: 19t:| Long. |ariies,| N: lat) Long. R.A) Decl.| — the stars, hms } | g{|Gr| xn 1 28 2 Bluish. (9° | +70 contre] of | NG BE ell lbs jG. TL. Schultz, 3 B. ua 2 15) z * Yellow. 2 t4e ia lesen (71 | 52 50]0 208. | cen! ‘ ma MSY || oncecco. |" ecree |W. HE Wood | | 19 10 1 uish white, 175 17o | + 7, 4 ‘ Cc, 2.| s{ x. Heed Catal eee lish white. ate? a aH } 77|53 22/1 49W.| 56 |53 8|1 32W.| 29 15 | 195 | +64 | © Draconis........ RP. Gre wee | |} Gr.| 10 25 2 ite. 27 | + +38 2 we Ey ent | 3 rof T. |(10 =o 3) S ; 29 i é a } 6r 51 39)2 3H. | 80 | sr s6]1 19K. | 42 {f Howlett. { ascending? 10{|9%| 10 29 2 > 160 | +65] 170 | +56 W. t f th?) }veeeee | seseee | renee W.C. Nash. j A very doubtful * L. |(10 28 30) ik fans 145 | +80] 185 | +66 (10 | 51 43/0 14 W.|centre} of | path?) T. Crumplen, |_ accordance. |of| Gr | Bluish white. ? 2 W. Marriott, W. Barber. | sped|slis 3 oy) 3 | Mw” | guroma, | 3s | Sey (28 | 58] 38 |, [poetse ale som | se [oe fo som | rast | saat | a6 | +38 ecominin 110s etre | -|o!|Gr-| 10 49 45 | Jupiter. | Yellowish. Fino atroak. 60 | +67| 140 | +80] 1o | 12 the C. Nash. 6-19) | F. |(10 49 0)|>Capella, | Orange-red. } second. 88 | +69 | 155 | +62| 25 | 15 | g0|53 |x x5E.| 4x |52 4/0 7W.| 100? | 752 | so | +54)a Perse... ALS Horschel 7 10f oe Gs 55 19 2 Bluish white, | Bright streak, | 18 13 Ul see i \\ SH \ 1357 52 30/2 3E.| 75 |51 s4]057H.] 862 | 123? | 23 | +58 | Cassiopeim {1 Gramplen et 10 56 0) 3 : fant receceer) 20 5 2 Cel leet lire Dheelen “ = | )Gr.| 11 1 go 2 : 7 | +56'| 344 |\+4a| 10 | 07 Gi ee T. Wright, W. Marriott, W. Barber. | 8 ref 2 ie ° 0) 3 Bl vie ai 27 | +72 | 27 | +80 8 o'6 } 5) Sols | Biase saa case Las i er Ae eet (AS } r.| 10 37 50 ct uish white. 1 | +59 1 ABZ | cee | O'S a sentre| of: ||-path'?) ||), waxes eth tos M LS ‘ } %H™4) (10 46 0)) 2 Yellow. 332 | +08 | 317 | +61 06 | (4s Seay GI Hearts) GL Wye) GE) | aechs [ORM nie \a8. Cla | xo. |rx | GF) 39 39 20 Yellowish. ine streak, | 242 | +66 | 267 | +40 35il| \eoaa| eee |e Co Voserlegar|| coo |) cen Ae ae lee ee | | *" |" 1] H. | (10 37 0) a hite, 2 seconds, 235 | +58 | 232 | +38 Ci l eeotea| Pesca | (i Seat 7 ais " es ol Gr. in 4 18 1 Bluish. Fine streak. | 347 | +45 | 333 | +30 5 |l alsx a7lo soe. | sr Js aloaB| 3: = | ae ee liens, ie Wright, W. Marriott, W. Buster. [| H. (1x 2 0)| «Lyrw. | Orange-yellow. | Bright, 3 seconds. 345 | +71 | 305 | +64 o8 A or gfe inci 1, J) Gre] 12 38 2 i Yollowish. fine streak. 15 | +65 | 325 | +63 o7 E E >, 457 | 9 Persei. {Te Wright W- Marriott; S } 72-14) la 36 30)| 3 White. None. 165 | +81 | 193 | +69 ora) |p) S20 SE Sapo. 2a te) 330) ata |S Se 5 SO ADS esa | A. S. Herschel. | Gr.| 11 45 0 2 Bluish. Streak. 450 | +45} 344 | +28 \ 6 8 a) <6 67 |B Camelopardi.., {i LES. | a3.jtr{ H. |(11 43 30) 3 et ce None. 327. | +78 | 287 | +67] ...... | 6 ian 26/0 4rE | 38 | 51 14/0 25 EB 2 52 54 | +67 op ‘ALS. Herschel. | ¥ (Oe 37 UGE ese seine ae | Average heights and length of path (omitting doubtful values, marked thus ?), in British statute miles ........... | 787 fewssssesren] S44 | path, 71 miles.) 304 eae zo lasbes Ee rane op a Ge OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 29 simultaneously observed until the beginning of that year. The average velocity of the Perseids, relatively to the earth, observed in the year 1863 was 34-4 miles per second, and that of the three Perseids satisfactorily well observed in the present list is 37 miles per second. In his original letters to Father Secchi on their connexion with Tuttle’s comet (Comet IIJ., 1862), now universally accepted as a true basis of their cosmical theory, Prof. Schiaparelli calculated, from the known elements of the comet’s orbit, that the velocity with which the Perseids enter the earth’s atmosphere (allowing for a very minute influence of the earth’s attraction) is 38 miles per second. That the direct determination of the velocities of the August shooting-stars which were made last year should, in this instance, so exactly agree with the value found by calculation (although from the small number of identifiable meteors the probable error of the determination is rather large), is, from the great scale and general excellence of the observations, at least provisionally, a successful confirmation of the astronomical theory of the August meteors, and a satisfactory conclusion from the simultaneous watch. 2. During the corresponding observations of the meteor-shower of No- vember last, in which the observers of Mr. Glaisher’s staff at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, also took an important share, the coincidence of the times of appearance and of the other particulars of a single meteor only of the shower simultaneously observed at Greenwich and at Tooting, near London, could be established, the descriptions of which, as given by the observers at those stations, were as follows :— No. Approximate : . Place of | Magnitude Appearance, lane Date. eer nGaeneAtionlaa pcbaiaes Colour. Duration. |Apparent course. streak, &e. 1870 hm s 7 |Nov.15; 1 5 56 Royal |=Istmagni-| Bluish | 0:7 seconds. |From@ Urse#Ma-| Left a streak. A.M. Observatory,| tude star. white. joris, passed a Greenwich. little belowPo- laris, in the di- rection of B Cephei. (8) | » 15] 15 0 | Tooting, =Sirius. White. Short (From _between|Lefta long streak | A.M, London, duration. the ‘Pointers’|} lastingasecond 8.W. of the Great} or two. Bear, shot one- third of the way towards a Cygni. 7 (8) PAG ool en 5, 56 Pegi i's 0 Greenwich...|Length of path 15°. Observer, WM. MARRIOrT. Tooting ...... Meteor fairly well observed. Observer, H. W. JACKSON. The apparent paths of the meteor among the constellations present a con- siderable parallax in the right direction of displacement, as seen from the two observers’ stations, to lead to a positive determination of its real altitude above the earth. The concluded path of the meteor is nearly horizontal at a height of about fifteen miles above the earth’s surface. The small distance (only seven miles) between the two stations, greatly increasing the effect of the errors most difficult to avoid in the observation and description of such transitory phenomena, must, however, for the present be regarded as pre- cluding certainty from the conclusion, which would otherwise attach to this unusually low elevation of a meteor’s real path. 30 REPORT—1871. 3. Preparations for observing the meteors of the 20th of April last were also made at many stations in England and Scotland with only partial A meteor of the April shower was, however, observed simul- taneously at Birmingham and Bury St, Edmunds, of which the following descriptions were recorded :— success. Approximate! piace of | Magnitude a Appearance, ? No. | Date. foo ie ation? (is mee ate Colour. Duration. Apparent course. oak, Ke. 1871. hm (6) | Apr.20| 118 P.M. |Birmingham|=Ist magni-}| Blue. 1:25 second. | From A, Hercu-/The meteor in- tude star. lis to y Draco-| creased in size. nis—8°, hm s (9) y» 20) 111015 Thurston, | =1lst mag- White. 3 seconds. [From 4aDraco-|Small in the] P.M. near nitude nis,¢é Urse Ma-| first, growing) © Bury St. Ed-| star. joris, crossing] brighter in the munds. tUrseMajoris,| last half of its to % (k& 12)) course. Lefta Lyncis. slender streak at first, which remained 2 se- conds on the last half of its | course. i » 20) BL & ..c | pigeaicshnt Length of path 11°. One-third of the sky overcast. Observer, W. H. Woop. 5 20.) 1110 sia) asi ...| Length of path 45°. Sky very clear. Observer, A. 8. HERSCHEL. 4 Although the times at both the stations were uncertain to rather more than a minute from true Greenwich time, and the approximate times of the meteor’s appearance recorded at the two stations differ from each other by rather more than two minutes, yet the very similar descriptions of its ap- pearance at the two stations, and the fact that no other meteor at either station preceded it or followed it within a quarter of an hour, during a very attentive watch, as well as the good agreement together of the apparent paths recorded by the two observers, render it scarcely possible to doubt that the same meteor was simultaneously observed. The apparent length of path and duration are, however, much longer at Bury St. Edmunds than at Bir- mingham, where the meteor was seen foreshortened near the radiant-point ; and on this peculiar circumstance Mr. Wood (in a letter to Mr. Herschel) makes some important remarks, which offer a very interesting field for fur- ther observations. ‘My view of the meteor’s course was evidently very oblique, and yours, very direct (nearly at right angles), would obscure a faint tail to me. There is also another peculiarity which I have observed in oblique-visioned courses, that they appear to endure about half the time of that obtained by direct vision, which I fancy arises from its invisibility to one observer, whilst it is visible to the other in the earliest portion of its flight, and the amount of the invisible course to bear some proportion to the recorded differences in the durations.” In perfect agreement with this explanation the point of disappearance of the meteor is well fixed (by combining the observations) at a height of about sixty-five miles above a place near Bourne, in Lincolnshire. The observations, on the other hand, do not agree in determining the point of first appearance. The first and faint half of the meteor’s apparent path, as recorded at Bury St, Edmunds, is placed too far from the north pole of the heavens to be nearly comformable to the radiant-point near 6 Lyre (from some point near and below which the apparent course of the meteor, as seen —————————— LS ee ee ee OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 3l at Birmingham, was directed), while this portion of the meteor’s flight appears to have entirely escaped observation at Birmingham. Prolonging the meteor’s visible flight at Birmingham 7° backwards towards the radiant- point, and approaching the point of first appearance at Bury St. Edmunds about the same distance towards the north pole of the heavens, the agree- ment of the observations in fixing the point of first commencement at a height of about eighty miles over the neighbourhood of Norwich is nearly as exact as the determination of the place of the meteor’s disappearance. The length of its visible path was about seventy-five miles, and its radiant- point in Taurus Poniatovii, on the same meridian, was about 40° south of the usual radiant-point (QH,) of the April meteors. Although its apparent course, as observed at Bury St. Edmunds, evidently denoted it as an erratic member of the group, its general resemblance to the other Lyraids observed on the same evening was a remarkable feature in its long and striking course. Adopting Mr. Wood’s suggestion of (provisionally) increasing the duration, as observed at Birmingham, from 1°25 to 2 seconds in the simple proportion of the increased length of the apparent course, prolonged towards the radiant- point, and adopting 23 seconds (the average between this duration and that recorded at Bury St. Edmunds) as the time of flight, the resulting velocity, relative to the earth, of this single member of the April meteoric stream doubly observed on the night of the 20th of April last, was, within very few miles, about thirty miles per second. The theoretical velocity of the same meteors (see the Note on the last page of this Report) is not quite thirty miles per second. 4, Several observations of the very brilliant fireball observed in Devyon- shire and in the south-western counties of England on the evening of the 13th of February last were collected and compared together by Mr. Wood, the result of whose investigation will shortly be given, with descriptions of that meteor, as the most probable conjecture, from the materials at present at their disposal, arrived at by the Committee respecting its real height and the locality of its nearest approach to the British isles. II. Larner Mereors. In addition to the conspicuous meteors described in the accompanying list, the following descriptions of remarkable meteors have appeared, or were communicated to the Committee by the observers :— 1. 1870, Nov. 1, 115 30™ p.m., London. “I saw a splendid meteor last night, at 115 30™, through the blind of my bedroom window. The whole room was illuminated, and the meteor must have been at least half as large as the moon. I went to the window quickly, but could see no trail. The path must have been, say, 5° to the right of a Aurige, ending 10° to left of a, B Geminorum. I only saw the end. “T, Crumpten, London, N.W., Noy. 2nd, 1870.” 2. 1870, Nov. 4, shortly before 3" a.m. (local time), Agra, India :— Extraordinary Meteor.—“ The following account of an extraordinary me- teor occurs in a letter I received from a brother who is a missionary stationed in Agra. He does not give the exact place where he was at the time, but it must have been very near to Agra. The letter is dated Agra, 24th November, 1870. 2% ese-.sseeeeves Yeilowish...... 3 seconds...... Passed midway bes tory, Green- tween @ and wich. Draconis, a continued path parallel tod and n Urse Ma joris. : » 21} 9 35 p.m.|Glasgow ......6 Wo ctecseeaacossates White... theses 3 seconds...... From 4 (6, 6) Aw rige to o U Majoris. » 20/9 0 p.m./Scarborough .../Apparent shape and Bluish .........)-+++ssseeesseerees Descended from size of the half- point about moon. above the S.W 1871. horizon. Mar. 1)10 10 p.m./Charing Cross, |> 2 ..sesecerserees Brilliant white|About 3 secs...|From near 6 Canit London. Minoris to about 5° or 6° east and at the sax altitude as, « O} onis. » 17\About 10 40/Paris, Rochelle,|Splendid meteor ...|Green ......... 20 SeCONdS .,.|-c...ceaccensesnss p-m. &c., France. (local time). OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 85 judged it was of a red colour, and somewhat star-like in appearance. At the time of its appearance the sky was rather cloudy and misty, and the meteor was not, therefore, seen advantageously. It did not seem to explode at the time of its extin ction. Park, Bristol, August 2nd, 1871. ge Meteors, 1870-71. . DENNING I have sent the above particulars thinking they may be useful for comparison with other results.””—Wittam F , Cotham Appearance; Train or Sparks. very large globular nu- cleus. Seen through haze, which dimmed its light. globular nucleus, with- out tail or streak. cleus pear-shaped, with short adhering white tail, projecting dull-red fragments forwards on its course; increasing and exploding at maxi- mum brightness. ft a very fine streak ... ft no streak............ sae € meteor only seen as it assed behind the edge f a cloud. cleus pear-shaped, fol- owed by a short train or a second. Point of i appearance near jouses, which concealed he neighbouring star Length of Path and Direction. 25°; downwards to left... >10°; directed from Ca- pella, radiant F). From radiant F, ............ 5° while in sight; directed from @ Urse Majoris. 40° Pree E Teer eee ee 15°; from radiant in Taurus Fell perpendicularly | rocyon. explosion; but many parks projected from he nucleus. Left a lu- han an hour. TPO RRO Tere ete eet ereretereteans Sky clear. Remarks. The stars scarcely visible through haze, but recognized sufficiently near the meteor’s path. View of the end of its course in- tercepted when at an altitude of 4° or 5°. From radiant « Tauri. End of path hidden by houses. eer enees POO e eee eee ee ee ernst ansaseee lit up all the heavens. extremely bright in the full moonlight. p-m., >, from near the ze- nith, with a remarkably long duration, to near the S.W. hori- zon. Bright gold colour at last, leaving a brilliant train visible for 3 or 4 minutes (‘ The Times,’ Mar. 21st). Observer and References &c. T. Crumplen. W. H. Wood. .|Id. Robert Maclure. ..|T. Wright. Robert Maclure. Appeared with two flashes, which|T. H. Waller. The meteor appeared/F. H. Ward. .|Seen also at Chichester, 10" 30™|/Messrs. Prevost, Samberg, and other obser- vers (‘ Comp- tes Rendus,’ March 20th, 1871). 36 REPORT—1871. Date.| Hour. Be ahs pal Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. | Apparent Course. ; 1871.|h m ; ; | Mar.18/12 20 a.m.|Turin and other|Apparent diameter)Brilliant white|About 2 mi- Passed directly over (local time).| places in Pied-| of full moon. nutes. Very| the townof Turin mont. protracted from the moun- course, and| tains near Susa, slow speed.| towards the op j posite horizon. » 23] 6 35 p.m. Broadstairs Disk of apparent/Nucleus green,|.........+++4++-|First appearance at (Kent). size of Sirius, in-| with red a point about 30° cluding his rays.| train. above the N. } E,| horizon. » 24) 4 25 a.m.|Volpeglino, and|Nucleus 25’ diame-|Brilliant white/Slow and (From a Cygni, a (local time).) other stations) ter. stately mo-| cross « Andros) in Piedmont. tion. meds, to near ¢ Apr.11} 9 46 p.m.| Ibid, Moncalieri, Nucleus 10’ diame- Bluish white... Piscium, or a — From 309°-+45° to 10+ 7 o= - cc (local time).| Piedmont. ter. From 211°—10° to 223 +28 — [From 221 —11 to lll +28 — From 175 +15 to 111 +32] _ » 12} 8 15 p.m.|Lodi; Moncalieri,/ Very large and bril- Reddishe: then) sess S Vie i 31...|221/ +28 § Boots. I) 3 XX ¢.|Apr. 10 .|163/-+-47]....0000 Schiapa- XXTI b)Apr. 14 .|167/+47].....000 relli [M,. |Apr. 20 .|/160)+49]............ Heis.] Should the effect of planetary perturbations, which retarded the return of Halley’s comet in the year 1859 nearly one month from the time of its perihelion passage, as calculated by D’Alembert and Clairault, also explain the wide differ- ence between the separate coils of spiral meteoric streams apparently encoun- tered by the earth in the meteor-systems of which the above groups or families of radiant-points appear to present unmistakable examples, a new field of investigation in meteoric astronomy, and of future observation and research, is beginning to unfold itself in these new and interesting discoveries. _ 2. On Comets and Meteors, by Professor Kirkwood, Indiana University, U.S. (read before the American Philosophical Society, November 19, 1869). In an able treatise on ‘‘ Meteoric Astronomy,” already noticed in these Reports (for 1868, p. 418), a short Appendix (B) at the end of the volume on “Comets and Meteors” expresses the views on their connexion which Professor Kirkwood communicated, so long ago as July 1861, to the ‘ Danville Quarterly Review’ for December in that year. ‘‘ Different views are enter- tained by astronomers in regard to the origin of comets, some believing them to enter the solar system ab extra, others supposing them to have originated within its limits. The former is the hypothesis of Laplace, and is regarded with fayour by many eminent astronomers. ....... Now, according to Laplace’s hypothesis, patches of nebulous matter haye been left nearly in equilibrium in the interstellar spaces. As the sun in his progress ap- proaches such clusters, they must, by virtue of his attraction, move towards the centre of our system, the nearer portions with greater velocity than the more remote. The nebulous fragments thus drawn into our system would constitute comets; those of the same cluster would enter the solar domain at periods not very distant from each other. ... If we adopt Laplace’s hy- pothesis of the origin of comets, we may suppose an almost continuous fall of primitive nebular matter toward the centre of our system—the drops of which, penetrating the earth’s atmosphere, produce sporadic meteors, the larger aggregations forming comets. The disturbing influence of the planets OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 49 may have transformed the original orbits of many of the former as well as of the latter into ellipses. It is an interesting fact that the motions of some luminous meteors (or cometoids, as, perhaps, they might be called) have been decidedly indicative of an origin beyond the limits of the planetary system. But how are the phenomena of periodic meteors to be accounted for in ac- cordance with this theory ? “The division of Biela’s comet into two distinct parts suggests several interesting questions in cometary physics. The nature of the separating force remains to be discovered; ‘but it is impossible to doubt that it arose from the divellent action of the sun, whatever may have been the mode of operation. A signal manifestation of the influence of the sun is sometimes afforded by the breaking up of a comet into two or more separate parts, on the occasion of its approach to the perihelion’*. No less than six such in- stances are found distinctly recorded in the Annals of Astronomy, viz.:—1. Ancient bipartition of a comet.—Seneca. 2. Separation of a comet into a number of fragments, 11 B.c.—Dion Cassius. 3. Three comets seen simul- taneously pursuing the same orbit, 4.p. 896.—Ohinese Records. 4. Probable separation of a comet into parts, A.v. 1618.—Hevelius. 5. Indications of separation, 1661.—AHevelius. 6. Bipartition of Biela’s Comet, 1845-46. «In view of these facts it seems highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that the process of division has taken place in several instances besides that of Biela’s Comet. May not the force, whatever it is, that has produced one separation again divide the parts? And may not this action continue until the fragments become invisible? According to the theory now generally received, the periodic phenomena of shooting-stars are produced by the inter- section of the orbits of such nebulous bodies with the earth’s annual path. Now there is reason to believe that these meteoric rings are very elliptical, and in this respect wholly dissimilar to the rings of primitive vapour which, according to the nebular hypothesis, were successively abandoned at the solar equator; in other words, that the matter of which they are composed moves in cometary rather than in planetary orbits. May not our periodic meteors be the débris of ancient but now disintegrated comets, whose matter has be- come distributed round their orbits?” These views, announced in the year 1861, were afterwards completely established by the calculations of Professor Newton and Professor Schia- parelli regarding the real orbital velocities of shooting-stars, proving them to move, generally, in parabolic, or cometic, rather than in planetary orbits ; and by the astonishing discovery in the year 1866, by Professor Schiaparelli, of the almost absolute identity of the orbit of Tuttle’s Comet (III. 1862) with that of the August, and of the orbit of Temple’s Comet (I. 1866) with that of the November meteor-stream, supposing (as the researches of Professor Newton and Professor Adams amply prove) that the latter, and presumably also the former of those meteor-clouds revolve in elliptic orbits of such considerable length, as not to differ much from the comets in their times of revolution. In his communication to the American Philosophical Society, Professor Kirkwood retraces the recent researches of Hoek, Leverrier, and Schiaparelli respecting the probable circumstances of the introduction of comets and periodical shooting-stars ab ewtra into the limits of the planetary system. The disturbing force by which their cosmical orbits were converted ‘into elliptic ones of short periods (it is found in harmony with the preceding theory) was probably the overpowering attraction of one of the larger planets near to which the cosmical bodies first entered the limits of the solar system. * Grant's ‘ History of Physical Astronomy,’ p. 302. £371. z 50. REPORT—1871. In the following Table Professor Kirkwood compares together the aphelion distances of the several known comets of short periods with the mean dis- tances of the several larger planets from the sun :— x =| a2 a = ae ions so Bore ‘Z| Comets. ‘s E ae Comets. 8 cn | D a= w 6g a3 Oo”, ad paeaes et oe ramers 2 | ae Eee 1, |Encke’s ...| 4°09 1. Peter’s (1846, VI.)....... 9°45 Saturns’s mean 2. 1819, IV..-.| 4°81} 2. |Tuttle’s (1858, I.) ......| 10°42} distance 9°54. 3. |De Vico’s...| 5°02 & S vr Dias «1G ae ail _———— 4, |Pigott’s 4 Sa « 11867, Lis. serceccceseseerees| 19°28 3 G ey oo rin | 2. November Meteors...... 19°65 ee pt 5, |1867, 11. ...| 5:29) 25 || 3. 1866, Leessersesceresererees 19°92 12283 6. |1743, I..... 532] 8S | —— See Ter a — 7. |1766, I. ...) 547) s3 | 1. |Westphal’s (1852, 1V.).| 31°97 8. |1819, TIT...) 5°55) 2 g 2. |Pons' (1812) ...sececeeee 33°41 9. |Brorsen’s | 5°64) = 9 3. Olbers’ (1815).....0+--++- | 34°05 | Neptune’s mean 10. ‘D’Arrest’s.| 5°75} 33 4. |De Vico’s (1846, IV.)...| 34°35 | distance 30°04. 11. |Faye’s ......| 5°93] & 5. |Brorsen’s (1847, V-) -+-| 35°07 12. Biela’s ...... 6'19| G6. |Halley’s ...cccsecsresseees | 35°37 It is also evident that the passage of the solar system through a region of space comparatively destitute of cometic clusters would be indicated by a corresponding paucity of comets. Such variations of frequency are, indeed, found not only in the records of comets, but also of meteoric showers which have been accidentally recorded, the greater number of the latter having been observed during the five centuries between 700 4.p. and 1200 a.p., and again in those following a.p. 1700, suggesting that during the former and, perhaps, again during the present period the solar system is passing through a cosmical or meteoric cloud of very great extent,—not less, indeed, on the received speed of the sun’s proper motion, than fourteen times the width of Neptune’s orbit. Professor Kirkwood adds, in particular reference to the August meteor-system, “The fact that the August meteors, which have been so often subsequently observed, were first noticed in 811 {see M. Quetelet’s Catalogue of Star-showers] renders it probable that the cluster was intro- duced into the planetary system not long previously to the year 800. It may be also worthy of remark that the elements of the comet of 770 4.p. are not very different from those of the August meteors and of the third comet of 1682”*. With regard to the sun’s passage through a meteoric cloud of the above-considered dimen- sions and constitution it is noticed that the num- ber of cometary perihelia found in the two qua- drants of longitude towards and from which the sun is moving is 159, or 62 per cent., and that of peri- helia in the two other quadrants is 98, or 38 per cent., showing their tendency to crowd together about the direction of the sun’s proper motion in space. The large excess of * The interval between the perihelion passage of 770 and that of 1862 is equal to 9 periods of 121°36 years. Oppolzer’s determination of the period of 1862, III., is 121-5 years. Hind remarks that the elements of the Comet of 770 are “rather uncertain,” but says “that the general character of the orbit is decided.” It may be worthy of remark oN a great meteoric shower, the exact date of which has not been preserved, occurred ir OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 51 the number of the cometary perihelia closest to the sun in the forward qua- lrants, relatively to the direction of his proper motion in space, is also re- garded as indicating the direction of the sun’s motion through the meteor- loud in a manner which the facts of observation evidently corroborate. 3. On the Periods of certain Meteoric rings. By Professor Kirkwood (read 0 the American Philosophical Society, March 4, 1870).—According to the »omputed elements of the Comet I. 1861 (by Oppolzer), first shown by Dr. Edmund Weiss (Astron. Nachr. no. 1632) to agree very closely with those of hhe April meteor-stream, its periodic time of revolution is 415:4 years. On he other hand, Professor Kirkwood points out that, without accepting a shorter yeriodic time of revolution, the former April displays recorded in ancient imes do not agree with the time of revolution of the comet. Adopting a veriod of about 281 years for the cycle of returns of the April shower, the vhole of the dates of its appearance selected by Professor Newton as agreeing vell with those of its most recent appearance in the present century are re- resented with perfect accuracy by the following scheme :— Dates of former appearances. Interval in years. Pera 02687 tO. 8.6. 1520.2. odicensacacbences 672*000=24 periods of 28-000 years each. B.C. 15 £O A.D. 582 ...ccccesee seeneee 597;000=21 9 28-429 % D. 582 to AD. 1093°71 tween 3 ; 1093 and soe) pd © opas Saison } ce ba a ze 28429 2 BeDeLOOS7 0A tO 1222 TAZ sesvasscecrecs 28'429= 1 ¥ 28°429 PA AWD. 1222°143 tO 1803......sssseeceseereee 680°857=24 Fp 28-369 * The periodical time of 28} years corresponds to an ellipse whose major xis is 18:59, and whose aphelion distance is very nearly equal to the mean listance of the planet Uranus. A remark of Mr. Du Chaillu is here believed to be rightly recalled, that he observed the April meteors in the equatorial parts of Africa almost as brilliant, and leaving streaks more enduring than those of the great November meteor-shower (of which he was also an ob- server in England, in the year 1866). If the date of Mr. Du Chaillu’s obser- vation was about the year 1860, a corroboration of Professor Kirkwood’s cycle of 283 years repeated twice since the great display of those meteors in the year 1803 would be thence derived. The April meteor-shower was also sufficiently bright in the year 1863 to make its approach to an epoch of maximum brilliancy in about that year a somewhat probable conjecture. Among the formerly recorded star-showers which appear to have certainly been connected with the December meteor-system, Professor Kirkwood points out a notice of such an occurrence in the year a.p, 901. Others are found to have taken place in the years 930, 1571, 1830, 1833, and 1836, with an apparent maximum in the year 1833, when as many as ten meteors were seen simultaneously. Finally, pretty abundant displays of the shower were observed in the years 1861, 1862, and 1863, with a probable maximum in the year 1862. These dates indicate a period of about 293 years, thus— GOL ito’ ‘930....... teseeese I period of 29'000 years, 930 to 1571.... 22 93 29°136- (5 1571 to 1833.... 9 “ SOLUTE: | 159 1633 to "¥862.......... I RS 29°000_—l—=», A third meteoric shower, that of the 15th-21st of October, presents, again, a similar period of revolution. The recorded dates of apparitions which cor- respond in the times of their appearance with the present meteor-showers of the 15th-21st of October are the years a.p. 288, 1436 and 1439, 1743, and 1798, on each of which occasions a great number of shooting-stars were E2 52 REPORT—1871. seen. The periodic time of 273 years is well indicated by these dates, thus :— A.D. 288 tO 1439...+.00- Sree pc 42 periods of 27°405 years each. 1439 tO 1743.-.ceceereeerereeeees II 9 27°636 i 1743 tO 1798....0eeeeeeeeereeees 2 99 27°500 +3 «Tf these periods are correct, it is a remarkable coincidence that the aphelion distances of the meteoric rings of April 18th—20th, October 15th- 21st, November 14th, and December 11th—13th, as well as those of the comets 1866 I., and 1867 I. are all nearly equal to the mean distance of Uranus.” 4. Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Sternschnuppen, von Dr. Edmund Weiss (Sitzungsberichte of the Imperial Academy of Vienna for January 16, 1868) presents a short summary of the mathematical problems required to be solved in the determination of the parabolic orbit, and the actual relative speed of the meteors’ course in the atmosphere, from the known position of the radiant-point ; and shows how approximate calculations of the velocities of shooting-stars have led to discoveries, in proving certain periodical meteor- currents to be intimately connected with comets of which the orbits have recently been determined*. 5. The Fuel of the Sun, by W. Mattieu Williams, F.C.S. (8vo, 222 pp. Simpkin and Marshall).—An attempt to explain convulsions of the sun’s sur- face by planetary disturbances of a universal atmosphere collected in greatest density about the larger bodies of the solar system, and agitated by tides arising from their several attractions, is the theory for the establishment of which a collection of the greatest interest of recent observations of solar physics has been brought into a small compass by the author of the work, and is well directed to explain the chief phenomena of solar physics. The corona is regarded (Chapter XIII.) as originating in solar projectiles driven from its surface with eruptive violence. In the following chapter the source of meteorites is conjectured to be the solar projectiles which thus pass beyond the boundaries of the zodiacal light ; some of which being confined to revolve in two principal orbits outside of that luminary, and in several intermediate zones of irregularly and more thinly scattered projectiles, may be regarded as giving rise to the August and November, as well as to other minor and more or less regular meteoric displays. Somewhat more important specu- lations and descriptions of the meteorology of the moon and planets, as well as of the distribution of the nebulw, suggesting the stellar origin of some of those bodies, occupy the greater portion of the remainder of the work. * The velocity of the April meteors, or Lyraids, of the 20th of April meteoric shower, — relatively to the earth, is given in Dr. Weiss’s list of radiant-points and relative velocities of cometary orbits, in the above paper, as 1-585, that of the earth in its orbit being unity. Adopting the value of 18°6 miles per second for the earth’s mean orbital velocity, this gives the relative velocity of the Lyraids, or April shower-meteors, 29-5 miles per second ; very nearly that observed (30 miles per second) in the case of the only shooting-star of the shower doubly observed, as described in this Report, on the night of the 20th of April last. ON FOSSIL CRUSTACEA. 53 Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Henry Woovwarp, F.G.S., F.Z.8S., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., and R. Eraeripner, F.R.S., on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea, drawn up by Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S., F.Z.S. Suyce I had last the honour to present a Report on the Structure and Clas- sification of the Fossil Crustacea, I have published figures and descriptions of the following species, namely :— Drcaropa BracuyuRa. 1. Rhachiosoma bispinosa, H. Woodw. Lower Eocene, Portsmouth. 2. echinata, H. W. Lower Eocene, Portsmouth. 3. Paleocorystes glabra, H. W. Lower Eocene, Portsmouth. All figured and described in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvii. p, 90, pl. 4. Drcaropa Macrura. 4. Scyllaridia Belli, H.W. London Clay, Sheppey. Geol. Mag. 1870, vol, vii. p. 493, pl. 22. fig. 1. AMPHIPODA. 5. Necrogammarus Salweyi, H. W. Lower Ludlow, Leintwardine. Figured and described Trans. Woolhope Club, 1870, p. 271, pl. 11. Isopopa. 6. Palega Carteri, H. W. Lower Chalk, Dover, &c. Geol. Mag. 1870, vol. vii. p. 493, pl. 22. fig. 1. 7. Prearcturus gigas, H. W. Old Red Sandstone, Rowlestone, Hereford- shire. Trans. Woolhope Club, 1870, p. 266. Merostomata. 8. Hurypterus Brodie, H. W. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1871, August. Trans. Woolhope Club, 1870, p. 276. PHYLLOPODA. *9. Dithyrocaris tenuistriatus, M°Coy. Carboniferous Limestone, Settle, Yorkshire. 10. Dithyrocaris Belli, H. W. Devonian, Gaspé, Canada. 11. Ceratiocaris Ludensis, H. W. Lower Ludlow, Leintwardine. 12. Ceratiocaris Oretonensis, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Oreton, Worcestershire. 13. Ceratiocaris truncatus, H.W. Carboniferous Limestone, Oreton, Worces- tershire. Figured and described in the Geol. Mag. 1871, vol. viii. p. 104, pl. 3. 14, Cyclus bilobatus, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Settle, Yorkshire. 15. torosus, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Little Island, Cork. 16. —— Wrightii, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Little Island, Cork. 17. Harknesst, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Little Island, Cork. ais. radialis, Phillips. Carboniferous Limestone, Settle, Yorkshire, Visé, Belgium. *19. Cyclus Rankini, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Carluke, Lanarkshire. [*20. “ Brongniartianus,’ De Kon. Carboniferous Limestone, York- shire, Belgium. | 21. Cyclus Jonesianus, H. W. Carboniferous Limestone, Little Island, Cork. (These latter figured and described in the Geol. Mag. 1870, vol. vii. pl. 23. figs. 1-9.) {Those marked with an asterisk have been already figured, but have been redrawn and redescribed in order to add to or correct previous deseriptions. 54 REPORT—1871. Thus, for example, “ Cyclus Brongniartianus” proves upon careful examina- tion to be only the hypostome of a Trilobite belonging to the genus Phillipsia. Dithyrocaris tenuistratus is identical with Avicula paradowides of De Koninck, &e. ae noticing the occurrence of an Isopod, Pulega Carteri, from the Kentish, Cambridge, and Bedford Chalk, Dr. Ferd. Roemer, of Breslau, has forwarded me the cast of a specimen of the same crustacean from the Chalk of Upper Silesia. This, together with the example from the Miocene of Turin, gives a very wide geographical as well as chronological range to this enus. A still more remarkable extension of the Isopoda in time is caused by the discovery of the form which I have named Prearcturus in the Devonian of Herefordshire, apparently the remains of a gigantic Isopod resembling the modern Arcturus Baffinsii. I have also described from the Lower Ludlow a form which I have referred with some doubts to the Amphipoda, under the generic name of Necrogam- marus. Representatives both of the Isopoda and Amphipoda will doubtless be found in numbers in our Paleozoic rocks, seeing that Macruran Decapods are found as far back as the Coal-measures*, and Brachyurous forms in the Oolites +. Indeed the suggestion made by Mr. Billings as to the Trilobita being fur- nished with legs (see Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxyi. pl. 31. fig. 1), if established upon further evidence, so as to be applied to the whole class, would carry the Isopodous type back in time to our earliest Cambrian rocks. I propose to carry out an investigation of this group for the purpose of confirming Mr. Billings’s and my own observations, by the examination of a longer series of specimens than have hitherto been dealt with. In the mean time the authenticity of the conclusions arrived at by Mr. Billings having been called in question by Drs. Dana, Verrill, and Smith (see the American Journ. of Science for May last, p. 320; Annals & Mag. Nat. Hist. for May, p- 366), I have carefully considered their objections, and have replied to the same in the Geological Magazine for July last, p. 289, pl. 8; and I may be permitted here to briefly state the arguments pro and con, seeing they are of the greatest importance in settling the systematic position of the Trilo- pita among the Crustacea. Until the discovery of the remains of ambulatory appendages by Mr. Bil- lings in an Asaphus from the Trenton Limestone (in 1870), the only appen- dage heretofore deteeted associated with any Trilobite was the hypostome or lip-plate. From its close agreement with the lip-plate in the recent Apus, and also from the fact of the number of body-rings exceeding that attained in any other group save in the Entomostraca, nearly all naturalists who have paid attention to the Trilobita in the past thirty years have concluded that they possessed only soft membranaceous gill-feet, similar to those of Branchipus, Apus, and other Phyllopods. The large compound sessile eyes, and the hard, shelly, many-segmented body, with its compound caudal and head-shield, differ from any known Phyllopod, but offer many points of analogy with the modern Isopodst ; and * Anthrapalemon Grossartii, Salter, Coal-measures, Glasgow. t Paleinachus longipes, H. Woodw., Forest Marble, Wilts. $ It should always, however, be borne in mind that as the Trilobita offer, as a group, no fixed number of body-rings and frequently possess more than twenty-one segments, they a ae » piteemeees ON FOSSIL CRUSTACEA. 55 one would be led to presuppose the Trilobites possessed of organs of loco- motion of a stronger texture than mere branchial frills. The objection raised by Drs. Dana and Verrill to the special case of ap- pendages in the Asaphus assumed by Mr. Billings to possess ambulatory legs, - is that the said appendages were merely the semicalcified arches in the inte- gument of the sternum to which the true appendages were attached. A comparison, which these gentlemen have themselves suggested, between the abdomen of a Macruran Decapod and the Trilobite in question is the best refutation of their own argument. The sternal arches in question are firmly united to each tergal piece at the margin, not along the median ventral line. If, then, the supposed legs of the Trilobite correspond to these semicalcified arches in the Macruran Decapod, they might be expected to lie irregularly along the median line, but to unite with the tergal pieces at the lateral border of each somite. In the fossil we find just the contrary is the case ; for the organs in question occupy a definite position on either side of a median line along the ventral surface, but diverge widely from their corresponding tergal pieces at each lateral border, being directed forward and outwards in a very similar position to that in which we should expect legs (not sternal arches) to lie beneath the body-rings of a fos- sil crustacean. The presence, however, of semicalcified sternal arches pre- supposes the possession of stronger organs than mere foliaceous gill-feet ; whilst the broad shield-shaped caudal plate suggests most strongly the posi- tion of the branchiz. In the case of the Trenton Asaphus I shall be satis- fied if it appears, from the arguments I have put forward, that they are most probably legs—feeling assured that. more evidence ought to be demanded be- fore deciding on the systematic position of so large a group as the Trilobita from only two specimens*. With regard to the embryology and development of the modern King- Crab (Limulus polyphemus), we must await the conclusions of Dr. Anton Dohrn before deciding as to the affinities presented by its larval stages to certain of the Trilobita, such relations being only in general external form. Dr. Packard (Reports of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, August 1870) remarks, ‘The whole embryo bears a very near resem- blance to certain genera of Trilobites, as Trinucleus, Asaphus, and others ;” and he adds, “ Previous to hatching it strikingly resembles Trinucleus and other Trilobites, suggesting that the two groups, should, on embryonic and structural grounds, be included in the same order, especially now that Mr. E. Billings has demonstrated that Asaphus possessed eight pairs of 5-jointed legs of uniform size.” Such statements are apt to mislead unless we carefully compare the cha- racters of each group. And first let me express a caution against the too hasty construction of a classification based upon larval characters alone. Larval characters are useful guide-posts in defining great groups, and also in indicating affinities between great groups; but the more we become acquainted with larval forms the greater will be our tendency (if we attempt to base our classification on their study) to merge groups together which we had before held as distinct. have, as a matter of course, been considered as belonging to a much lower group than the Tsopoda, in which the normal number of somites is seven. Whilst admilting the justice of this conclusion, we do not think it affords any good ground for rejecting the proposition that the Isopoda may be the direct lineal descendants of the Trilobita. * One in Canada and one in the British Museum, both of the same species. 56. REPORT-—1871. To take a familiar instance: if we/compare the larval stages of the Com- mon Shore-Crab (Carcinus menasy with Pterygotus, we should be obliged (according to the arguments of Dr. Packard) to place them near to or in the same group. The eyes in both are sessile, the functions of locomotion, prehension, and mastication are all performed by one set of appendages, which are attached to the mouth; the abdominal segments are natatory, but destitute of any appendages. Such characters, however, are common to the larve of many crustaceans widely separated when adult, the fact being that in the larval stage we find in this group what has been so often observed by naturalists in other groups of the animal kingdom, namely, a shadowing forth in the larval stages of the road along which its ancestors travelled ere they arrived from the remote past at the living present. If we place the characters of Limulus and Pterygotus side by side, and also those of Trilobita and Isopoda, we shall find they may be, in the present state of our knowledge, so retained in classification. 1; Pterygotus (Fossil, extinct). Limulus (Fossil, and living). 1. Eyes sessile, compound. 1. Eyes sessile, compound. 2. Ocelli distinctly seen. 2. Two ocelli distinctly seen. 3. All the limbs serving as mouth- | 3. All the limbs serving as mouth- organs. organs. 4, Anterior thoracic segments bear- | 4. All the thoracic segments bear- ing branchiz or reproductive ing branchie or reproductive organs. organs. 5, Other segments destitute of any | 5. Other segments destitute of any appendages. appendages. 6. Thoracic segments wnanchylosed. | 6, Thoracic segments anchylosed. 7, Abdominal segments freeand well | 7, Abdominal segments anchylosed developed. and rudimentary. 8, Metastoma large. 8. Metastoma rudimentary. LE, Trilobita (Fossil, extinct). Isopoda (Fossil, and living). 1. Eyes sessile, compound. 1. Eyes sessile, compound. 2. No ocelli visible. 2. No ocelli visible. 3. Appendages partly oral, partly | 3. Appendages partly oral, partly ambulatory, arranged in pairs. |- ambulatory, arranged in pairs. 4, Thoracic segments variable in| 4, Thoracic segments usually seven, number, from 8 even to 28, free free and movable (animal and movable (animal semetimes sometimes rolling into a ball). rolling into a ball). 5, Abdominal series coalesced to | 5. Abdominal somites coalesced, and form a broad caudal shield, forming a broad caudal shield, bearing the branchize beneath. bearing the branchiz beneath. 6. Lip-plate well developed. 6. Lip-plate small. Should our further researches confirm Mr. Billings’s discovery fully, we may propose for the second pair of these groups a common designation, meantime we give the above as representing the present state of our knowledge. ON THE CENSUS. 57 Report of the Committee appointed at the Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, 1870, consisting of Prof. Jrvons, R. Dupiry Baxter, J. T. Danson, James Hrywoop, F.R.S., Dr. W. B. Hopeson, and Prof. Waney, with EymMunD Mtoe, as their Secretary, “for the purpose of urging upon Her Majesty’s ‘Government the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of ready and effective comparison.” Your Committee after their appointment held meetings in London, and agreed upon the following Memorial :— “ Untrormity of Pian for the Census of the Unitrep Kinepom. “To the Right Honourable Henry Austin Bruce, M.P., &c. &c., Her Ma- jesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department. “Memorial of the Committee of the British Association, appointed in Liver- pool, September 1870, for the purpose of urging upon Her Majesty’s Government the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of ready and effectual com- parison. “Your memorialists beg respectfully to represent that the value of statistical information depends mainly upon the accuracy and expedition with which comparisons can be made between facts relating to different districts. «They also consider that the ease and rapidity with which researches in the census tables can be made is one principal object to be held in view in de- termining the form of their publication. They therefore desire that not only should the enumeration of the people be conducted in all places in an exactly uniform manner, so far as is compatible with the terms of the several Census Acts, but that there should be no divergence in the modes of tabulating and printing the results. They wish that the tables for England, Scotland, and Ireland should form as nearly as possible one uniform and consistent whole. “Your memorialists could specify a great many points in which there was divergence between the tables for 1861, but they will mention only a few of the more important cases. «1, The detailed population tables of England, Scotland, and Ireland differ as regards the periods of age specified.“ The Scotch report gives twenty-one intervals of age, the Irish report generally twenty-two, and the English only thirteen. Either one-third of the printed matter in the Scotch and Trish tables is superfluous, or that in the English tables deficient. «2. The classification of occupations is apparently identical in the three reports, but there is much real discrepancy between the Irish and English reports, rendering exact comparison difficult. «*3. In the Irish report there is no comparison and classification of occupa- tions according to age, classification according to religions being substituted, although such a classification could not be made in England or Scotland. ‘4, In the appendix to the English report appears a table (No. 56), giving 58 . REPORT—1871. most important information as regards the numbers of the population at each year of age. Inconvenience has been felt from the want of similar in- formation concerning the populations of Scotland and Ireland. “<5, In the appendix to the Irish report they find some interesting Tables (I1., III., and IV.), to which there is nothing exactly corresponding in the other reports, so far as they have been able to discover. «6. The tables, even when containing the same information, are often stated in different forms and arrangements, seriously increasing the labour of research. «Your memorialists therefore beg to suggest :— «J, That the principal body of tables relating to the numbers, age, sex, birthplace, civil condition, and occupation of the people should be drawn up and printed in an exactly identical form for the three parts of the United Kingdom. “TI. That while the Commissioners may with great advantage continue to exercise their free discretion in drawing up such minor tables as appear to have special interest for distinct localities, they should agree to prepare in a uniform manner such minor or summary tables as may be of importance as regards all the parts of the United Kingdom. “ TIT. That a general Index of Subjects should be prepared for the whole of the reports, appendices, and tables, so that an inquirer can readily ascertain where the corresponding information for different parts of the United Kingdom is to be found, without making, as hitherto, three independent searches through a mass of complex and almost unindexed information. “Tt would appear that the officers engaged in superintending the Census of 1861 acted to a certain extent in concert and agreement. “Your memorialists beg respectfully to request that those officers be in- structed, on the present occasion, to confer with each other prior to drawing up the tables for 1871, with a view of preserving perfect uniformity in their operations, and avoiding all such divergencies in the three reports as are not required by the Census Acts or the essential differences of the three Kingdoms. ‘« One of the Secretaries of the Statistical Society. «¢Epmp. Macrory, M.A., Secretary of the Committee of the British Association for a Uni- formity of Plan in the Census Tables of the United Kingdom.” The above memorial was immediately presented to the Right Hon. H. A. Bruce, M.P., Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Home De- partment, and has been by him referred to the Registrars General for their report thereon. ON ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. 59 The returns of the Census having only recently been collected, too little time has as yet elapsed for the perfect arrangements of the tables to be completed, but your Committee have reason to believe that the recommenda- tions contained in the above memorial will ultimately be, to a considerable extent, adopted by Her Majesty’s Government. Postscript.—Since the above Report was drawn up, the Committee have received a formal reply from the Home Office (dated 26th September, 1871), informing them that the Home Secretary ‘has desired the Registrar General for Scotland, and has requested the Lord Lieutenant to desire the Census Commissioners in Ireland, to frame their tables in conformity with those submitted by the Registrar General for England and Wales, and approved by Mr. Bruce, as far as circumstances will admit; and that with this view he has instructed the above-mentioned officers to place themselves in com- munication with the Registrar General for England and Wales.” Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of Superintending the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers. The Committee consists of Prof. A. W. Wiu.tamson, F-.R.S., Prof. H. E. Roscor, F.R.S., Prof. E. Franxuanp, F.R.S. Tuer Committee are glad to be able to announce that regular monthly re- ports of the progress of Chemistry have been published since April Ist, 1871, by the Chemical Society. These Reports have been rendered, as far as pos- sible, complete by abstracts, more or less full, of all papers of scientific in- terest, and of the more important papers relating to applied chemistry. The abstracts have been made by chemists, most of whom are members of the Society, whose zeal for the science has induced them to undertake the work for the small honorarium which the Council has been able to offer. A numerous Committee of Publication has been formed, whose Members gra- tuitously undertake the revision of the proofs and a comparison of the ab- stracts with the original papers. The Reports are edited by Mr. Watts, each monthly part being bound up with the corresponding number of the Chemical Society’s Journal. Each volume will be furnished with a full index, and will give a complete view of the progress of Chemistry during the year. The Committee feel that their thanks are due to all those gentlemen en- gaged in the work for having already so far succeeded in accomplishing a task of such difficulty and importance, and they confidently hope that their continued exertions will still further perfect the details of the scheme so as gradually to increase the usefulness of the Reports. It is right to state that the funds of the Chemical Society available for the purpose of the Reports, although so opportunely aided by a grant of _ £100 from the British Association, were insufficient to defray the necessary expenses, and that voluntary contributions to the amount of upwards of 60 . REPORT—1871. £200 have been received towards the cost of publication for the first year, up to April 1872. There is good reason to believe that the expectations entertained of the usefulness of these Reports will be fully realized by their continuance on the present system, and that they will be found largely to conduce to the pro- gress of the science wherever the English language is spoken. Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of Change. The Committee consists of the Rev. T, W. Wess and Evwarp Crosstey, Secretary. Tar Committee have much pleasure in presenting their first Report on the above subject. Though much attention has been given of late years to a large number of lunar objects, your Committee felt that they could not accomplish their purpose better than by confining their Report to the discus- sion of a limited and well-observed portion of the lunar surface. No person seeking to discover evidence of geologic change would be constantly travel- ling over the whole surface of our globe, but would of necessity confine his attention to a small area for a considerable period of time. This has been the course adopted on the moon. Plato, a vast crater, containing 2700 square miles, in 51° N. lat. and 10° E. long., has presented a most interest- ing and important variety of features, which we have endeavoured to photo- graph, so to speak, with pen and pencil, with a view, if not at once to obtain our ultimate object, at least to lay out the groundwork for future observers. The Report has been carefully drawn up by Mr. W. R. Birt on behalf of the Committee. Time has only permitted the discussion of the observations of the bright spots and craterlets seen on the floor of Plato; whereas your Committee consider that it is equally important that the observations of the numerous streaks, with the faults and other peculiar features noticed on the floor and walls of this fine formation, should be likewise discussed, in order that something like a complete description of this object as observed at the present time may be presented to the Association for the use of future sele- nographers. Your Committee would therefore request that a further grant of £20 may be placed at their disposal for this purpose during the ensuing year. Report on the Discussion of Observations of Spots on the Surface of the Innar Crater Plato. By W. R. Brrr. Tn executing the task confided to me of discussing certain observations of the spots on the lunar crater Plato, one of the first points which I deemed it important to ascertain was the effect which the intensity of the sun’s light as a function of his altitude might produce on the visibility of the spots. The number of spots actually observed between April 1869 and April 1871 inclusive, amounted to 37, the greater portion (21) having been discovered in this interval. In order to become acquainted with phenomena possibly con- nected with an increase of light on the floor of the crater, the observations have been arranged under intervals of twelve hours, from sunrise to sunset on Plato, and a ledger formed for each interval, the number of which is 31. From these ledgers the results in Table II. have been deduced, viz. the mean number of spots visible during each interval, and the actual number of spots observed during each interval. For illustrating the results OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 61 the curves in fig. 1 have been projected. The first curve is that of solar altitudes at the moon, epoch the equinoxes, locality 50° north or south lati- tude. The second curve is that of the mean number of spots visible during each interval. Fig. 1. OK) Ui gle tors. 17 | | 30° 30° 20° 20° 10° 10° 0° No. 1 Ene 7 9) PLie eis pip My erior © QUNt 2a yb a7 use SL Curve No. 1. Solar altitudes. Latitude 50° at equinoxes, Curve No. 2. Curve of mean number of spots visible each interval. Taste I. Solar Altitudes at Moon. Latitude 50°. Latitude 55°. peer Winter. Equinoxes. | Summer. Winter. Equinoxes. Summer. | a Val. | Val. h om k ° i Ws ° end es tou ° ee ht) a “ h Re Wlesaves: <>< +555 si Peturtceee 1 10 35 | sseeeeceseeceee | cescerevaeeeees 1 15 28 0 12 A444 4 3 54 50 5 5 35 2 15 52 3 29 32 445 6 12 24 6 36 48 TAS Ge eS aoe v7 & 41 19 6 57 29 8 13 24 | 34 36 | 10 26 0 | 11 88 10 | 12 & 6 9 6 19 | 10 22 6 | 11 38 48 | 36 48 14 10 0O 15 23 20 16 36 30 12 24 10 13 42 0O 14 59 30 48 60 17 46 50 19° 2; 0 | 20 16 20 15 35 40 16 55 «600 18 13 40 60 72 21 14 40 22 31 20 | 23 47 30 18 38 40 19 59 0 21 19 20 72 84 24 31 O 20 49 30 | 27 7 50 21 30 30 22 52 30 24 14 20 84 96 27 33 30 28 54 20 | 30 14 60 23 4 50 25 33 +O | 26 56 40 | 96 108 | 30 19 30 sl 42 40 > 58 30 | 26 32 40 27 58 20 29 23 40 | 108 120 | 32 46 0 34 11 30 30 386 40 | 28 38 30 30. 65 «640 ) 120 132 34 50 0 | 36 17 30 37 «450—CO0 | 30 24 0 5L 53 0 33 21 50 | 152 144 36 28 20 Bie Dt 50. 39: 27 20" | 31 47. 10 33 17 40 34 47 50 | 144 156 | 37 38 30 9 9 10 | 40 40 40 | 32 46 30 | 34 17 50 | 35 49 20 | 156 168 38 18 30 39 50 30 | 41 22 20 33 20 0 34 52 .0 | 36 24 0O | 168 Mer.| 38 27 51 | 40 0 O 41 32 9 33 27 51 356000 36 32 «9 | Mer. | 62 REPORT—187]. TasreE II. Ordinates of Curve of Spot frequency. No. Interval. Altitude. Mean. | Number. One h h ° ° 1 0 to 12 == % 6 1-0 1 1 2 (NE EE pete ae ag ae 15 7 3 24 5, 36 35 9 59 14 6 4, 36 ,, 48 i » 18 59 14 8 ay 48 , 60 cE es |i 6-4 15 9 6. 60 , 72 15. ,, 21 71 13 7 if 72. Bt 18 ,, 24 12-0 27 6 8 84 ,, 96 22 ,, 28 101 oT if 96 ,, 108 Bb, OL 116 27 9 10 108 ,, 120 28 ,, 34 10:7 21 6 11 120. ,,. 182 Bl ,, 36 75 13 4 12 132 ,, 144 33 ,, 38 12°4 33 8 13 144 ,, 156 35 ,, 40 7-4 17 5 14 156 ,, 168 a: gg Det 9-2 19 6 15 168 ,, Mer. 38 ,, AZ 85 19 8 16 Mer. ,, 168 42 ,, 38 5:0 9 4 17 168 ,, 156 Al BY 9:3 21 9 18 156 ,, 144 40 ,, 35 12-2 93 5 19 144 ,, 182 38 ,, 33 9-1 25 8 20 132 5, 120 36 ., 81 63 9 3 21 120; ;, 108 34. ,, 28 6:0 8 3 22 108 ,, 96 31 |, 25 9:0 20 6 23 SY eoea tem i eae 52 12 5 24. BA. 72 24 5 18 | 130 23 3 25 72, 6 | 21,715 | 110 21 4 26 60 , 48 ee wl. 10:0 15 2 27 48 ,, 36 ee onid SAC 6:3 11 3 28, 36 ,, 24 Shae mic 58 13 6 29 24 12 BP 8-0 13 2 30 1D xs Ae Bj, = 5:0 if 2 31 — ,° 12 3:0 3 i We may regard the various maxima of the spot-curve as indicative :— First, of a greater number of observations during the intervals which furnish the maxima. It is true the column of observations may countenance this view ; but it does not hold in all cases, neither are the greater number of obserya-~ tions so pronounced as the maxima of the curve. Second, of a clearer state of the earth’s atmosphere than usual, enabling us to see more spots than when it is ordinarily translucent. This may to some extent explain the occurrence of maxima separated by several intervals, and probably those in- stances where we haye a larger number of spots with a smaller number of observations. Third, of an actual increase of visibility of the spots them- selves at different and widely separated epochs, the observations of such increased visibility falling at those intervals at which the maxima were re- corded. The following are the epochs at which the greatest number of spots were observed corresponding with the maxima of the curve :— First maximum. Interval 2. 1870, Jan. 10, 12 spots, 15 for the whole interval, from 7 opservations. Tnterval. Altitude | 0* | 1° 1 the commencement of these observations.) [he spots marked « were discovered previous t 34 | 35) 36 Sums. Means. Sums Visibility 6o to 72 72 84 84 ,, 96 96 108 108, 120 | Sums Visibilit, Sums Visibility Sums before) Meridian 1 } 1 03] *03)....- pees bese OS OH we pan Mer. to 163 168 ,, 156 156 4 144 144. 132 132 4, 120 Sums Visibility... 120 to 108 1o8 ,, 96 96 » 84 Fs 84 4 72 7z 60 Sums . Visibility... 60 to 48 48, 36 36 5 24 24 4 12 Sums . Visibility. | Sums after (Meridian 40» 37 49 5 35 38 33 36 zy 34 1 28 31 25 28 4, 22 24, 18 a1 15 7 40 13 7 94 3 Under 5 Second m whole inters Third ma: interval, fro; Third ma: interval, fro Fourth m: whole intery Fifth max interval, fro; Sixth mas interval, fro1 en we is comparat visible at a) evening. T spots depen mination, ot ever, trace the maxima above, that 1 the appearar of spots hay ever, derived the appearar By dividir groups, and data for cor spot for each 60 to 120 hi tudes 31° to 60 hours, alt From the re have a bird’: rally the visi spot No. 1, t tive of solar bility. Dur visibility, wh hours of the allow us to « fluenced in their first de which these Nos. 5, 14, from 60 ho frequently s peculiarities bility of cert of intensity connected w series of ob: the variatior OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 63 Second maximum. Interval 7. 1870, March 13, 17 spots, 27 for the whole interval, from 7 observations. Third maximum. Interval 12, 1870, May 13, 27 spots, 33 for the whole interval, from 8 observations. Third maximum. Interval12. 1870, Jan. 15, 22 spots, 33 for the whole interval, from 8 observations, Fourth maximum. Interval 19. 1869, Dee. 20, 19 spots, 25 for the whole interval, from 8 observations, Fifth maximum. Interval 22. 1870, Nov. 11, 13 spots, 20 for the whole interval, from 6 observations. Sixth maximum. Interval 24. 1870, Sept. 14, 16 spots, 23 for the whole interval, from 3 observations. When we take the mean numbers of spots seen at each interval, the curve is comparatively flat, rising but little above the mean line of 7-9 spots visible at any interval, and this is about the mean number visible on any evening. The flatness of the curve is not accordant with an increase of spots dependent on an increase of solar altitude or greater angle of illu- mination, otherwise the apex would be much more decided. We may, how- ever, trace from the number of spots actually seen and contributing to the maxima of the spot-curve, as well as from the observations adduced above, that the change of illuminating angle does exercise an influence on the appearance of spots, inasmuch as on a few occasions the largest number of spots have been seen with higher illuminations, The actual curve, how- frequently seen from 120 to 60 hours before sunset. These, as well as the peculiarities of the other curves, strongly suggest that the variations of visi- bility of certain spots are not to any great extent dependent upon an increase of intensity of solar light, but rather upon some agency more particularly connected with the spots themselves. It is important to remark that another series of observations may furnish totally different diurnal curves, should the variations in visibility depend upon local lunar action. 64 REPORT—1871. In nearly every case the spots seen during the first 60 hours of the luni- solar day have increased during the day in visibility, 7. e. they were seen less frequently during this group of intervals than during the succeed- ing sixty hours. This increase, however, has not been regular, which it would have been from changes of illuminating angle alone, some spots haying been seen, as before stated, more fre- quently during the second group of intervals, while others have de- clined in visibility and not at- tained their maxima until the period 120 to 60 hours before sun- set. The diurnal curves of spots Nos. 14, 5, and 16 in the first category, and those of Nos. 9 and 11 in the second, have already been referred to; that of spot No. 22 (fig. 3) differs from the others by its showing an increase of visi- bility from sunrise to 120 hours before sunset. The visibilities of many spots are lower during the last 60 hours of the luni-solar day. The curves of visibility during the luni-solar day are essentially different from the curves of visi- bility as deduced from the obser- vations of twenty-four lunations, although both lead to the same Bebe wa result; and from both a very im- Diurnal Curves of Visibility. Spots on portant conclusion rel be drawn, Plato. viz. that upon assuming other agen- | eer a it cies to be in operation than changes — of illuminating angle, such as present activity, the epochs at which such activity was manifested varied to such an extent, and were so far separated from each other in time, as to coincide, in the case of spots Nos. 14, 5, and 16, with the period in the luni-solar day of 60 to 120 hours after sunrise, while the activity manifested by spots Nos. 9, 11, and 22 occurred at a later period of the luni-solar day, 120 to 60 hours before sunset. So far-as the varia- tions of visibility of spots Nos. 14, 5, 16, 9, 11, and 22 are concerned, they do not appear to depend exclusively on changes of illuminating angle, even if a certain intensity of solar light contributes generally to render the spots visible. While the four craterlets Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 are visible during the whole of the luni-solar day, the spots on their sites are seldom seen until the sun attains an altitude of about 30°, and then they appear as “ bright round disks ;” and this characteristic attaches as well to the craterlets as to other spots when the sun attains this altitude. With altitudes between 30° and 40° a different class of phenomena is manifested ; the sharp and distinct cha- OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 65 TABLE VY. Visibility. No ie hi h h h h h h by ek *! 0 to 60 | 60 to 120 | 120 to Mer. | Mer. to 120 | 120 to 60 | 60 to 0 0. 04 14 ‘06 ‘07 14 1.| 1:00 1-00 1:00 1:00 1-00 1:00 2. 14 ‘06 O4 05 06 ay eed 1:00 84 ‘96 81 87 4, 93 1:00 ‘O07 ‘93 86 44 5. 43 83 S72 7D 57 37 6. 11 47 29, By 24 25 TB O7 11 28 14 19 19 8. 03 03 Ay 9. 29 36 7.5) so, 52 BM 10. 04 11 ‘16 04 05 11. 21 23 19 14 43 12 12 06 ‘07 05 06 13 O4 25 “25 Dil 29 25 14 36 75 66 64 43 25 15 06 aA 09 06 16 07 56 63 61 33 19 17 79 1:00 ‘91 96 81 94. 18 19 06 14 24. 19 19 07 22 22 18 12 20 04 14 09 04 21 ‘14 03 : 22 04 22 28 36 43 12 23. 07 03 ‘12 18 05 24 =i “12 suteT 05 25. 07 22 37 me) 09 26 ae ¥e ee ‘04 06 27 04 3 end 06 28, a eye ‘04 06 29. 04 ile 03 a 30 29 47 34 29 38 31 31 04. a 1) oi la | 09 12 32. 07 25 22 alt 14 33 2 ase 03 07 05 34, 04 mot 03 ae 35. a, 03 “a 36. Rr 03 racter of the craterlets is no longer observed. Some put on a hazy appearance, and they all assume the same aspect as those spots which have not been observed as craterlets. This state of things continues until the declining latitudes approach the limit at which the crater form was lost in the advan- cing day, then it once more appears accompanied by a disappearance of most of those spots which came into visibility as the sun rose higher. We have an analogous phenomenon to this in the well-known crater Aristarchus. Shortly after sunrise its outline is sharp and distinct, while its interior is partly covered with a well-marked shadow and partly glowing in strong sunlight. As the sun rises above its horizon these characteristics are lost ; the ridge extending from it to Herodotus becomes brighter, and to some eyes, and with some instruments, it is confounded with the interior, the whole ap- ane as a very vivid brush of light. The exact solar altitude at which the 1871. F 66 REPORT—1871. change takes place is as yet undetermined; but there can be no question that it is of the same nature as that of the appearance of the spots on Plato greatly intensified. The result of the discussion may be briefly stated as being very strongly suggestive of the existence of present lunar activity, the exact nature of which requires further and more extensive observations to determine. In- timately connected with the spot-changes are the variations of appearance and intensity of reflective power of the streaks and markings on the floor of Plato. In the observers’ and other notes which form the Appendix to this Report will be found allusions to the connexion between the spots and streaks ; but it manifestly requires a similar discussion of the streaks and markings to arrive at a definite conclusion on the subject. Most of the observers have furnished observations of these interesting phenomena, so that a discussion of them could at once be proceeded with if it should be the pleasure of the Association to carry on the inquiry. The principal results of the discussion of the spot-observations relative to visibility, irrespective of solar altitudes, and treated in pairs of lunations from April 1869 to November 1870, based on 1594 observations during 20 lunations, are contained in Lunar Map Cir- cular VIII.; and some further remarks occur in a paper on the subject, published in the Philosophical Magazine, March 1871. This discussion, on an entirely different principle to that employed in the preparation of the present Report, and leading to a similar result, tends to confer on both a character in which confidence may be placed, for either without the other is incomplete ; together they point to present lunar action as the originating agency producing the phenomena. Fie. 4. Although measurements for position of such delicate objects as the spots on Plato are difficult to execute, Mr. Gledhill has succeeded in obtaining three sets of micrometrical measures, on September 13 and December 9, 1870, and on May 1, 1871, a combination of which has enabled me to draw the outline of the crater, and to insert from these measurements four streaks and the sector as seen generally by Mr. Gledhill. The streaks are Z, e, a, and 3, The streaks £ and e are rather westward of their places as given on OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 67 the tinted plate in the ‘Student’ of April 1870, p. 161. The spots whose positions have been determined by measures are Nos. 1, 4,3, and 17. The effect of the measures is to bring them closer together and more towards the centre of the crater than in the printed plans. On each occasion that the measures were made, a diameter of the crater passing through spots Nos. 1 and 4, from A to B, was measured, also one at right angles to this from C to D, passing through No. 1. All the remaining measures of spots and streaks were referred to these diameters, spot No. 1 being the origin of the coordinates, and the longest diameter being considered as unity. The ratios of the means of the measures were determined to be as follows :— Parallel Parallel Spot or Streak. Og a: Sle Pa Gi Longest diameter A toB = 1:000 No. 38................00008 060 126 Aw Ih peel teehee Ul Sh 179 130 Spot No. 1. Sector east end......... “409 168 To east border B ...... = ‘519 sone WEStONGs.saseee 181 ‘247 », west border A...... = ‘481 Both on border. » South border€ ... = ‘309 Streak Z...............00 055 » north border D... = °309 S52} Gtecavtueteneccete 317 158 », spot No. 4 ......... = ‘182 3», base)on Als \sceee. 123 Streak « W. end ...... “412 158 fu) greets, Cri. aaeeae “119 306 » fonborder ... ‘337 In order to plot the spots that have been laid down by alignment and estimation, it is necessary to align with the measured spots, and particularly with objects on the border, a process that will be adopted in the preparation or a monogram of Plato. APPENDIX. Oxsservers’ Notes. These are arranged in each interval of 12 hours according to season, so as to give increasing altitudes of the sun from © — 4 =270°. Winter in the northern hemisphere. Interval 0 to 12 hours. 1869, Oct. 13, 7° (O— 93 =76° 24'-8, Oct. 124 21").—Ten hours after the epoch of sunrise at the equator in E. long. 4° 0'-6, the first streak of sun- light was seen by Mr. Gledhill to fall on the floor of Plato through the gap in the west wall between B. & M.’s peaks 6 and e, the W. extremity lying on or near the fault from N.W. to 8.E., and bringing into visibility the cra- terlet No. 3, which is seen earliest of all the spots. Mr. Gledhill gives the sun’s azimuth equal to 87° 31’, the altitude being equal to the angle formed by the height of the depression in the wall between the peaks above the point of the floor on which the sun’s rays first impinge. Interval 12 to 24 hours. 1870, July 6, 8".—Twelve hours and a half after epoch of sunrise at the equator, EH. long. 4° 11'5, O— 9, July 5, 19, 30=354° 54-4, Mr. Gledhill again witnessed the first streak of sunlight fall on the floor of Plato, and observed spot No. 3 just within it, and remarked that the streak lay parallel with the longest diameter, and did not incline from No. 3 as it did in January. {On the 13th of October, 1869, at 7", Mr. Gledhill remarked that the streak was a little inclined to the N., and not quite parallel with the rim.] At 9" of July 6, 1870, Mr. Gledhill remarked that a line through the two gaps or F2 68 REPORT—187]. breaks in the 8. and N. borders passed through the western ends of the earliest streaks of light thrown on the floor. This line appears to be coinci- dent with the great fault crossing Plato. With reference to this I have the following note :—‘ This phenomenon, the western extremities of the streaks falling in a line with the breaks in the N. and 8. borders, was well observed in January 1870. An elevation of the ground in the direction of this fault has been seen. It would, however, appear that differences in the lengths of the streaks would depend not on any unevenness of the ground, but on the relative depths of the gaps in the W. border.’ 1870, January 10, 2" to 8"\—From ten to sixteen hours after epoch of sun- rise at the equator, E. long. 4° 61, @ — Q, Jan. 9, 164, equal to 170° 27':8. This was by far the finest observation of sunrise on Plato by no less than seven observers, viz. Messrs. Gledhill, Pratt, Elger, Neison, Birmingham, Joynson, and Birt. Mr. Gledhill’s record is so full and so interesting that a reproduction of it will convey a vivid impression of the progress‘of illu- mination of a lunar formation as the sun rises upon it. Jan, 10, 2". Cloudless. Terminator just on the E. border of Plato; can just see the outline of the crater, which now lics in deep shadow. On the E. side the lofty steep wall just N. of a triangular formation marked II Ev? glowed intensely in the solar rays. 3", The E. wall from the great breaks in the S. and N. borders appeared as a bright narrow band. The curved outline of the N.E. border was bright, sharp, and narrow, but the lower slope within could not be seen. I could fancy that the W. part of the floor is, if possible, deeper in shadow than the E. half. {This phenomenon has often been witnessed, and has been attri- buted to the reflection of the strong light of the eastern interior from the dark floor. Upon attentively contemplating this degradation of shadow near its eastern boundary, it will often be seen that it is not simply a reflection from the floor, but apparently the illumination of a something above the floor.—W. R. B.] 3° 45". A bright narrow broken line was seen between the two breaks on the E. and N.E. The outline of II E¥? is not yet visible. 4" 18™. At this moment (12 hours 18 minutes after epoch) the first streak of light fell upon the floor. Within it and near its western extremity was seen No. 3 as two elevated objects, very near each other, but quite distinct. I could not detect shadow between them after hard gazing, although it was easily seen to the N.E. of the lower object. The streak was three times the breadth of the two objects together where it enclosed them, and it became broader near the N.E. border of Plato; it was brightest about and to the west of No. 3, and inclined a little downwards at the E. end. * *« * The two components of No. 3 are of the same size apparently, are equally but not very bright; they lie nearly E. and W. of each other, but the E. com- ponent is a very little to the N. of the other. 4° 30™. The streak widens. I could not detect motion in it. I now care- fully placed the wire on the great gap in the west border ; the line passed along the axis of the streak. The west angle of the streak is not sharp, but rounded, and lies a little beyond No. 3. The lower of the cones of No. 3 touches the lower edge of the streak. It now assumed a fan shape, being broadest at the E. end, which is now more than halfway to the E. border. 4°40". The streak is now much wider. I think I see a minute elevation a little to the E. of No. 3 and in the streak. The two components of No. 3 are now bright and sharp, with shadow on the east. Another streak has — been barely visible or suspected for a few minutes; it lies to the 8. of the OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 69 former and near the 8, border. It runs parallel with the northern streak, is about half its length, and has its western extremity over a point a little HK. of No. 3. It is narrow, and extremely faint and difficult. A minute or two later it was seen better, also a still fainter and narrower line to the north of it, which is parallel with it and the northern streak. The most southern streak produced to the E. would graze the southern edge of II Ey2, 4" 50™. Now the shadows from the W. wall take shape. The south sha- dow, which extends up to the 8. border, goes directly into the gap at the 8. edge of IJ EY, The next pointed shadow to the N. of this goes direct to the middle of II E¥; it is extremely pointed at its E. end for more than half its length, and is suddenly wider at the W. end. [This appears to indi- cate that the peak which throws the shadow is very needle-like.] I cannot be quite sure that this shadow for the next 10™ or 15™ really extended up to the E. border. It became so faint and narrow and line-like that it could not be well seen near the border. Then, again, the floor for some distance (say a distance equal to the width of II E¥?) lay in rather dark shadow. The floor between the shadows was not bright up to the E. border of Plato; all along the foot of the E. slope a dark shadow lay, and this interfered with an exact determination of extremities of shorter shadows from the W. wall. The next shadow to the north was a broad parallel-sided belt, which pro- ceeded to the E. border as such. Its upper or S. edge extended to the N. end of II E¥?, and its lower or N. edge cut the border of Plato just below, or to the north of IT E¥?. A line through No. 3 to the gap in the 8.E. border cuts the W. angles of the two southern bright spaces between the shadows. 5". No. 3 lies on the lower edge of the lowest bright space or upper edge of the lowest shadow. The shadow still clings to or is in contact with No. 3, and either extends to the E. of it, or No. 3 throws a shadow to the E. The floor along the E, border is still dusky ; it is brightest at that part in line with No. 3, 55", A very fine narrow shadow is now seen to stand off from the sha- dow below and in contact with No. 3; it is this which touches No. 3. 5°15™, The upper shadow is now clearly pointed, and falls short of the border. [This is probably the shadow of the peak between B. & M.’s y and 6.] I still see a minute elevation just to the N.E. of No. 3. It is now just on the tip of the lowest pointed shadow, and about halfway from 3 to the N.E. border. [This spot is No. 32; it was discovered in streak B by Mr. Elger on December 15, 1869.—W. R. B.] 5» 45™, Floor at the foot of the E. border is still dark, except at the ex- treme N. The long broad shadow is now retiring from the E. border, and is seen faintly bifurcated ; the lowest or northern fork is the longer, but this broad shadow still seems to have its N. and §. edges parallel. 6". Now the dark shadow on the S. border breaks up, and a fine pointed shadow separates from its northern side, which if produced goes quite into the gap at the southern edge of II E¥?. The bright W. angle above this shadow goes back towards the W. until under the great gap in the S. border. The great central shadow is now easily seen bifurcated ; the lower peak is the longest, and reaches nearly up to the east border. The tip of the shorter shadow to the N, reaches just to No. 3; the next to the N. is rather longer. 6" 20. The object to the N.E. of 3 (32) is easy, elevated, and bright. Now 4 is seen, also a large elevated object (7) about halfway from it to the N. extremity of II E¥2, and on this line. _ 6°30". The great 8. band of shadow goes straight into the gap at the 8. end of II E¥?. The E. portion of the floor for some distance from the foot 70 REPORT—1871. of the slope is still dusky. The shadow of the N.E. component of No. 3 is easy, and les to the N.E. A line from the lower edge of the shadow in the great gap of the west border along the lower edge of the central shadow goes into the gap at the N. end of II E¥?. This shadow is now finely bifur- cated ; the lower or northern peak is the longer. 8. Spot No. 1 is now seen as a large striking object. It seems to be in the path of the upper fork of the central shadow, and looks like the shadow of one of Jupiter’s satellites on the disk. [In Mr. Birmingham’s sketch of May 19, 1869, O— 8 =286° 37':3, the upper or southern fork of the central shadow is longest, while in the present series of observations the northern is the longest. This is not a solitary instance of variation in the shadow of this peak. Mr. Birmingham is in agreement with Mr. Gledhill in referring spot No. 1 to the upper or southern fork. In my paper on the spots and shadows of Plato (Transactions of Sections, p. 17, ‘ Report of British Association for the Advancement of Science,’ 1869), I remark that Rosse and Birmingham have drawn No. 1 with the shadow of 6 just receding from it. Challis’s shadow of 6 terminates by a straight line; neither fork was visible, for he carefully measured the two angular points. Rosse drew the termination of the shadow as from two pinnacles upon the summit, with No. 1 between them. These variations are doubtless azimuthal; nevertheless they are of great importance, as we hope presently to show. | 8 5™. Spot No. 1 is a large, lofty, very prominent cone. Close to the N.E. component of No. 3, and to the N.E. of it, is seen a black shadow curved to the N.E., with a bright elevated object close to the curve. I see the two components of No. 3 as bright distinct objects; then, close to the N.E. foot of the N.E. component, comes a large circular shadow quite black, embracing a bright object to the N.E. 8° 15™. Spot No 4 is already getting rather difficult and hazy, although it lies far away in the bright eastern floor. Spot No. 17 is now seen just on the lower edge of the uppermost pointed shadow. No. 1 is bright and large, free from the long shadow. Shadow still lies on the eastern floor at the foot of the slope. Mr. Pratt, the same evening, Jan. 10, noticed a peculiar feature of the eastern part of the floor corroborative of Mr. Gledhill’s observation of the dip to the foot of the east border. He says, “A peculiar feature of the eastern part of the floor in sunlight observed. Between what was probably the eastern margin of the sector 6 and the foot of the interior slope of the E. rim was a decidedly darker tint, as if that part of the floor was lower than the rest, and perhaps falling towards the border; the western margin followed very closely the form it would have if the whole space between the sector 6 and the border were depressed.” In my own record, Jan. 10, 4" 48™, the Crossley equatorial 7-3-in. aperture, eye-piece No. 4, power 122, with slot, I say :—‘‘ The 8. spire of sunlight apparent; it is directed towards the middle of II E¥*. Neither of the spires of light reach the border, indicating the floor to dip near the border.” Mr. Gledhill summarizes his observations, under the head of “ points de- termined,” as follows :— First. The position, size, alignment, and order of development of the streaks [of sunlight, as distinguished from those that make their appear- ance afterwards] which first fall on the floor. They are evidently the solar rays passing through the gaps on the border. Second. The floor on the E. at the foot of the inner slope lies in shadow more or less deep until the giant shadows from the W. border have retreated westward beyond the centre of the erater. OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 71 Third. That spots Nos. 1, 3,17, the object halfway between No. 4 and the K. border (7), the object halfway + between No. 3 and the E. border (32), the object (if any) just to the E. of No. 3 (81), and the object S.W. of No. 1 at a considerable distance away are all elevated objects. [Some time subsequently to these observations I received from Mr. Gled- hill a drawing of nine crater cones seen on Jan. 10, 1870. They were Nos. 1, 3, 30, 4, 7, 9, 11, 17, and 32. I have not received any confirmation of the object a considerable distance 8.W. of No. 1.—W. R. B.] Fourth. The order in time of the appearance of the shadows. Fifth. The time to a minute when light first falls on the floor. [The discussion of the observations by intervals shows that the sun’s light first falls upon the floor of Plato from ten to thirteen hours after the sun has risen at 4° 61 of E. long. on the equator according to season: a simple computation of the epoch of sunrise at this longitude and ©— Q will be a guide to ascertain the illumination of Plato within twenty-four hours of the epoch.—W. R. B.] Siwth. The interval between the appearance of light on the floor and the distinct perception of the shadows from the W. border is about twenty-five or thirty minutes. Seventh. The great northern streak of sunlight is seen some fifteen minutes before the southern streaks are detected. This may be caused either by dif- ference in elevation of the gaps in the W. border, or difference in level of the floor, or both may unite to produce the effect. Whatcan cause the duskiness of the eastern floor except depression of the floor? _ 1870, Jan. 10,9"0™. Mr. Elger saw spot No. 1 close to the shadow of the peak situated on the 8. of the great gorge or opening in the W. wall. At 9°10™ the N. peak of this shadow was about clearing it; at the same time spot No. 4 could just be seen. Mr. Elger remarked that the shading round spot No. 1 was much darker than the central portion of the floor, and that this dark shading could be traced in an easterly direction to about one fourth of the distance between the spots 1 and 4: “this,” says Mr. Elger, “ would appear to indicate a fall in the surface of the floor from No. 1 towards the E. in section” (fig. 5). Schroter, if I re- Fig: 5. member rightly, alludes to some observations indi- ‘cating similar irregularities in the floor. From Mr. Elger’s observation, combined with one of Mr. W pa ebaees E Gledhill’s to be noticed under Feb. 9, 1870, it would appear that spot No. 1 is situated on the ridge marking the great fault. (See interval 24" to 36".) 1870, May 8, 8" to 10". Close of first interval of twelve hours. Epoch 7* 21" 20". Mr. Elger writes, ‘‘ On the evening of the 8th, between 8" and 10", I had a fine view of sunrise; the air was remarkably steady ; shadows and minute details seen to perfection.” 1870, May 18. Mr. Elger writes :—“ Re your statement as to the dip of the floor. Is there reliable evidence that the N.E. and S.E. areas of the floor are lower near their respective borders than towards the spotless central area? In January last I saw spot No. 1 in contiguity with the shadow of No..2 peak (western wall); the surface of the floor east of No, 1 was then, of course, seen under very oblique light. Judging from the shading and -general aspect of the surface in the neighbourhood of No. 1, there appeared to be a very rapid fall from spot No. 1 to spot No. 4; if this be so, the stem of the ‘ trident’ would be a depression in the surface.” 1870, April 9. Twenty-three hours after epoch of sunrise at 4° 4:7 on 72 REPORT—187 1. equator, E. long., Mr. Elger records spots Nos. 1 and 17 in contiguity with shadows of high peaks on west wall [y and é]: Nos. 1, 3, 4 very plain [seen also by Mr. Pratt], 17 faint, 25 only glimpsed, 7 suspected; no markings seen. Mr. Pratt records on same day shadows of y, ¢, and e on floor nearly similar to 1869, Noy. 12, excepting that 6 showed a second point south of chief one, and that of e did not exhibit a cleft. The importance of such careful observations as those which have furnished the data for this interval cannot admit of question. The determination of the epoch at which the floor first becomes illuminated, as compared with the epoch of an easily computed phenomenon (sunrise at a given longitude on the equator), places at once within our reach the means of ascertaining when the appearances witnessed during the interval 10 to 24 hours after sunrise, at 4° EK. long. on the equator, will be repeated*, This is, however, a small result compared with the forms and progressions of the shadows ; for by their aid, especially if well sketched, and their lengths carefully measured, or even estimated in parts of those of the three measured peaks y, 6, and e, the dis- tance of the west wall from the terminator being at the same time ascer- tained, the irregularities of the west wall at sunrise, and by a similar process those of the east wall at sunset, may be obtained with tolerable precision by B. & M.’s method described in ‘ Der Mond,’ § 65, p. 98, and in the Report of the Lunar Committee of the British Association, ‘ Report,’ 1867, p. 15. We have thus the power, by multiplying such observations, of becoming inti- mately acquainted with the breaks and gaps, the elevations and towering pinnacles of the wall, and are in a position for handing down to our suc- cessors details that may enable them to detect changes, if such should occur, of sufficient magnitude to become perceptible. The shadows which I enu- merated on Jan. 10, 1870, were six,—the longest y, one between y and ¢, 6 with its two peaks or saddle form, one south of e, and e. Mr. Joynson, of Liverpool, gives in his drawing of the same date two peaks to 6. The irre- gularities both of the floor and border have come out by these observations with marked distinctness, and tend greatly to settle for the present epoch the main features. If, however, changes are in progress, they may be, as on the earth, extremely slow. The appearances recorded on January 10, 1870, being so different to that witnessed by Bianchini, August 16, 1725, the following translation, by my friend Mr. Knott, from Bianchini’s work ‘ Hesperi et Phosphori Nova Phe- nomena’ (Rome, 1728), will doubtless be read with interest :— ** Under the auspices of the Cardinal de Polignac, two large telescopes, 94 and 150 Roman palms long, by Campini, were prepared and erected, and on the 16th of August, 1725, the following observations of Plato were made. ** Although on that night we were only able to turn the telescope 150 palms long, on the moon we detected, in the lunar spot named Plato, a phenomenon not previously observed. The moon was at the time a little past its first quadrature with the sun, which it had attained on the previous day, and the spot Plato fell on the periphery of solar illumination, where is the boundary of light and darkness in the lunar hemisphere exposed to the sun. ‘The whole of the very elevated margin, which on all sides surrounds the spot like a deep pit, appeared bathed in the white rays of the sun. The bettom of the spot, on the other hand, was still in darkness, the solar light not yet reaching it; but a track of ruddy light, like a beam, crossed the * The longitudes of the terminator at 60° N. latitude on the equator, and at 60° S. lati- tude, Greenwich, midnight, during the lunation, are given monthly in the ‘ Astronomical Register.’ OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 73 middle of the obscure area, stretching straight across it from one extremity to the other, with much the same appearance as in winter in a closed cham- ber the sun’s rays admitted through a window are wont to present, or as they are seen in the distance when cast through openings in the clouds, or like comets’ tails at night in a clear sky stretched cut at length in space, as we remember to have seen in the one which in the years 1680 and 1681 was so conspicuous to all Europe. This appearance, never before seen by me in this or any other lunar spot, is represented in the figure which I give below. Fig. 6. ©], 2. The lunar spot named Plato, and the ruddy ray of the sun thrown across its dark floor from the margin of the spot 1, white and turned towards the sun. It was thus observed at Rome on the Palatine Mount, Aug. 16, 1725, at 13 hour after sunset, with the 150-palm telescope of J. Campini. “It is proposed to astronomers and physicists, for their consideration and judgment, whether this is to be taken as an indication of an aperture piercing the border of the spot which is turned towards the sun, through which opening the rays are cast and appear as through a window; or whether it is rather to be thought that they are refracted rays, which are bent from the top of the border towards the bottom, and appear of a ruddy tint as they are wont to do in our own atmosphere at sunrise and sunset, and so give reason for admitting the ex- istence of some denser fluid like an atmosphere surrounding the lunar globe.” I have the following remarks on the above, dated June 4, 1867 :— «‘ Bianchini appears to have been one of the earliest observers who noticed ‘detail’ more particularly. Hevel, Riccioli, Cassini, and others aimed more at delineating the entire surface, which of course included much detail that is becoming more and more valuable every day ; still such observations as Bianchini’s, recorded in his ‘ Hesperi et Phosphori,’ are of great value, espe- cially as the appearances described and delineated could not find place in a more general work.” Schroéter, in his ‘ Selenotopographische Fragmente,’ vol. 1. p. 334, §§ 256, 257, refers to the observation of Bianchini, and also to one of Short’s in 1751, April 22, It would appear that Bianchini’s suggestion of an aperture or hole in the W. rim of Plato was not verified by Short, who seems to have observed 7%: REPORT—187]. the shadows of the three peaks y, é, and e of B. & M., which are represented by Schréter in t. xxi. The,shadows of these and other peaks on the W. wall have been very frequently observed of late years. T am not aware that Bianchini’s observation has been verified. The pecu- liar appearance which he has delineated depends not only on libration, but also on the angle which the terminator makes with the meridian; for it is clear that the direction of the terminator must form a tangent to a line pass- ing equally through the depression in the wall to produce the appearance seen by Bianchini; and it is highly probable that it is of very rare occur- rence, as seen from the earth, the variation in. the angle of terminator with meridian being as much as 3°. While transcribing the above (April 22, 1871) I have considered the Bian- chini phenomenon more closely. During the year 1870 the opportunities for observing sunrise on Plato were comparatively numerous, and certainly not the slightest appearance of Bianchini’s streak was detected ; on the other hand, the positions of the earliest rays of sunlight on the floor have been determined, with some degree of precision, for the portion of the luni-solar year during the period of the observations. If the configuration of the W. wall is different now from what it was in Bianchini’s time, the phenomenon may be explained by the supposition that the gap or pass N. of the peak 6 was lower than at present, and has been raised by “ landslips” on one or both sides, which are of extensive occurrence on the moon as recognized by Nasmyth; the absence of further observations by Bianchini on the same evening, however, leaves the matter in doubt. Short records, in the Phil. Trans. for 1751, p. 175, that on April 22, 1751, he saw a streak projected along the flat bottom of Plato. Soon after he saw another streak parallel to the first, but somewhat lower [or northerly ], which in a very short time divided into two. He found a gap in the wall opposite the first streak, and also one in the direction of the lower one. Not only is Bianchini’s observation at variance with modern observations, but Short’s also. The order of appearance of the streaks of sunlight on the floor on Jan. 10, 1870, is, first, the broad streak through the wide gap ; second, the southern streak north of the peak y. The appearances of Short’s streaks were in the reverse order. The following record of observations by Schréter on July 30, 1789, at 9" 48", kindly translated by Mr. Gledhill, will illustrate Mr. Elger’s obser- vation on January 10, 1870 :— ‘ Selenotopographische Fragmente,’ § 250, vol. i. p. 329. “A different, more beautiful, and more magnificent view of Plato is obtained when, with the rising sun, the first traces of an extremely faint twilight are seen on the grey floor of the crater, and when the first beams of light are thrown over the mountains into the plain below. This view of Plato, which lasts only for a few minutes during the slow monthly rotation, and for which one may wait for a year and yet not see it, I saw on the 30th of July, 1789, 9 48”. As in the 8th figure of t. xxi., the terminator had advanced from W. to E. as far asa, 3. To the W. of this the greatest part of the border lay in the light of day [or on the day side], and only the small portion to the E. of «, ( was illuminated on the night side. The whole inner grey surface, on the contrary, was still hidden by the shadows of the lofty mountains on the border, and on the §. border there was also a low spot filled with shadow. While I was observing the shadows of the inner surface with power 161, I became aware of something to the E. of the middle of the floor, as if the dark surface were in a kind of fermentation, A few seconds later I saw here in Se eS ee CU ee a OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 75 two places an extremely distinct unveiling or brightening which closely re- sembled a very faint twilight. Both places appeared dark, blackish, and con- trasted so slightly with the other night-shadows, that at first | was uncertain whether or not I perceived a real difference in the obscurity. Meanwhile, after a few seconds both the light-spots became somewhat brighter, changed their form continually, until they soon became larger and notably brighter, and assumed the appearance given in fig. 8 ; and as no very marked change occurred while the observation was being made, I was by this time able to sketch them in their present clearer colour and increased size ; but even yet they appeared a dark grey, so that, according to my arbitrary scale and a yery approximate estimation, they were placed at only 3°, or at most 3°. “ Doubtless these present but always very dark colours were half-shadows, and were found there because in these two places only a part of the rising sun was visible over the irregular elevations on the western border; and these half-shadows I have often seen in the course of my observations when the terminator passes across grey surfaces. Soon after, the surface threw off the mask of night, and in a few minutes I could distinguish the line-like shadows lying across the whole floor thrown by the peaks on the western wall. If one, however, compares the shape of these two somewhat bright spots on the map with the position and shadows of the west border, and re- flects that these bright spots, as I saw them, were surrounded by the shadows of night on the east, there can no longer be any doubt (if a different reflec- tion of the light has no share in the matter) that the floor is not perfectly flat, but that these two places are somewhat more elevated; and with this supposition the observations given before quite agree.” The following notes have been kindly furnished by Mr. Pratt, relative to the foregoing description of sunrise :— « Jan. 10, 3". On 1870, March 10,1 have notes of the same phenomenon, which I believe I forwarded at the time, recording the inability I experienced to rid myself of the idea that I was witnessing a true twilight. My observa- tion of it extended over twenty-five minutes, at the end of which time I perceived the faintest trace of the formation of the spires.” “Jan. 10, 4" 18", spot No. 3. Query. Is the brightest spot of the streak, here mentioned as seen inclined to the north of No. 3, and I presume in close proximity to it, my spot No. 30? As far as I can understand the localities are identical.” “Jan. 10, 4" 50™, shadow of peak y. On a similar occasion I have ob- served the thin thread of the shadow lying across II E¥?, and have watched it slowly shortening and travelling down the interior slope of the rim, and had a good view of it lying on the floor just in contact with the foot of the slope.” “Jan. 10, 8", shadow of peak §. I do not remember to have ever seen the shadow of 6 otherwise than with the northern fork the longest.” On Bianchini’s light-streak Mr. Pratt remarks :—‘“ Bianchini’s ruddy spire of light, which he observed at Rome, 1725, Aug. 16, and thought to be sun- light shining through an aperture in the west wall, would the want of achromaticity in his 150-palm telescope account for the colour? Still his unique view may prove valuable some day; and it is stimulating to perse- verance on our part to multiply observations with our comparatively luxu- rious instruments to find such unwieldy telescopes capable of so much in the hands of a careful observer. I wonder if the crater G on the west exterior slope was recorded so long since, as its clean-cut form, as I have sometimes seen it, is suggestive of recent formation, and its locality such as to easily account for the filling-up of the aperture Bianchini supposed.” 76 REPORT—1871. [The crater G is not seen in Bianchini’s drawing of 1725, August 16, nor in that illustrating his observations of 1727, August 23 and September 22.— W. R. B. Mr. ae: remarks, that in Short’s observation of 1751, April 22, the first streak of sunlight was on the upper part of the floor, followed soon after by a parallel streak somewhat lower. “It is important,” says Mr. Pratt, “to learn what kind of telescope Short used during the observation; for as he was chiefly a maker of the Gregorian form, and as that construction does not invert the image, it may be possible his term lower may mean southerly in- stead of northerly, thus being in accord with modern observations.” ‘The very interesting translation of Schréter’s notes of 1789, July 30, and his discovery of something on the eastern half of floor, as if a kind of fer- mentation was going on, and his discovery a few seconds later of an unveil- ing or brightening, closely resembling twilight, remind me,” says Mr. Pratt, ‘very forcibly of my own observations before mentioned. The half-shadows of Schroter also remind me of what I have very often seen, as he describes ; but I cannot understand his explanation of them. As far as I can see, half- shadows presuppose an atmosphere; and a well-authenticated course of ob- servations of them would be good proof of the latter’s presence.” [If by the term “ half-shadow” be meant the penumbral fringe of every true shadow, the rays of light emerging from opposite limbs of the sun, crossing beyond the object casting the shadow and then diverging, will fully explain such a fringe. In the case of the sun rising above the mountains, the reverse phenomenon occurs, viz. a gradual darkening fringe skirting the illuminated surface arising from less and less light arriving from the sun’s disk ; a true twilight is occasioned by the particles of an atmospheric medium being illuminated by the sun’s rays while the luminary is below the horizon, and such I believe I have on several occasions witnessed.—W. R. B.] Interval 24 to 36 hours. 1870, May 9. Mr. Gledhill describes spot No. 1 as easy; a fine sharp crater, with raised walls, much black shadow within, the east inner slope bright: he also records 3 and 17 as presenting the same appearance as No.1. On October 3, at about 12" earlier illumination, Mr. Gledhill did not observe the crater character of these objects, but describes them as elevated objects.. This is remarkable, as on Oct.3 the moon’s latitude was 1° to 2°S., while on May 9 it was 3° N., libration carrying Plato further from the eye, yet the crater character was more distinct. Mr. Elger records No. 17 as seen by glimpses. As regards spots 13 and 19, the following remarks of Mr. Elger are inter- esting :—‘* The northern portion of the floor, including streak a, was noted as equally light ; the streak could not be traced.” Mr. Gledhill writes, a not to be distinguished from the bright floor all along the north border. Mr. Elger found the same locality “ all ight on the 10th.” 1870, February 9. Mr. Gledhill first saw spot No. 4, its bright W. wall only. He says, “‘ This object seems to have lower walls than 1, 17, or 3.” Mr. Gledhill writes: “ For a few minutes I saw what appeared to be a very low ridge running from N. to 8. across the floor of Plato. It runs from the N. border to spot 3, then curves to No. 1, and again bends back to the E. and reaches No. 17, and thence goes on to the S. border.” [The low ridge mentioned by Mr. Gledhill is, so far as I know, new. It is not coincident with the great fault from N.W. to S.E. From a drawing subsequently sent to me by Mr. Gledhill, it would indicate a fracture, having its origin at spot OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. ‘ ee No. 1, diverging N.E. and §.E. to spots Nos. 3 and 17, and extending from them in opposite directions to the N. and 8. borders.] At 5.30 Mr. Gledhill recorded that spot No. 4 is already indistinct ; there is a dull yellow patch about it. No. 3 at this early stage of illumination Mr. Gledhill found to be single; he looked in vain for the other two adjacent spots, Nos. 30 and 31. 1870, Oct. 3. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, 17, and 30 as elevated ob- jects. Mr. Elger found no trace of 3. 1870, March 11. Mr. Gledhill describes spots Nos. 1 and 3 as bright, cir- cular. Interval 36 to 48 hours. 1870, April 10. Mr. Gledhill records spot No. 1 as a large, sharp, cir- cular crater, with internal shadow on W. side; also Nos. 3 and 17 as circular eraters. Mr. Elger records Nos. 16 and 25 as frequently glimpsed. 1870, July 7. Mr. Whitley observed Nos. 1, 3, and 17 as craterlets, 4 a white spot, and glimpsed No. 11 very faint. On the same evening Mr. Neison recorded the floor as very dark, the spots indistinct, not visible continuously ; and Mr. Elger could just trace the “ sector.” 1870, Jan. 11, 7.20. Mr. Gledhill describes spot No. 1 as a large round erater, larger than Linné, quite bright and circular, a very fine easy object. At 7.30 the same evening, he says “ Linné also is now seen as a crater, with some shadow within on the west.” At 7.45 Mr. Gledhill writes: “ Now the N.E. inner slopes of craters Nos. 1 and 3 glow in the bright sun, while the S.W. znner slopes are in shadow. It is the N.E. inner slope which so often, in bad definition, comes out as a bright disk or semidisk.” 1869, August 16. Mr. Pratt thus writes:—‘“ Of these difficult objects [the spots], seven were seen many times during the hour; No. 1 often well defined as a crater, Nos. 3 and 4 as well-defined craters as No. 1, but accom- panied with a nebulous light, perhaps caused by the companion spots to each, which, however, were never clearly defined owing to the minuteness of the objects and the short periods of definition clear enough. They both had a similar appearance.” 1870, September 4. Mr. Neison records No. 4 as just observable, and 14 very faint. Interval 48 to 60 hours. 1870, May 10. Mr. Gledhill records spots Nos. 1, 3, and 17 as elevated craters with little internal shadows. Mr. Elger records No. 5 as seen only by glimpses much fainter than 17; 16 and 14 easy. 1871, March 1. Mr. Gledhill records spot No. 1 as a crater brightest on the inner E. wall. 1870, August 6. Mr. Elger noticed the west portion of the floor of an even light colour. It is on this portion that the spots Nos. 13, 19, and 22, which have decreased of late in visibility, are situated. On the 24th of March, 1870, Mr. Gledhill observed the reverse, viz. the west part of the floor exhibited the darkest tint. It was, however, less in extent than the light portion given by Mr. Elger, and was seen under the opposite illumina- tion. See intervals 108" to 96", and 12" to 0" *, 1870, October 4. Mr. Gledhill records No. 1 as an elevated object. Mr. Elger found No. 14 more easy than 5 and 17; it was not seen by Gledhill, Nos. 3, 30, and 17 were seen as bright disks by Gledhill. * These reversed tints are quite in accordance with the surface of the floor dipping on each side from the line of “ fault” crossing Plato from N.W. to 8.H, 78 REPoRT—1871. Interval 60 to 72 hours.- 1870, July 8. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1 and 17 as bright spots badly seen. Mr. Elger records No. 5 as seen only by glimpses, but brighter than No. 1. 1869, August 17. Mr. Pratt inserted the positions of the spots observed hy him “ by independent estimation,” also “ their relative positions with re- spect to light streaks” were very carefully determined as follows :— No. 1. On the dark surface near the junction of two streaks. 3. In the middle of a light streak. 4. In the middle of a light streak (sector) *. 17. On the dark surface close to a light streak (W. edge of sector). 13 and 19. In the middle of a light streak. 14. Near the margin of a light streak. Interval 72 to 84 hours. 1870, April 11. Mr. Elger records No. 5 nearly as bright as 17, which he regarded as fainter than at last lunation; 14 and 16 were easy, 24 and 25 seen by glimpses. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 as bright circular disks. Mr. Pratt detected the six spots which he observed with difficulty. 1870, March 13. Mr. Gledhill writes : “ Unless I am very much mistaken indeed, 34 was an easy object, 7. e. No. 1 came out easily ‘ double ;’ also, as the E end of the floor slopes to the east, spots Nos. 6 and 7 may be seldom seen on this account (?).” To this I add: “This may be the case while the moon is passing from perigee to apogee.” Mr. Gledhill says further: “ No 3 (and 30) very easy, wide, double; 3 is the larger, both equally bright : 30 is not seen nearly so often as 3; when only one is seen it is 3.” 1870, June 9. Mr. Elger recorded 5 as brighter than 17. 1870, February 11, 6.30. Mr. Gledhill found spots Nos. 1 and 17 as very sharp bright disks, but could not detect interior shadows ; he describes Nos. 1,17, and 3 as sparkling. Of No. 1, he says, it often comes out double ; last year I often saw it thus. I am now almost sure I see a minute object close to the west of it (34). Interval 84 to 96 hours. 1870, December 4. Mr. Elger writes:—‘‘ The marking connecting the middle and east arm of trident, which was, I believe, first seen by Mr. Pratt last spring, I found a very easy object, fully as bright as the brightest portions of the < trident ;’ it follows the curvature of the south border, and crossing the last arm of the trident, terminates about halfway between the latter and the west limit of the ‘sector’ During the May and June luna- tions, I had faint glimpses of it; but it was then a very much more difficult object than it is now.” The apparition of this streak appears in some way to be connected with spot No. 5, the variations in visibility of which are considerable. As, from the discussion of visibility, the connexion of these variations with illumi- nating, visual or atmospheric (terrestrial), changes appears to be untenable, it may be suggested that, if the first maximum, Aug.—Sept. 1869, resulted from increased activity, ejecta may have been thrown out and produced the faint streak which was seen on the west of No. 5 by fwo observers. At or about the second epoch of increased activity, a larger quantity of ejecta * * Mr. Gledhill has frequently observed spot No. 4 at the angle formed by the con- verging sides of the “sector.” OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 79 may have been thrown out, producing a brighter streak, extending eastward as well as westward. The most interesting circumstance connected with this streak is its conformity in direction to that of the south border, as if some peculiarity of the surface existed in the neighbourhood of No. 5, of a depressed character, which received the outflow or outthrow of the ejecta. Another noteworthy circumstance is, that this streak was not recorded earlier than May 18, 1870. 1870, September 6. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, 17, and 30 as bright disks, also that definition was good, and that the streaks and spots seemed to stand out in relief. 2 1869, November 15. Mr. Gledhill writes :—“The spots Nos. 1, 17, and 3 do not appear as a mere white spot on the floor of Plato would do. There is a sharpness and clearness of contour and a brightness (uniform) of surface which could only belong to a crater or peak. TI have often been struck with this. This remark applies to them whenever they are well seen. I can only liken them to the small round disks of bright stars seen in the transit- instrument. Spot No. 4 never looks like Nos. 1,17, or 3.” To this I append the following query :—Do the clearness and sharpness of the contour of spots _ Nos. 1, 17, and 3 result from seeing the shadowless interiors of the craterlets? Tf so, on what agency does the appearance of the mere white spots depend ? Do Nos. 1, 17, and 3 vary in this respect with good states of our atmosphere ? Mr. Pratt records a spot new to him on the N.W. of 3, about half as far from 3 as is 4 on the opposite side, and aligning with 3 and 4; he speaks of it as exceedingly small. I have numbered it 29. He-also observed spot No. 8, which he describes as fainter than 29, and situated about one third the dis- ’ tance from 3 towards 4. On this evening Mr. Pratt very carefully scru- tinized No. 3 and its immediate neighbourhood ; the following are his notes transmitted to me :—“ First. The second spot, which I have always ob- served with 3 (and which I learn from Mr. Birt I have always placed in the same relative position as has Mr. Dawes, who discovered it, and of whose alignment I was before quite unaware), is exceedingly close to 3 on the N.E. TI estimate the distance at 2”, and its position with respect to 1 was very carefully judged to be 145° to 150°, reckoning from S. round by E., which I afterwards found by comparison to be about the angle represented in my former sketches. Second. A third spot, 8.E. of 3, and twice as far from it as Mr. Dawes’s, was observed. Its relative size was judged to be one fourth, while that of the second spot was one third of 3. The direction was from 3 towards 4.” [This spot I take to be 8—W. R. B.]. ‘Another peculiarity in 3 was, that it was just included by the light streak, but still quite on its edge, as was also its smallest companion. I now determined very carefully the colour of the immediate localities of all spots visible. After independently noting it for each spot, I found on summing up that the whole were upon the light streaks, with the exception of No. 1, around and towards which the light streak was softly shaded off.” 1870, July 9. Mr. Whitley glimpsed spot No. 17 with difficulty. Interval 96 to 108 hours. 1870, April 12. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, and 30 as bright circular disks, 17 as a bright disk, also 6, but seen only once or twice. Mr. Pratt records No. 1 as very dense and bright, 3 and 4 as hazy, and 16 and 22 difficult. 1870, May 12. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, and 17 as fine bright disks, No. 4 a spot, but seldom seen. Marking a, Mr. Gledhill records as the brightest, and Mr. Elger mentions the part east of No. 16 as very bright 80 eeean ar. and well defined ; this, as well as the remarks of Mr. Elger on May 9, may tend to throw some light on the decreased visibility of Nos. 13 and 19 (see Interval 24 to 36 hours). On this evening Mr. Whitley observed and described the markings, giving a sketch of the same. Mr. Elger’s sketch of the north part of Plato and Mr. Whitley’s are not in accordance. The time at which Mr. Whitley made his observations is not mentioned; Mr. Elger’s 8.45 to 11. 1870, March 14. Mr. Elger writes: ‘‘ The markings were not well seen ; the eastern arm of the ‘ trident’ was the brightest, and could be traced from the south rim to No. 1, passing to the west of No. 5: the marking y was very plain, the rest of the markings were faint and difficult to make out.” In contrast with this indistinctness on Plato, Mr. Elger says, “ [In spite of the hazi- ness of the sky, the markings and minute details of the Mare Imbrium were seen with unusual distinctness]. In the ‘English Mechanic,’ No. 312, March 17, 1871, p. 602, article ‘“ Mars,” by F.R.A.S., the author speaks of the indi- stinctness and partial dimming on the surface of the planet, accompanied by the presence of dark lines in its spectrum, coincident with those referable by Father Secchi to the vapour of water. The indistinctness and dimming of detail are alike distinguishable on Mars and the Moon; and in addition we have on the Moon a number of spots becoming vividly bright with a high sun. From Dr. Huggins’s observations, the spectral lines of the vapour of water are absent in the lunar spectrum. 1870, June 10. Mr. Elger recorded No. 17 decidedly brighter than No. 5 and equal to No. 3; 14 only glimpsed once or twice; 16 and 25 frequently seen. 1869, December 15. This evening Mr. Elger discovered spot No. 32. He described it as N.E. of spot No. 3, nearly aligning with 17 and 4, and situ- ated on a brush of light (Gledhill’s streak 3), extending from No. 3 to the N.E. rim of Plato. 1871, March 3. Mr. Pratt observed 16 spots, viz. 1, 3, 4; 5, 14, 17, 21, 20, 23, 29, 0, 18, 18, 19, 7, 6, arranged according to relative brightness. Of these Mr. Pratt speaks of Nos. 20 and 21 as being far above their usual brightness. Situated as they are near the north border, the Moon going north in latitude, they were not in the most favourable position for observa- tion ; their great brightness is therefore remarkable, and connected with this is an increase of brightness in the streak a. The new streak between Nos. 5 and 17 Mr. Pratt saw with ease, joining the east arm of the “ trident” with the “ sector” from closely south of 17 to opposite 5. 1870, October 6. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 17, and 30 as fine bright disks; Nos. 5and6 equal. Mr. Elger observed Nos. 14 and 16, not seen by Mr. Gledhill ; 14 was equal to 5. Interval 108 to 120 hours. 1870, September 7. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1 and 3 as fine sparkling disks, and 4 as a hazy spot. Mr. Neison records Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5 pretty distinctly visible; 17 brilliant but not well defined; 14 and 16 faint and very faint respectively. 1869, November 16. Mr. Gledhill says, “I never saw the floor so bright. The spots 1, 17, 9, 3, and 30 appeared just like small stars in the transit- instrument on a windy night.” At 10, 11, and 12 hours Mr. Gledhill remarked that spots Nos. 3, 1, 9, and 17 formed a sparkling curve, and were fine easy objects, seen at a glance at any moment; he says they were very striking. On the contrary, he speaks of spots 23, 16, 19, 13, and 14 as very difficult objects ; none were ever easy objects. Of 9 and 11 he says, “I never saw them so easily and well as to-night.” The following notes are * OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 81 important :—“ Nos. 1, 3, and especially 17 (which surpasses all in sharpness, and perhaps in brightness sometimes) are fine easy objects, with moderate altitudes. Now Linné never appears like these except when near the even- ing terminator. As to y Posidonius I never see it sharp and crater-like (white and bright) when the sun is up. I could not see it at all the other day when the morning terminator was a degree or two from it.” Of white spots Mr. Gledhill remarks: “I called some spots mere white spots, because I have never seen them otherwise ; by-and-by I may catch them near the terminator, and have reason to change the term. I fancy that when the terminator is a morning one the effect on objects differs from that given by the evening terminator.” Interval 120 to 132 hours. 1871, March 4. Mr. Neison saw spot No. 14 very indistinct, and barely brighter than a longitudinal steak running in a direction from No. 13 to past No. 14, which was then situated upon it. It appeared to have its origin at the point of convergence of Gledhill’s @ and 6. On the same evening, Mr. Gledhill recorded 6 but not 6. On March 4, Mr. Neison saw No. 16 (once only) as a peculiar light-marked spot on a patch of broken light trending westward. Mr. Neison also recorded parts of the N.W. and 8.E. portions of the floor indistinct from broken light and light streaks. 1870, June 11. Mr. Elger recorded spots Nos. 5 and 16 as seen only by glimpses. Interval 132 to 144 hours. 1870, April 14. Mr. Gledhill records Nos. 1, 3, 4,17, 9, 11, and 30 as bright round disks. Mr. Elger writes, under date of April 26, 1870, relative to his observations of April 14, as follows :—‘“ That the visibility of the spots is connected with the position and brightness of the markings (as you sug- gest) is, I think, most probable: it is clear that the spots at present known are mainly confined to the districts occupied by the markings, and that the floor of Plato is divided by the latter into three nearly equal areas, A, B,C,ason sketch. Areas A and C are covered with markings, but area B is devoid of them. If we compare the number of spots in area B with the number of spots in areas A and C, we shall find that there are only two spots (23 and 11) in area B, while in area A there are ten, and in area C no less than twenty-three. It is true that small portions of the areas A and C are without markings; but the spots within those areas are, without an exception, situ- ated either upon the light streaks or close to their borders. These facts seem to me very suggestive, and point to an intimate relation between the’ spots and markings. As observations accumulate, your present belief in a connexion between the phenomena will, I think, be placed beyond doubt.” In connexion with the above, the following quotation from a letter by Mr. Pratt, dated 1870, April 22, is interesting :—« Very curious the difficulty there is in observing such delicate detail; possibly instruments and eyes will ly, independently of the mental bias and accumulation of pre- 1871. @ 82 REPORT—1871. vious impressions; and I rather fear that telescopes much larger than my own cannot help us out of the difficulty.” The difficulty to which Mr. Pratt alludes is particularly felt with regard to that indispensable method of determining positions “‘ measurement.” Mr. Gledhill has executed some measures of the positions of the principal spots and the extremities of the light markings, and Mr. Pratt has aligned several of the spots with objects on the border ; but so exceedingly delicate are the details, and so seldom is the state of the atmosphere sufficiently translucent and free from agitation, that to obtain an approximate plan of the spots and markings from measurement is necessarily a work of time. Pending this, in the above sketch both spots and markings have been inserted, partly on alignment and partly by estimation. The two light regions are well sprink- led with spots, as pointed out by Mr. Elger; and it is not a little interesting to notice that the nearly spotless area coincides with the region between the “trident” and the “sector,” with its prolongation to “ Webb’s Elbow” near the N.W. border. In the absence of more accurate detail, which is likely to be obtained from Mr. Gledhill’s measurements, the sketch (fig. 7) will serve as a guide for ascertaining if the spots and markings preserve their relative positions ; and in this connexion the remarkable change of locality, if it be so, of spot No. 5 may be mentioned, Mr. Elger having seen and recorded on three oceasions (1870, March 14, May 13, and October 10) its position on the eastern edge of the eastern arm of the “trident.” It is possible there may be two. neighbouring spots in this locality which have not yet been seen together. The importance of recording with every observation of spot No. 5 its position with regard to the eastern arm of the “trident” is obvious. The light streak supposed to be connected with No. 5 is too far south, or the spot is too far north, on the sketch. 1870, May 13. Vide “ Indications of intermittent visibility” (p. 88). 1870, January 15. Mr. Gledhill observed as many as 22 spots, the second greater number seen on any one occasion. Vide “ Indications of inter- mittent visibility.” Spots Nos. 1,3, and 17 are described as very easy, large, bright, sharp objects; No. 4 as jumping into view and not steadily seen. No. 34 was discovered this evening; it has not been observed since March 13, 1870, when it was recorded as an easy object. 1869, August 20, 21, and 23. Mr. Gledhill gives three spots close to the N.W. border, which he has marked 13, 19, and 16. No. 16 being too far east for that spot, I have regarded itas 20; if, however, Mr. Gledhill really saw 16, its degree of visibility would be slightly increased. On August 23 Mr. Pratt gives 16 in its proper position, and he observed the same number of spots as Mr. Gledhill; but Mr. Gledhill saw No. 12 and 31, which Mr. Pratt did not see, Mr. Pratt recording Nos. 7 and 30, not seen by Mr. Gledhill. 1870, September 8. Mr. Neison records spot No. 4 as a flat indistinct spot; 17 sharp but bright, darkening on one side, and showing traces of a crater-formation. Interval 144 to 156 hours. 1870, August 10. Mr. Neison records spot No. 3 as apparently oval ; tho longer axis of the ellipse is in the direction of No. 31. 1870, October 8. Mr. Elger mentions No. 14 as very easy, 16 easy, and 17 seen only occasionally. Interval 156 to 168 hours. ; 1870, May 14. Mr. Elger recorded No. 16 easy; 5, 14, and 17 faint; 25 and 32 seen by glimpses. Mr. Gledhill records 1, 17, 3, and 6 as bright 3 disks, 4 not well seen, and 5 as a bright spot. ; OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 83 - 1870, September 9. Mr. Elger recorded No, 5 faint, 17 especially faint, 14 and 22 glimpsed, and 14 difficult. ; Interval 168 hours to Meridian Passage. ‘A 1870, June 18. Mr. Gledhill has this remark: ‘‘ For some time I have thought that when power 115 was used, spot No. 4 was almost at any time to be seen, or at any rate a condensation of the ‘sector’ at its apex was seen. On applying 240, however, the appearance vanishes, and no con-- densation or spot is seen, or perhaps only sometimes and at intervals.” Interval Meridian Passage to 168 hours. 1870, July 13. Mr. Gledhill records No. 1 as very bright. aid 1870, September 10. Mr. Elger records Nos: 25 and 16 as easy, No. 14 as seen by glimpses. f Interval 168 to 156 hours. 1870, August 12. Mr. Neison records “a spot seen on the border of No, 3, very small and hardly visible except at intervals, but pretty bright on edge only of the light marking.” Mr. Neison suspected it to be No. 31, which it undoubtedly is according to the position which he has accorded to it on the diagram. Mr. Neison was the only observer who detected No. 81 during this lunation, on the 10th and 11th of August, as an elongation of No.3. Mr. Elger, Mr. Gledhill, and Mr. Pratt appear to have missed it. Query, was the group Nos. 3, 30, and 31 in greater activity about this time? Mr. Neison has this note, “3. Faint indications of its being a crater very distinct.’’ Mr. Pratt records: “During the long period since I last saw the light streaks I have had little opportunity to study former sketches, and so was free in a measure of the bias of them. Yet on sketching those seen, the forms, positions, and directions coincide with former drawings, notably the trident a, 6, n, 1.” Mr. Pratt also notices a remarkable increase in. brightness of spot No. 22, so as to attract especial attention. Neither, Messrs. Elger, Neison, Ormesher, nor Gledhill noticed this spot, although they were observing on the same evening as Mr. Pratt, who further re- marks “that in moments of best definition the area comprised between Nos. 19, 1, and 4 was not nearly so well displayed as the rest of the floor, giving a strong impression of an obscuring medium located there.” [This observation of the streak 7, the existence of which has been questioned, is perfectly independent of any suspicion of its non-existence, as it occurred some months before the question was raised. | 1870, October 10. Mr. Elger found spot No. 5 on the E. edge of the KE, arm of the “trident ;” its position, as given by Mr. Pratt, is on the W. edge of the E. arm. He also found that Nos. 5 and 14 were far inferior to 17. Spot No. 25 was easy. Mr. Elger did not see spots Nos. 9, 11, 18, 23, nor 30 recorded by Mr. Gledhill, nor did Mr. Gledhillsee No. 14. Fora special note on the position of spot No. 5, which Mr. Elger also saw on the E. edge of the “trident” on May 13, 1870, see Interval 132 to 144 hours. — 1870. On the 12th of August, and on September 7, 11, and 12, Mr, Neison made a series of observations with apertures yarying from 4 to 53 inches, with differences of 3 of an inch. Pnches 2. cviiees fn 4 4 4 5 5 pois i. .eeaiwess 4 rs Fs 3 6 2 The spots seen were Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 17 with 4 and 42 inch apertures, the Same and No. 5 with 43 and 43; with 5 inches aperture spot No. 14 was detected and marked as faint, and with 53 inches No, 16 was discerned: G2 84 , REPORT—1871. the last two, Nos. 14 and 16, were in all cases marked as “ faint,” some- times extremely so. These seven spots are precisely those which have the highest degrees of visibility for 18 lunations, as under :— sige RUE sows s 1 3 4 i ae 5 14° 6 Visibility .. 1:000 897 ‘887 :830 -510 -433 -294 From these observations, it appears that spots Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 17 may be detected with instruments between 4 and 41 inches of aperture, that spot No. 5 requires an extra half inch, or 43 to 5, and that 5 and 5} will bring out spots No. 14 (5 inches) and 16 (5 inches), Aperture, of course, is an important element of visibility; and as these spots are seen with apertures under six inches, as the observations increase, and the normal degrees of visibility become well determined, variations in the visibility of these spots may be detected with instruments of 6 inches aperture, provided the observations extend over a sufficiently long period. Elements of Visibility. Iunar.—Brightness and size of spots. Terrestrial.—Clearness and steadiness of atmosphere. Instrumental.—Goodness of figure of object-glass or mirror, and extent of aperture. Physiological.—Keenness of eyesight. Interval 156 to 144 hours. 1870, July 14. Mr. Gledhill records No. 1 as a fine, large, bright spot, No. 17 as a small bright spot, Nos. 3 and 30 as bright spots, and No. 5a bright spot, seen now and then. Mr. Ingall records No. 1 as very plain and sharp, No. 4 as steadily seen, and Nos. 3, 31, 30 a misty spot, probably consisting of these three. 1869, August 23. Mr. Pratt records that ‘‘spots Nos. 1, 3, 4, 17, 6, and 14 were very bright compared with their usual appearance, and all easily seen. No. 4 was not well defined; there was a persistent oval light round it (N.W. and §.E), and I several times believed it to be double, but could not be positive it was so. So remarkably clear was the vision that several times as many as four or five spots were held in view at once, without looking directly for them, and two or three times as many as six were so seen, viz. Nos. 1, 3, 4,17, 5, and 14; again, Nos. 1, 3, 4, 17,6, and 5. Nos. 4, 7, 6, 17 were @ group seen together, and Nos. 5, 14, 22, and 1 were a similar one ; yet still so exceedingly delicate are the fainter spots and the fainter traces of light on the floor that it needs a most concentrated attention to see either. In looking for the faint spots the faint traces of light will escape notice ; again, when looking for the latter, the former are most likely not to be seen. This exceeding delicacy too interposes a serious difficulty im aligning them with objects on or near the border: the eye cannot hold so wide a view and at the same time retain a sufficiently correct impression of objects at once so faint and small. These remarks do not apply to the easier spots and light streaks. Once, for a few minutes, a narrow, dark, straight line, like a pencil-mark, was visible from m towards Ztambleta (i.e. from N.W. to §.E.], probably the crack Mr. Birt has discovered. . It was not seen again this evening.” 1870, September 11. Mr. Neison records No. 1 as very distinct, No. 3 as distinct and brilliant, Nos. 5 and 14 as faint, 5 as rather so, OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 85 Interval 144 to 132 hours. 1871, March 8. Mr. Ormesher records a spot near the S.W. border, which he queries “14, a long way off” from its position. Is it a spot not before recorded ? 1870, August 13, Mr. Gledhill records spots Nos. 3 and 17 as fine bright disks, No. 1 as a fine, large, bright disk, and No. 4 as a nebulous object. Mr. Pratt remarks that “on this evening, as well as in 1870, August 12, the tint of the dark portions of the floor was much intensified close to the rim. It was the case all round, but especially so between 6 and Z, between e and ¢, and between and 7.” 1869, December 20. Mr. Pratt places a spot nearly due north of No. 1 on the diagram of this evening, which he queries as 23. I query it as un- certain. Spots Nos. 1, 0, 23, and 16 very nearly align. ‘The line passing through Nos. 1, 0, and 23 passes slightly west of No. 16. Mr. Pratt’s spot is very decidedly east of this line. [1871, March 31. The spot registered by Mr. Pratt on Dec. 20, 1869, not having been reobserved, it is probable that it may have been, as Mr. Pratt queried, No. 28. I have now entered it as such.—W. R. B.] Interval 132 to 120 hours. 1870, September 12. Mr. Neison records of No. 22, “a spot very faint, and difficult to make out in the midst of a patch of light.” Interval 108 to 96 hours. 1 1870, July 16. Mr. Gledhill records spot No. 1 as “a fine, large, bright disk; looks like an elevation ;” also Nos. 3 and 17 as bright disks. I have made the following note on the Form :—“9 and 0. These do not appear in their precise localities, especially 0. It may be that the spot thus marked by Mr. Gledhill is a new one.” 1870, December 12. Mr. Pratt writes: “A faint crepuscular kind of shade has crept over the western part of the floor, and is deepest near the western border ; but the gradation is very delicate, 12 hours to 12 hours 40 minutes.” [1870, March 24. Mr. Gledhill noticed a darker tint at the west part of the floor, and furnished a tinted sketch: see remarks under this date (p. 87); also Mr. Elger’s observations of the same portion of the floor being light, under date 1870, August 6, interval 48 to 60 hours. | 1870, November 11. Mr. Gledhill records spots Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 as bright spots. On the 13 of September (same interval) he recorded them as “bright or fine craters ;” with the exception of Mr. Neison’s record on August 12 of No. 3 as a suspected crater (interval 168 to 156 hours), this in- terval (108 to 96 hours) is the earliest in the declining day that the four have been seen as craters. The terminator is recorded as west of Fracastorius. 1870, September 13. Mr. Gledhill records spots Nos. 1, 17, and 30 as bright or fine craters, and says of 17, “fine crater as 1 and 8;” but of 3 he says, “fine disk.” I have marked 3 as a crater. Interval 96 to 84 hours. 1870, August 15. Mr. Pratt records that the darker margins of the “shaded parts of the floor are still visible as on the 12th and 13th August, but not in such striking contrast. 1870, October 13. Mr. Pratt records spot No. 1 as brilliant, the others ‘dimmer than usual. Interval 84 to 72 hours. 1869, August 26, Mr. Pratt remarked a decided difference in definition 86 r REPORT—1871. in different parts of the floor, even in so contracted an area, the whole northern half being less well defined, the south-east part the best so by far. ‘Traces of the line from m to Rambleta were caught, and the floor appeared wnlevel, the central and south parts appearing highest, and the south-west part next so. This, Mr. Pratt says, requires confirmation. _ 1870, September 14. Mr. Gledhill records No. 3 as a fine wide double spot (i.e. 3 and 30). Mr. Neison (same day) remarks as follows of Nos. 1, 3, and 17, seen by Mr. Gledhill as craters: No. 1 not very distinct; No. 3 sharp and shaded, not very bright; No. 17 very distinct. Interval 72 to 60 hours. 1870, August 16. Mr. Pratt observed 3 spots only this evening. On October 14 (same interval) 16 were observed, 9 by Mr. Gledhill and 7 by Mr. Pratt, in addition. They both record the definition of the border as “good;” Mr. Pratt says, “ with interruptions.” On August 16, Mr. Pratt records the definition of the border as ‘‘bad.’”’ The following remark of Mr. Pratt is interesting in connexion with this paucity of spots :—* The darker parts or shaded portions of the floor were just perceptible with attention. ‘ Tint of floor’ medium, much paler than on the 13th inst.” Interval 48 to 36 hours. 1870, August 17. Mr. Gledhill records No, 1 as a fine, large, open crater, 3 and 30 as craters, 17 as a small crater, and 4 as a bright but not de- finite spot. Interval 36 to 24 hours. 1870, March 23. Mr. Gledhill writes: ‘“‘ The shadow of the elevated ob- ject on the east border (the rock Z), close to the N. of W. II E¥, was on the floor, and the adjacent floor to the N.W. was very bright, much brighter than a or the ‘sector,’ and it extended one third of the distance from the border to spot No. 4, as in sketch.” Mr. Gledhill could not determine its form, but considered that it was the streak y intensified. 1870, July 19. Mr. Gledhill observed the four craters 1, 17, 3, 30 only; he described No. 1 as a large circular crater with raised walls, but not much brighter than the floor. 1869, August 28. Mr. Pratt writes: “The tuven of the floor was con- spicuously divided by the line from m to ¢, the ground sloping east and ‘west of this line, the eastern part being brighter than the part on its west, while the locality of spot No. 4 was judged to be the highest of the whole ‘floor.’ In connexion with this remark of Mr. Pratt it may be well to ‘notice that, combined with Mr. Elger’s observations on 1870, Jan. 10, of -a depression in the floor east of No. 1 (see Interval 12 to 24 hours), the two suggest that this depression does not extend so far as No, 4. Again, com- paring this observation of the western part of the floor being darker than the eastern, which is in accordance with Mr. Gledhill’s on March 24, 1870 (see Interval 12 to 0 hours), it would appear that Mr. Elger’s observa- tion of the bright western area on 1870, May 9 and 10 and August 6, was an intensified brightness of the ordinary brilliancy of the floor, sloping to the west. The Intervals 24 to 36 and 48 to 60 hours, the season spring, with the sun’s altitude about 14°, seem to indicate that the increased brightness -was quite independent of illuminating angle. Speaking of the apparent changes observed, not only on Plato, but over a wider range, between August 16 and 28, 1869, Mr. Pratt says: ‘‘ Thus, among apparent changes of a particular character, and restricted to certain OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 87 small localities, there does appear to have been a wider and more gene- ral disturbance in the brightness and definition of objects, all which dis- turbance appears to be confined to the low-lying lands of that part of the moon‘observed, Not that changes were not visible in high regions; but these are more easily referred to changes of illuminating and visual angle, while the disturbances above mentioned are not so easily accounted for, especially those changes in the visibility of the light-streaks on the floor and the striking differences of brightness of the spots.” 1869, October 26. In connexion with Mr. Gledhill’s return of this date I remark, “ ‘Crater Row’ being so well seen, and the border of Plato so sharp and distinct, it is remarkable that spots Nos. 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, and 16 should not haye been well and easily seen, although it appears they were seen, also that spot No. 3 should have been seen single, and that only sometimes, when it was seen double the previous night.” 1870, November 14. Mr. Gledhill observed Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 as craters, and says, “ they look like bright elevated rings.” Interval 24 to 12 hours. 1870, March 23. See ante, Interval 36 to 24 hours. 1869, September 27. Mr. Gledhill recorded a broad band of brightness parallel to the north border, enclosing spots Nos. 13, 19, and 16; he does not say they were seen as well as the bright band, I haye, however, re- corded them as having been seen. Interval 12 to 0 hours or sunset. 1870, November 15. The four craterlets Nos. 1, 3, 30, and 17 are de- scribed by Mr. Gledhill as elevated crater-cones. 1870, March 24. Mr. Gledhill writes:—“Terminator on N.E. end of Apennines ; the eastern shadows lie on the floor. A line drawn along the west edge of the ‘sector,’ and produced to the north border, separates the bright east part of the floor from the darker west part; the inner slope of the west wall glows in sunlight, while the floor near it is the darkest portion of the crater [Plato].” See p. 95, line 9, ApprrionaL Norns, Differences of Visibility of neighbouring Objects. 1869, August 26, 11 hours 30 minutes. Definition frequently exceed- ingly good but disturbed, with much boiling at times. Mr. Pratt has fur- nished the following record :— “There was a marked difference between the M. Imbriwn, the M. Serenitatis, and the M. Frigoris, in respect of the visibility of minute objects on their surfaces. The Mare Imbrium was literally covered with small white spots and streaks. The three streaks from Aristillus to the south border of Plato were again traced. Archimedes had roughly four light streaks E. and W., and about nine or ten easily discerned white spots. Beer and Mddler ‘and neighbourhood looked invitingly for a close study. *The Mare Serenitatis was of a dull grey, with few white spots ae comparatively few features visible. Of those visible all were very indistinct, ‘EXCEPT THE MORE ELEVATED oNES; thus, of the small objects round Tiwi most were invisible, a few indistinct, even I HK, I H9, I Hy3 [the three small craters N.W. of Linné] were almost obscured. Linné itself a cloudy white ‘spot, with knot of light in centre, but not nearly so bright as when seen on the 23rd inst. Posidonius y was brighter and half the size of Linné. Bessel was tolerably clear. About half the number of white spots S.E. of 88 REPORT—1871. ‘Bessel. were very indistinctly seen, the remainder invisible. Posidonius, just within the terminator, was fairly defined. Sulpicius Gallus and one or two near it on the pleateau were clear; so that the MoRE AN OBJECT WAS RAISED above the general level of the Mare the clearer was its definition, while those on the level of it were more or less obscured. “The Mare Frigoris was very hazy indeed ; even close to the foot of the north slope of Plato objects could not be defined, while those raised a little above the Mare were remarkably well defined indeed. The whole northern slope of Plato appeared everywhere rugged and uneven.” Indications of intermittent Visibility and of possible voleame Activity. On the evening of the 13th of May, 1870, no less than twenty-seven spots were seen on the floor of Plato, 26 by Mr. Pratt, and an extra one by Mr. Elger. This extraordinary display occurred between 132 and 144 hours _ after the terminator had passed 4° E. long. It is, however, not a little remarkable that, on the same evening, Mr. Gledhill, at Halifax, observed four spots only. The great number seen by Mr. Pratt, as compared with the small number seen by. Mr. Gledhill, is doubtless due to a fine state of the earth’s atmosphere at Brighton. With regard to the streaks seen by Mr. Pratt on the same evening he remarks—“ I could not see the small streaks on the western part of the floor, and sometimes even my old ‘trident’/and the streak « were so indistinct as to be difficult. What was the cause? Surely not the earth’s atmosphere; for at the same time spots could be seen. Perhaps we shall discover that spots are raised at a higher level than light streaks, and thus visible when streaks are obscured.” This remark of Mr. Pratt’s is important: certainly the state of the earth’s atmosphere could not have affected the two classes of objects in different ways. If the intensity of the spots depended upon the purity of our atmo- sphere, one would think that the brightness of the streaks would also have been increased ; but in Mr. Pratt’s experience it was not so. Mr. Elger ‘speaks of some as bright and others faint. Mr. Gledhill, with a bad atmo- sphere, speaks of them as bright ; but he saw only four spots. Are the spots really brighter than the streaks ? But, then, why do both vary in brightness ? Mr. Pratt having perused [carefully] the M8. has furnished me with the following remarks :— “May it not be well to mention that, on the occasion referred to, 1870, May 18, I observed fifteen streaks, one of which was a new one. [This was the streak from spot No. 5 towards No. 14.] This number was much above the average, the curious fact being that although so many were per- ceptible with attention, yet the increase in their brightness was in a lower ratio than that of the spots. There are two possibilities which may affect the discrepancy | difference |between the notes of Mr. Gledhill and myself in relation to thestreaks:—First, the times at which we observed may have been different. As for myself, I tested the chance of working with any thing like satisfaction once at least every half hour during the whole of the evening, and before I tried for the last time, at 11 hours, had been unable to perceive either one spot or streak. Secondly, priority of observation bestowed on objects of one class may detract from the estimated brilliancy of the other class. In my own case, immediately I went to the telescope, at 11 hours, I saw several spots conspicuously, and in consequence searched for spots alone for nearly an hour. A search for so long a time for one class possibly may, in a slight measure, reduce the sensibility of -the eye for objects of the other class, whether spots or streaks.” The following extracts from Mr. Pratt’s letter, dated 1870, May 19, are a 7 al OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 89 interesting :—‘ Some spots having at different times been observed as cra- terlets, their character as volcanic is settled in my own mind. Whether all spots are analogous I should be glad to know; but on the supposition of such similarity existing, the suggestion naturally arises whether the light streaks be not scoriz or lava, or a mixture of both, resulting from the action of the craterlets with which they seem to be connected.” A comparison of the curves for the 20 lunations, April 1869 to November 1870, is suggestive of the craterlets being a distinct class of objects. The phenomena characterizing the cratelets, as indicated by the curves, differ very materially from the phenomena manifested by the spots; for example, in the correspondence of the maxima at the time of the supposed outbreak of Aug.—Sept. 1869, we have an increase of visibility in spots, the behaviour of the craterlets being altogether different. Certain neighbouring spots, to which allusion has been made, declined greatly in visibility, and were very seldom seen during a period in which the craterlets were almost always visible; and in connexion with this it may be remembered that craterlets are characterized by high degrees of visibility, while of many spots which have large ranges the normal degrees of visibility are low. That a connexion exists between the streaks and spots is, as Mr. Pratt remarks, “self-evident ;” and Mr. Elger has shown that most of the spots occur on the streaks. Now as both spots and streaks vary in brilliancy and visibility, may not the steaks consist, as Mr. Pratt suggests, of ejecta from the volcanic orifices of the craterlets? The increased brightness of the streaks in the neighbourhood of the border has been frequently noticed, as well as the unevenness of the floor. It may be possible that newly ejected matter (especially if it be of the character of “broken glass,” suggested, I believe, by Dr. Huggins as explanatory of the appearance of Linné) may reflect light more strongly, and thus contribute to the brighter appearance of the streaks about the time at which the craterlets manifest increased activity, and this may become so great as even to conceal the craterlets themselves. On the other hand, although we are perfectly ignorant of any meteorological or chemical action occurring at the surface of the moon, it may be permissible to suggest that, if such action be possible, the reflective power of the ejecta may become impaired, and the streaks in consequence rendered less bright. It is exceedingly difficult to conceive that volcanic action can be in existence on the moon’s surface without “vapour” of some kind escaping from the orifices. If this be the case, condensation must follow, and the orifice may be covered by the condensed vapour, the upper surface of which may strongly reflect the light and produce the appearance of a spot when not in a state of actual eruption ; and this spot may be seen on a surface covered with ejecta, the reflective power of which has been impaired since it left the orifice. One of the brightest portions of the floor of Plato is the S.E., which is characterized by the “sector” or “fan.” On the 10th of January, 1870, Mr. Gledhill observed as many as nine crater-cones on the eastern part of the floor, viz. Nos. 1, 9, 11, 17, 4, 3, 30, 7, and 32. It is easily con- ceivable that ejecta from some of these may be the perennial source of the . reflective power of the “ sector.” “Tt is, as far as I can see,” says Mr. Pratt, “not at all proven that it is impossible that they, the spots, may not be small acting volcanos at this present moment; and you will please credit me with having noted that, on the 13th of May, although the spots were very greatly in excess of their -usual brightness, the relative brilliancy of the light streaks was not nearly 90 vie REPORT—1871. in the same proportion, indeed not so high as on some nights when fewer spots have been visible. The supposition of Schroter of an exceedingly low atmosphere, confined to the lower regions, seems to me especially consonant with the above observations, for the following among other reasons :— “4 thin atmosphere, the only possible detection of which is confined to the lower parts of the floor [that is within the mountainous enclosure of Plato}, may obscure the streaks partially [to effect this there must be condensed material of some kind] without affecting the spots, which, if craterlets, are raised more or less above the level of the streaks [the low fogs, the upper sur- faces of which are at a less elevation than ordinary buildings are high, may be cited as examples]; for such an atmosphere would probably be rendered more dense by and during the supposed activity in the spots, which on that night were unusually bright and, according to the hypothesis, in action, [It must not be forgotten that on comparing the observations of Mr. Pratt with those of Mr. Gledhill, the presumption is that the unusual number and brilliancy of the spots was simply the effect of a finer atmosphere at Brighton as compared with that at Halifax. The phenomenon which is at variance with this is the less brilliancy of the streaks as recorded by Mr. Pratt; still we have the bright streaks of Mr. Gledhill supporting the hypothesis of the effects of the earth’s atmosphere.| Hence after a subsidence of the brightness of the spots and the restoration of the normal state of the atmosphere, we might expect to see the streaks come out more distinctly.” It will be remarked that, in my suggestions above, the increased bright- ness of the streaks is supposed to depend upon the eraterlets actually ejecting material, while the increased brightness of the spots depends upon the escape of vapour. I have not quoted Mr. Pratt’s remarks for the purpose of controverting them; they appear to me to be exceedingly valuable, and in the present state of selenological inquiry it is important to canvass every view that may be put forward. It is quite consonant with both our views that increased activity in a spot may, and doubtless does, manifest itself by increased brilliancy ; and it is not unlikely that the forma- tion of a spot in the way suggested over a volcanic orifice otherwise invisible may precede an actual eruption, contributing to an increased brilliancy of the streaks if they really result from volcanic ejecta. On the agencies capable of affecting the visibility of objects on the moon Mr. Pratt remarks :—‘ To my own mind the only likely agencies that can exist in the moon capable of affecting the visibility of objects are the every- where-denied lunar atmosphere and real volcanic activity; as far as I can learn, the observations of some fayour the one agency, while other observations do the same for the other, at the same time that different observers alternately deny the possible existence of either. Surely they are very closely related. If volcanic activity be established, can it exist without an atmosphere? While if a low atmosphere be established, would not the stronger objection to present volcanic activity be removed? The hope that persistent and minute observation of a suitable region might produce a result sufficient either to weaken or strengthen the supposition has been at once the impetus and bond which has induced me to give a large share of attention to Plato. We may not have attained such a result even yet; but possibly continued application may be rewarded. I hope so. The close study of typical species is generally the best method of acquiring a good knowledge of genera.” Mr. Pratt further adds: —*‘ The reverse of what I have here stated I have ‘several times observed, viz. that the light streaks on those occasions were OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 91 much brighter relatively to their best state than were the spots, of which generally at those times few have been discernible.” 1870, May 13. Mr. Pratt has not only specified the order of brightness as follows :— Spots No.: 1. 4. 3. D: 17. 14. 22. 6. 13. 16. Visibility: 1:000 892 ‘897 -510 830 483 175 -222 +156 -294 Spots No.: 20. 23. 18. 19. 29. 0. 24. 21, oO 10. Visibility: -046 046 072 ‘150 -036 046 ‘057 026 :222 -062 Spots No.: 2. 25. 30. 31. 12. ike Visibility: 046 ‘144 +139 031 031 -113 which we can compare with the degree of visibility for the 18 lunations as given immediately under the number of each spot (from this comparison we see that the brightness on May 13 was not strictly accordant with the visibility), but he has described the character of visibility by the words easy, conspicuous, &c., thus forming with the spots not seen eight classes of objects, an analysis of which may be interesting. Class I. contains one spot only, No. 1, deg. of vis, = 1-000, Pratt. Exceedingly bright and dense, Elger. Unusually bright. Gledhill. Bright spot. Class II. contains one spot only, No. 4, deg. of vis. = Pratt. Bright but hazy. Elger. No remark, Gledhill. Spot. Class ITI. contains one spot only, No. 3, deg. of vis. = +897. Pratt. Distinct; he inserts 5 between 3 and 17. Elger. 3 and 17 nearly equal. Gledhill. Bright spot. Class IV. contains four spots, viz. Nos. 17, 5, 14, 22,— No. Pratt. Elger. Gledhill. Vis. Ave Conspicuous. Nearly equal to 3. Bright spot. 830 Very faint on east 5. border of eastern Not seen. -510 arm of * trident.” 14. a Seen by glimpses. = 433 22. a Not seen. 3 175 Mr. Pratt observed the three components of the group 3, 30, 31: he described 30 and 31 as steadily seen; they occur in Class*VI. Mr. Pratt accorded to spot No. 22 a high degree of brightness on this evening, and described it as “ conspicuous:”’ neither Mr. Elger nor Mr. Gledhill detected it; this doubtless depended upon the state of our own atmosphere. It may, however, be remarked that the spot was less visible on May 13, 1870, as compared with its visibility in August 1869, when it was seen by every observer. The position of spot No. 5, as observed by Mr. Pratt on August 26, 1869, was on the west border of the eastern arm of the “ trident.” The spot No 5, _ discovered by Challis, and possessing a normal visibility of -510, has been so frequently observed as almost to warrant its stability of position; and should its relative position, as regards the eastern arm of the trident, be found to _ vary, it will afford evidence of a probable variation in the position of the arm. Schroter’s drawings of the Mare Crisium indicate similar movements of the streaks from Proclus over the Mare, 92 REPORT—1871. Class V. contains eight spots, viz. Nos. 16, 6, 13, 19, 18, 20, 23, 29. No. Pratt. Elger. Gledhill. Vis. 16. Easy. Easy. Not seen. "294 6. + Not seen. a -222 13. ” ” ” “156 19. ” ” ” 150 18. ” ” ” 072 20. 53) ” ” “046 23. ” ” eB) 046 29. ” ” ” 036 Of the spots in this class, and which Mr. Pratt describes as easy, one only, No. 16, was seen by Mr. Elger. This spot has a higher degree of visibility than 22 in Class IY., “ conspicuous ;” and this is perhaps another indication that the visibility of No. 22 on May 13 did not wholly depend upon the state of the earth’s atmosphere. The normal degrees of visibility in this class range from -294 to -036, furnishing a strong indication that they were seen in consequence of a fine state of the earth’s atmosphere. Class VI. contains five spots, viz. Nos. 9, 30, 24, 31, 21. No. Pratt. Elger. Gledhill. Vis. 9. Minute. Not seen. Not seen. 222 30. Steadily. ey 3 +139 24. Bs Seen 3 or 4 times. ,, ‘057 31. 55 Not seen. $5 “031 21, ” ” ” 026 The same remark may be applied to this class as to Class V., viz. that the spots were seen in consequence of a fine state of the earth’s atmosphere. The two spots Nos. 9 and 30, with comparative high degrees of visibility, are very frequently seen by Mr. Gledhill, and doubtless were not seen by him in consequence of the bad state of the atmosphere at Halifax. Class VII. contains six spots, viz. Nos. 25,7, 10, 2, 0, 12. No. Pratt. Elger. Gledhill. Vis. 25. .. Frequently glimpsed. Not seen. ‘144 ic ax NOt Seen. e “113 1 yee 5s a 062 2. Hazy. 55 a ‘046 OS gees 5s as “046 12. ; ; ‘031 Spot No. 25, vis. *144,is frequently seen by Mr. Elger. In addition to the above, Mr. Elger frequently glimpsed No. 32. The WHOLE of the above spots, as well as the streaks recorded by Mr. Pratt, were observed three separate times at intervals of about twenty minutes. The majority was seen much oftener. The following spots were not seen on the evening of May 13 :— Spot: 11. 34. Si lbnia GBy. »2T.b 1t26) > QB aaa Vis.: 144 -026 -015 -015 -010 -010 -005 -005 -005 With the exception of spot No. 11, which is frequently seen by Mr. Gledhill, these spots were doubtless concealed by or, rather, required a still finer state of the atmosphere to bring them out. It is difficult to say why Mr. Pratt did not detect spot No. 11 when he saw thirteen spots with lower degrees of visibility. It is one of those spots to which special attention OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 93 should be directed. Of the remainder, three have been observed once only by Mr. Gledhill, viz. Nos. 26, 28, and 35; two have been observed twice, viz. Nos. 27 and 33; two thrice, both old spots, viz. 8 (Gruithuisen) and 15 (Dawes); and one, No. 34, six times between January 15 and March 18, 1870*. In his letter dated 1870, May 19, Mr. Pratt says that “ spot No. 8 could not be recovered even with the most minute attention.” Of spot No. 1 he says, “it was brighter than I haye seen it before, guite round and dense, much like the image of a star on a good night surrounded by the very least trace of a ring of light. [Neither] internal nor external shadows could be seen, although I constantly expected a slight glimpse.” Spot No, 22. ; In reference to this spot Mr. Pratt writes, under date 1870 August 26, as ollows :— *« Spot No. 22, according to my observations, has manifested a remarkable inerease of brightness, and those parts of the shaded portions of the floor of Plato which are nearest to the rim have come out more conspicuously darker than the rest than I remember to have previously noted. The tint of the floor, toe, has progressively paled. These three phenomena [the increased brightness of spot 22, the intensification of the darker parts of the floor near the rim, and the progressive paling of the floor] may possibly be connected by a common cause; for certainly in this lunation there is somewhat of a coincidence amongst them; for instance, spot 22 is intensely bright at the time the marginal portions of the shaded parts are most conspicuously dark, and these two, again, coincide with the time when the general tint of the floor is at its darkest. Again, after August 12 and 13, spot 22 decreased in relative intensity, although I am not ready to hazard the assertion that it had on August 16 positively declined to its usual intensity, as it was not seen. [It was on this evening that Mr. Pratt observed three spots only.] Two similar instances, I believe, I have noted before, when 22 manifested a singular brightness at sunrise. But the connexion between the visibility of the deeper-tinted margin and the general deepening of colour is perhaps more close still, as both certainly paled after August 13. The perplexity seems to be that the variation in intensity of the margin is relative in respect of the general colour ; and if differences of angles of illumination and vision do affect the general tint, it might be supposed that they would in the same manner affect the margin and so produce no relative variation of intensity.” In connexion with the relative intensity of which Mr. Pratt speaks, the state of the border is somewhat important. August 12 and 13, when the marginal portions of the floor were intensified in colour, Mr. Pratt recorded of the border :— Definition fair at times, with much tremor, wind N.E.” This was on the 12th. On the 13th the record is: “ Border, definition bad, * The history of spot No. 34 is curious ; the following are the only records which exist of it. The observations were all made by Mr. Gledhill with the Halifax 93-inch equatorial in the Observatory of Edward Crossley, Esq. 1870, January 15, 10 to 13 hours. “I am continually thinking I see an object close to No. 1 and to the west of it.” February 11, 6.45. “No. 1 often comes out double ; last year I often saw it thus. Iam - now almost quite sure I see a minute object close to the west of it.” February 12, 6.0. “Saw 9, 11, 30, and object close west of No. 1.” March 12, 6 to 8 hours. No. 34 mentioned as having been seen. March 13, 6 to 12 hours. “Unless I am very much mistaken indeed 34 is an easy object, 7. e. No. 1 comes out easily double.” There are no records after this date. Instruments less than 9-inches aperture are not likely to redetect it. 94 REPORT— 1871. much boiling, wind N.E.” On the 12th, definition fair, the floor was recorded as “very dark.” On the 13th it was dark, but not so much so as on the 12th. On the 16th, as well as on the 15th, the definition of the border was “bad.” These records clearly throw a doubt upon the supposition of the “‘ paling” having resulted from some lunar action, inasmuch as when the deeper tint was observed the definition was “good,” the “tremor” and “boiling” having a tendency to confuse the portions of the floor, On the other hand, spots have been much more numerous with bad definition than 3 as observed by Mr. Pratt on the 16th; and this would lead to the supposition that the apparent extinction of the spots with a pale floor was in some way differently connected than by a deteriorated state of the earth’s atmo- sphere. I have often observed that the passage of a thin cloud over the moon has greatly contributed to intensify the tints of the darker portions of the surface; but in this case the intensification has been general and not partial, as it would be if dependent upon local lunar action. Mr. Pratt records a case of partial obscuration which was well seen on August 13. “It appeared,” says Mr. Pratt, on this wise. A general view of the floor showed it much speckled and streaked in other parts ; but over the area specified [Mr. Pratt has not mentioned the particular part of the floor; but from what follows I apprehend it must be in the neighbourhood of No. 3] there seemed an absence of markings; close attention, however, enabled some to be seen, but not nearly so richly as the remainder of the floor, and we know well enough that that particular area is not wanting in markings. The evening’s view has just occurred to memory when I first discovered that spot 3 was a triple one, and had a remarkable view of its neighbourhood [Qy. Was this on May 13 ?], therefore exactly the reverse being the case. August 13 seems as conclusive a proof as one observer is likely to obtain in a year’s work.” Of four observers on the same evening, two record No. 38, and the other two appear not to have seen it. Taking them in chronological order, Neison, 9.5 to 9.15, records it as distinct; Pratt, 10.30 to 12.30, did not observe it; Ormesher, 11.0 to 11.30, does not show it in his drawing; Gledhill, 14", records it as a bright disk: he also records 30. As these observations are not contemporaneous, with the exception of Ormesher’s, haying been made while Pratt was observing, it appears, from its absence in both their records, that from 10.30 to 12.30 it was really not visible ; and this tends to support Mr. Pratt’s idea that for the time it was hidden by something like an obscuring medium. What this could have been it is difficult to surmise. The remark, however, of Neison that 30 was not to be seen between 9.5 and 9.15 is interesting in connexion with Gledhill recording both spots at a later epoch, 14”, and also detecting five not seen by Pratt, viz. 3, 30, 9, 11, 18. Neison suspected he saw 14, not recorded by Gledhill nor Pratt, but seen by Ormesher. Pratt saw 22, not seen by either of the others. The case of 14 is a little perplexing ; iit might, however, have been missed by Pratt on account of the bad definition. With regard to the greater number of spots seen by Gledhill, two circumstances may have contributed to this result, the larger aperture of Mr. Crossley’s instrument and the epoch at which Mr. Gledhill observed. It may possibly be found that the greater number of spots recorded after the sun’s meridian passage at Plato depend upon the. steadiness and purity of the air mostly experienced after midnight. Sunset and Sunrise on Plato. Extracts from Mr. Pratt’s notebook, 1870, Oct. 17, 11" to 12% Defini« 7 OBSERVATIONS OF LUNAR OBJECTS. 95 tion fair, with boiling. * « Plato is a grand and striking sight. Tint of floor medium. More than half the floor in shadow. Terminator just in- cluding the W. rim. The rim of the crater on the N. exterior slope finely seen. In three parts the rim appeared broken down to level of floor—close to m, opposite to c, and nearly so at W. II E¥? [the breaks at m and op- posite c are in the line of the well-known fault crossing Plato from N.W. to S.E.]. ¢ was throwing a long spire of shadow the full length of the floor at 11" 40". That part of the floor contiguous to the W. and 8.W. rim was deeply shaded, with streaks of shade running towards the centre of the floor. Between the break near c and the shadow of ¢ a straight shading as of a narrow valley was well seen. [These shadings appear to be roughly. coincident with the dark spaces on the floor as seen under high illumination, the straight shading being, as Mr. Pratt suggests, between the “sector” and the E. arm of the “trident.” Is there really a valley here running into the central depression between 1 and 4, seen by Mr. Elger in January, 1870, and observed much earlier by Schréter?] Between these shadings and the shadow of the K. rim were three roundish lighter regions, the higher parts of the floor giving the appearance of a strongly marked convexity.” ** A strong suspicion arises that the apparently higher portions of the floor are the light streaks usually seen, and the highest parts are spots 1, 17: and 5.” Mr. Pratt further suggests that the light streaks are coincident with formations analogous to “spurs” from the chief centres of the residual. activity on the floor. {t is not a little remarkable that on the occasion of such a very favourable oblique illumination the craterlets 1 and 17 should not have been detected by Mr. Pratt; both have raised rims of the nature of true volcanic cones, and 1 has been seen, and I believe 17 also, with interior shadows and bright interiors facing the sun. Mr. Pratt does not appear to have seen even the remotest semblance of a shadow. The spots properly so called do not appear generally until the sun has attained an altitude of 20°. If craterlets are recorded as spots earlier, it is probably in consequence of bad definition confusing the crater-form appearance. Is it possible that on the two occasions mentioned by Mr. Pratt, Oct. 17 and Nov. 1, the craterlets 1, 17, 3, and 4 were by some means concealed? As regards Nov. 1, the observation of the crater-cones as the shadows gradually recede from E. to W. is very frequent ; indeed the surface of Plato as it just emerges out of night appears to be in a very different state to what itis about mid-day ; objects are much sharper, and it is difficult to conceive of any agency so affecting such visible objects as to render them invisible at a time when they are generally most conspicuous. So far as contemporaneous observations are capable of throwing light on this phenomenon, three spots only were recorded on the same even-= ing; No. 1 by Mr. Elger, who noticed it from 9* to 9" 5™, near the shadow of the summit of the middle peak of the W. wall, three hours later than Mr. Pratt’s observation. Mr. Gledhill at 6", same as Mr. Pratt, says, “Moon so low and air so thick that very little light from moon can reach us;’’ he says also, “I see 3 as double elevated cones [?.e. 3 and 30]. No other objects can be seen.” Mr. Neison, 5.10 to 8.15 [probably 8.10 to 8.15] succeeded _in seeing 3 only, which he records as very faint. He does not give the state of the atmosphere as to definition ; but from his remarking that “ a deep cleft in west edge of wall was very distinctly seen,” I should suppose that it was pretty good. Taking the four sets of observations it would appear that at sunrise on Plato Nov. 1, 1870, some agency was in operation capable of concealing the craterlets; and combining these observations with those of 96 REPORT—1871. Oct. 17, it would also appear that the same agency was in operation at the time of the previous sunset. 1870, Nov. 1, 6" to 6" 40". “A grand view again. Definition fair at times. The margin of the eastern end of the floor very distinctly shaded, showing that end to be convex as well as the western. This shading did not conform to the general form of rim, but ran inwards (as shown in the sketch); and three places on the floor were much brighter than the rest, which was free from shading (their localities I have no doubt are those of spots 3, 4, and 17), while the next bright parts of the floor are suggestive of the light streaks; and the shading or lower part coinciding with the narrowing of the streak between 4 and 3 as seen under higher illumination in a measure supports the impression.” The dip of the floor towards the border, as mentioned by Mr. Pratt, is now well established by numerous observations, also the comparatively greater elevation in the neighbourhood of the fault crossing Plato from N.W. to S.E. These characteristics will probably afford some clue towards framing a theory of the formation of the plain and rampart. Starting with the now acknowledged principle that the moon manifests on a large scale the operation of volcanic forces, we may first inquire as to their modus operandi in the forms we observe. So far as we know, volcanos and earthquakes are closely connected, and there is great reason to believe that both are the results of expansion occasioned by the intumescence of material beneath the Fig. 8. A c B crust or surface. It was, I believe, Scrope who first called attention to the effect of the expansion of an intumescent mass elevating the superincumbent material; and Hopkins, twenty-two years later, clearly showed that when the surface was elevated to the point at which the tension and cohesion just balanced each other, the slightest increase of tension ruptured the surface and produced fissures, which might be considerably augmented by earthquake- waves accompanied by the sudden subsidence of the tract between two principal lines of fissures. In applying this reasoning to the explanation of the formation of “ Plato,” the remarks of Scrope are so much to the point that a transcription of them is essential to the due apprehension of the forces concerned. In chapter x. of his ‘Considerations of Volcanos,’ p. 205 (1825), Serope, speaking of M. de Buch’s opinion that the intumescence and rise of the basalt elevated the superincumbent strata, says: “TI differ from him, inas- much as I conceive the intumescence and rise of the basalt to be not the cause but the result of the elevation of the overlying strata. “A general fact, noticed by M. de Buch himself, proves this most thoroughly, viz. that wherever the basalt appears, the strata are invariably found dipping towards it, which is wholly inexplicable under the idea that the basalt eleyated them. . .. If, however, we suppose the expansion of the subterranean bed of crystalline rock to have taken place at a great depth, elevating the overlying strata irregularly along the line of yarious fissures, - THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS. 97 as for example at A and B (fig. 8), it is clear such fissures will open outwardly ; but in the interval of two such fissures, as at C, another must be found opening, on the contrary, downwards, that is, towards the confined and heated lava, which in consequence must intumesce and fill the space afforded to it, and perhaps force its way through some minor cleft upon the external surface of the elevated rocks.” Plato we know to be a large cavity in an elevated region, between the Mare Imbrium and the Mare Frigoris, connected with the mountain-studded region of the Alps on the west, and descending with a precipitous slope towards the east. The whole of the surface around Plato is exceedingly rugged, containing at least the remains of three craters of more ancient date. It is the floor of Plato only that presents any appearance of a recent character ; and even this when viewed by very oblique light is far from being level. The sketch (fig. 8) to which reference has already been made is intended to con- vey some idea of the successive steps by which it is probable that Plato has arrived at its present form. It is roughly drawn to scale, which is somewhat too small, and, consequently, the height of the rim rather exaggerated; the extent being 316,800 English feet, the height, under 4000 feet (7. e. of the rim exclusive of the four pinnacles), will be nearly J;th part. The letters A and B are placed over the supposed foci of expansion, the arrows indi- eating the direction of the elevating movements, the dotted line showing the extreme height to which the surface could be raised without fracture. Over A and B, and above C, are placedthe three main fissures resulting from the in- creased tension and the general breaking up of the elevated mass, and which might have been accompanied with an almost immediate subsidence, as sug- gested by Hopkins, Report Brit. Assoc. 1847, p. 64, in the following passage :— “Tf the intumescence of the subjacent fluid, and consequently its supporting power, were immediately afterwards diminished by the escape of elastic vapours, there would be an immediate subsidence.” Such a subsidence, or rather a succession of subsidences, would fully account for the formation of the floors of most craters; and the upwelling of lava from numerous small orifices would tend to produce such a floor as we observe on Plato. The section presents all the characteristics of the walled plain under considera- tion, the dip towards the border being strongly indicative of the main line of fissure opening outwardly at the foot of the rampart. It may be well to mention that no new principle is introduced in this explanation, which is based upon the views of two leading geologists, after comparing them with phenomena that have been assiduously and repeatedly observed. Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals. By Prof. Tarr, Suxce the date of the former Report the Committee have obtained a splendid set of Kew standard thermometers. With these, complete sets of observa- tions, at very different temperatures, have been made on iron, two specimens of copper, lead, german silver, and gas-coke. As great difficulty was found in keeping the source of heat at a constant high temperature in the statical experiments, they were repeated from day to day till satisfactory results were obtained. But a simple and ingenious device of Dr. Crum Brown (con- sisting in making the descending counterpoise of a small gas-holder nip an india-rubber tube) supplied so very great an improvement in steadiness of ai that it was considered advisable to repeat all the statical expe- ie H 98 REPORT—1871. riments with this modification. This has accordingly been done, during the present summer, but it has not yet been possible to perform the large amount of calculation necessary to obtain final results. It may be stated, however, that the results as a whole will not differ very considerably from those for- merly obtained, so far, at least, as can be judged from a comparison of the graphic representations of the experiments. Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, by a Committee, consisting of C. Brooxs, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. GuatsHer, F.R.S., Prof. Puiuutps, F.R.S., J. F. Bateman, C.H., F.R.S., R. W. Myint, C.E., F.R.S., 'T. Hawxstey, C.E., Prof. J. C. Avams, F.R.S., C. Tomuinson, F.R.S., Prof. Sytvester, F.R.S., Dr. Pots, F.R.S., Rocers Fie.p, C.E., and G. J. Symons, Secretary. Your Committee have much pleasure in reporting that the organization under their supervision is believed to be in a generally efficient state. With a staff of observers, numbering nearly two thousand, spread over the whole extent of the British Isles, there can, however, be no question that, to ensure perfect efficiency and uniformity of observation, a systematic inspection of stations is absolutely necessary. In a paper read before the Society of Arts in 1858, Mr. Bailey Denton appears to have considered that there should be one inspector to about each 200 stations; at that rate we ought to have ten. The Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society have made it a rule to have all their stations inspected each year. On the most moderate com- putation it is indisputable that at least one inspector of stations is required for our large body of observers, the whole of whose time should be devoted to travelling. Ever since their appointment your Committee have felt and acted upon this conviction; but want of funds has prevented them from employing a regular inspector, and obliged them to rely solely upon the unpaid services of their Secretary. Even under these adverse conditions considerable progress has been made with the work, and upwards of 400 gauges had been visited and examined previous to the Liverpool Meeting. At that Meeting, how- ever, the Association only granted half the sum for which we asked, and we have consequently (most reluctantly) been obliged to stop this important and useful work. As an interim measure, and with a view to ascertaining in what districts inspection is most requisite, it has been suggested that a schedule of ques- tions as to the positions of their rain-gauges should be sent to every observer. The Committee unanimously approved of the suggestion, and annex a copy of the Circular and Schedule they are about to issue. British Association Rainfall Committee, 62 Camden Square, London, N.W. Srr,—The above Committee feel that it is most important that precise in- formation as to the position of all the rain-gauges in the British Isles should be promptly obtained. They are aware that under present circumstances it is impossible that each gauge should be personally inspected, and have there- fore instructed me to ask you to fill up the accompanying form, which I shall be obliged by your returning as soon as possible. As an indication of the kind of information which the Committee desire to collect, I have filled up one form for my own gauge; but there are of course many subjects not touched upon in the specimen which will be ac- i i en ee ee a a ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 99 ceptable in others, such as distance from the sea and from lofty hills, as well as their direction, &c. The Committee will also be glad of any suggestions as to the conduct of rainfall work, and of information respecting any stations or old observations not included in the list published by them in 1866, and of which I shall be happy to send you a copy if you have not already received one. Yours very truly, G. J. Symons, Secretary. [Illustration of mode of filling up return. ] POSITION AND PARTICULARS OF THE RAIN-GAUGE At [Camden Square, London, | In the County of [Middlesex. ] Year in which observations were first made (1858. ] Hour of observation [9a.m.] If entered against the day of observation, or the one preceding {Preceding}. Position [In garden, 120 ft. by 24 ft. | Surrounding objects, their distances and heights :— Distance. Height. N. [Wall a peat lne 5 ft.] N.E. {House .. 92 ft. 40 ft. ] E. [Wall .» 215, ft. 5 ft.] S.E. [Wall eg ire 5 ft.] S. [Wall ee A 5 ft. ] S.W. [Summer House .. 24 ft. 7 ft.] W. [Raspberry-bushes does 'O She 3 ft. | N.W.[ Wall 12 ft. 5 ft.] Inclination of ground [Quite level, but in N. E. rises 30 ft. in ; mile.] Height of Ground above sea-level [111] ft. as determined by [Level ling from Ordnance Bench-mark]. Height of top of gauge above ground [0] ft. [6] in. Pattern of gauge. (If similar to any on plate, quote the number; if not, give sketch.) [Similar to No. X., but the bent tube is made straight, and a jar inserted for the purpose of ensuring more accurate mea- surement. | Have the same gauge and measuring-glass been used throughout? ([No.] Has the gauge always been in the same position? [No.] the previous position [800 yards further west. | If not, state briefly < the reason for the alteration [Growth of trees. ] the supposed effect [None perceptible. ] REMARKS, [Measuring-glass broken in 1861, and a new tested one obtained, the rainfall of each day until its arrival being bottled separately, and mea- sured by the new glass. | Signed, [G. J. SYMONS. ] _ Another branch of investigation which has been arrested by the same cause is the relative amount of rain falling in different months, or, as we have usually termed it, the ‘‘ monthly percentage of mean annual rainfall.” Several articles upon the subject have appeared in our previous Reports; and last year we pointed out that the observations for the decade 1860-69 offured data of completeness unparalleled, either in this or any other country, the 2 100 REPORT—1871. result of which we had hoped to have submitted to the present Meeting. Excepting in our own Reports, we are not aware that the seasonal distribu- tion of rain in this country has received any attention, while on the Con- tinent it has at all times been looked upon as almost equally important with ~ the gross amount. Although several short and interrupted sets of observations have been made in Northern Derbyshire, the rainfall of that hilly district has not hitherto been examined with the thoroughness which its importance deserves. We have in previous Reports urged the desirability of several additional stations being established ; and as no one else undertook the work our Secre- tary did so, and by the assistance of the observer at Buxton, and Mr. Hazlewood, of Castleton, was enabled to commence several sets of rain- gauge observations in the district. Some others are still required, which, if our funds permit, we intend to add. Pit-gauges.—In our last Report we drew attention to the fact that a gauge of which the orifice was horizontal, level with the ground, but in a small pit or excavation, had at Calne collected about 5 per cent. more than one of which the receiving surface was one foot above the ground; whence it followed that as a great many rain-gauges (the majority in fact) are placed with their apertures a foot above the surface, the records of all these gauges were below what they would have been if placed in pits as just described. We gave some reasons which appeared to us to prevent the general use of pit- gauges, and added the following concluding remark on page 176 :— “This result appears so startling that further experiments will be con- ducted on the subject.” The funds at our disposal have not allowed us to do so; but fortunately the Rey. F. W. Stow, M.A., has tried one pair of gauges mounted in this manner at Hawsker, on the Yorkshire coast, a few miles south of Whitby. The following are the results during 1870 :— Tastz I.—Experiments with Pit-gauges. Hawsker, 1870. Brit.Assoc. Report, 1869-70. Months. cae Rei aes rea Ratio. cept % Difference. January ....| 1:°610 ner irae) 110 113 — 3 February....| 1:995 2-300 115 109 + 6 MisiiG hs os pa 1-052 1-293 123 107 +16 2. a enaer 0-370 0-390 105 105 0 be a Minch sas Sieg eee 3 sine gas 2-650 2-705 102 102 0 ealiy’ 7 Siceoc te te 0-920 0-977 106 103 + 3 August ....| 1:887 1-908 101 103 — 2 September ..| 0°845 0-934 110 103 7 October ....| 5°000 5053 101 102 = 1 November ..| 3°043 3°234 106 106 0 December ..| 5°230 6-420 123 108 +15 Wotals i aca 24-602 | 26:984 Means...... pays & egy 109°3 105-5 + 38 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 101 Of course it was not to be expected that the results of a single year should agree exactly with the mean of two other years, still less when the size of gauge used was different, and the locality so opposite as the inland district of Calne and the rock-bound Yorkshire coast. We therefore look upon it as satisfactory that in only four months out of eleven do the ratios at Calne and Hawsker differ more than 3 per cent. In April, June, and November they are identical. The Calne results are thus strongly confirmed ; and it may be considered as certain that pit-gauges always exceed those at one foot, although the precise amount of excess remains to be determined. In our last Report we expressed the hope that we should this year be able to state the result of the discussion of all the rainfall registers which were absolutely continuous from January 1, 1860, to December 31, 1869. We have the pleasure of doing so in two respects, viz. (1) with reference to their bearing on the question of the existence or otherwise of secular variation of rainfall in the British Isles, and (2) as data indicative of the distribution of rain over the country. The secular variation of rainfall, or the relative dryness and wetness of different years and groups of years, is one of the most important and difficult branches of rainfall work. It has been treated in our Reports for 1865, and very fully in that for 1866. In the latter we gave the calculations in detail, from which the values shown on the accompanying diagram were obtained. Referring to that Report for full explanation, we have only now to mention that the subsequent years 1866 to 1869 have been computed in the same manner and added to the diagram (fig. 1). We may also remark that various observations collected since its publication have confirmed the general accuracy of the curve quite as much as could have been anticipated, On the present occasion we do not intend to discuss the relative rainfall of different years, but the relation of the fall during the ten years 1860-69 to previous decades. For this purpose we have grouped the yearly values in decennial periods, similar to those adopted in our 1867 Report, whence we obtain the following result :— Taste II.—Ratio of Rainfall in each ten years since 1730 to the Mean of sixty Years, 1810-69. Period. Ratio. Period. Ratio. 1730-39 89-9 1800-09 88-2 1740-49 70:6 1810-19 98:6 1750-59 85:5 1820-29 103°2 1760-69 91-1 1830-39 101-4 1770-79 103-5 1840-49 102°6 1780-89 93°5 1850-59 95:2 1790-99 96°5 1860-69 101-5 Having previously pointed out the peculiarities of the earlier portion of the curve, it is only necessary on the present occasion to call attention to the last forty years, whence it will be seen that, according to this mode of inves- tigation (which is principally based on English returns), three out of the four decades had a rainfall nearly identical, and the other (1850-59) considerably _below them, the deficiency being nearly 7 per cent. This result is based on a combination of records, as fully explained in our 1866 Report. We proceed to examine how far it is corroborated by individual stations, but are at once confronted by the paucity of stations of which per- fectly continuous records for even half a century exist. We therefore con- fine ourselves to the forty years, from 1830 to 1869, for which period we 1871. jo “gue0 Log ‘TROT REPORT “R-N9RT *A-NCRT *6-0F8T *6-088T | *6-028T | “6-OT8T | “6-008T | *6-06LT | *6-08LT | “6-OLLT “6-09LT | *6-09LT | “B-OFLT “B-OSLT “6-9 LET | *uBaTYy TO “4M99 197 | “6-098T 102 ‘698 ‘A’V OL 96L4T ‘AV WOU ‘NIYE@ ocOsTLY & SEIN T SNOTILVO LOA Te [Sy ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 103 have twelve perfect records at widely separated stations. The mean fall in each decade and in the whole period, and the ratio of each decade to the whole period at each station, is given in Table III. 1840-9. ee oO} F* OF Jet wo Be CO NN | From careful examination of Table III., it appears that the amount of rain which fell in the ten years 1830-39 was very similar to that which fell in the ten following years, the difference being a decrease, but scarcely one per cent. The investigation in our 1866 Report shows an increase of 1-2 per cent. ; and examination of returns ceasing in 1850, and therefore not quoted in either Report, show several cases of absolute identity. With one investigation leading to a decrease of 1 per cent., another to an increase of the same amount, and a third to identity, we are led to the con- clusion that the two decades may be considered to show similar results. This is a much more important fact than it at first appears; and for this Taste I1J.—Comparison of the Rainfall in each Decade since 1829 with the Mean Rainfall of forty years, ending with 1869. Mean Rainfall in each 10 years. Mean Station. Rainfall, 1830-39. | 1840-49. | 1850-59. | 1860-69. | 1830-69. in. in. in. in. in. Epping ..... 25:84 26:99 23:18 24-13 25-04. Exeter Institution | 28-92 29°35 26-91 31-76 29°24 | Tavistock ...... 52°81 54-27 49:18 53°17 52°36 | iE live: ln 34°51 31:88 30°71 33°31 | 32-60 Kendal os... 56°22 51:18 44-9] 53°32 51-41 | Point of Ayre....| 28:26 | 28:20 | 29-01 | 30-61 | 29-02 | Rhinns of Islay ..| 34:07 33°79 30°58 33:43 | 32:97 | Isle of May...... 21-96 20-94 15:21 20-48 19°65 | Buchanness...... 26-40 26°84 23-40 25°59 | 25°56 Kinnairdhead ....| 19°66 22-01 22-05 24:17 | 21-97 Island Glass ....| 33°23 34:98 31-92 81:13 | 32°81 Start Point...... 27-39 25-05 93°77 31:37 | 26°89 Mea TIS§ 1:20. beic.e ase 32:44 aya be 29-24 32°71 31:63 Ratio of Means ..| 102°6 101-6 92-5 103-4 104 REPORT—1871., Taste IIT. (continued). | Ratio of Rainfall in each 10 years’ to 40 | Station. years’ Mean. | 1830-39. | 1840-49, | 1850-59. | 1860-69. | | Bp pune eee 103 —-||)=—«:108 93) a) oo | Exeter Institution} 99 | 100 92 109 | Tavistock ...... LOR 3 204 94 101 Halifaw: 5400s: 106 | 98 94 102 Kendal ii... = 109 | 100 87 104 Point of Ayre.... 97 97 100 106 | Rhinns of Islay ..| 103 102 93 102 | Isle of May ....| 112 107 78 103 Buchanness...... 103 105 92 100 Kannairdhead.... 90 100 100 110 Island Glass ....| 101 107 97 oe | Start Point...... 102 |= 93 88 Laie | | | Mean Ratios....| 102-2 101°8 92:3 103°7 | reason: while there are only about a dozen registers complete for the four decades, there are thirty-eight which are complete for the last three decades. Now that we have found the relation between the first two decades, the re- turns for the thirty years are rendered almost as instructive as those for forty years. Fig. 3. ne Dp, 1871 Report. 1871 Report. 1866 Report, England. All stations. 1840-9. 1850-9. 1860-9, | 1840-9. 1850-9. 1860-9. | 1840-9. 1850-9, 1860-9. 3 100 : oP We have therefore compiled Table IV., which differs from Table III. only in its being for thirty years instead of forty, and in giving observations from thirty-eight stations instead of twelve. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 105 | Tanen TY.—Comparison of the Rainfall in each Decade since 1839 with the mean ; Rainfall of thirty years ending 1869. 4 : ; Mean | Ratio of Rainfall in i Mean ae in each) Rain- each decade to 30 Division., County. Station. Ae pal fall. years Mean, b 1840-49, '1850-59, |1860-69. |1840-69, |1840-49. 1850-59, |1860-69. 7 in, in, in. in. II. | Sussex ......... Chichester Infirmary ...! 29°10 | 26°67 | 29°03 28°27 | 103 94 | 103 ” a podereens + (Chilgrove)...| 33°41] 32°23] 33°22 32°95 | 101 98 | tor Be | lertah iss J..2-%: Hemel Hempstead ......! 25°86 | 26°43] 26°39| 2623] 99 | ror | 100 Ne HSOX oo... Pp pings oy. ckssase ees 26°99} 23°18| 24°13| 24:77] 109 94 97 ” Nortollc, ...... Diss (Dickleburgh)...... 25°05 | 22°31| 22'22| 23:19] 108 96 96 Ae Wilts -..| Salisbury (Baverstock) | 31°09 | 28°69| 30°25 3o°or | 104 96 100 ” Devon. ..s:2:2:: Tavistock (West St.) ...] 54°27] 49°18] 53°17] 52:21] 104 94 | 102 ” «Baar Exeter Institution ...... 29°35 | 26°91 | 31°76] 29°34 100 92 | 108 ” 2 CaeRERERe Honiton(Broadhembury)| 35°14} 32°75 | 34°56| 34:15 | 103 96 | 101 VI. | Worcester ...| Tenbury (Orleton) ...... 28°41 | 28°82] 30°90) 29°38| 97 98 | 105 VII. | Nottingham...| Welbeck ............... +e-| 25°44] 23°29] 24°64] 24°46] 104 95 | Ior VUI. | Lancashire ...| Bolton (The Folds).....) 46:46| 44:01 48°98 | 46:48 | 100 95 | 105 IX. | Yorkshire ...| Redmires .............066.. 40°75 | 37°86| 39°68) 39:43] 103 96 | 101 ” ” ---| Halifax (Well Head) ...! 31°88) 30°71| 33°31] 31°97| 100 96 | 104 ” s REAPS CULLO UE sueawasiaganaaier wilce 43°41 | 35°51! 41°35] 4o°og| 108 89 103 ” ” Beall VOR caine ecororenecceber 25°42 | 22°02| 24°48] 23°97] 106 92 102 X. Durham ...... Bishopwearmouth ......! 19°94} 16°91 | 20°25] 19°03| 105 89 | 106 » Westmoreland] Kendal...............s00s »-| 52°18] 44°gI |. 53°32 | 49°80| 103 go | 107 XI. | Isle of Man ...| Point of Ayre...........| 28:20 29:01] 30°61 29'27| 96 99 | 105 XII. | Wigtown ...... Mull of Galloway, L.H.| 20°67| 22°52 | 27°66| 23°62] 88 95 117 XIII. | Haddington...) Haddington.....2......... 23°77| 24°35 | 25°63| 24°58| 97 99 | 104 ” Edinburgh ...| Inveresk ............0.000. 25°81 | 24°72| 29°02| 26°52] 97 93 110 EVA ABUL... 20260550: Bladda ThA css.esceseac 40°02 | 35°23] 40°14] 38°46| 104 gz | 104 ” 1 Mull of Cantire, L.H. | 45°76} 41°19} 44°17] 43°71 | 105 94 | Ior ” So» wer xepeedar Rhinns of Islay, L.H. | 33°79} 30°58| 33°43] 32°60] 104 94 | 102 BEV L WPRICE TE Ji... 0c ce Isle of May, L.H. ......| 20°94 15°21} 20°48] 18°88] 411 81 | 108 ” Bente ...5. 80) MeanstOns 2g) Petersfield (Tiss) ......-. ae | Seas 38-033 - ..|Selborne (The Wakes) 4 0 400 | 34-427 3 Pus PA SYAEBL ORR 15 ee ses « 30 325 | 27-036 Berkshire ....| Reading (Englefield) ...... +0 190 | 25-726 2 ....|Long Wittenham ........ I-20 170 | 27-379 Diviston III. Herts «vile «; her Bayfordbary,| << 0s dessnes 0 4 250 =| 25-011 Ro ehicehts ceareierels St. Albans (Gorhambury) ..| 2 9 eb 27:849 | ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. Taste V. (continued), County. | | Drviston III. | (continued). Herts eee ee ee se ee ewe ae a a | Cambridge Sar s| | ” | Drviston LY. oe ee ewes oy) AIO SSeS Divisron VY. Wiltshire. -| Althorp House .| Wellingborough .......... Station. HemelHempstead( Nash Mills) Tring (Cowroast) Hitchin Royston High Wycomb Radcliffe Observatory...... Banbury (High Street) .... ee eee eee 6 8 he wires aye) 6) og See a ee at ef Sierisuel iv, < epre Kimbolton (Hamerton) .. Cardington 99 ee ee Ely ( ‘Stretham) eLeiw ¢, mie 6 a) ee @ «1 Wisbeach (Harecroft House) Bigpiie +. sie acee cece eee Dainty s,s Fe 2 APPEL Braintree (Bocking) Saffron Walden (Ashdon) .. Hadleigh (Aldham) ; Bury St. Ed. (Abbeygate) . » (Westley) » (Barton Hall) sp ACMUEOEE) 5. «i Seenehs Diss (Dickleburgh)........ Downham Market (Outwell) a” », (Fincham) Norwich Institution ¥ (Cossey) (Honingham Hall) Fakenham (Bamere) «fps Balkhary,.. sta otiearotuetades ey see eae ee eee eee ed ee D Baverstock . 10.0deees eon Salisbury Plain (Chiltern Ho.) Swindon (Penhill) ee eee wae Above ground. ft. int DHORDOLKWKhLODWOALRNO [s) WMOOTMRDOCOCSOSANOSCOBRBSOBSCAS 3 0 4 0 0 10 Height of Rain-gauge. Above sea. feet. 250 395 238 266 225 207 350 310 170 106 109 142 ae 360 20? 234 200 300 "940? 216? 145? 84? 120 16 100 53 88 150 39 43 60 300 380? 107 Mean Annual Rainfall, 1860-69. inches. 26°388 27:594 23°922 23°569 25°705 26°129 26222 23°349 24-092 23°132 22-487 21-760 18-170 20-609 24-037 24-132 20-466 22-750 23-984 23-056 25°469 23°962 23°522 23-680 24°835 22°223 22:637 23°139 227169 24:035 23°975 25:097 23-875 23°232 19°559 | 30-247 29-279 28-592 108 County. | Drviston V. (continued). Worcester .. 9 REPORT—1871. TBE V. (continued). Morset:.. <> «ac \ Devon's .. os a ee a ee WE mise her's < ofa Somerset ..... Dryiston VI. Gloucester .... _..| Clifton (South Parade) . . . .| Gloucester (Quedgeley) .... .| Cirencester (Further Barton) .| Burford [Tenbury]........ ...-| Ludlow (Knowbury) ...... ....| Shiffnal (Haughton Hall) . ia] SUPEWIAUEY eos! so! oe sees’! ..| Oswestry (Hengoed) :| Northwick Park .......... .| Worcester (Lark Hill) Height of Rain-gauge. Station. Above ground. ft. in. Bela Poet or sh aon ous «pile < 0.3 Plymouth (Saltram) ...... 0 3 (Harm) "2 ,°°. So: a0 Plympton StMary(Ridgeway)| 0 6 Tavistock (Library) ...... 20: °G x (West Street)....| 4 6 Rover Piaesy: 2.50 ete A Me Coryton Lew Down ...... 6 0 Exeter Institution ........ i cum fs Cullompton (Clyst Hydon)..| 1 0 (Bradninch) Fen Honiton (Broadhembury) . i a South Molton (Castle Hill)... 3.5 Barnanapfe’ joss a hi oe itty 0 6 teistieia heh sts ot te tS 5 0 Pepzanee™ <.ics Agee oe oa Redruth (Tehidy Park) ....) 0 6 Truro (Royal Institution) ..| 40 0 gp MCPererh) . .. . «25 se0s 1 Bodmin (Castle Street) ....| 2 6 pre(OVarlezean)....... 2 6 Wadebridge(Treharrock Ho.)) 2 9 Langport (Long Sutton)....| 0 10 E. Harptree (Sherborne Res.)) 1 0 Bristol (Small Street)...... 25 5. = ( Pnils dnt.) Ross (Archenfield)........ ve (uoeklands) oS oe Leominster (West Lodge) .. eee eee ners : Oe Warwick..... Tenbury (Orleton)........ | Birmingham (Edgbaston) . a WHODORUREFOCONOACO Above sea. feet. 60 96 94 116 283 286 92 445 155 200 234 400 200 43 116 94 160 56 190 338 550 303 50 338 40 192 50 420 250? 150 250 100? 1000? 355 192 470 137 200? 510 Mean Annual Rainfall, 1860-69. inches, 32°248 44-813 42°888 48-646 43°356 53°170 43-126 | 45-941 31°757 32-694 | 38-060 34562 | 47-118 39:°905 37°872 | 41-507 41-229 42:877 42:556 47-708 54557 39°301 28:574 42-097 30°549 32°955 34:085 | 27°421 32°612 28°211 33°591 27°105 26°744 28°530 24-870 19:499 35:°647 28°017 28-039 30-900 30°562 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 109 Tasie V. (continued), Height of Rain-gauge.| yfoan f Annual | County. Station. Above Rainfall, | goa | Po | Neee-en. | ee iT ft. in, feet. inches. Leicestershire ..| Wigston ...............- 0.6 220 | 25:165 Pe ..| Thornton Reservoir ...... Bee 420 | 25-611 99 ..| Waltham Rectory ........ 8 560 | 24-319 ed ¢-| Belvewr Castle... .sstikentt| & 8 237 | 24-476 Tangoln ...... Granthamis 4 a.2 5925) ssveyets's:<'s OnnG 179 | 22-407 , Sats Tiiniceln: 6 7h. sielncpahaye capetornd 3 6 26 | 20°870 _. “aes Markel Basen... .< » é Weservoir -::32::3: 3.6 590 | 32°043 Beene 5 LS). Macclesfield.............. 3.6 539 =| 34:5386 SEES :, (Park Green) ..| 2 1 450 | 36-746 Bee £6. Bollington (Spond’s Hill) ..| 3 6 1279 | 37-464 Se Whaley “.. (2520 Aepete 3 6 602 | 43-894 RS Marple Aquednet ........ 3 6 321 | 34:810 Mee » Lop Lecktipe fryer 3 6 543 | 35-254 Se Godley Reservoir ........ Pra 500 33°979 ae Mottram (Matley’s Field) ..| 3 6 399 | 37°732 \ ieee Newton 2. .is:2¢22223.9% 3 6 396 | 31°633 oy Arnfield Reservoir .:.:...: pote a 575 | 37-232 mi. Aaa Rhodes Wood Reseryoir....| 1 0 520 46°323 mon}. AL, Woodhead > HIPPO 680 | 51-828 Lancashire ....| Denton 99 segiher 8 324 | 32-974 3 ....| Gorton y AEN) 2898 263 | 33-712 110 County. Drvisron VIII. (continued). Lancashire . Drvisron IX. Yorkshire, W. R. A Pe bo bd REPORT—187 1. TaBLeE V. (continued). ..| Manchester (Old Trafford). . a (Ardwick) ~ (Piccadilly) .... o Oldham (Waterhouses) ... = (Gas-works)...... (Strines Dale) .. . .| Bolton (The Folds)...... 7 po Chennont) *Fs2 tor wn (Heabea yee srry Fes ...+| Rochdale (Nagden Dane) .. ...| Ormskirk (Rufford) ...... .. | Preston (Howiek)*::%.. 5: ...+| Blackpool (South shore).... sind DUTY RUTAL 23 02 Skee, ee . ..| Clitheroe (Downham Hall). . ...| Lancaster (Caton) ........ ..-|Cartmel (Holker) ........ Sheffield (Broomhall Park). . edietsr se hee ce eee fst. 1 ee ee ey Dunford Bridge .......... Saddleworth Station ...... Standedge. oJ sions ys sins Huddersfield (Longwood) . a se a Halifax (Warley Moor) . se (CWell Head) .... »» (Midgeley Moor) .. », (Ovenden Moor) .. Leeds (Leventhorpe Hall) .. sy al Seebeck) au ci avy.) 6+ York (Bootham).......... Settle ........-.. ese eee, .| Hull (Beverley Road)...... PRIOR N Siee She dos os ee a. Height of Rain-gauge. Above ground. ft. in. DAMDBDABAOAMRDOOAGCOCR°cCcCON a or - Bs WROEOORODBOS WOSDOROOSO: Above sea. feet. Mean Annual Rainfall, 1860-69. inches, 34°727 32597 36°775 40-898 36°133 377123 36-007 48-981 56-610 44-210 44-132 34-999 38°303 32°994 48:560 44786 43°944 45-625 31-276 39-684 28°159 23°990 ~ 56°177 41:968 53°700 34-008 32°121 46-330 33°313 50-000 46-090 23-261 22-853 24-479 41°349 60-075 25-024 27-455 31:105 | | County. Division X. Durham ...... Northumberland Drviston XI. Glamorgan Cardigan...... Brecknock . a Isle of Man.... Guernsey 2 Alderney...... Drviston XII. Wigton a Kirkcudbright. Dumfries. a : SF) 3 te ewer .| Seathwaite ..| Ullswater (Watermillock) .. .| Bassenthwaite (Mirehouse). . -| Cockermouth (Whinfell Hall) ...+|{ Cardiff (Ely) .| Hay .| Cargen [Dumfries] ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, TasLeE V. (continued). Station. se ee wee | Bishopwearmouth | Allenheads Shotley Hall» jictascarjt slad:.- Bagwell @: ... . cotints oan tant Wylam. Ball... ad os ot North Shields (Wallsend) .. - (Rosella Place) Stamfordham ............ Hexham (Parkend) Lilburn Tower i see eee se ee ee ew ae Carlisle (Bunker’s Hill) .... Kendal (Kent Terrace) .... .| Windermere (The Howe) .. .| Appleby Ce WALES AND THE ISLANDS. JEON TS) ey ai Clete eg aie (Pen-y-maes)........ Rhayader (Cefnfaes) ...... Hawarden [Chester] ...... Holywell (Maes-y-dre) .... Llandudno (Warwick House) Point of Ayre ee ey SCOTLAND. Mull of Galloway ........ Stranraer (South Cairn).... Corsewall Little Ross ee Fi Dumfries (March Hill Cott.)| 0 Westerkirk (Carlesgill) .... Wanlockhead eer ere ee eer sense ...++| Kelso (Springwood Park) .. 0 1 Opn: oO BR: Above ground. ft, in, 0 9 0 3 0 6 oO 4 0 6 1 0 ibe 10) 0 4 6 0 5,6 3 6 Oo. 7 2 0 6 0 4 6 2 Ide D SCORDONTNOOROS Height of Rain-gauge. Above sea. feet. 1369 312 87 96 100 124 400 76 300 422 720 310 265 184 146 470 442 420 317 880 400 204 lll Mean Annual Rainfall, 1860-69. inches. 20-247 51:160 28°494 28-874 26°900 26-640 26-065 27°637 33°550 28-657 154-046 59-910 53°756 57°366 27-616 53°322 87:°923 35°994 42-016 45°183 31-680 44-980 26:443 24-430 31-004 30-609 37°177 28°624 27-656 49-603 37°027 26°981 44-372 37045 60-092 66-628 24-663 Om County. Dryiston XIII. Selkirk ...... Peebles ...... Berwick ...... | Haddington. pf. ” ‘ Edinburgh .... Drvision XLY. | Lanark: ..44'¥. Sis) 9; we 06 8 Drviston XY. Dumbarton .... Stirling, |: a. - REPORT—187 1. TABLE V. (continued). Height of Rain-gauge. Station. ‘Kbove ground. ft. in Bowl Uo vccer rere reterateteters's i Penicuick (N. Esk Reservoir)) 0 6 Lauder (Thirlestane Castle)... 0 3 Dunse (Mungo’s Walls)....| 0 6 Prestonkirk (Smeaton) ....) 13 0 ...| Haddington (Millfield) ....| 4 0 8.) Hast Danton: «4 is. ece ened 0 3 Cobbinshaw Reservoir Ue vo | Unvereshe. fauna ete Fe 2 0 Hamilton (Auchinraith)....) 4 9 § (Bothwell Castle)... 18 0 Glasgow (Cessnock Park) ..| 4 4 3» (Observatory) ....| 0 1 Baillveston y+... etree ees 0 3 Shotts (Hillend House) ....| 7 0 Ayr (Auchendrane House)..| 2 3 Largs (Mansfield) ........ 0 6 Gorbals, W. W. (Ryat Lynn) 0 5 os (WaulkGlen)| 0 5 : (Middleton)... 0 5 Mearns (Nether Place) ....| 0 6 Greenock (Hamilton Street) | 0 6 Loch Long (Arddaroch) ....| 0 10 Falkark (Kerse)!i% 2... ssf END) Stirling (Polmaise Gardens) |’ 0 2 Plaga 5.8: ILE, Foe oo ios 3.3 Castle Towardssieecee..%. 4 0 Lochgilphead (Callton Mér)..| 4 6 Inverary Castle .......... O 781: Appm (dards). o Asie Bie 0 3 Ardnamurchan: .........°. 3.6 Cantire, Mull of.......... rectarte Campbeltown (Devaar)....| 3 4 Rhinns of Islay’:'... 5.0... 3.0 Lismore (Mousedale) ...... 3.4 Mull, Sound of .......... 0 6 Tyree (Hynish) .......... LAk8 Above sea. feet. 537 1150 558 267 100 140 90 863 90 150 146 29 180 230 620 96 30 310 280 550 360 50 80 12 55 65 65 30 15 82? 279? 752? 742 37? 12? Mean Annual Rainfall, 1860-69. | inches. 33°033 | 38°014 29:977 28-494 | 23-263 25°630 23:767 37-450 — 29-016 31°951 28-885. | 37°958 44-411 46°471 33°445 44-825 48-920 47°801 49-845 56°682 507143 66°156 78°321 32-960 41:300 40-141 54554 54253 67:370 63-640 45594 44-166 47:312 33°434 46°215 72159 79-992 County. or Divisrion XVI. ee Ce ee ed whee ates a were wees se eee eee eee ee Pie 61a eFqne. 0 er Se ec a ee wee ewes ee ee rene re Ce ee eee eee Division XVII. | Kineardine .. Weeedeari ee ee ewes Division XVIII. Ross & Cromarty ... | Lochleven Sluice ..| Brechin (The Burn) .... | Girdleness ....| Braemar ....| Aberdeen (Rose Street) .... ....| Alford (Castle Newe) ..| Kinnaird Head . ..| Buchanness ....| Barrahead ...| 9. Uist (Ushenish) .| Harris (Island Glass) .| Rona ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. Taste V. (continued). Station. ee BAUER oh che een nee Leven (Nookton) Isle of May O05 05: SA Fa Dunblane (Kippenross) . Deanston House Eanriek Castle: odes ed. vs die Bridge of Turk .......... Auchterarder House ...... (Trinity ig Loch Barnhead (Stronvar) . Perth Academy Scone Palace BURY soe ey creporeacae eae etal as Craigton Kettins ee Ce ee ee ee ee ee ee Ce ee eeee a 88) 6 0 oo, 8) 6 8 6 «we Sekai ie) 66, e aeuy'v) te) 6, way orcs: a ee ee Gordon Castle oe eee ere eens Isle of Lewis (Stornoway) .. (Bernera) .... 39 Cromarty © we ei 6) elisital ie) et 6) 6 («) elie .| Isle of Skye (Oronsay) +4 (Kyleakin) .. (Raasay) (Portree) ? CY I, Ce hh oy 6)sa, e/a, ine) tel me ap oY ,0 s Dy, s) ol) el erate «ee eae Ce ee Height of Rain-gauge. 113 Mean Above | Above sea. ground. ft ink feet. 0 10 ten 0 6 Dy 0 6 80 Pare 182 0 6 60 0 4 100 0 4 130 0 0 igaeies 0 6 270 2S 162 QO 1 133 64 5 83 2-6 80 (0) 3 35 0 38 481 1 0 218 0 38 570 2 0 60 0 6 235 a 17 86 Te | 1114 0 4 95 3.04 64 1 6 60 oe Siler 0 6 15 3A 28 0 6 ayy 0 2 3? 1, 4 80 iS 80 ome) 640? 0 4 aay ae: 3.«A4 50? On. .6 20) 3.«O0 104 Annual Rainfall, 1860-69. inches. 35:780 28°589 28:988 20-482 61-820 36165 43-991 48°805 61:890 34315 35°324 82:434 23°584 29°182 29°729 34876 33°172 35°187 29-050 34-910 22°718 33°404 29°433 33°500 24-168 25:588 29-192 31°792 68°027 25°941 72:359 82-067 77:120 104-261 31°726 43-905 31°129 39:°470 27:084 | 114 REPORT—1871. TasBLe YV. (continued). | Height of Rain-gauge-| yyoan ; aa Wilco tel! County. Station, Wises Rainfall, ground. ALES: 1860-69. Pee feet. i 5 Recunox XIX; ft. in eet inches Sutherland ....| Golspie (Dunrobin Castle) ..| 0 3 6 | 27-692 » owisis| Cape Wet 2 6 ssscssasecv 3 6 355 ? | 39-371 Caithness...... Wick (Nosshead) ........ 3.4 127? | 24-699 en se |: DunnethGad "5 iaacesss¢ oe 3 6 300? | 25-401 iG. bs Mek Pentland Skerries ........ 3) 1S 72?) 28-763 Orkney ...:.; Hoy (Graemsay East) ....| 3 4 27? | 39-007 yim ba cea | a ee Os, West). .... vat 37? | 32°693 el ere |Shapinsay (Balfour Castle)..| 0 6 50 | 32-408 Brkt’ b:. fhish Pomona (Sandwick) ...... 2 0 7 38°853 eat. aehk Sanda (Start Point) ...... 0 6 29?) 31:371 ale Te North Ronaldshay ........ 3.4 212} -31:015 Shetland ...... Sumburghead ............ 3 4 265? | 26-454 ue bx wks Bressay Lighthouse ...... 0 4 60 | 36-488 Diviston XX. sats 5 CGE sor a4 | Cork (Royal Institution) ..| 50 0 70 | 34-771 Pons Cant ee La a ee ae Sys seas | cemegend, Waterford ....| Waterford (Newtown) ....| 4 0 60 | 40-669 CIBTS Suess. MSlinlog ie Ue eeein aoe vi «i 5 0 123 | 47-654 Drviston XXI. Queen’s County..| Portarlington ............ ie 240 | 36°857 King’s County..| Tullamore .............. 3 0 235 | 27-938 Wicklow ......| Bray (Fassaroe) .......... 5 0 250 | 41°822 Dapha,.'. sss... Black Rock (Rockville) ....| 29 0 90 | 27-096 Drviston XXII. Fermanagh ....| Enniskillen (Florence Court); 11 0 300 | 44368 ATMBEN j.. 2%... 5 Armagh Observatory ...... de 208 | 32-014 Antrim ...... Belfast (Queen’s College) ..| 7 4 68 | 34-225 Pens odor Ross », (Linen Hall) ...... 4 0 12° | 36°767 Before accepting these decennial averages (1860-69) as data indicative of the distribution of rain over the country, we have to offer a few prefatory remarks. The difference between the amount collected by any two rain- gauges depends on at least four separate and distinct conditions, three of which must be ascertained and corrected for before the fourth can be accu- rately determined. The conditions are :—(1) length of series of observations ; (2) correction for secular change ; (3) height of gauges above ground. (1) Even if there were no other evidence in existence than the accompany- ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 115 ing diagram (fig. 1) of the fluctuations of rainfall, we feel that it would suffi- ciently prove the impossibility of determining accurately the rainfall at any place except by observations continued over a long series of years at that place, or by differentiation from some proximate long-continued series. (2) It does not follow that simultaneous observations, even for ten years, giving for example a mean difference between two stations of five inches, prove that the rainfall at the one station is greater than the other by that amount, although if they are not very distant the one from the other it would probably be a safe assumption. (3) Before mean results can be given with any pretensions to accuracy and finality, they must be corrected for the elevation of the rain-gauge above the ground, The above remarks sufficiently show that the mere average of the fall of rain measured during ten or more years does not necessarily give the true mean rainfall at that place. Let us take as an example the highest amount recorded in the Table (Seathwaite), which had during the ten years (1860-69) an average of 154 inches; many persons would say at once that that was therefore the mean rainfall at that station. It is, however, nothing like it. From Table II. and fig. 2 we see that the rainfall over England, generally, during those ten years was 1:5 per cent. above the average, upon which evidence we are bound to reduce the observed mean in that proportion, and then the average becomes 152 inches instead of 154, Even this, how- ever, is not correct; for we pointed out in condition (2) that the same years, or groups of years, are not similarly wet in all parts of the country. Referring, therefore, to Table IY. we find that at the nearest station to Seathwaite, Kendal, the decade in question was 7 per cent. above the thirty- year mean ; hence, on the supposition that the Kendal values are applicable to this station, we have to reduce 154 inches by 7 per cent. instead of by 1-5 per cent., and hence the probable mean comes out 141-8 inches. Now most fortunately we can test the accuracy of this calculation in three ways. (1) The mean fall at Seathwaite in the previous decade was 126-98 ; from the Kendal observations the fall in that decade was 10 per cent. less than the mean ; therefore 591109 ) we find the probable mean comes out 141-1 from this decade, and 141°8 from that of 1860-69. They thus agree within less than an inch, or one half per cent. (2) The fall at Seathwaite has now been continuously observed for twenty-six years, viz. from 1845 to 1870 inclusive; the mean of the whole twenty-six years’ observations is 140-03, (3) This value, corrected according to the Table in our 1866 Report, becomes aoe’ exactly with that indicated by the decades 1850-59 and This example proves three points :—(1) the great degree of accuracy which is attainable by proper methods; (2) the care requisite to secure it ; (3) the serious errors inseparable from the use of mere arithmetical averages without reference to secular changes. These observations, however, must of course be taken as general results, and not be construed as having any bearing on the relative rainfall even of proximate stations, the rainfall of which will vary considerably according to ‘local circumstances. Hence it will be seen that the probable average at Seathwaite is 141 inches 12 116 REPORT—1871. instead of 154, or 7 per cent. less. A similar, but generally less correction, may be required for other stations. The figures in Table V. must not there- fore be considered as showing the mean fall at the several stations, but only as approximations generally pretty close. The data in our possession, if cor- rected in accordance with the method explained, would afford more accurate results, but the investigation is altogether beyond our present resources. Large tracts of Ireland, and even of Scotland, are still without observers ; much has recently been done to remedy these deficiencies, but there are still many localities where observations are very much wanted; we shall gladly receive any offers of assistance from those who have residences or property in those parts, and our Secretary will readily advise them as to instruments. Third Report on the British Fossil Corals. By P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London. Introduction.—There can be no doubt that the paleontology of the Madre- poraria of the Paleozoic strata is in a condition of profound confusion. When these Reports were commenced, the very excellent descriptions and classification of the Paleozoic Corals by MM. Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime, strengthened by those of M. de Fromentel, appeared to have satisfied pa- leontologists, and they were received and adopted without much demur. But during the last three or four years a series of more or less important attacks has been made upon the views of those distinguished authors ; consequently opinions respecting many important matters in the paleontology of the Paleozoic corals are in a very unsatisfactory state. L. Agassiz, A. Agassiz, and now Count Pourtales would remove the Ta- bulata from the list of Madreporaria. Mr. Kent and I doubt the propriety of establishing the Tabulata as a group. Count Keyserling demurred years since at receiving the long septaless Tubulata amongst the Madreporaria, and, after due examination, I agree with him in relegating them to the Al- cyonaria. Working amongst the Rugosa, I have shown that they do not invariably characterize Paleozoic strata, for some of the types have persisted, and no reasonable doubt can be entertained concerning the descent of the Jurassic Coral-fauna from the Paleozoic. The genus Palwocyclus has been shown not to belong to the Fungide, but to the Cyathophyllide. Genera with the hexameral arrangement of septa have been found in Carboniferous and Devonian strata. Lindstrém’s interesting researches respecting the operculated condition of some Paleozoic corals require most careful study and much following up, and the assertion of L. Agassiz respecting the hydroid relationship of those Rugosa which have tabule demands further inquiry *. Ludwig, of Darmstadt, has added to the confusion by not acknowledging the received classification in the least; and in his able enthusiasm (anti- * G. Lindstrom, pamphlet translated by M. Lindstrém from the original Swedish, ‘Geological Magazine,’ 1866, p. 356. He notices that Guettard first described an oper- culum in a rugose coral, and that then Steenstrup saw one in a Cyathophyllum mitratum. Lindstrém produces evidence respecting the genera Goniophyllum, Calceola, Zaphrentis, Hallia, and Favosites (see also p. 406 et seg.). : ON THE BRITISH FOSSIL CORALS. 117 Gallican enough) he alters generic and specific names, employing sesqui- pedalian Greek, and even absorbing the original authors (‘ Paleontogra- phica,’ H. von Meyer, 1866). Thus he confuses Stromatopora concentrica, Goldfuss, with the Madre- poraria, and calls it Lioplacocyathus concentricus. Fortunately Ludwig gives a plate of it (tab. lxxii. fig. 1), and thus proves the total absence of all structures which differentiate the Madreporaria, After thus dignifying a rhizopod, we may be prepared for any thing. The same author figures a form which is clearly that of Heliolites porosa, and calls it by the extraordinary name of Astroplacocyathus solidus, Ldwg. It appears that this naturalist studied this eminently cellular type from a cast, hence the term solidus. Again, in tab. lxxi. fig. 2, Ludwig delineates a good specimen of Cyathophyllum hexagonum, Goldfuss, 1826, and with sur- passing coolness names it Astrophleothylacus vulgaris, Lawg. He then con- founds a species of Lithostrotion and Smithia Hennali, E. & H., in one genus, Astrophleocyclus, Ldwg. The student of the Silurian corals will be surprised perhaps to find that, according to Ludwig, Halysites catenularia, Ed. & H., the Catenipora escha- roides of Lonsdale, is transformed into Ptychophleolopas catenularia, Ludwig, doubtless on the principle that having found such a very distinguished generic title, the compiler of it has the right to eclipse the discoverers of the form. Cheetetes, which some of us consider to belong to the Aleyonarian group, as it has no septa, Ludwig decorates with the title “‘ Liophlaocyathus.” In his sixty-ninth plate, fig. 5, there is a very good representation of a coral ordinarily known as Acervularia Troscheli, Ed. & H. This form was inaccurately described by Goldfuss, who called it Cyathophyllum ananas. Now the authorship is settled by this Alexander, who cuts the knot by claiming the species as his own, under the title of Astrochartodiscus ananas, Ludwig ! Then Pleurodictyum problematicum, Goldfuss, is altered into Taeniocharto- cyclus planus, Ldwg. To render matters easier to the student, Ludwig associates Acervularia lucurians and Cyathophyllum helianthoides in one genus, Astroblascodiscus, and of course places his name after the species. Then Cyathophyllum cespi- tosum becomes, under the same lexicographic hands, TE OP 65 “UeL "BG “UU 04 GG “Ue TG “UBe 0} GT ‘use PI ‘uve } g “uBe Lure 04 qT “ure *1Z81 1g “0 0} ZG ‘ocr Z OIL *(@arsnqout) aed CS ats ‘OE “ON 173 ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. *IOAIL OJUT UNI 1axVM JUONTYO [Ty] FOF “JOATI OJFUL UNA 10}BA JUIN? [TV] FGG- *IOATA OFUT UNA JoyVA JUONTYO [TV] TFL. 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This quantity does not, however, represent the total discharge from thé town of Romford, because, fram the middle of November 1870 to the middle of April 1871, the day-sewage only was delivered on to the farm, the night- sewage being allowed to run on to the meadows at Wybridge between the farm and the town; and for sixteen days.in February and March the whole of the sewage was so disposed of, and there are no means of estimating the quantity during this period... Respective flow of Day- and Naghtsea ge.—Since the 15th of April last, the new tanks being completed, and the sewage, with a few exceptions, being received continuously on the farm, it has been possible to calculate the re- spective flow of sewage during the working hours of the day and during the remaining period, and the ‘following are the figures :— allons. tons, Day-sewage (average time 10 hours).... 139,153 = 6213 Night-sewage (average time 14 hours) .. 143,645 = 6414 Totals. sissvss 282,798 = 12622 The day-sewage is calculated on the basis of gaugings in the sewer during the working hours of the day ; the night-sewage is obtained by calculating the difference of quantities in the tanks between the times of stopping the pump one day and starting the next, allowing for the effluent water entering the tanks in the meantime. By equalizing the time of day- and night-sewage (12 hours each) -and computing the quantities on the basis of the above nguree, the following is the result :—- gallons. tons, Day-sewage, 12 hours ...... 163,329 = 729 Night-sewage, 12 hours .... 119,469 = 5333 282,798 = 12623 According to these latter figures the night-sewage would be to the day as 79 to 100, or the day to the night as 137 to 100. It should be borne in mind that the night-sewage of Romford fluctuates very much, owing to the Brewery frequently sending down a large quantity of water after working. hours; this-is especially the case on Saturday nights, as’a reference to the detailed records will show. Diluied Sewage pumped.—The diluted sewage pumiped includes, as was explained in the last Report, a certain amount of effluent water, which flows into the tanks, and is there mixed with the sewage as it comes from the town. The engine has worked 366 days during the above period; the average time 176 REPORT—1871. of working since April 15th was 10 hours per diem. The total quantity pumped has been gallons. tons. 96,944,653 = 432,788 Average per diem.... 264,876 = 1,182 Effuent Water discharged.—Owing to floods at the outlets of the pipes, the quantities of effluent water discharged could not always be gauged. On the 343 days during which the observations could be taken, 39,449,178 gallons=176,112 tons were discharged, being 115,012 gallons=5133 tons per day. Assuming this to be the average quantity for the whole period, the total quantity intercepted from the lower subsoil and discharged through the pipes would be 45,889,788 gallons=204,865 tons, or 47:3 per cent. of the sewage pumped. Rainfall,—The rainfall at Breton’s during the total period of 399 days has been 22-64 inches, or on 1213 acres about 62} million gallons, equal to 277,900 tons, or 2287 tons per acre, Temperatures.—It will be seen that the temperatures of sewage and effluent water have been very uniform as compared with that of the air, being lower during extreme heat and higher during extreme cold. This was very notice- able during the severe frost of last winter. In one week, when the mean noon-day temperature of the air was 28°5, that of the sewage received, sewage pumped, and effluent water was 43°. The ranges of variation over the total period have been ;— Atmosphere ........ 28-5 to 76 = AG 5 Town-sewage........ 43 ,, 66 = 23 Sewage pumped ...... 43, 67 = 24 Effluent water ...... 4) ,, 64 ‘= 23 A remarkable feature in the record of temperatures is the extremely slow rate at which the temperature of the effluent water fell, and the length of time which elapsed before it recovered again. The first week that the average temperature at noon fell below the freezing-point was the one ending 31st December, when the average temperature of the air was 28°°5 F., and that of the effluent water was 43°; and after this, although the former rose, the latter fell, so that in the week ending February 4th the average tempera- ture of the air was 36°, and that of the effluent water 41°. The next week the temperature of the air was 44°, the second weck 47°, and the third week 47°, yet it was not until the third week that the temperature of the effluent water recovered to 43°, Suction III.—(a) Observations on the Sewage-Farm at Tunbridge Wells. Before describing the results of the investigation by the Committee, it is desirable to state that, in the selection of the land to be irrigated at Tunbridge Wells, it has been a sine gua non condition that it should be at such a level that the sewage should reach it by gravitation; and to this end two farms te ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. a¢7 have been Jaid out, one to the north and the other to the south of the town, and an outfall sewer made to each. Underdrainage has not been uniformly adopted on both farms; but where it previously existed, a peculiar arrangement has been made for the reappli- cation of the drainage-water. The distribution of the sewage is chiefly effected by what is known as the catchwater system, which is necessarily, under ordinary conditions, accom- panied by an overflow, in preference to its application in smaller quantities, sufficient to satisfy the demands of vegetation and to wet the land thoroughly without any overflow; while the absence of storage-reservoirs necessitates the continuous application of the sewage to some parts of the land by night as well as by day. The population of Tunbridge Wells is 19,410. The total quantity of sewage discharged is 1,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, of which about 400,000 gallons are supplied to the northern farm, and about 600,000 gallons to the southern one. The northern sewage is applied to 123 acres of land, which have cost £21,000, and the southern to 167 acres, which have cost £27,000. To deliver the sewage from the two main outlets of the town to the land, culverts or conduits, with precipitating-tanks for the separation of the larger portions of the solid matter from the liquid, have been constructed in a very substantial manner. ‘The deliyering-conduits on the north, extending for a length of two miles with the precipitating-tanks, have costi£2587 13s. 1d., while those on the south (of which the length is three miles) have cost £5809 17s. 8d. The tanks on the north farm have cost £833 3s. 9d., those on the south £1188 ds. 1d. Thus the total cost of external delivering works amounts to £10,418 19s. 7d., which, added to the cost of the land, will be £58,418 19s. 7d., or £201 8s, 11d. per acre. The solid matter collected in the tanks is removed from time to time, and used on the farms as additional manure. The tanks are not covered; and there is consequently a strong smell in their proximity, which is not dis- coverable in any other part of the farms. The sewage having been delivered on to the land, is conveyed from one part to another by open main carriers and iron pipes, the former following contour- lines, and the latter partaking of the nature of inverted siphons in order to cross existing valleys or hollows. The cost of these internal works per acre has been— Por Carrictsi Siren. atte. alten £18 13 0 Drain 220% Hae. ver, were 312 0 Tron pipes iv Jas, .ee ens om 4 6 0 Grubbing andtrenching .. 316 0 Beads, ...08,momeer pore eo aa) Wire fences Aes ar Ue 5 se 2 Oe italy ot, 3 cnretete aa ew eee £38 0 O per aere. Ora Otay OL Tse aves en <6 £239 8 11 per acre. The soil of nearly the whole of the northern farm is of a stiff clayey cha- “tacter, manifestly requiring underdrainage. It had for the most part been drained by the late owners before the Commissioners of Tunbridge Wells purchased it; but owing to the work being done as ordinary farm-drainage 1871, N 178 REPORT—1871. independently of surface preparation, it was soon found that the sewage descended to the drains so rapidly as to prevent its profitable distribution on the surface. It was stated to the Committee that when this effect was dis- covered it was determined that the drains should be stopped by digging down to them and plugging them, the result of which then was to keep the soil in a state of saturation, and to allow the unpurified sewage to pass over the surface into the stream. The engineer employed by the Commissioners has since superseded this state of things by adopting the special mode of treat- ment referred to, which consists of intercepting the existing drains at the depths at which they were originally laid, and bringing the underdrainage water to the surface by outlet drains discharging into lower carriers for re- distribution. ; At the time of the inspection by the Committee the lowest carriers were receiving effluent liquid of an impure character from the surface, at the same time that the underdrainage water was being discharged into them in the way described. The land of the southern farm is not generally of so heavy a description as that of the northern, though portions of it contain clay. Other parts are peaty, and are naturally very poor. Wherever the engineer has considered it necessary to drain the subsoil, this has been effected in a manner similar to that adopted on the northern farm. The striking features in the case of Tunbridge Wells are :— 1. Instead of concentrating the sewage at one farm under one manage- ment, it has been divided, in accordance with the watersheds, into two parts, involving two separate systems of works and management. 2. The main conduits and carriers are more than ordinarily substantial, and are therefore expensively constructed; and, following contour-lines on the surface, have a tortuous course, and so must interfere with approved cul- tivation. 3. The character of the underdrainage, being designed for the redelivery of the sewage on to a lower surface by drains gradually getting nearer and nearer to it, must necessarily prevent alike a frequent and deep working of the surface-soil. 4. The sewage being run over the surface of the land on the catch- water system (by night as well as day), with the intention of reapplying the overflow, its distribution is necessarily unequal both in quantity and quality, the first land sewaged receiving more than it requires, while the last must suffer from a deficiency unless there is a positive waste of sewage, as the analyses really show that there is. These several features illustrate the advantage of combining with the services of the civil engineer and the chemist those of the practical agricul- turist when laying out a sewage-farm. If they were not pointed out by the Committee thus early in the progress of sewage-irrigation, they might be a source of disappointment and surprise to those who contemplate the utilization of the sewage of their own towns by this the most profitable mode of treat- ment at present known, when properly conducted. While saying this, it is desirable to point out the superior character of the works carried out at Tunbridge Wells, and at the same time to express approval of the enterprising manner in which they have been undertaken by the Local Authority. a a ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. Remarks on the Analyses of the Sewage and Effluent Water from the Irrigation Farms at Tunbridge Wells. North Farm.—tIn 100,000 parts. part of the flow per minute, by a measure graduated to Drage f from main sewer, 1871 (average Solid matter. In solution. In suspension. Dried at tek 100°C, | ign Dried at 120° C. After igni- tion. 53°6 | 27:7 23°62 19:68 Samples taken in the uaa of of a gallon. To 0 Ammonia, In solution. In suspended matter, Albu- Actual. minoid, Actual, | Albu- minoid. 179 To00 | temp. 58°5 F). | Effluent — water | taken from 7 | drains of Italian | Rye-grass, and $ mixed 4th al SthJuly (average temp. 57° F).... Waterfromstream above theeflluent | drains on 6th July. (No sew- age water had en- tered the stream for two days above the point where the sam- ples were taken ; average temp. OL 1) Geena ANSW OW QOHT | Sececs | seeese PAY POS steeve iy soanee trace, collected July 4th & 5th, 1 Pos er alah corey 2 0:008| 0°02 | i006] sucies 0-42 (Total nitrogen in effluent water 1-99.) The sewage from the main, while containing a comparatively small amount of total solid matter in solution, contains a very large proportion of “actual”? ammonia, and also of “ albwninoid” ammonia, when both the sus- pended and dissolved matters are taken into account; it is a rich sewage whether the proportion of nitrogenous matters to the total solids or to the bulk of the sewage itself be considered. The chlorine is in fair average amount. The analysis of the average effluent water shows that while the total solids are diminished in amount, the diminution is due to the retention by the soil and vegetation of the more volatile constituents, as the weight of ash left after ignition of the solid matters was greater in the case of the effluent water than in that of the sewage. This may be due to (1) concentration by - the evaporation which takes place from the sewage of the soil and from the plants, or (2) to solution of salts already in the soil: that the latter cause is more probably the true one, we see from the diminished amount of chlorine, _ which, although it may not necessarily indicate dilution with ordinary sub- _ soil water to a great extent, still would certainly not lead us to conclude that any concentration had taken place. That dilution with underdrainage water actually does take place has been already pointed out, P N 180 REPORT—1871. The amount of ammonia in the effluent water is too high, amounting to more than one seventh of that in the same volume of sewage, while albu- . minoid ammonia still remains to the extent of one fifth of the original amount ; and the almost total absence of nitrates and nitrites in the effluent water shows the want of conditions favourable to oxidation ; so that the purification of the sewage here, although considerable, is not so satisfactory as could be wished, or as might be effected by making filtration through the soil an essen- tial feature in the process. South Farm.—In 100,000 parts. Samples taken in the proportion of yy part of the flow per minute, by a measure graduated to ;1; of a gallon. . Solid matter. ~ Ammonia. In suspended | Nitro- In solution. In suspension. | Chlo- In solution. untied gen as rine. nitrates Ssh Gils | =a eee an . After . After nitrites, Dried at] ~ "= |Dried at} “ Albu- Albu- 100° C. ia 120° C. aoa, Actual. | ninoid. Actual minoid. 10n. 10n Sewage from main | sewer at high rocks before en- tering the tanks $| 44-40} 26-90] 19:54] 7:30 | 9-48 | 7:20 | 0-75 | 0:00 | 0-40 on the 6th and 7th July, 1871 | (temp. 62° F.), ) Effluent water from ) field of man- golds and two | | fields of mea- dow-land, all mixed, 7th and 8th July (ave- rage tempera- ture 62°°5 F.)... Water from al stream outside the farm-boun- dary above all the effluent 1S :60)|, W240! le. eae 2:62: |-:0:008} 0-016)! ...5 0) eee trace drains, taken 8th 1 July (tempera- ture 63° F.) ... SS 20} a2sO0|| Cassano | Breckes 8:06 | 3°20 | 0:26 | ....0 The results attained on the southern farm are, as shown by the above ana- lyses, very unsatisfactory, and at the same time very reliable, as the slight diminution of the chlorine in the effluent water would lead us to believe that the loss of water due to evaporation had been about balanced by the influx of underdrainage water, so that no great amount, at any rate, of concentra- tion had taken place. We notice at once the large amount of “actual” and of “ albuminoid ” ammonia which escapes unoxidized in the effluent water. No less than four ninths of the “actual” ammonia and more than one third of the “albu- minoid” ammonia, in the same volume of sewage, escapes in the effluent water, while the amount of nitrates and nitrites is very small ; the effluent water is very impure indeed. The analyses show distinctly that at these two farms, as at present man-~. ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 181 aged, more sewage is applied than can be purified by the surface-flow, even when that takes place through thick vegetation (as in the case of the samples from the fields of Italian rye-grass on the northern farm), and much more than can be purified under less advantageous conditions (as in the case of the samples from the field of mangolds on the southern farm, although the water from this field was mixed with that from two of meadow-land); and they show, too, that the valuable matters that are not utilized are not only thrown away, but are thrown away in their crude condition, not having been subjected to the oxidizing action necessary to convert them into innocuous nitrates and nitrites. Lastly, we must notice the fact that the temperature of the effluent water of the northern farm is only slightly (less than one degree Fahr.) below that of the sewage, while the effluent water of the southern farm is actually half a degree Fahr. warmer than the sewage. This clearly shows that the pee has not been subjected to the cooling which percolation through soil entails, (6) Observations on the Sewage-Farm at Earlswood designed for the Utilization of the Sewage of Red Hill and Reigate. This sewage-farm consists of about 70 acres of Earlswood Common, of which, it was stated, about 50 acres abutting on a tributary of the river Mole have been laid out for irrigation. It is intended very shortly to add more land to that already prepared from properties adjacent, The soil is for the most part a clayey loam. The higher ground next the Common is rather freer in character, while the lower part appears to increase in density as it nears the outfall. The surface, which has rather a steep fall in its higher part, gradually be- comes more level as it descends, and has a very slight fall indeed as it ap- proaches the outfall. Before the sewage is delivered to the land for irrigation it passes through one of Latham’s patent extractors, an ingenious invention for the separation of the solid from the liquid parts. The liquid sewage is delivered from the extractor by covered conduits, from which it is directed right and left into the highest carrier. The land laid out for irrigation is divided into three series of beds or slopes separated by roadways, on the upper side of each of which is a surface-drain to receive the effluent liquid as it passes off the beds above, and on the lower a main carrier to deliver the sewage for distribution to the series of beds below. The three series are divided rectangularly into nearly equal-sized blocks, to be again subdivided by minor or inner carriers, laid out partly on the catchwater and partly on the ridge-and-furrow form. The surface of the highest land of the uppermost series of beds is about 24 feet above the surface of the lowest land in proximity to the outfall-stream. None of the land is underdrained, and the lowermost beds appear to be in- capable of underdrainage ata sufficient depth unless the stream receiving the water to be discharged is appropriately deepened at very considerable cost. In answer to inquiries, it was stated that after heavy rains the lowest portions of the irrigated lands are swamped by the backing of the water which collects on their surface when the soil itself is in a state of complete saturation. At the time of the inspection by the Committee (July 11th), the sewage had collected in pools on the surface of the irrigated beds in a man- ner injurious to the crop under treatment. The work of irrigation is designed so that the sewage applied to the higher land may be reapplied on the sur- 182 ‘-REPORT—1871. face of lower lands with a view to its further purification. The sewage as it passed off the first surface was observed to be far from clear to the eye, and it was not perfectly so when leaving the second surface. When it was ulti- mately discharged at the outfall it was still cloudy, but this was partly accounted for by the heavy rains of the previous day. The analyses of sam- ples of effluent water taken at different points, hereafter referred to, will show the extent of purification effected. Though the land had not been drained, it gave indications of a natural capability of drainage in the escape of the sewage from the sides of the car- riers or drains, which are from 10 to 14 inches deep. The line of saturation was clearly shown in those shallow cuts to be nearly identical with their depth, and the liquid was seen oozing out of the land at some parts in a clarified condition, and at others accompanied by a slimy matter, some spe- cimens of which have been microscopically examined by Mr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., whose report is here given, Microscopical Examination of Slime and Mud from Bottom and Sides of Carriers at Harlswood Farm. The fluid specimen of deposit sent to me for microscopical examination was the only one in a fit condition to report upon as to “the insects and animalcule to be found therein.” Obviously dried mud would give no satisfactory result as to living animals, since the majority of them would be dead and shrivelled beyond all power of determination. I have examined the wet deposit by the aid of the microscope, and find it to contain a few Diatoms belonging to several genera and species, but in a compara- tively small proportion to the volume of material. The Desmidiaces were also represented by a species of Closterium, of which I detected but a few individuals. Confervoid threads were also but sparingly scattered through the mass. Altogether there was a smaller percentage of unicellular Algw than I expected to have found. Living vegetable matter was comparatively rare. The animal inhabitants of the mud were numerous, especially of certain kinds. There were a few examples of that common Thysanurous insect, Achorutes aqua- ticus, sometimes so plentiful in the liquid draining from heaps of manure. The larvee and pups of small Diptera I am unable to name in those stages, but their proportion was not large. Of Fuglena viridis there was no lack ; and any stagnant puddle, especially in the neighbourhood of farmyards, would have yielded an equal proportion. Infusorians were scarce; a few solitary individuals of Vorticella mi- crostoma, and one or two specimens of Paramecium, were about all that I observed. But there was one group of animal organisms most abundantly represented, and these were the Annelids. When the mud was exposed to the light and sun, the surface became active with these creatures; about the diameter of a piece of cotton-thread, and from half an inch or less to nearly 2 inches in length, they wriggled over the whole surface. Some white, others pink, and a few of a deep blood-red were mingled together like eels, wriggling and scriggling in every drop that could be taken up and placed on a slide for examination. Skins without in- habitants were almost as plentiful; and it seemed to be impossible to get a drop of the material in the field of the microscope without either the worms themselves or empty skins. (Signed) M. C. Cooxr, M.A. It appears to the Committee that the existence of the exuded matter de- scribed by Mr Cooke is mainly, if not wholly, due to the fact that the subsoil is kept in a saturated condition by the want of underdraining ; and they desire to add their belief that with land thus saturated with sewage certain atmo- spheric conditions exist which may be attended by malaria more or less in- jurious to health. It need hardly be said that if the effluent liquid passing from a Sewage-farm at a time when vegetation is in a luxuriant state, and Waen evaporation is more than ordinarily active (which was the case when ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, exceedingly objectionable. ae ee portion of oe o Solid matter. Tn solution. In suspension. | Chlo- rine. After igni- tion. After gni- Dried at i tion. Dried at 100° C. 120°C. ‘|Sewage at the | | point where | it enters the | extractor. | | | Average flow 130 gallons per minute | (tempera- | | ture 58° F.)| ) Sewage | ) | 4 18:00 | 6:40 * passing through the extractor and before application to land 4:16 6:04 taken in twelve por- tions every two, hours, after it had passed over one field of 17-80 4-40 _ portions at _ the outfall, after it had assed over two fields of rye-grass. _ Average flow 152 gallons per minute tore 63° ¥.)|) am oe I — So oo ix] =] | 35:80 EO oie dah in os 183 the Committee viewed the land), is not clear to the eye nor sufficiently pure to be admitted into rivers, there must be times when it may become It is to be remarked in this case, moreoyer, that there was (on July 15th, 1871) more liquid passing off the land at the outfall than there was sewage delivered to it for application, due possibly to the passage of the recent rainfall through the porous soil of the higher part of the farm. This fact would, in the absence of the analyses of Dr. Russell, have led to the conclusion that the effluent liquid was purer than usual. Observations on the Analyses of Sewage and Effluent Water from the Red Hill and Reigate Sewage-Farm. In 100,000 parts. Samples taken 14th and 15th July, 1871, in the pro- ro part of the flow. Ammonia. : In suspended | Nitro- In solution. Rr Aa gen as nitrates and. Albu- Albu- | Bitrites. Actual. | inoia. | Actual. eal 2°76 | 0-12 | 0:00 | 0-12 2:55 | O14 | 0:00 | 0-09 | .---- Tes aOR le eceee les ectae 0:08 O92 OO orectct lioeease 0:07 Total nitrogen. In sus- Fa sol 4) pended * | matter, 291 | 0:03 1:35 1-23 This is decidedly 2 weak sewage, as it does not contain one third of. the quantity of “actual” ammonia, nor one fourth of that of “albuminoid” ammonia that the samples of Tunbridge Wells (North Farm) contain ; the 184 REPORT—1871. smaller amount of chlorine also shows this. The fact is, that a very largo quantity of subsoil water is admitted into the sewers. The effect of the ‘ extractor” is to reduce the total suspended matters by slightly more than one third of their amount, the amount of solid matter in solution is slightly lessened, and a quarter of the nitrogenous organic matters in suspension pass into solution ; these are effects not in any way due to the action of the machine except as an agitator. The effect on this sewage of a flow over one field of rye-grass, as shown by the analysis of an average sample made by mixing twelve samples in the proportions indicated by the amount of flow at the time of collecting, was as follows :— The suspended matters, being very small in amount, were not determined. The solid matters in solution were reduced in total amount, the reduction being chiefly due, as in the case of the Tunbridge-Wells farms, to the re- tention by the soil and plants of the more volatile substances, as the amount of solid matters left after ignition is practically the same in the effluent water asin the sewage. The lessening of the chlorine by more than one fourth of its original amount would point to the fact, already referred to, that a considerable amount of subsoil water dilutes the effluent water; but notwithstanding this dilution, the effluent water contains more than half as much “ actual” ammonia as the same bulk of sewage (after passing through the extractor), and a quarter as much “ albuminoid” ammonia, while the amount of nitrogen escaping as nitrates and nitrites is insignificant. This effluent water is therefore not purified in a satisfactory way at all. But the most interesting point about these analyses is the comparison of the effluent water which had passed over two fields of rye-grass with that which had only passed over one. On a prima facie view, it would have been expected that the former would have been much purer than the latter; but in this case, on the con- trary, we find that the effluent water which has passed over two fields contains, in the same bulk,— 1. More than one fifth more solid matter in solution, 2. More than one third more fixed solids, 3. More “ albuminoid” ammonia, viz. 0°10 instead of 0-06, 4, Rather more chlorine, 5. Very slightly less nitrogen as nitrates &c., 6. More than one fourth less “ actual” ammonia, than the effluent water which had passed over one field of rye-grass. This shows us :— 1. That by passing over an additional field, the sewage has been strength- ened instead of weakened, except as regards “ actual ” ammonia. (That this strengthening is probably due chiefly to evaporation through the agency of the plants, is shown by the increase in albuminoid ammonia, and by the fact that the actual ammonia is the only constituent lessened in amount to any extent.) 2. That the nitrogenous organic matters, as shown by the amount of al- buminoid ammonia, are increased. 3. That no additional oxidizing action took place. These results are what might have been anticipated from the description of the farm already given. The soil, not being underdrained, is saturated with sewage, and the effluent water flowing off one ficld on to another, already saturated with sewage, can only concentrate itself by evaporation or by solution of matters in the upper layer of the soil, ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 185 There is this, then, against the catchwater-system, that if the fields are not underdrained the land will become saturated with sewage, and the effluent water will then pass off in an impure condition; and not only so, but the present example shows that after a second application the water may (except as regards actual ammonia) contain a greater amount of solu- ble impurities than it did before; and, above all, the nitrogenous organic matter (as indicated by the albumenoid ammonia) is not diminished, but rather increased, in spite of the active growth going on in the month of July. The temperature of the effluent water from the first field was considerably (43° Fahr.) higher than that of the sewage, and that from the second field half a degree higher than that from the first, a sufficient proof that percola- tion through the soil does not take place. It may seem almost superfluous for the Committee, after so many years of general experience throughout the country, to argue in favour of the sub- soil drainage of naturally heavy or naturally wet land with impervious sub- soil for the purposes of ordinary agriculture ; but some persons have strongly and repeatedly called in question the necessity of draining land when ir- rigated with sewage ; and the two farms at Tunbridge Wells, to a great ex- tent, and more especially the Reigate Farm at Earlswood, have been ac- tually laid out for sewage-irrigation on what may be called the “ satura- tion” principle ; so that it appears to the Committee desirable to call atten- tion to the fact, that if drainage is necessary where no water is artificially supplied to the soil, it cannot be Jess necessary after an addition to the rain- fall of 100 or 200 per cent. But a comparison of the analyses of different samples of effluent waters which have been taken by the Committee from open ditches into which effluent water was overflowing off saturated land, and from subsoil-drains into which effluent water was intermittently perco- lating through several feet of soil, suggests grave doubts whether effluent water ought ever to be permitted to escape before it has percolated through the soil, Sxcrron LY.—The Phosphate Process. A Member of the Committee was present at an experiment which was performed with the phosphate process of Messrs. Forbes and Price at Tottenham on March 25th, 1871. His description of the experiment is as follows :— A The Tottenham sewage, after passing through some depositing tanks which had been constructed for the lime-process, was pumped up, at the rate of about 800 or 1000 gallons per minute (as stated), along a carrier into a tank 100 yards long and of gradually increasing breadth. This tank took thrce hours to fill. As the sewage passed along the above mentioned carrier, the chemicals were mixed with it in the following way :— Two boxes were placed over the carrier, one a few yards further along it than the other; the first contained the phosphate mixture, and the second milk of lime. Men were continually stirring the contents of each box, which were allowed to run continuously into the sewage as it passed under- neath the boxes. The phosphate mixture was stated to be made by powdering the native phosphate of alumina, mixing it with sulphuric acid in the proportion of a ton of phosphate to from 12 to 13 ewt. of the acid, and dissolving the mass in water. 186 REPORT—1871. The amount of the preparation added to the sewage was not ascertained, but it was stated to be certainly much less than the proportion indicated by previous experiments (1 ton of crude phosphate to 500,000 gallons of sewage). The result of this addition was to deodorize the sewage to a very consider- able extent indeed; and when some of it was placed in a precipitating glass, and allowed to stand, a speedy separation of the suspended matters took place. The milk of lime is added to precipitate the excess of phosphate added, and just sufficient milk of lime is allowed to flow in to neutralize the sewage, the reaction of which to test-paper is observed from time to time after the addition of the milk of lime. During the passage of the sewage thus treated through the large tank, the suspended matters were very completely deposited, and the supernatant water ran over the sloping edge of the tank at its extreme end bright and ° clear, and almost odourless. Some of this water was collected, and was kept sealed up in a stone jar until July 24th, when it was analyzed by Dr. Russell, with the following result :— Sample of Effluent Water taken from Tottenham Sewage, treated March 25th, 1871. Parts per 100,000. Solid matter in solution. Ammonia. | Nitrogen | | -,| Sulphu- Dried at After l | Chlorine. Re phe bere) inoi e8, a 100°C. ienitian. Actual. | Albuminoid. | ds hydrogen 99-00 76:30 B17 | O16 | 845 | None. | a trace | None. Tt was found, after the lapse of four months, quite sweet and without smell. ‘The suspended matter was in very small quantity, and consisted merely of a little whitish flocculent matter, doubtless lime due to the slight excess used on the day when the sample was collected. The water was quite clear, and only on looking through a considerable depth could a brownish tint be detected. The analysis of it shows that it contains as much actual ammonia as ordinary dilute London sewage, and also a certain amount of albumenoid ammonia. Tt contains the merest trace of phosphoric acid, as indicated by the molyb- date-of-ammonia test, and no sulphuretted hydrogen, nor any nitrates or nitrites. Some of the deposit had been taken out of the tank, and was drying in a shed, the water which separated from it forming little pools on the surface of the mass; both this water and the precipitate itself were free from all offen- sive smell. It appears, then, that the suspended matters are entirely removed by this process, but the actual ammonia and, to a certain extent, the soluble organic matters are neither removed from the sewage nor oxidized; but an odourless precipitate is produced, which contains all the phosphate added, and contains it doubtless in the form of flocculent phosphate of alumina, the value of which, as a manure, is somewhat doubtful, being certainly not so great as the value of corresponding quantities of flocculent phosphate of lime. The valuable constituents of sewage, with the exception of the suspended matter and the phosphoric acid, are not precipitated by this process, and cannot be utilized unless the effluent water be afterwards used for irrigation, peat eee ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 187 in which case the milk of lime would not be added, and the clarified sewage would still contain a quantity of phosphoric acid. The advantage of this use of it, if it were found to answer from an econo- mical point of view, would be the deodorization of the deposit in the tanks and of the sewage itself, which is certainly at present a great desideratum, especially as regards the tanks, Sxcrron V.—The Dry Earth System. The Committee did not consider that it was its duty to undertake the examination of every plan that might be proposed for the treatment or uti- lization of excretal matters, but only those which were already well before the public, and known, or supposed, to be affording something like satisfactory results. It had sent out forms of questions with a view of procuring in- formation respecting the results obtained in the use of Moule’s earth- closets, and there was every desire on the part of the Committee not to neglect the examination of any system which promised results satisfactory to the community. Of eight forms of questions sent out relating to Moule’s system, only one had been filled up and returned, and that one was from Lancaster. It ap- peared that about 23 lbs. of soil were used per head per day. The manure obtained is afterwards mixed with other town refuse, and the mixture is sold at 5s.aton. The analysis of the manure published by the Rivers Pollution Commission showed, however, that it did not contain more nitrogen than good garden-mould. It was stated to have been applied at the rate of about 6 tons per acre to grass land; but the produce of hay was by no means large. It should be added, however, that even at Lancaster, the only place where an attempt has been made to carry out the system on a large scale, some of the conditions prescribed by Mr. Moule, and essential to its success as a means of avoiding nuisance and injury to health, are entirely neglected. - Thus there is an average of twenty-four persons using each closet; and instead of any arrangement for the deposit of earth on the fecal matters after every use of the closet, a quantity of soil is thrown once a day over the matters collected ; and the result is, that the product is removed in a very offensive condition. On behalf of the Committee, Dr. Gilbert has himself made some trials with Moule’s earth system: 14 cwt. of air-dried and sifted clayey soil were set apart for the experiment. From one third to one half of the whole was used before it was necessary to empty the pit. When removed the mass appeared uniformly moist throughout, and (excepting in the case of the most recent portions near the surface) neither fecal matter nor paper was observable in it ; nor was the process of emptying accompanied by any offensive smell. After exposure and occasional turning over on the floor of a shed, the once-used soil was resifted, and again passed through the closet. Below are given the percentages of moisture and of nitrogen in the soil under the various circumstances of the trial :— Before use, | After using | After using once, twice. Percentage of moisture (at 100°C.) in air-dried 7 MCh BICEAS SOIL svete. ck: ove sactcsse essence stebbes 8-440 9-970 7-710 Percentage of nitrogen in air-dried and sifted soil 0:067 0-216 0:353 Percentage of nitrogen in soil dried at 100° C. ... 0:073 0:240 0:383 Calculated upon the air-dried condition, the increase in the percentage of 188 - rEerort—1871. nitrogen was only about 0-15 each time the soil was used; and, even after using twice, the soil was not richer than good garden-mould. It is obvious, therefore, that such a manure, even if disposed of free of charge, would bear carriage to a very short distance only. It may be added that the percentage of nitrogen in the soil after using once, as given above, agrees very closely with that recorded in the report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, as found by them in the manure obtained, under professedly the same system, at Lancaster. In conclusion, when it is borne in mind how small is the proportion of the nitrogen voided in the 24 hours that is contained in the fieces, how small is the proportion of the total urine that is passed at the same time, and how great is the dilution of the manurial matters by the amount of soil required, it is by no means surprising that the manure produced is of such small value as the results would show. It is obvious, too, that our domestic habits and practices would have to be entirely revolutionized to secure the collection and absorp- tion of the whole of the urine, which contains by far the larger proportion of the valuable manurial matters voided. Moreover, assuming 2 or 23 Ibs. of soil to be required for each use of the closet, if the whole of the liquid, as well as the solid excretal matters, were to be absorbed, there would pro- bably be required from 9 to 10 lbs. of soil per head per day, or about 14 ton per head per annum. ‘This, for London, taking the population at three and a quarter millions, would represent a requirement of about five million tons of soil per annum, or nearly 14,000 tons per day; and the quantity to be removed would, of course, be considerably greater. This illustration is sufficient to show the impracticability of any such system for large popula- tions. Nevertheless it may readily be admitted that it would be of great advantage, in a sanitary point of view, in the cases of sick rooms, detached houses, or even villages, and that it might be even economical where the earth for preparation and absorption, and the land for utilization, are in close proximity. APPENDIX B. Report on the Post-mortem Examination of an Ow. By Dr. T. Spencer Consporn, F.R.S. Your Committee having invited me to examine the carcass of an ox fed for two years past on sewage-grown grass at Mr. Hope’s farm near Romford, I have to report the perfect freedom of that animal from internal parasites of any kind. I attribute this marked negative result to the following circumstances :— First, the animal did not graze on the farm, but was fed exclusively upon vegetable products cut and carried from the land. Secondly, the porous na- ture of the soil and subsoil alike would rapidly carry off the sewage, and thus ensure the passage of parasitic germs into the soil itself. Thirdly, I noticed on the irrigated portions of the farm a remarkable absence of those-molluscan and insect forms of life which frequently play the part of intermediary bearers. Fourthly, the only mollusks I detected were examples of Lymneus pereger ; these were obtained from a small pit of water to which the sewage had no access, and when examined after death were not found to contain any cercarian larve. Fifthly, the flaky vegetable tufts collected by me from the sides of the furrows occupied by sewage-currents consisted chiefly of Batrachospermum moniliforme, in the filaments of which were numerous active free nematodes, but no ova of any true entozoon. Sixthly, the sewage had a strong smell of beer, suggesting the presence of sufficient alcohol to APPENDIX A. Tabular Statement of Information received relating to Sewage-irrigation 1 Average daily Population. water-supply 8 Ew A G x : perbesd. ALN Character or Quality. Conveyance, ‘Treatment, Application to Land, Disposal. Whether applied r Naste of Town. 5 lAverage daily| to other lands nea Hues | Taal wewage ; Of (Contributing) From | From ‘On what terma tnanure than, 18 all sewage- What is i pti 4 _ discharge fro wi . along the course shot | water a ~ ld Avera Quantity | Description of = a [district | direetiy to | water- | other | Somtown | One | Wor eeieed Aispored of bY [rine sewers and = conor | eatrained | TER NET! prow | Cost _|fewagewater, Wate tuPPiied | What ar |donewithit! 16 ieused | numberot | towhich | soiland subsoil,| Describe | On what tenure | 1 pewered.| the sewage. | works jsourcen.| “Sewers. leuiface water! water is the town. if's0, on what |Flow conveyed. eer PRUE or otherwise |""\enarated | applied. |Per 1000) plied Te land, in winter |are made for| tinued wet, | 98am after | acresto | *¢Wageis | &c., and how draining. held, fe is discharged) admitted riaushter) Led terms. he vances) “treated. | “Tatter? fons. as wellasin {disposal dur-| when the | Ping once |which sewage *Pplied. fe Te ee ee into sewers. | into sewers, | scharge refuse summer, night | ing frost? | ground is | “tilized? | is applied LA} nee. Rata we wees and day? saturated ? daily, | galls | galls, is. i rable. i i |S mallon-aeei|iacsaeenen «Js , the\Carted on to\By open |......_.|Farm - yard! eres, — ALDERSHOT | 5,000 $000 variable. variable. aeen S Not. |Slaughterhouse |... sees ere with the [eat 2 miles .... pase TR ey Gees Woe vei decane (The. sewage Sread vera a9 << |1} to Moor land and/From 4 to 6 feet|Lease forl6 years,|Let . Oy 000 oye ; pes. ter deposi-| when dry, Superphos,| Brapa ares, gravel. A fall] “deep where | 235, pip p perp over decply| EH AO Beroae| Ee ect ted in @ act.) phate, pot-) Joughed thefarm. Laid| ‘Onna’, Neoeas. tling tank. ash, lime. land in win-| Se aoeral| Pers to 1 ocre_ac-| carding to form and fall of sur- face. 16,437 | 16,437 apes 657,000 Nil. ‘Admitted, Not. (| Not. i Nok | aseer-(Strained...- (There is wary}issss0%r02+:-..-44. {Ves ......0..0../None ..... Not provided|No ........). --|193 ........|Loam, —subsoilltand drains to|Leasehold ......|Local | 2 ‘used 8 ma? cs [eee The) the outfall on| land is favour-| the river. es) able as regards) levelling, which| is being com- ; A leted. CARLISLE...) 32,000 | $2,000 [28 to 33)... Leese ~--s+| Admitted. [Cotton and wool-[Leaso of 15 years Not. eRe HIE seseene ate Not..sssses pensessarenaltye prstsee INO vases. fag rN SE Reon. cc s| Nodiferenes It dlssppears)a/=-. 10... 48 fect of fine|Naturally self: |Lease 15 yearn, [ent i ani , dye- team- | i 2 5 ‘ial soil ‘ined. i works, &e. Ali] rent of £5, the acre, only in the day- FcR See ee ct discharge into] lessee being at time. gravels. Levels sewers. all expense and| enitoTias risk. | CBELTEN- 40,000 | Estimated, | Abt 15 | uncer- About [Not definite-|Admitted by Slaughterhouses. Included in rent Yes, 200 acres.|Sewer-pipes. |Onc sewer SAllthoworks|Strained at Sold at 2+, a Regularly applied|Allowed to |Flows as |Where con-|Probably 10. |About 300 ..|Clayey. Surface 130 acres, free- HAM. 36,000 tain. | 1,000,000 | ly known. | percolation.| ‘There are but) of land. ‘Owners pay 10%, miles, the| cost £7,000.) tanks. per cubie| without inter-| flow over | usual. Land) venient to| undulating. hold. ' About few manufacto-| per acre per an- other 19) yard. riers, mission. land as | has good) do «o. Contour or 200 acres be- ries. num, and pre-, mile. usual, and| fall, and is catchwater ear- Jong to adjoin- pare land them. is much | seldom sa- riers arc formed) ing owners, who) Hstiees purified. | turated. in parts, in| pay for sewage. others ridges ee and furrows. 50,000 | 50,000 Sto 13 1260 Admitted. [Dye-works and |Lease of 7 years Occasionally ; no \Covered sewer|516 yards Strained by|Manufactur-|Surfuce irri- 4d. ....'Portion of -|Applied — to)Nodifference|Passed over|About one |400 . Light land, over-|By deep carriers|Frechold and —_|Let | millions. slaughterhouses! toCompy..who| special terms. | and open ca- patent pro-| edandsold,| gation, the manure] fallowland.| made. Sa-| successive | tenth of ing graveland| No subsoil leasehold. cor pay Eiper ner pal. cess. produced turation of| areas until] whole area, clays drains. for land, and) on farm. Jandconsi-| completely| £7 per acre for, dered an} purified. sewage, with 5| advantage. } per cent. on| outlay on new works. 400 8,300 ‘Water | Local 150,000 430 Admitted. |Slaughterhouses |Retained by town, Not. Brick sewer. 5 .«.|Biltered ....|Used on high By open and| 1 payee to)Passed on to|Passed overAbout one « «+++. |Stiffsoil on brick |Not drained. It|Lease .......,..|Auth Co, | Bd. to &e. Innd that is) covered car-| fallow and) land. Sa-| successive | tenth of earth. was, but the| 30 56 200,000 not irriga-| riers, meadow | turation | revs until] wholearea, drains were | ted. land, aids purifi-| purified, taken up, as the } cation. sewage passed] | into them un- —— purified. 20,917 | 20,917 15 800,000 1571 Admitted, |Slaughterhouses. /To Lord War-|. .|Pumped up 2} miles (Works not completed.) . [Works not | completed.) - wick, at a rent) through 18- | of £450 per an- in. iron pipes. num for 30) ears. 50,000 | 21,000 2¢ | None. |in dry wes-| 300 | Not. inten- |Staughterhouses. |ktZtained by town, Not. feet cesteese|icceseeesees|Strained..../Mixed with],...........| ... [Works not yet} complete. Porjtion of farm jonly in operation.) ------|...++ssss0++ 70atpresent,|Loam, overlying) Partunderdrained)Part lease, part Locs to weather, tionally. town ashes, 300 bein wel. Part purchased. 22,000 824,796 acquired. | level, part hilly.| [Lo face page 188. COST OF P PE RE EFFLUENT WATER. Relative level Sewage applied. To what crops. Forming land of the sewage for distribution outfall and the i Machinery of sewage over point where Carriers. ° sewage” | 9) ee aseie en cultivation. Sewage outfall is No} informaltion. on the Iand, Not ascertained, 12feet below... say £250, Nil. ———————— One outfall!2feet! ......+.+ | Estimated at £2 105, abore land, the per acre, other 30 feet, ~ A few feet above. |.. | ‘Nearly level .. BO .sesne-e (BIB. Outfall 125 feet below land. eeeee (Outfall & feet |... ....6 abore land, [Average tons| per acre ap~ plied to each| crop. Average pro-| 5, duce por | 4, How, Mer T | disposed of, Quantity. | What ‘comes of it, be- post profit) stat! 9F loss per} Total capital! tyead of the sate population Pereentenee| on the dis-) posal of the| sewage. —|disagreeable?the eattle fed) on the land that ‘on the pro- | can be traces to | any way af- HEALTH. Is smell per- been thestate ceptible or | of health of among labourers }i duce? |the use of sewage? What has |Has any diseascits the health! been produced of the inha- itante of the) General advantages. locality in fected. and turnips, Rye-grass and Various root crops: Permanent grass Chiefly grass Tani -|Rye-grass, rye, mangel, potn-| derably tocs, carrots, ages, broccoli onions, celery French beans, artichokes, &e -|Rye-grass, man: eireaiatoes| cabbages, &e, Tian rye-graas. als cab- -\Old turf and Ita- Grass, cahbages,|Not —_regis- rhubarbjPrene| tered. = beans, aspara- onions, leeks, _ violet, mint, Swedes, » Varies consi- ~ Varis |The Local Board | has nothing 6000 .......|Not record-/Public auc- cd. tion. 4|Notascer-|......,.....)All grazed by, tained. eattle and! sheep. Cannot be |Not known; stated ac-] crop curately. | partly grazed. -|€27 per ncre Not record-|Private sale. ed. Sold) on ground, About £20 Sold and con- perscreall) sumed on) round, farm, gross re: ceipts. last year. to do with the farming, b Not known, Runs Not known. |Flows river, Nil. none. the Rav tut has contra cted to Flows river ‘of the flow) ‘on to the| Jand. Passed into the river) Wandle. .|Ultimately passes — tol bourn into). the Black- water, to is river en delive into £10,000 bor- if. | rowed, Probab 1y|Passes off in-|,... two thirds) to brooks, ‘About £3000, exclusive of] makes | lond. ‘About £2,500/Total nett rthewholeof| the sewage -|Cannot be stated at present. Company, rofit, ‘own gets the work) done free| of cost. profit esti- mated at £170 last! year, The faey Very good. |No ..........05 No Sanitary state ofeamp and is Sor 4 barracks vastly im- times as proved,” ‘The land pro- strong as luces fair crops under ordinary sewage, which before town sew. produced nothing what- age, and) ever, the smell! is percep-| tle fa summer. «|Not._ascer-|Scarcely ato com-|ng No, tained. any time,| plaints have SEs Impercep-| reached the tible when| Board. crops are| growing. | ve|No <-..--+-|Good -.....1No cose {NO .....0--|Land very much improved in value, Scarcely, ex-/Extremely | None whatever. ceptinvery| good. hot wea-| ther. Not when |Good, When| None whatever. solids are | epidemics separated. | are — rife discase al-| ways takes) mild form, Only when|Extremely | None...------+ filters are|_ good. foul, ‘of Leamingio|n, as before) stated, stance | sewage has enabled the) known, | authorities to purify the) streams so as to remove| all complaints. — The yearly nett cost is much| ess than when disinfec- tants were used with very) unsatisfactory results, Health of \Greater certainty in the| neighbour-| production of crops. hood im-| Larger yield of crops. proved. {" in- |The application of the! Health of |Greater certainty in the| neighbour-| production of crops and] hood im-| farger yield of erops. proved. No. LETTERS FROM M. LAVOISIER TO DR. BLACK. 189 destroy the vitality of ordinary parasitic germs, though it was abundantly manifest that the free nematodes had suffered nothing in consequence. As some guarantee for the efficient manner in which the carcass of the ox was examined, I may mention that the superficial muscles, with their asso- ciated areolar and aponeurotic coverings, were particularly investigated, portions of certain muscles, such as the scaleni and sterno-maxillaris, being dissected through and through. All the viscera were likewise scrutinized, especially the brain, lungs, liver, bladder, kidneys, paunch, reed, cecum, and other natural divisions of the intestinal canal. The animal was not exces- sively fat, whilst its muscles were well developed and of a deep carneous lustre. 84 Wimpole Street, London, T. Spencer Cosson, M.D., F.R.S. July 18, 1871. Remarks by the Committee. With regard to the examination of the carcass of the ox, which had been fed for twenty-two months on sewaged produce at Breton’s Farm, those mem- bers of the Committee who were present and examined it with Dr. Cobbold concur in his statement as to its perfect freedom from internal parasites of all kinds; and they can also subscribe to most of his observations with regard to the possible reasons for this immunity. They wish especially to draw at- tention (1) to the fact, that on this farm there is “a remarkable absence of those molluscan and insect forms of life which frequently play the part of intermediary bearers” to entozoal larve : it would appear that the sewage drives these creatures away or kills them; and (2) to the composition of the “flaky vegetable tufts” collected from the sides of the carriers ; these contained *“numerous active free nematodes, but no ova of any true entozoon.” But the Committee cannot support the opinion expressed by Dr. Cobbold, that the strong smell of beer which the sewage had (caused of course merely by hop waste) would suggest “the presence of sufficient alcohol to destroy the vitality of ordinary parasitic germs,” as the quantity of alcohol which would be necessary for this purpose in so large a bulk of sewage would be enormous, and especially as, as Dr. Cobbold says, “ it was abundantly mani- fest that the free nematodes had suffered nothing in consequence.” It appears, then, that, as far as this one case goes (and it is certainly as con- clusive as a single case could possibly be), there is no evidence that entozoal forms of life are to be found on the farm at allin any stage of their existence, or in the flesh of an animal fed exclusively for twenty-two months on sewaged produce grown on the farm. Letters from M. Lavoisier tv Dr. Buack. [Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in the Annual Report.] Paris le 19 Septembre, 1789. Monstevr,—C’est un membre de l’académie Royale des Sciences de Paris qui vous écrit a titre de Confrére: c’est un des plus zélés admirateurs de la profondeur de votre génie et des importantes révolutions que vos découvertes ont occasionnées dans les Sciences, qui profite, pour avoir l’honneur de yous écrire, de Voccasion de M. de Boullogne qui va finir son éducation 4 Edim- bourg. Permettez-moi de yous le recommander. II joint 4 d’heureuses dis- positions un grand désir de s’instruire et il regarde comme un grand bonheur pour lui d’ayoir une occasion pour se présenter & yous. Il a bien youlu, Monsieur, se charger de yous remettre un exemplaire d’un ouvrage que je Viens de publier; vous y trouyerez une partie des idées dont yous ayez jetté 190 REPORT—1871. le premier germe: si vous avez la bonté de donner quelques instants 4 sa lecture, vous y trouverez le développement d’une Doctrine nouvelle que je crois plus simple et plus d’accord avec les faits que celle du Phlogistique. Ce n’est au surplus qu’en tremblant que je le soumets au premier de mes juges et a celui dont j’ambitionnerais le plus le suffrage. J’ai Vhonneur d’étre trés-respectueusement, . Monsieur, Votre trés-humble et trés-ob¢issant Serviteur, AVI —— Paris, 24 Juillet, 1790. Monstrvr,—J’apprends avec une joye inexprimable que vous voulez bie attacher quelque mérite aux idées que j’ai professé le premier contre la doc- trine du phlogistique. Plus confiant dans vos idées que dans les miennes propres, accoutumé 4 vous regarder comme mon maitre, j’étois en défiance contre moi-méme tant que je me suis écarté sans votre aveu de la route que vous avez si glorieusement suivie. Votre approbation, Monsieur, dissipe mes inqui¢tudes et me donne un nouveau courage. Cette Lettre, Monsieur, vous sera remise par M. Terray intendant de Lyon neveu du Ministre des finances de ce méme nom et mon parent; il conduit & Edimbourg son fils, jeune homme d’espérance et destiné a posséder une grande fortune, pour y finir son éducation et suivre les lecons des professeurs célébres de luniversité d’Edimbourg. Permettez-moi, Monsieur, de yous le recom- mander. L’intérét que vous voudrez bien prendre a lui sera un premier titre qui l’annoncera d’une maniére ayantageuse et j’ai lieu de ecroire qu’il ne se rendra pas indigne de vos bontés, Je ne serai pas content jusqu’a ce que les circonstances me permettent de vous aller porter moi-méme le témoignage de mon admiration et de me ranger au nombre de vos disciples. La révolution qui s’opére en France devant na- turellement rendre inutile une partie de ceux attachés 4 l’ancienne adminis- tration, il est possible que je jouisse de plus de liberté; et le premier usage que j’en ferai sera de voyager et de voyager surtout en Angleterre et 4 Edim- bourg pour vous y voir, pour vous y entendre et profiter de vos lumiéres et de vos conseils. J’ai commencé un grand nombre d’ouvrages et de travaux ct j’aspire 4 un Etat de tranquillité qui me permette d’y mettre la derni¢re main. J’ai Vhonneur d’étre treés-respectueusement, Monsieur, Votre trés-humble et trés-obéissant Serviteur, Vt t Mi bias ee de l’académie des sciences. EE EE es LETTERS FROM M. LAVOISIER TO DR. BLACK. 191 Paris, le 19 Novembre, 1790. M. Trrray, Monsieur, m’a remis, en arrivant 4 Paris la lettre que vous m/’avez fait Vhonneur de m’écrire le 24 Octobre; il ne pouyait me faire un présent qui me fit plus agréable. J’ai cru que vous ne désapprouyeriez pas que je la communiquasse 4 |’Académie des Sciences ; elle n’a pas moins admiré V’élégance du style que la profondeur de philosophie et la candeur qui regne dans votre lettre, et elle a méme désiré qu’elle fit déposée dans ses registres ; mais je n’y ai consenti, qu’A condition qu'il m’en serait remis une copie cer- tifiée du secrétaire. J’ai une autre grace 4 vous demander, mais sur laquelle je dois attendre votre aveu; c’est de vouloir bien me permettre d’en publier la traduction dans les Annales de Chimie. M. Gillan a été témoin, depuis son séjour 4 Paris, de quelques expériences que j’ai faites sur la respiration et il a bien voulu y concourir. Nous nous sommes assurés des faits suivans : 1°, La quantité d’air vital ou gaz oxigéne qu’un homme en repos et & jeun consomme, ou plutot convertit en air fixe ou acide carbonique, pendant - une heure est de 1200 pouces cubiques de France environ, quand il est placé dans une température de 26 degrés. 2°. Cette quantité s’éléve 4 1400 pouces, dans les mémes circonstances, si la personne est placée dans une température de 12 degrés seulement. 3°. La quantité de gaz oxigéne consommée, ou convertie en acide carbo- nique, augmente pendant le tems de la digestion et s’éléve 4 1800 ou 1900 pouces. 4°, Par le mouvement et l’exercice on la porte jusqu’é 4000 pouces par heure et méme davantage. 5°. La chaleur animale est constamment la méme, dans tous ces cas. 6°, Les animaux peuvent vivre dans de lair vital ou gaz oxigéne, qui ne se renouyelle pas, aussi longtems que l’on le juge 4 propos, pouryu qu’on ait soin d’absorber, par de l’alcali caustique en liqueur, le gaz acide carbonique, & mesure quil se forme; en sorte que ce gaz n’a pas besoin, comme on le eroyait, pour étre salubre et propre 4 la respiration d’étre mélangé avec une certaine portion de gaz azote ou Mophete. 7°. Les animaux ne paroissent pas souffrir dans un mélange de 15 parties de gaz azote et d’une partie de gaz oxigéne, pourvu qu’on ait de méme la précaution d’absorber le gaz acide carbonique, par le moyen de V’aleali caustique, & mesure qu'il est formé. 8°. La consommation du gaz oxigéne et sa conversion en acide carbonique est la méme dans le gaz oxigéne pur et dans le gaz oxigéne mélé de gaz azote, en sorte que la respiration n’est nullement accélérée en raison de la pureté de Vair. 9°. Les animaux vivent assez longtems dans un mélange de deux parties de gaz inflammable et d’une de gaz oxigéne. 10°. Le gaz azote ne sert absolument a rien dans V’acte de la respiration et il ressort du poumon en méme quantité et qualité qu’il y est entré. 11°. Lorsque par l’exercice et le mouvement on augmente la consommation de gaz oxigéne dans le poumon, la circulation s’accélére ; ce dont il est facile de s’assurer par le battement du poulx: et en général lorsque la personne respire sans se géner, la quantité de gaz oxigéne consommée est proportion- nelle 4 l’augmentation du nombre des pulsations multiplié par le nombre des inspirations. Ul est bien juste, Monsieur, que vous soyez un des premiers informés des progres qui se font dans une carriére que vous ayez ouverte, et dans laquelle 192 REPORT—187]. nous nous regardons tous comme vos disciples. Nous suivons les mémes ex- périences, et j’aurai l’honneur de vous faire part de mes découvertes ultérieures. J’ai Vhonneur d’étre avec un respectueux attachement, Monsieur, Votre trés-humble et trés-obdissant Serviteur, ee ee ae Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. ANton Donry, Professor Roxtiuston, and Mr. P. L. Scrater, appointed for the purpose of promoting the Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World :—Reporter, Dr. Dourn, Tur Committee beg to report that since the last Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool steps have been taken by Dr. Dohrn to secure the moral assistance of some other scientific bodies, and that the Academy of Belgium has passed a vote acknowledging the great value of the proposed Observatories. Besides this, the Government at Berlin has given instruction to the German Embassy at Florence and to the General Consul at Naples to do everything to secure success to Dr. Dohrn’s enterprise. Next October the building at Naples will be commenced under the personal superintendence of Dr. Dohrn, who will be accompanied by the assistant architect of the Berlin Aquarium. The contractors agree to finish the building in one year, so that in January 1873 the Aquarium in Naples may be expected to be in working order. The Naples Observatory being thus arranged for, the Committee beg leave to draw the attention of the British Association to the importance of esta- blishing a Zoological Station in the British Islands, and to the opportunity which is now offered for such a proposition in consequence of the cessation of the grant to the Kew Observatory. In the same way as the Association took the initiative in the foundation of the Meteorological Observatories, so may they legitimately and with every prospect of success take in hand the foundation of Zoological Observatories. Until a recent date the Association has given considerable sums of money to dredging-explorations ; but, in con- sequence of the advance of Zoological Science, some of the problems to be solved are so much changed and their nature is of such a character as to demand the assistance of the Association in other directions. The careful study of the development and the habits of marine animals can only be carried on by aid of large aquariums and cumbrous apparatus, which an individual could hardly provide for himself. This, and the copious supply of animals for observation, can be provided by such a cooperative institution. There can be little doubt of the convenience to naturalists, and of the per- manent benefit to science, which would result from the foundation of a Zoological Station in the British Isles. THERMAL EQUIVALENTS OF THE OXIDES OF CHLORINE. 193 Preliminary Report on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine. By James Dewar, F.R.S.E. Dvurine the course of the last Meeting of the British Association, I took occasion to lay before the Chemical Section two short notes bearing directly on the subject of Thermal Equivalents ; they were respectively entitled * Thermal Equivalents and Fermentation,’ and ‘ Observations on the Oxides of Chlorine.” In the first-mentioned communication it was proved that the decomposition of sugar into carbonic acid and alcohol was a reaction taking place without any great evolution of heat, if we accepted the thermal equi- valent of sugar as determined by Frankland, along with the similar value of alcohol obtained from Fayre and Silbermann’s researches; and con- sequently the heat of fermentation must be derived from some other source than the sugar molecule itself,—the continued hydration of the alcohol pro- duced, the secondary decompositions taking place, and the transformations of the ferment itself being the three available sources of supply. The note on the oxides of chlorine had special reference to the heat evolved during the decomposition of these oxides. The researches of Fayre and Silbermann having shown that the formation of hypochlorous acid and of chlorie acid is attended with a large absorption of heat, it became in- teresting to ascertain if in this series of oxides we had a regular increment of absorption in passing from the lowest member of the series to the highest member, just as Andrews had found a similar relation to hold for certain oxides of the same metal, whose successive formation was attended with an evolution of heat. I suggested it would be interesting to make a complete examination of the thermal relations of these bodies along with the similar derivatives of bromine and iodine, and with this object in view I ac- cepted a grant in order to prosecute these researches; and although my spare time has been variously occupied during the past year, I have found opportunity to make a considerable number of preliminary observations in connexion with this subject. Heat absorbed during the Solution of Salts belonging to this Series per equivalent, Units. Heat units. NOW ee Tid FR Peo 4320 KCI1O, 10,100 15: eee eee 4900 KBrO, 9,680 OTD Ae Fseavrrs hte 4800 KIO, 5,300 Comparing the solution-values of chloride of potassium and bromide of potassium with the corresponding values obtained for the chlorate and bromate, the latter salts are observed to have a very much higher solution thermal equivalent ; whereas, comparing iodide of potassium with iodate, we haye only a slight increase in the latter salt. The highest absorption- values are therefore connected with the acids whose formation is attended with an absorption of heat. It will be interesting to find how these sub- stances act with regard to the absorption of radiant heat, and if a similar relation is maintained. The method I proposed to adopt in examining the thermal relation of the oxides of chlorine was based on the easy and rapid decomposition of dilute hy- ' driodic acid, whose thermal equivalent in aqueous solution has been carefully determined. Isoon found, however, chloric acid did not appreciably decom- pose dilute hydriodic acid when the strength of the respective acids in a solution amounted to a half gramme equivalent per litre, nor did I , 0 194 REPoRT—1871. succeed better when I substituted hydrochloric acid for the hydriodic. A few experiments were made on the action of magnesium on chloric acid, with the view of ascertaining its thermal value from the oxidation of the nascent hydrogen ; but, so far as my experiments extended, the results did not agree satisfactorily. I had recourse then to the direct action of iodine on chloric acid, which T found acted easily on a solution of twice the normal strength, at a tempe- rature of 80° C., although it did not act on a dilute aqueous solution in the cold. The reaction only taking place readily at a temperature of 80° C., complicates very much the mode of procedure, necessitating, as it does, a very constant temperature. A series of observations gave as a mean 35,500 heat units evolved per equivalent of iodine acting on excess of chloric acid. This number repre- sents the heat evolved in the transformation of chloric acid into iodic acid; and by subtracting from it the thermal value of the latter acid, we obtain the heat evolved from the decomposition of the chloric acid. The thermal value of iodic acid is very readily obtained through the reaction of dilute hydriodic acid, thus— 10,+5HI=5HO-+ 61, which takes place with extreme rapidity in dilute solution, evolving 16,000 units per equivalent of hydriodic acid decomposed. Assuming, then, the thermal value of hydrogen to be 34,000 units, and that of hydriodic acid to be 15,000, we obtain on calculation 15,000 units evolved during the formation of a molecule of iodic acid in aqueous solution. This number agrees very closely with that of A. Ditte’s for the formation of iodie acid as found through the oxidation of phosphorus. Subtracting the number found for the formation of dilute iodic acid from the former number ex- pressing the action of iodine on dilute chloric acid, we have the number 20,500 left for the thermal value of dilute chloric acid. Favre estimated the thermal value of dilute chloric acid as high as — 65,254 per equivalent— this result being based“on the action of chlorine on concentrated caustic potash, thus, 6KO+ 6C1=5KC1+ KCIO,, and inserting in the equation the known values of oxide of. potassium and chloride of potassium, and further correcting for dilution. . It is obvious, however, where we have one atom of a compound formed for five atoms of another whose thermal value is not very accurately known, we multiply any error enormously. In looking over Favre’s original paper, in the ‘ Journal de Pharmacie’ for 1853, on this subject, I observed that he mentioned a very curious observa- tion with reference to the heat evolved during the saturation of hypochlorous acid with dilute oxide of potassium. He shows that an equivalent of caustic potash, when neutralized with an equivalent of hypochlorous, gives rise to an evolution of 10,768 heat units; but if two molecules of hypo- chlorous acid were employed per equivalent of caustic potash, he found an evolution of 22,114 heat units. The additional heat evolved is not due to the formation of an acid salt, because, on adding another atom of caustic potash, we obtain the normal amount of heat due to the saturation of the acid. It is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that the additional atom of hypo- chlorous acid induces the following reaction :— 3KO ClO=2KCI1+ KO ClO,, a THERMAL EQUIVALENTS OF THE OXIDES OF CHLORINE. 195 -a decomposition that is well known to occur in certain conditions. As- suming this equation to be correct, and employing the following thermal numbers admitted by Favre— Formation of KO 76,238 per equivalent. : 9 KO with ClO = 10,678 3 ; is KCl =. 97,091. f : KO with C10, = 15,187 a f Cl with O =— 7,370 # 5 KO GIO condensing= 11,436 45 we obtain for the formation of an equivalent of aqueous chloric acid —12,661 heat units. This number is only about one-fifth part of the former number admitted by Favre. There is yet another mode of arriving at the thermal value of chloric acid. Frankland recently made a series of observations on the heat evolved during the.oxidation of many. organic substances through the action of chlorate of potash, and had necessarily to deduce from the total heat evolved the heat due to the decomposition of the chlorate of potash employed; his highest result amounts to 5500 heat units evolved per equivalent of chlo- rate of potash decomposed. Now it is easy, from the admitted decomposition and with the aid of this result, to calculate the thermal value of chloric acid. KO C10,=KCl+ 0,. Formation of KCl ~ — =101,000 spaah i IG = 76,238 » KOwith C10, = 15,187 % KO ClO, solution = 10,100 101,525+4+ X+5500=101,016. X=— 6009. The various determinations of the thermal value of chloric acid are inserted in the following Table, along with a reference to the reaction on which the ‘determination is based :— Action of chlorine on concentrated caustic potash = —65,234 (Favre). - Condensation of hypochlorous acid = — 12,661 (Favre). Decomposition of chlorate of potash =— 6 000 (Frankland). Action of iodine on chloric acid 2690, 000 (Dewar). The great difference in these results shows that even with the greatest care experimenters are apt to differ on the intricate subject of thermal values, and that before a satisfactory conclusion can be arrived at-with reference to the true thermal value of chloric acid further experiments ought to be made. A series of observations have been made on chlorous acid and on the per- oxide of chlorine. Chlorous acid was obtained by the action of benzol sulphuric acid on chlorate of potash, and-.after washing it was passed directly into water, in order to obtain a dilute solution. The analysis of the solution has invariably differed from that of a ‘solution of pure chlorous acid; and it seems absolutely BeceeaTys in order to ensure Aa Or 2 - - 196 REPORT—1871. the purity of the aqueous solution, that the acid be previously lique- fied, and its vapour passed slowly into water, as has been recommended by Brandeau. As the cold weather had all vanished before I could secure time to enter on this investigation, I saw it was hopeless to prepare the liquid acid readily and thus ensure a pure product, but made a few observa- tions on the purest product I could obtain—the highest number I have obtained per equivalent of chlorous avid, ClO,, acting on hydriodic acid amounting to 111,000 units, the following reaction taking place, thus, ClO, +4HI=HC1+3HO-+T,. It is easy to calculate the heat absorbed during the formation of dilute chlorous acid, and it is found to amount to —27,800 heat units. Similar observations haye been made on peroxide of chlorine obtained from the action of oxalic acid on chlorate of potash. The aqueous solution of the gas has always contained appreciable quantities of free chlorine, and the value obtained will necessarily require some correction. One equivalent of ClO, acting on hydriodic acid evolves 120,000 heat units; the following reaction takes place :— ClO,4+5HI=HCl+4H0O +1... When the requisite numbers are inserted in the above equation, the result is found to be 19,800 heat units absorbed for the formation of an equivalent of peroxide of chlorine. The thermal values of chlorous acid and of peroxide of chlorine are likely to require considerable correction, because I have not found that strict uni- formity in the results I should have liked. This is owing in great part to the difficulty of procuring a pure product, and the great tendency to secondary decomposition. The mode of conducting the experiments may also have con- siderable influence on the results. The above experiments were made with the relative proportions of the oxides of chlorine and of hydriodic acid that would completely neutralize each other, so as to precipitate the iodine in the free state. A series of experiments made in presence of excess of hydriodic acid, the requisite correction being made for the solution of the iodine, would be important, and these I intend to execute along with further ob- servations on this subject. The following observations haye been made in connexion with this re- port :— Action of dilute Me on dilute HICIO.65:... mumteaentls e nothing ay 55 HClO, srebineh lake ESR nothing Ss io, ey HO. ..oivesws eee — 730 5 KHO 59 LOS oe 15,000 I 5 FICIO: -caghth: ee 36,500 5 HI a HOO: Ut ek den See nothing 5 HI 35 HIO, (per eq. of Arie . 16,000 4 CHO™.: 5 HI (per eq. of Cl1O,) . - 111,000 & CIOs as, HI (per eq. of C10.) 2% 120,000 y EARTHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND. 197 Report on the practicability of establishing “A Close Time” fcr the protection of indigenous Animals. By a Committee, consisting of Prof. Newton, M.4., F.R.S., Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.R.S., J. E. Hartine, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Rev. H. Barnes, and H. E. Dresser (Reporter). Your Committee has great pleasure in reporting that the object for which it was appointed has continued to excite attention in the public prints during the past year, aud that in the direction indicated by its last Report—the protection, namely, of these birds generally coming under the term “ Wild Fowl.” There appears to be a widespread disposition among all classes to extend in their favour the provisions of the ‘ Sea-Birds’ Preservation Act,’ in proof of which your Committee may cite two facts :—1, the establishment in the county of Sussex (chiefly through the instrumentality of Mr. T. J. Monk, of Lewes) of an Association whose members pledge themselves to abstain from destroying Woodcocks in the breeding-season, which Association has met with great encouragement from the principal landed proprietors in the county ; and 2, the rapid growth of a well-founded belief that some steps are absolutely necessary to stop the netting or shooting of Plovers during the same season to ensure a continuance of the supply of their eggs, which form, as is well known, a valuable commodity. Your Committee is fully aware of the danger of attempting to legislate on this subject before the proper time; but from the assistance which has been promised in various influential quarters, it entertains a sanguine hope that some decided step may be taken next year; and believing that the warmest supporters of the principle of establishing a Close Time for indigenous animals will readily listen to the recommendations of your Committee, it respectfully prays that your Committee may be reappointed. Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland. The Committee consists of Dr. Bryce, F.G.S., Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., D. Minne- Homn, F.R.S.E., P. Macrartane, and J. Broveu. Very little worthy of record has occurred during the past year. ‘There has been no earthquake or other disturbance in the Comrie district similar to those noticed in last Report. From other districts, however, slight shocks of earthquake have been reported—from Lochaber in the end of November and from the upper part of the Frith of Clyde in April. The latter occurred during the night, was noticed by few, and doubt has been expressed by some in regard to it. But as the same region was certainly agitated on more than one occasion during the conduct of the previous inquiry instituted by the Association, of which Dr. Buckland and Mr. Milne-Home had the charge, there is no improbability in such an occurrence ; very little informa- tion, however, that could be depended upon was obtained. In regard to the other earthquake-shock there is less doubt. The district in which it was felt comprises the Spean Valley and the lower part of the Great Glen, a region in which some of the most severe of our earthquakes have been from time to time experienced. In the present case, however, no change was produced on the surface, or in the position of objects (see Rep. by Mr. D. Milne-Home, Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1840) ; and without recording instruments 198 _- REPoRT—1871. it has been found impossible to state, with any approach to certainty, whence the undulations emanated, or to estimate the intensity of the shocks. It is much to be desired that the additional duty of taking observations of this kind should be undertaken at such stations of the Scottish Meteorological Society as are situated in the districts where earthquakes have been so often experienced. Such a measure, however, would necessitate the adoption of a seismometer of a much simpler construction than that at Comrie, belonging . to the Association—one which should occupy a small space, and be little liable to derangement, while capable of recording feeble shocks. Your Com- mittee regrets that the hope expressed in last Report, in regard to the con- structing of such an instrument, has not been realized ; but they confidently hope that this important object will be accomplished in the course of the coming year. By permission of the Association, communications might then be opened with the Council of the Meteorological Society in regard to their placing such a seismometer at a number of their stations within the areas liable to disturbance, and establishing new stations with this express object where such do not now exist. Such a combined system of observations would bring the various areas into close relations with one another, and would possess every advantage over an inquiry limited to a single locality. (Signed). Janes Bryce, M.A., LL.D. Report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Com- mittee, consisting of Sir Joun Bowrine, F.R.S., The Right Hon. Sir C. B. Apper.ey, M.P., Samurt Brown, F.S.8., Dr. Farr, F.R.S., Frank P. Frettowes, Professor FRANKLAND, F.R.S., Professor Hrn- nessy, F.R.S., James Heywoop, F.R.S., Sir Rozurt Kanu, F.R.S., Professor Lrone Levi, F.S.A., F.S.S., C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., Colonel Syxzs, F.R.S., M.P., Professor A. W. Wituiamson, F.R.S., James Yates, F.R.S., Dr.Grorce Grover, Sir Josrpn Wuitwortn, Bart., F.R.S., J. R. Naprer, H. Dircss, J. V. N. Bazaterrre, W.Smitn, Sir W. Farrzarrn, Bart., F.R.S., and Joun Rosinson:— Professor Luone Levi, Secretary. Your Committee have much pleasure in reporting that the fifth and last Report of the Royal Commissioners to inquire into the condition of the Exchequer, now Board of Trade, Standards has now been published, and the general question of uniformity of weights and measures in this and other countries has thus been placed before Her Majesty’s Government in all its bearings. Your Committee are much gratified at the large amount of infor- mation the Commissioners have collected on the progress of the Metric System in different countries, and only regret that they did not recommend a bolder course than the “permissive legislation of its use. The Commissioners, it should be remembered, were not expressly instructed to inquire into ‘the Metric System; but one of the points referred to them being to inquire and. report whether any and what additions to the existing official Standards of Weights and Measures are now required, they understood that that involved cexpression of their opinion as to the establishment or continued prohi- - UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 199 bition of the Metric System into this country, and they reported accordingly on the subject. The Commissioners assumed that “ there is no immediate cause requiring a general change in the existing system of legal weights and measures of the country for the purposes of internal trade,” and regarded the question of introducing the Metric System only in the aspect of facilitating inter- national trade and scientific researches ; but your Committee are of opinion that in so doing the Commissioners have not sufficiently taken into account the bearings of the general question on education, on scientific workmanship, and on the general economies of the nation. The Royal Commissioners have recommended the legalization of the Metric System, and that, in order to facilitate the use of the same, Metric Standards accurately verified, in relation to the primary Metric Standards at Paris, should be deposited in the Standard Department of the Board of Trade. But although your Committee consider the carrying out of such recommendation a decided advance over the present anomalous state of the law, past experience leads them to fear that no general uniformity will ever be arrived at by merely permissive legislation, and that unless the use of Metric Weights and Measures is to become general at no distant period, the reform will have no fair chance of success. As the late Master of the Mint properly said, in the Standard Commission (Fifth Report, p-xxx), “Although the general introduction of MetricWeights and Measures for trade purposes might in the first instance be made permissive only, yet their use should, to some extent, be made compulsory, else the mere permission to use them in the home trade of this country would be practically a dead letter.” Your Committee have already reported on the decided advantages of the Metric and Decimal system in economizing time and facilitating the teaching of arithmetic in the schools, in effecting mechanical valuations, and in Chemistry and Pharmacy. But neither of these advantages can be realized to the full extent until the new system of Weights and Measures, with its divisors and multiples, become identified with our ideas of dimen- sions and quantities. Your Committee admit that this must be the work of time; but all the more necessary is it to make provisions for the same, by inserting in any measure on the subject clauses fixing a time when the use of the new system will become binding. Your Committee therefore greatly regret that the Bill introduced in the House of Commons by Mr. J. B. Smith to establish the Metric System of Weights and Measures, and fixing a time when the use of the same shall become compulsory, has not re- ceived the cordial support it deserved. But a majority of five only against the Second Reading, in a small House, so late in the Session, must not be accepted as conclusive evidence of the deliberate opinion of the Legislature on the subject. : Pending the final settlement of this important question, your Committee are gratified in finding that, in consequence of representations made by them to the Right Hon. Mr. W. E. Forster, Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education, the Educational Code of this year for the first time prescribes “ that in all schools the children in Standards VY. and VI. in Arith- metic should know the principles of the Metric System, and be able to ex- plain the advantages to be gained from uniformity in the method of forming multiples and submultiples of the Unit.” Your Committee are convinced that the School is the proper place for,initiating this useful reform ; and in view of the immense economy of time which would be gained in the teach- ing of arithmetic, your Committee would urge that teachers should at once commence introducing the subject in the Schools, To advance this desirable 200 REPORT—1871. object, your Committee have had a Conference at the Lecture Theatre of the Kensington Museum in June last, when valuable testimony was given of the . progress made in instructing children on the subject in the United States by Prof. Nathaniel Allen, and in Bombay by Mr. T. B. Kirkham, both gentlemen connected with the Education Departments of the respective countries. Your Committee have forwarded copies of the resolutions passed at the Conference, with copy of a little treatise on the Theory and Practice of the Metric System, to the Head Master of every Public and Endowed School, and they are preparing to do the same to all the principal Elemen- tary Schools in the Kingdom. It is much to be desired that all the works on arithmetic, and especially those which have acquired much reputation, should contain the necessary information on the Metric System, and your Committee are glad to report that this has already been done to a large ex- tent. Your Committee have also represented to the London School Board the desirableness of introducing the Metric System in the Schools established or supported by the Board, and they have been informed that the subject will shortly be considered by Prof. Huxley’s Committee. Your Committee will correspond in a similar manner with the other School Boards, and they trust that by these means they will secure the general teaching of the system. Your Committee have forwarded a copy of the Mural Standard con- structed by Casella to the Industrial Museum in Edinburgh, and they have also sent one to Newcastle. Your Committec have not yet been able to obtain the set of Metric Standards which they ordered, and they are glad to find from the following communication that the same will prove most useful for scientific researches :— Pilton, Barnstaple, July 27, 1871. Dear Srr,—I have been for some time conducting a series of observa- tions on the specific gravity of minerals and rocks. As the greatest possible accuracy is indispensable, it is of course a matter of some importance that I should employ the weights which afford the most exact results. I find that calculations of this nature can be done with far more accuracy, and in about a quarter of the time, by using the Metric System; but althongh I have made numerous inquiries, I have hitherto failed in my endeavour to procure a verified set of Metric Weights. May I venture to suggest that it would very much tend to promote the object which the Committee of the British Association have in view if they would procure one or two sets of verified weights for the purpose to such Members as may require the use of such standards for scientific investigation, and thus afford them the means of comparing and verifying their own weights with the recognized standards of the Association. I remain, dear Sir, yours faithfully, Prof. Leone Levi. TownsHEnD M. Hatt. Your Committee are convinced of the great utility of the suggestion ; but they will require a larger grant, since, as will be seen in the Fifth Report of the Standard Commissioners, £50 was paid by that Commission for a set of Metric Standards made of brass by Deleuil, of Paris. Your Committee regret that the war in France has suspended the opera- tion of the International Standard Commission at Paris for the construction and verification of primary international Metric Standards. That movement arose from resolutions, expressing such a want, passed by the International Gcodesical Conference held at Berlin in 1867, the Academy of Sciences of TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 201 St. Petersburg, and the Academy of Sciences in Paris; and we trust that by that means each country will possess a prototype copy of the Metre, made in relation to the Metre of the Archives in Paris, all the copies being made of the same material, compared by the same method and instru- ments, at the same temperature, and preserved in the same manner. Her Majesty’s Government had deputed Prof. Airy, the lamented Prof. Miller, and Mr. Chisholm, the Wardens of the Standards, to attend the Inter- national Commission. Your Committee have reason to believe that it is of the utmost importance to continue to give to this question unremitting at- tention, and they are convinced that their action has been eminently useful in guiding the Legislature, both of this country, of the Colonies, and even of other countries, to the great question of uniformity of Weights and Mea- sures and Coins in the interest of Science. In pursuance of this object, your Committee are anxious of diffusing as much information as possible. Especially they are desirous of supplying those who conduct scientific researches with the means of carrying them on in Metric Weights and Measures, as the most universally known, the most exact, and the most economical as regards time ; for which purpose they would be glad to purchase one or two sets of Metric Standards. And for these, and other purposes, they suggest the reappoint- ment of the Committee, with a grant of at least £75. The advantage of introducing a universal system of Weights and Measures is well admitted. Men of Science of all countries, to a large extent, use already a universal vocabulary in this respect ; and your Committee trust that the British Empire will ere long throw on the side of such a reform the immense weight of her example and influence. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of promoting the extension, improvement, and harmonic analysis of Tidal Observa- tions. Consisting of Sir Witu1am Tuomson, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. J.C. Apams, F.R.S., J. OtpHam, WittiaM Parkes, M. Inst. C.E., Prof. Ranxine, LL.D., F.R.S., and Admiral Ricnarps, R.N., F.R.S. Report drawn up by Mr. E, Roberts. _ 82. Tur work performed for the Tide Committee since the last Meeting of the British Association has consisted chiefly in the evaluation of tide- components in a similar manner to that described in the previous Reports. 83. Mr. Parkes having again placed the tracings of the curves of the Kurrachee (Manora) self-registering tide-gauge at the disposal of the Com- mittee, a second year’s observations have been read off and completely re- duced. In addition to the tide-components evaluated for Liverpool and Ramsgate, others (named for brevity J and Q) have been introduced to correct the lunar diurnal (declinational) tides for parallax. These com- ponents have been found to have sensible values for Kurrachee, where the diurnal tides are comparatively ldrge. The solar elliptic semidiurnal (R and _ T) components have also been included, now that two complete years’ ob- servations were available. The whole of the values of these tide-components is contained in the previous Report (§ 67), the work having been completed before the Report was printed. The correcting of the calculated heights (§ 70) for these additional components will doubtless bring them still nearer 202 . REPORT—1871. to the recorded high and low waters. It is contemplated correcting them before the printing of the Report, and if this is done, the results will be con- tained in it. 84. The comparison between the calculated and recorded heights for Liver- _pool (§ 68) not being considered as good as might have been expected from the labour bestowed on them, it was determined to continue the analysis of the Liverpool Tides, with the view, if possible, of detecting the cause of the largeness of some of the differences. Accordingly three years’ observations __ in continuation of the year 1866-67 were read off and completely analyzed. The results are as follow, and the results of the previous years are also given for the sake of comparison :— Year 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 2 ality ofthe ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. A,= 16°7192 1678208 16°8289 16°8998 17°0862 17°4877 17°1350 1h Coes 27°°9 27°°0 18°°4 18°4 Toca 20°°6 Series 8. f- $$ It = =i oe 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69, 1869-70. R, 070453 00696 070844 0'0470 00349 00399 0°0276 Ee 00-08 59°°78 56°°S5 39°°04 66°°18 1o1°'28 124°°38 mo Shea Bone: 371938 372304 peers 32287 3°0516 € Arh) ree id 10°°08 11°°63 11°°3I 11°38 r37°63 R, o'0612 0'0600 0°04.76 0°0475 00678 00640 070508 6 °322°°23 330°°18 294.°°73 B14 32 S27 TD 298°49 ® 312°°61 Series M. = $$ eee 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. R, oro1g92 0°0626 0'0092 0'0396 o'01g4. 0'0603 o'0841 ey 9332719 266°°69 970 a7 358°°02 259°°28 322° °82 317°°18 R, 976745 98124. 9°8930 "10'2713-__ 10°2648 10°I210 10°1443 € 326°10 = 25°45) —323°°99 325955 = 326985 328%°38 = 329°'4o ig | TOSS 00984. O'1525 00862 o°1022 o1158 oloi4 €, 330° = 15°04 321% 7E © 335°27 27°43 324°°76 31323 R, 0°6847 0°6573 0°6371 0°7 643 0°7238 07018 0°7196 €, 220°°34 217°°68 221°°30 224.°°19 222°°50 223 °°68 227°°87 R, o1812 01887 0°2093 0°2057 0°1936 o°1883 0°2200 6, 342°°76 = 348°2" 343° 17 = 343° 348°"52 35391 3°47 R, 00582 00808 00658 0'0667 0°0670 0'0665 0°0770 ig 202238 278° 17 259°°39 282°°09 280°°89 295°°60 293°°50 Series MS. 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. R, 04379 0°3488 03879 0°4635 O41 53 0°4.080 0°3957 €, 270°°68 265°°36 270°°49 269°°45 271°°86 269°°75 272°°96 * Tis the average inclination of the Moon’s orbit to the Earth’s equator, or the mean maximun declination, for the period. Rk, € R, €, Series K. aa 1 Ss ee Sa ~ 1857-58. 1858-59. ~ 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68:-. 1868-69. 1869-70. 0°3930 03978 0°3853 0°3278 0°2939 0°3116 9°34.04 283°°95 283°°08 273°°18 281°°60 0 285°°'77 282°°75 285°°13 1850 1°2742 1°0995 0°6336 ,0°7701 0'7346 0'7882 5°98 0°40 349°°6r 9°03 6°63 359°'16 4°25 Series O. —__————. — A. oo ——_— ———_—. —~ 1857 —d8. 1858-59. 1859-60, 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 0°44.10 0°4.136 0'4519 03058 0°2694. 0°3374 O°3214 316°°69 316°°28 318°°81 312°°74. 312°°63 310°°38 307°'96 Series P. LL ee oe ee ee a ed cr a 1857-58. 1858-59, 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69, 1869-70. 01250 0°1339 071306 o'14.09 0°1357 0°1333 0°0935 101°'96 105°°75 98°°61 88°43 109°°17 84°21 77°08, * Series L. $s. —, 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 05069 0'7849 0°3459 o'6015 075842 O°5129 04671 157°'93 168°°91 144°°51 124°'08 DET ST 159°°39 I51°°91 Series N. 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. ~1867-68. 1868-69. .1869-70. 18608 1°7607 1'9716 2°1608 19124 1°3307 1°8917 303°°52 © 308972 303°°98 = gor?"59 «= 308714 307°°39-— 305°*06 Series R. Series T. SS ae SSE See —_ *1857-58 & 1858-59. 1858-59 & 1859-60. 1857-58 & 1858-59. 1858-59 & 1859-60. 071006 00818 0°3490 o'1208 14.6°°45 146°°60 67°°97 36°°78 Series \. Aen a 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70 04091 02262 o'1165 02369 0'2166 O°1977 O'1913 141°°68 134.°°46 Ig9g1°'08 175°°95 180°°68 138°°54 132°°16 Series v. Cc = = Se St Ge te Pen eee ee 1857-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 0°7423 0°6303 072841 0°7 182 O'5051 0°1423 0°69 12 307°°91 284°'o1 261°"09 278°°43 267°°42 311°°51 332°°41 Series pu. Ee a eee “a” ————— 57-58. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1866-67. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1869-70. 0'2860 0'2259 0°3076 0'2561 0'2278 0'2576 0°2303 + 3172 42°04 32°55 32°42 31°94 64°20 39°°64, TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 7 204 REPORT—1871. / 85. It will be seen, on comparing the results contained in the previous y Report with the above, that the chief tides (the lunar and solar semidiurnal) are now more retarded by about 4° than during the years previously analyzed. The calculated heights in the comparison should therefore more nearly repre- sent the heights about eight-minutes after the hours assigned to them. An examination of the differences will show this to be the case. A fresh caleu- lation and due allowance made for atmospheric pressure would doubtless very considerably reduce the discrepancies. 86. The gradual increase in the height of the mean level of the water (A,), probably arising from the filling in of the bed of the river and consequent increase of friction, will account for some portion of this increased retarda- tion. There was a very violent rise in the mean level for the year 1868-69, amounting to four tenths of a foot; it, however, in the following year had again subsided to about its anticipated height. The uncertainty in the mean level of the water is an element which must at times seriously affect the differences between calculated and recorded heights in any method of com- putation of heights from a fiwed datum. With respect to these changes now taking place in Liverpool Bay, the following extract contains the substance of the Marine Surveyor’s report, dated October 2nd, 1871, and confirms the results determined by the preceding reductions :— “The result of the survey of the channels of the river for the current year shows that the changes rendered necessary in the arrangements of the light- ing and buoyage are more important in their immediate effect on the course of navigation than any which have occurred .for some years. The present Queen Channel was opened in 1854, but was not buoyed for navigation pur- poses until two years afterwards. Since that time the process of advance from southward to northward of the Great Burbo Bank had been very gradual for the first ten years, but more rapid recently, so that the advance had extended to about half a mile. At the same time the North Channel had widened in the same proportion, and there was no appreciable narrowing of the channel in that direction. On the north side, however, during the last four years, the changes had been more rapid, and the buoys had been altered twice within that period. It was now necessary that the Bell Beacon should be removed northward one third of a mile, and also that the Formby light-ship should be removed one third of a mile westward. Thus the Bell Beacon buoy would be brought into a direct line with the Crosby light-ship. The bar was in a satisfactory state, and the whole of the channels were in as safe a condition as they had been for many years, being deeper as well as more straight and not narrower than formerly.” 87. It is very much to be regretted that the authorities at Liverpool have chosen the George’s landing-stage for a tide-float, affected as it must be (sometimes to a considerable extent) by the ever-varying weight it has to bear. This will affect the whole of the tide-components evaluated, but more especially the solar components, and will account for the different values of the solar semidiurnal tide, which, judging from the corresponding lunar component, should agree within much narrower limits. It is therefore thought that, should it be determined to again discuss the Liverpool tides, it will be better to take the tide-curves as self-rcgistered at Helbre Island at the mouth of the Dee, in preference to those cf George’s Pier. The Helbre Island tide-curyes it is considered will give much superior results. 88. Through the kindness of the United States’ Coast Survey Office, two years’ tide observations, taken at Fort Point, San Francisco Bay, California, being a continuation of the observations already analyzed (§ 66), have been \ received. The results of the analysis of in § 66 being also included for the sake o TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 205 these observations (those contained f comparison) are as follow :— Year 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. ft. ft. ft. A,=8'7103 $:2651 81608 E =§28%o 26°'9 Zn OrAi Series 8, Series M. Se a 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. R, 00146 yerysmall. very small, 0'0539 0°0808 00863 € SET COGEs TE seats eo Bladetcs 46°°30 189°°37 B2> 070 R, 04067 0°3802 0°3824 1°6694. 16215 1°6645 €& —-334°°24335°°8O— 336°'45 330°°81 331°°30 © 328°°72 EE vdcrts | MP ssee 1 f Sh re verysmall. verysmall.’ very small. en etscsBU 0 Macccc PEN sec.ce sBecen MG Weg (a Weadees R, very small. very small. very small. 0°0616 o'0712 0°0698 TO anipsonte e Einicon: a aieehaance 23°°32 26°73 11°15 Series MS. SE eae I 1858-59. 1859-60, 1860-61, R, 0'0248 0°0325 00315 €, 22033 12°25 22°°81 Series K. 1858-59, 1859-60. 1860-61 R, 1°3370 1°3036 1°2925 €, —-196°"45 197°°43 196°°36 R, o°1759 o°1716 O°1351 € 335°°21 327°°63 325°°37 Series O. Series P. Gna Se i SSeS SS SS 1858-59, 1859-60. 1860-61. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. R, 08917 o'8511 08784 0°3672 0°3659 0°3869 By 35768. 35752. 35298 16°°52 15°"90 13°°52 Series L. Series N. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. R, o'059t C0370 0°0506 S393 0°3494 C545 6, 102°°63 183°°00 170°'16 303°°46 305°°53 302°°51 Series R. Series T. name SSN ee a ee ee SN 1858-59 and 1859-60, 1858-59 and 1859-60. R, 00076 R, o°0142 €, 164°°00 €, 277°°90 Series i. Series ». 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61, R, 0°0372 0°0275 O'OI121 o'1044 0'0387 0°04.37 5 188°°30 156°°39 144°°18 287°°23 272°°46 349°°59 206. REPORT—1871. — Series pu. oe 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. ts O02 57 _ 010311 00252 €, 25434 «= 20614 209°°53 Series J. Series Q. SSS SaaS as SS ig ie Sey. .1858-59. 1859-60, 1860-61. -- 1858-59. 1859-60. 1860-61. R, o'0819 00376 00565 O° 1706, o'1056 0°1332 ~ €, 213°°98 = 208°-29 ~_-183°"40 353°°03) -331°°34 8°93 89. Here again we have an abrupt diminution in the height of mean level for the first two years, which the following extract. from a letter received from J. EK. Hilgard, Ksq., fully explains :— “The change in the mean-level reading at Fort Point is a matter of much “annoyance to us. The tidé-gauge was put up in a small building near the “end of a wharf, and the tide-staff used for comparison was.close to it. Now ‘“‘it Was observed after the observations had continued some time~that the “wharf was settling,—tt least the part where the gauge stood. Then the “‘ gauge was moved to a point a little nearer to the shore believed to be firm, gs but 7 we think the whole wharf. settled and continued to do so for years. «There seems to be a bog formation underlying the surface deposit at that “place. There is probably-no way of ascertaining the amount of settling ‘except from the observations themselves. We are now having frequent “levellings made, referring the tide-staff to a rocky ledge further inland.” It is contemplated including the new tide-components now evaluated in the calculation. of the tide-heights shown in § 69, doubtless to their improvement. 90. It having come to the knowledge of the Tide.Committee that the United States’ Coast Survey Office was in possession of a series of hourly tide observa- tions. taken at CatIsland in the Gulf of Mexico, and which were of a very remarkable and interesting character, it was thought a favourable opportunity of testing the value of a harmonic analysis for the evaluation of the com- ponents of the tides of this place, which appeared very complicated apd pe- ““culiar. Application having been made, a series of about thirteen months were received through the kindness of J. HE. Hilgard, Esq. These are now in course of reduction. The following results represent the tide-components as far as they have at present been evaluated. Datum 10 feet below datum of United States’ Coast Survey :-— Year 1848. A,=4°8574 ft. IT=18°-45 Series S. Series M. Series L. Series N. R, 070442 oho) (on hana Meco nl) wl Ptodsdic €, 10°'04 OS 2T cee Manet csnae R, 0°0677 O'I195 00118 00269 65 23°°80 10°75 222°°40 39°57 - Series K. SeriesO. Series P. SeriesJ. Series Q. R, 04627 0°3855 or1559 00292 0'0733 Gi Se zO 224.°°29 230°°65 28°22 205 82 Hides Sshepsolagn te USxdccg ™ mamemnOGuen nn Malctlecbuicn = Mem Mboonde 65 FUNG Fo ae eaersss <5 Ltvnas Steevie. tsa ebeard Retardation of phase of Spring-tides oa! 5a Coincidence of phase of Declinational tides of 6" 15™ atten saaaine ByEece TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 207. 91. It is extremely interesting to find that, although the lunar. and solar semidiurnal tides are very small in value. the series of means from which they were obtained were extremely regular and good, and the conse- quent determination of the phase of spring-tides from their respective epochs is probably correct within afew minutes. The proportion between the am- plitudes of the lunar and solar semidiurnal tides is the nearest to equality yet obtained, being in the ratio of 11 to 6. The comparatively large value of R, of Series 8 is undoubtedly a genuine tide, but the smallness of the cor- responding value of Series M must forbid the conclusion of its being purely astronomical. It is perhaps produced by temperature or wind, its time of maximum being about 40 minutes after noon. There are also indications of a similar and large annual tide of 0:3 foot amplitude, and maximum about July, which is also probably meteorological in its origin. The proportion between the lunar and solar diurnal (Declinational) tides (R, of Series O and P) will be, on the assumption of the variation of R, of Series O being as the square of the sine of the declination, about 4 to 1. 92. The following are the values of the long-period tides which have been obtained since the Edinburgh Meeting :— R € ft. = Solar annual tide (elliptic and meteorological) ... 0'2.74. 144°50 - Solar semiannual tide (declinational and meteoro- IPIOAM EY actetanemat ors xcrsrctctodetanmiede sae iasccnercee o°128 35°02 Lunar monthly tide (elliptic) ..............seeeeeeee or106 | 304717 Lunar fortnightly tide (declinational) ............ see 0'043 136°69 Luni-solar fortnightly tide (synodic) ............64 0°099 336°26 The above epoch for the solar annual tide would place the maximum about August 16. sty Sault at a. EE wotet | 4 at NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Address by Professor P. G. Tarr, M.A., F.R.S.E., President of the Section. Iy opening the proceedings of this Section my immediate predecessors have ex- ercised their ingenuity in presenting its widely differing She ee subjects from their several points of view, and in endeavouring to coordinate them. What they were obliged to leave unfinished, it would be absurd in me to attempt to com- plete. It would be impossible, also, in the limits of a brief address to give a de- tailed account of the recent progress of physical and mathematical knowledge. Such a work can only be produced by separate instalments, each written by a spe- cialist, such as the admirable “ Reports’’ which form from time to time the most valuable portions of our annual volume. I shall therefore confine my remarks in the main to those two subjects, one in the mathematical, the other in the purely physical division of our work, which are comparatively familiar to myself. I wish, if possible, to induce, ere it be too late, native mathematicians to pay much more attention than they have yet paid to Hamilton’s magnificent Calculus of Quaternions, and to call the particular notice of physicists to our President’s grand Principle of Dissipation of Energy. I think that these are, at this moment, the most important because the most promising parts of our field. If nothing more could be said for Quaternions than that they enable us to exhibit in a singularly compact and elegant form, whose meaning is obvious at a glance on account of the utter inartificiality of the method, results which in the ordinary Cartesian coordinates are of the utmost complexity, a very powerful argument for their use would be furnished. But it would be unjust to Gantanaens to be con- tent with such a statement; for we are fully entitled to say that in al/ cases, even in those to which the Cartesian methods seem specially adapted, they give as sim- ple an expression as any other method ; while in the great majority of cases they 1), =0 (2n <1), whence Ci | Pan = € ue (. *sinydy (14! = OMe oF * This method is also given in De Morgan’s ‘ Differential and Integral Calculus,’ pp. 630, 576. Some analysts (Oettinger, Bidone, &c.) have not seen any objection to | 2" sinadx being finite for all values of x ; but unless we are prepared to write with De Morgan (“Theory of S, ns] Probabilities,” Encyc. Met.p.436)} e?*%dx= — ag because ( erode - it is difficult to ip Jo 2 0 see how this can be admitted. 12 REPORT—1871. by taking = =1-— ; (in which 2n> 1, so that m may have any value except such as lie between 1 and —1), and using the relation '(#)I'(1—«#)=m cosec am, we obtain fae onde =T(1+ 1 sing : . m Qn Similarly, by integrating Ne ie e—2"y cos y dx dy, we find ai) | cos amdx=T (1+ Leos aa m 2m 20 (m between 1 and o). The author had calculated a Table of the values of {sin nde, { cos andx for 0 ao ac different values of #; and the curves y= sin atda, y=), cos a*da, as obtained from them, were drawn and exhibited to the Section, the discontinuities in each being remarked. [The Tables and curves will be found in the ‘ Messenger of Mathema- tics,’ 1871.] On Lambert’s Proof of the Irrationality of 7, and on the Irrationality of cer- tain other Quantities. By J. W. L. Guatsuer, B.A., FLRAS,. The arithmetical quadrature of the circle, that is to say, the expression of the ratio of the circumference to the diameter in the form of a vulgar fraction with both numerator and denominator finite quantities, was shown to be impossible by Lambert in the ‘ Berlin Memoirs’ for 1761; and the proof has since been given in an abridged and modified form by Legendre in the Notes to his ‘ Eléments de Géo- métrie.’ Although Legendre’s method is quite as rigorous as that on which it is founded, still, on the whole, the demonstration of Lambert seems to afford a more striking and convincing proof of the truth of the proposition ; his investigation however, is given in such detail, and so many properties of continued fractions, now well known, are proved, that it is not very easy to follow his reasoning, which ex- tends over more than thirty pages. The object of the present paper is to exhibit Lambert’s demonstration of this important theorem concisely, and in a form free from unnecessary details, and to apply his method to deduce some results with regard to the irrationality of certain circular and other functions. The theorem which Lambert proves, and from which he deduces the irrationality of 7, is that the tangent of a rational are (1. e. an are commensurable with the radius) must be irrational; and this he demonstrates by means of an expression for the tangent as a continued fraction, viz. x Lees ee x? eS Se Se i : y y— 8y— by—Ty—&e ~ © 7 * * * (i) adopting an established notation for continued fractions in which that which fol- lows each minus-sign is written as a factor, to save room. Consider a continued fraction B, B, _B, Pa ket aad ae Wome 4 er rel) and let 2” be the th convergent to it; then we know that n Py =%_Pn—1tBrPn—o a #4 In—1 +B In—2» and Pu _ Pn—1 _(_)n—1B1B2-+ «Bn +, Pieri 6 00) Qn Wn—-1 In—191 * These results can easily be proved by induction. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 Suppose also that the continued fraction (i) is equal to 5) and let Ri, Rg... Rn... be such that Ri = a,P —BiQ, R,= a2Ri +BoP, R3=a3Re+f3Ri, R= aénRn—1 +BnRn—2, then R,=¢,P—p,Q, as can be shown by induction ; so that LE pias = Rn : Qi Ge Qh eH Now P Pn Pn+i Pn Pn+2 Pnii jae Eee Q on \Gnt1 Inf \Gnt2 Inti BS therefore P Pp Bi...Bn+i Bi... Bnt+e2 ee (FD Se (=) ee eye on, WnIn+1 In+19n+2 from (iii). By equating this value of 5 _ ?” to that in (iv), we obtain qn (—)"+1Rr=Q Pvc =-Satd gy Pissebute | o, a seein In+1 In+19n+2 If P and Q be integers and #1... an...61...@n--. be also all integers, then from the equations by which Ri... Rn... are determined, we see that they also are integers. Now in the case of the continued fraction for tan~, 4 ae, =(2n—1)y, Ba= —2x, In= (22—1)y9n—1—2"Gn_o ; and we notice that if x and y be integers, then #1 ...an...1...+An-.. are 80 too, and consequently (if P and Q are integers) Ri...Rn... are integers. The factor by which Br-+-Br ig multiplied to obtain 81+--r+! jg qr r+ Br+19r =a xvqr Q+y — (2r+l)yg,—2"9,_, a3 = es ype? (2r+])y—2? 22 Ur which can be made as small as we please by increasing r. We can therefore from (v), Q being finite, make R» as small as we please by taking n sufficiently large; but if P and Q be both integers, Rn must remain an integer whatever value n may have; thus if * be rational, a] ( = tan -) must be ir- rational ; but tant =1, so that i cannot be rational. The above is in substance Lambert’s demonstration ; alterations have been made in points of detail &c., and the notation has been changed. It may be noticed that the proof does not (as of course it should not) hold good if P and Q be infinite integers; for we cannot make Ry as small as we please in (v) if Q be infinite. 14 REPORT—1871. Legendre proves a theorem which is easily seen to follow directly from Lambert's mode of investigation, viz. that if in the continued fraction ie ee eee infini Bw a, TNE (extended to infinity), By Bs ..+) regarded as fractions (#1...61..., all integers), be all less than unity, a, &, eas : Fe then, whether 4,, 6,... be all positive or all negative, or some positive and some negative, the value of the continued fraction is irrational. He also remarks that x? must be irrational ; for if it =" , we should have, from (i), since tan7=0, m m m 5n— 7— 9n—Ke.’ das after some value of r the fractions —” — , _ _ es ragie ‘ : (Qr+1)n’ 2r+3’ unity, 3 must be irrational if m and m are integers, whence 7° is irrational. The expression of tan v in the form of a continued fraction Lambert obtained by 2 ; : v : treating sin v or v— L238 +... and cos v or 1— iat .. in a manner analogous . . = &c. must be less than to that in which the greatest common measure of two numbers is found in arith- metic ; and Legendre deduced it from a more general theorem he had proved with regard to the conversion of the ratio of two series into a continued fraction. It may be obtained very simply by forming the differential equation corresponding to y=Acos(W 2x4 B), viz. yt y+ 2ay"=0, whence y(i)+ (27+ 1)y +1) 4 2ay(i+2)=0 by application of Leibnitz’s theorem. From this we have therefore ‘ AS ee aR 2 ieee Se i g aay iM Cea Bi a= 9 aeieed whence, after determining B by putting =0 and writing »/ (2x) =v, D wv -e —— ON We Ska That Lambert's proof is perfectly rigorous and places the fact of the irra- tionality of 7 beyond all doubt, is evident to every one who examines it carefully ; and considering the small attention that had been paid to continued fractions pre- viously to the time at which it was written, it cannot but be regarded as a very admirable work. From the continued fraction eet) & 1 1 1 2 1— Qn—-1+4 6n—1+ 10n-1+4 &e.’ Lambert showed, in the same memoir, that e” is irrational, so that the Napierian logarithm of every rational number is irrational. 1 We can obtain a little more information about the irrationality of e*, for we have I e-1_ 1 ow ve 2 2a—14 6r+ 10x+4+ &c.’ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 Now any continued fraction in which all the numerators are unity and all the denominators are positive integers must circulate if it be the development of an ex- 1 era of the form A+B,/C; so that we see that e*, when z is integral, cannot e of this form. Taking the expression for the tangent in the form 1 1 1 1 il + z—1+ 14 38e—24 14 52—2+&c. cot 2 = a we see that when w is an integer, cot is irrational, but cannot be of the form Bf A+BVC. 1 1 1 v7 (1+eot*= ) 1 Also, since cosec — = VA (1teot#=), and sec —= _ ss sin— and z ih x 1 x CoE x cos + cannot either of them be rational unless cots is of the form B/C, which not being the case, sin? and cos! are irrational, and cannot be of the form BC. av : 2 ¢ js ° Since cos— =2costi_] ; cos. cannot be rational unless cos Lipy C, which x x x would require that cot Ee WA ( f8 , a form which we have shown it cannot x — have; so that cos” is irrational. Similar results hold good for the hyperbolic 1 1 1 1 2 2 sine and cosine ; that is to say, i(e@+e *),i(e’—e *),and3(e*+e *) areirrational. It may be remarked that it is easy to show that sin= is incommensurable from 2 the series ; for if sin =? then (q even, as of course we may take it) q p_l 1 9-1 1 2 1 pea are ae a (— 2 1.2.3823 k=) 1.2..(q—1)a?—! 1.2..(q4+ 1jat*! : whence, multiplying both sides by (1.2... )«7—-1, =f ae Zi i 1 p{l.2...g—1)}27'= integer +(-)( Gane ~ @FDGF2)(G+3)2" +) Ones (q+ a? 5) and the series on the right-hand side must be intermediate in value to and G+D@+2)¢q43)2 , and is therefore fractional ; thus we have integer = integer + fraction if aie is commensurable. An exactly similar method proves the irrationality of x ie g nga Cos > 3(e"—e *), &c., but gives no result when applied to cos> or 2(e+4e *). Itis probably true that both the sine and cosine of every rational arc are irrational, though no proof of this has, I believe, been given; and there is, as Legendre has remarked, very little doubt that m is not only not the square root of a rational quan- tity, but also not even the root of any algebraical equation with rational coefti- cients, although the demonstration of this seems difficult. Similar remarks may be made with respect to e. * This expression can be deduced from (i) by transforming the terms of the latter thus: 1 1 9 abies ae ee < pe 16 REPORT—1871. An instance of the application of Lambert’s principle is afforded by a theorem of Eisenstein (Crelle’s Journal, t. xxix. p. 96), viz. 1 Gels lel Wt4¢st ate epee z 13> z= PH Fee.’ whence the series is always irrational when z is an integer greater than unity. The series ss es = .. can be converted into the continued fraction Gi 10h Oat 1 a,? Tee a, ; so that if after any finite value of r, a,2+-a, is _ — —a,+&c. = ‘e than athe nie the series is irrational. Also from the equality eae Th ee ee by nde 0b ee BHI b= 1 oe: we see that if after any finite integral by41 is always less than by +1, the sum of the series is irrational. On the Calculation of e (the base of the Napierian Logarithms) from a Continued Fraction. By J.W. L. Guatsuer, B,A., F.R.AS, The series by which e is defined, viz. 1 1 Iylting age Sb ee eee is of a very convergent class, so that it would be reasonable to expect that no better formula could be found for its calculation. Taking the series in the form 1 1 1 ai8 3. oil .G wha pao! ai throwing it into the form of a continued fraction by the usual method, we aye> se ted Re Se e 141424 8+...’ and from the manner in which the continued fraction is deduced from the series, it is clear that the mth convergent of the former corresponds to n terms of the latter. There is, however, a far more convergent fraction from which e can be computed, viz. eo hs a 1 = Fo jot =. Pad (i 2 @) a formula given by Lambert (Berlin Memoirs, 1761), who obtained it by per- —e-« e—r forming on # an operation similar to that affording the greatest common Dns p g g measure of its numerator and denominator. Another investigation is given by Legendre in the Notes to his ‘Géométrie ;’ and this is reproduced in the Notes to the French translation of Euler’s ‘Introductio ad Analysin.’ It can also be very easily obtained from the differential equation _ Y _9,Py _ yy ae de % corresponding to y=e V(@) as the fraction for tan» was found in the previous aper. : The continued fraction (2) is much more convergent than the series, and I was tempted to calculate the value of e from it for two reasons :—(1) In order to practically test the advantages of a continued fraction and a series as a formula for calculation with respect to the arrangement and performance of the operations ; and (2) to decide between two different values of e which have been given—the one by Callet in all the editions of his ‘ Logarithmes Portatives,’ and the other by Mr. Shanks in his ‘ Rectification of the Circle,’ and Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. vi. p. 397. The several convergents to the value of e also seemed to be of value. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 Taking (2) in the form as! <1 SSeS Re eee | sre igep ee 10-p Te ©) and writing the convergents”!,?2, ..., so that p,=1, p,=3.... 4=1, Q=1..., the convergents were calculated as far as “29 (which corresponds to the quotient a 150). The following Table contains the values of the conyergents as far as 720, 20 ate Pn: In. 3 19 7 4 193 71 5 2721 1 001 6 49 171 18 089 a 1 084 483 398 959 8 28 245 729 10 391 023 9 848 456 353 312 129 649 10 28 875 761 731 10 622 799 089 11 1 098 127 402 131 403 978 495 031 12 46 150 226 651 233 16 977 719 590 391 13 2 124 008 553 358 849 781 379 O79 653 017 14 106 246 577 894 593 683 39 085 931 702 241 241 15 5 739 439 214 861 417 731 2 111 421 691 000 680 031 16 332 993 721 039 856 822 081 122 501 544 009 741 683 039 17 20 651 350 143 685 984 386 753 7 597 207 150 294 985 028 449 18 1 363 322 103 204 314 826 347 779 501 588 173 463 478 753 560 673 19 95 453 198 574 445 723 828 731 283 35 115 269 349 593 807 734 275 559 20 | 7 064 900 016 612 187 878 152 462 721 2 599 031 470 043 405 251 089 952 039 Pyg=5 933 736 817 524 490 649 943 748 885 310 086 922 977 536 976 487 014 058 103 672 162 883, Ys9=2 182 899 784 489 322 239 844 266 493 459 455 750 162 013 065 305 797 591 300 833 210 159. Since pees (22 * Ge / 7 In Ins 0) Gn Qn+2 YIn+1 Pn 2 2 ) —_ —)jn+1 —— —_—_—_—_+ oa qt | ) ‘a Gn+19n+2 we see thate differs from 2” by less than cae In WnYn+1 272...; so that 135 figures of the result obtained by dividing p,, by g,, are cor- rect. On performing the division to 137 places and applying the correction for : 2 : 7 boo, ree ge ciphers) the value of e was obtained to 187 decimal places, viz. e=2'71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 71352 66249 77572 47093 69995 95749 66967 62772 40766 80353 54759 45713 82178 52516 64274 27466 39193 20030 59921 81741 35966 29043 57..., eich agrees with Mr. Shanks’s calculation obtained from the series Pan he Bees eee ene 1871. 2 Gn In+ y 172% VELES 18 REPORT—1871. to the last figure; there is therefore no doubt of the accuracy of the result to this extent. The value given by Callet, in the introduction to his ‘ Tables Portatives,’ starting with the ninth group of five, is . ». 46928 08355 51550 58417 2...; and these figures should be . . 47093 69995 95749 66967 6.... The thirty-ninth convergent to the continued fraction (3) gives a result as accu- rate as that found by summing the first ninety terms of the series (1); but there would be no great disparity between the absolute number of figures formed in the two calculations. The computation of the convergents was, however, far preferable in point of arrangement and convenience to the calculation of the successive terms of a series; for not only were the divisions in the latter replaced by multiplications, which are far more compact, but the work in the former case ran straight forward and required no copying of results. There is also another very great advantage in the continued fraction : the great difficulty of performing a piece of work to a consi- derable number of decimal places is the inconvenience caused by the length of the numbers; and in the above calculation we get roughly 2n figures of the result without ever having to use a number more than x figures long in the work: thus Pao and g,, contain each 67 figures, and by dividing them we obtain 158 figures of the result; this advantage is due to the fact that all the numerators in (3), except the first, are equal to unity. It may be remarked that the final division was the most laborious part of the work; the calculation of p,, and q,, required barely 13,000 figures, the division about 18,000, We can compare the number of decimal places afforded by (8) and (1) when n is large as follows :—The number of places Pr yields* is equal to the greatest in- In teger contained in log 74+ — log[g{1. 6... (4n—6)} (1.6... (4n—2)}] = y2n—6 =log| 2"~* 41.3... (2n—1 ‘|= ry RI a 4n t ies 8 n T(n+1) ea os it nents Qan+s ) 2 eT ee. nr+sen ‘ (after substituting VW 2rn n%e—” for T(n +1)) | 4n—5 = log 2 : (=)"} = In log * + (4n—5) log 2—log n and the number of places obtained from » terms of (1) is equal to the greatest integer in log I'(n)=n log +3 log 2r—3 log n; so that the mth convergent to the continued fraction gives more than twice as many decimal places as ” terms of the series. On certain Families of Surfaces. By C. W. Merrirtetp, F.R.S. The author had already shown that conical and cylindrical surfaces not only os the general equation of developable surfaces in differentials of the second order, t=S?, but also that on passing to the differential equation of the third order, there are two equal roots in the case of conical surfaces and three equal roots in the case of | cylindrical surfaces. * See Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xix. p. 514. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 An examination of the surfaces described by the motion of a plane parabola of any order with its diameters parallel to a fixed right line showed that the con- dition of a pair of equal roots in the equation of the third order, (z +A ay) =o considered as an equation in X, was satisfied by all surfaces traced out by a plane parabola moving parallel to a fixed line and enveloping any curve in space what- ever. As singular cases, he noticed the spindle made by causing a parabola (whether fixed or of variable size) to rotate round any diameter, the ruled surface with a director plane, and developable surfaces. r He also showed that when three of the roots were equal, the surface necessarily reduced to a plane or a cylinder. These results are, however, restricted by the method of generating the surface. In fact, for the case of three equal roots, when the partial differentials of the third order are in continued proportion, Mr. Cayley has shown that the resulting equations can be integrated and that the integration gives a more general result. Note by Mr. CayLey, The general integral of the equations a 6 can be found, viz. %= e gives r= funct. s, and is ig gives s=funct.¢. But r RIB =7 6 r= funct. s is integrated as the equation of a developable surface (p instead of z), viz. we haye, say, p=az+hytg (a and g functions of h) and Se Ul a da > dg O=a'r+yt+9' (« aE! ae Similarly s= funct. ¢ gives q=ha+ by tf, On stivar, (2%, r= %), ; dh’ dh Observe that the constants have been taken so that Be =h, ay =h; but in order ly C Le that 2 may in the two pairs of equations mean the same function of 2, y, we must have a'= ee fo that is dh ‘dh b= —— — IME _ a? f a or writing a= oh, g= xh, we have dh hd p=aphtyh+xh, g=hety\ oy + OK” _ where ap'ht+y+x'h=0. The last equation gives ’ as a function of 2, y; and the values of p, q are then such that dz=pdx4qdy is a complete differential, so that we obtain z by the integration of this equation. A simple example is Bi p=2h’u—hy, g=—he+ylogh, he—y=0; at 18 ete Lit y Fit ae Se whence alias Hive 2 a= FY log «. a0 Oe 20 REPORT—1871. We have — y sa, t=log 4, a=— =4, y=-+, a= i and S= eat =— 1), as it should be. On Doubly Diametral Quartan Curves. By F. W. Newman, Emeritus Professor of University College, London. This paper aimed to detail the form of the curves, and point out the simplest modes of investigating their peculiarities. It distributed the general equation into three groups of five, five, and four families, and was accompanied by seventy-six diagrams. If we call Aa'+2Dz2y?+ By'+2E2z?+2Fy’? +C=0 the general equation, the first group of five families is when A or B or both vanish, the second group when D or F or both vanish, and these together nearly include all the forms. For in the third group, from which either xo term of the original equation vanishes, or only ©, three of the families are at once reducible to the se- cond group by putting either y°+-f?=y”, else 2°4+e=2"; then the proposed curve of (xy) is visibly at most a mere variety of the preceding, being either of the same species with, or of a lower species than, that of (xy!) or of (z'y). In the case of B=", D=s, F=—f”, this reduction is impossible ; but then by operating on x instead of y, it becomes possible unless also Aa”, E=—e"; that is, the method fails only when A, B, D are of one sign, and E, F of the opposite. The analysis, thus limited, readily yields the same result, that the forms have nothing new. A cross division of the species is into Limited and Unlimited loci. All are Cen- tric, the origin being the Centre. Finite forms are Monads, Duads, and Tetrads. Monads are :—1. A symmetrical oval (say, a Shield), as from eytay?+ba=m', 2, An Oval with undulating sides (Viol or Dumb-bell), as a?y?=(m?—2*)(a?--n*), m2>n2, 8. A Lemniscate or Double Loop, as a2y2=(m*—a?)x*. 4, A Scutcheon, with four sides undulating, as B?y?=f? + V (mm? —a?)(x? +n), when m?2>n*, and f2 2mn, and 6? > =a 7. Hearts in Contact ; the same equation mn m2 —n? 2mn B2y?=3(m? +n?) + A {(m?—a?) (a? +n*)t, when m2>n2. 9. Intersecting Ovals: the same equation as in 8, only with m? =n?. All curves are here deemed Monads which can be drawn without taking the pencil off the paper. Duads are :—1. Twin Ovals (rot singly symmetrical on opposite sides), as a*y? =(m?—2?) (@?—n?). 2. Twin Beans (or Hearts, Dicuamos). 38. Pair of Sandals (Disandalon): this has always two double tangents parallel, yet the disposition of the four points of con- tact is not the same in all cases. (They form a rectangle when D=0; they are in lines diverging from the centre when F=0.) 4. Pair of unsymmetrical Lemniscates, which I call Four Kites. Tetrads can only consist of unsymmetrical Ovals, symmetrically disposed. Of the infinite curves, one very limited class may be called Parabolic, those in as before, only with 6?= 8. Intersecting Hearts, as TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 which B=0 and D=0, which reduces the equation to the form a?y?=24+2ha?+ k, when the locus is infinite. It has as curvilinear ones the Proximate twin Parabolas, a?y?=(x?+h)?. The Species are:—1, Twin Goblets; 2 (when their vertices unite), Pointed Goblets or Knotted Parabolic Hour-glass; 3, Parabolic eee ; 4, Perfordited Hour-glass (with disk in centre); 5, Hollow-bottomed oblet. When A=0, we may have asymptotes parallel to the axis of z, and when B=0, to the axis of y. Such curves must be treated apart. When a Quartan Hyperbola is confined between parallel asymptotes, I call it an Arch, Round-headed or Hollow- headed, as the case may be ; they are found, of course, in pairs. A Quartan Hy- eg which is confined within diverging asymptotes like the Conie Hyperbola, call a Basin; when it crosses or otherwise envelopesits diverging asymptotes, I call ita Cup. Cups and basins may be Round-bottomed or Hollow-bottomed. Again, a Quartan Hyperbola may lie between an oblique and a vertical asymptote; I then call the Hyperbola itself Obigue, equally when it lies between two asymptotes of different systems. Such an Hyperbola may cut one, and only one, asymptote ; then I call it Paratomous : if it cut both, it is an Oblique Cup. Cups may be Pointed at bottom and unite; they may be also in Contact at bottom, or they may intersect. Vertical and horizontal asymptotes develope other and simpler forms. Conchoids, eed in pairs, generate one class, and Arches another. Arches may intersect, asins also may intersect sideways; I call this Paratomy. Such are the elements (adding only Studs or Conjugate Points) of which all the loci are composed. Four Hyperbolas, of whatever class, are the utmost that can arise as locus of a Quartan equation; whether in square, each in one quadrant, or as Cross Arches, or as Oblique, or Oblique and Paratomous, or as around and crossing the axes, or between unsymmetrical asymptotes, or it may be Cups instead of Basins. In the midst of these infinite curves, some one of the Monad or Twin Ovals are often found as Satellites. It must be added that when AB=D®* and the locus is infinite, we find Oblique Parallel Asymptotes, and even, related to them, Oblique Paratomous Arches. Such isthe general description of the forms. The investigation is simple. We know that a straight line can cut a Quartan at most in four points. This often shows what forms are impossible. AD Put V= | D B F J, then by Conics we know that if V=0, our general equa- EFC tion will degenerate into the product of two quadratic factors. Besides, if A, B, C are positive and E, F negative, and E7-=AC, F*=BC, the equation degenerates into two ellipses. If F*=BC, and B, F have opposite signs, the curve crosses itself (in a Knot) where z=0 and By?+F=0; but if B, F have the same sign, the Knots become Studs. Thusif H?=AC,and F?=BC, but E, F have opposite signs, there are two Knots on one axis and two Studs on the other. We find where the curve crosses its axis, by putting Az‘+2Ez?+C=0 when y°=0, and By'+2Fy?+C=0 when 2?=0. Then if AC is positive, E must be ne- gative, if there be any vertex inOX. If AC is negative, there are two vertices, Put T=Az'!+2D277?+By*; “. T+(QE?22+2F%y?+C)=0 is the equation to the curve. When T is essentially positive, the curve is finite. This happens when A, D, B are all of one sign, or when AB— D*> 0, When A=0 and B=0, the curve is finite only when D, E, F are of one sign. If B=0 ; > Aat+2R2?-+C 1 81-B F? -and the curve is finite when A, D, F are of one sign. If D and F are of opposite signs, there are asymptotes parallel to y, viz. 2Dz?+F=0. Indeed now T=(Az?+ 2Dy’)z?; thus, if A and D have opposite signs, Av?+2Dy2=0 are oblique asymptotes. 22 REPORT—187 1. When A,D, B are finite, solve the equation for y’, regarding B as positive. Put g=D?—AB, h=DF—EB, k=F*—CB; o By+D22+F=tV (ga't+2h2’ +h). For D?— AB>0, we may assume g=1; then for the upper sign we get, as Proxi- mate Conic Hyperbola, if D be <1, By? Det lk=2 Th. If D is negative, we have a second Proximate Conic for the lower sign, By? +D2?+F=—2*—h. Of course the asymptotes are By?+Da?= +.r%, or only By?+Da*=<". If D?—AB=0,' g=0, and the curve is infinite only when 4 is positive: then if D ws negative, By24 Da} F=+y 2a is two Proximate Conic Hyperbolas, and the asymptotes are oblique and parallel in pairs; they do not pass through the centre, but are equidistant from it. Evidently if C=0 and E, F have opposite signs, the curve crosses itself in the centre; but if C=O and E, F have the same sign, the centre is a mere Stud. An undulation of the curve implies a double tangent. Such double tangents are always parallel to one axis. [I desire a general proof.] There can be only two pairs parallel to one axis. To ascertain whether there is undulation across OY, put 2?=0, and try whether 7? is there a maximum or a minimum. Making 2’ infinitesimal and & positive (which is implied), M&+2haP + gn! Yk Me 4 GRO | ae Vk Ok ° Vk’ thus for upper sign, By?=(Vk—F)+.( 4, —D) a AO® |e Vi 2k NR whence 7? is a minimum at 2?=0 if ae —D>0, a maximum if a —D<0. Yet when ai =D, y’ is a minimum at r=0 if gk—A?> 0, or amaximum if gk—h? <0, Now gk—h?=BYV, and we cannot have V=0 without degeneracy. Hence this test is final. Also A=D Vk is equivalent to BE7—2DEF+CD?=0. If the branch we are investigating is infinite and y” isa minimum, there is no un- dulation; but if y? is a maximum, it begins to decrease, yet must afterwards in- crease ; hence there7s undulation. On the contrary, if the upper branch be finite and y? be a maximum, there is no undulation; but there is undulation if y? bea minimum. In general, for tangents parallel to the axis of x, putting = =0, we have the ob- vious solution 2=0, when there is a vertex on the axis of y. Besides this, we may have a double tangent where DA (ga'+2ha?+k)=92"+h, which yields ga? +h h?—gk of Gees aa NM (ga'+2ha®+k)=By?+Da?+F. Hence at the points of contact 2 XN > gtth=tDy— (YX), ati’=F (Av), if h’' =DE—FA. When T= (A?x?— py?) (p°x?+-07y?), the curve has oblique asymptotes, \?a?=p*y,?. To try whether it ever cut its asymptotes, put y=y,; then at the common point Ma? = p?y?, and 2Ea?+2Fy?+C=0. If the a, y hence determined is within the limits of the curve, it does thus cut; if not, it does not. ae TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 23 IfT =(A?2? — py?) (p2a?— oy), there are two pair of oblique asymptotes, \2x?= py? p’a®=o7y?; and by combining either of them with the second equation i 2Ez?+2Fy?+C=0, we decide on Paratomy. When the general equation is given to us in this form and we desire to find the Proximate Conics, the most direct method is to assume p?=1, o°’=1, and (y?—X?2? —M)(y?— p22? —N)=T+2(Ex?+ F°y?)+MN ; whence VWN+.°>M=2E, N+ M=—2F, or _ 2(E+F)’) M= pe , 2(E+ Fp’) SNe EB pP—r Then the Proximate Conics are y, —\22"?=M, Ya — pra? =N. These are closer indications of the infinite branches than the asymptotes. PutMN=C', j ADE DBF EFC’ But in general it is expedient to put X=ga'+2ha’+h, and study the variations of X in the equation By?+Da?+F=+/X. In many cases the lower sign is in- admissible; in most it is more restricted than the upper. When we have only the upper, evidently there is no undulation across the axis of a; for y® has then but one positive value for any given value of 2. The forms of X are as follows :— X,=n"(m'?—2’), \ X,=n%(a’ +m), ] X, =n7(2?—m?), ) X,=(m"—2")(w°—n’,) [ X,=(x+m?)(22+n’), | X= (2° —m?*)(a?-+n2)s X,=(m?—2" Jax’, ( X= (a? + m’)22, { X,, =(2?—m’)2?, r X,=(m?—2")(a®@—n?), ) X,=(x?+mz)?-+n4, X= (a°—m?) (a*—n?) I X,,=(@ —m?)+n'. =——=()) Remarks on Napier’s original Method of Logarithms. By Professor Purser. On Linear Differential Equations. By W.H. L. Russert, F.R.S. The object of this paper was to explain the progress the author is making in his theory for the solution of Linear Differential Equations, especially when the com- plete integral involves logarithmic functions. On MacCOullagh’s Theorem. By W.H. 1. Russert, F.R.S. This paper was intended to sonkty the process given by Dr. Salmon to prove MacCullagh’s theorem relative to the focal properties of surfaces of the second order, Note on the Theory of a Point in Partitions. By J. J. Sytvester, FBS. In writing down all the solutions in positive integers of the indefinite Equation of Weight, at2y+3z+...=n, or, in other words, in exhibiting all the partitions 24. REPORT—1871. of m any integer greater than zero, it may sometimes be useful to be provided with an easy test to secure ourselves against the omission of any of them. Such a test is furnished by the following theorem :— S(1—atay—ayz....)=0. thus, ex. gr., if x+2y+3zt+4t+....=4, the solutions are five in number, viz. (1) y=2, Q)z=1; (pc —lec—e (4) e=2 y=1, (5) w=4, the values of the omitted variables in each solution being zero. The five corre- sponding values of l—a+ay.... are 1, 1, 0, 1, —3, whose sum is zero. The theorem may be proved immediately by expressing the denumerant (which is zero) of the simultaneous equations x+2y+ 32+..,=n, { apyfee..... =0, in terms of simple denumerants according to the author’s general method, or by virtue of the known theorem, (1—#)(1—#)(1—#°).... t 3 ‘10 = Nia aco, allan oes PAT) CREEL Pe aie Oe (i-¢) @-a]0-#) G—Ad—-A0- * d—-)d-A0d-Ad-4 This gives at once the equation SR eet t + Z oe (i—a(1-#)0—#)... (yd —#)d—*... "df — #7706)... Hence the coefficient of ¢” in the above written series for all values of other than zero is zero, But it will easily be seen that the coefficient of ¢” in the first term is 31, in the second term Sz, in the third Say, &c.; so that 3(1—a+ay....)=0, as was to be shown. Thus we have obtained ’for the problem of indefinite partition a new algebraical unsymmetrical test supplementing the well-known pair of transcen- dental symmetrical tests expressible by the equations sH@tyts..)on-1 Tv Ily Tz... f (S—)ety+z. . U(etytz. ..) )=0 = Te Uy Hz... Gate * Subject of course to the conditions that n is greater than 1, If 2, y, z,...,w repre- sents any solution in positive integers of the equation pa 2+2y+3z...+rw=r, it is easy to see that zt: peat =(—)et+y+.... +H(etyt... bw) 4 —1, or 0, Te lly... . lw according as , in regard to the modulus 7+, is congruent to 0, 1, or neither to 0 nor 1, for the left-hand side of the equation is obviously the coefficient of x” in the development of ; l—x 1+a+a?... +27 cheers? On making *=00, this theorem becomes the one in the text. It obviously affords a remarkable pair of independent arithmetical quantitative criteria for determining whether or not one number is divisible by another. Ne al TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25 The identity employed in the text is only a particular case of Euler’s identity, a oe re tz Bz? (1-+-éz)(1+é2)(1+#z)... SLE aa A) ey which is tantamount to affirming that the number of partitions of into r distinct integers is the same as the number of partitions of n into any integers none greater than 7, in which all the integers from 1 to r appear once at least. It has not, I be- lieve, been noticed that these two systems of partitions are conjugate to each other, each partition of the one system having a correspondent to it in the other. The mode of passing from any partition to its correspondent is by converting each of its integers into a horizontal line of units, laying these horizontal lines vertically under each other, and then summing the columns. Thus, ea. gr., 3,4, 5 will be first ex- panded horizontally into 1s Lede Eo! age hog ti, de 1 ade and then summed vertically into oo or a. ds This is the method employed by Mr. Ferrers to show that the number of partitions of n into 7, or a less number of parts, is the same as the number of partitions of into parts none greater than 7, and is, in fact, only a generalization of the method of intuitive proof of the fact that mXn=nX mM, the difference merely being that we here deal with a parallelogram separated into two conterminous parts by an irregularly stepped boundary—one filled with units, the other left blank, instead of dealing with one entirely filled up with units. On the General Canonical Form of a Spherical Harmonic of the nth Order. By Sir W. Tuomson, LL.D., D.C.L., F.RASS. L. & E. Let H; (2, y, 2), H'; (a, y, 2) ...., or for brevity H, H’, &c., denote 2’4+1 inde- eat spherical harmonics of degree #, that is to say, homogeneous functions each lfilling the Laplace’s equation CH, fH, eH pee ggee es wh Me phe thd cea ae at ae The formula ACES ACHED AS cc Minh. Spee Te yey, Pee, (2) where A, A’ are constants, is a general expression for the harmonic of degree 7; but it is not a “canonical” expression. Borrowing this designation from Mr. Clifford’s previous paper, we may define as canonical constituents for the general spherical harmonic of degree 7, any set of particular distinct harmonics fulfilling the following conditions :— (ln do=0, (JH H'do=0,& 6... 2... 8) where Sao denotes integration over any spherical surface having the origin of co- ordinates for centre. Supposing now that H, H’.. . actually fulfil these condi- tions, let it be required to find, if possible, another canonical form (#, #7’, . . -). Tr : % =AH+A'H'+&c, 3)’ =BH+ B’ H’+&e. Then, (8) being taken into account, (\ 938 do=0 gives AB+A’ B’+ &c. =0. Hence the normal linear transformation, with (2/+1)? coefficients Big Aly Beas eval ° Ee Ee ES cea a ee Cy Gr a hs 26 REPORT—1871. subject to the 7 (2i4+1) equations AB+A’ B/+A” B’=0 AC+A' C’+A” C”=0 BC +B’ C’+B" C"=0 gives, from any one canonic group, another indeterminately. To find the degree of indeterminateness, let absolute magnitudes in canonical forms be ruled by the conditions {\a do=\\ H"do= ss () do=[)h" do =. =1, A24 A? A24,, =], B?+B24B"+4...=1, as in the ordinary transformation of rectangular axes in three dimensions. These 2i+1 equations with the 7 (27+1) previous, amount in all to (¢+1) (2741) equa- tions of condition among (27+1)? coefficients, leaving 7 (27+1) independent vari- ables. The only canonical form hitherto generally recognized is that of Laplace; con- sisting* of 2¢+1 polar harmonics, of which 1 is zonal, 2 (¢—1) are tessaral, and 2 are sectorial. In the discussion which followed Mr. Clifford’s paper on this form, I remarked that it seemed to be a singular case of the general canonic ; notably singular in this respect, that for any one of its constituents the nodal cone consists of circular cones having a common axis and planes through this axis. The nodal cone of any spherical harmonic of degree 7 is an algebraic surface of degree 27+1, and I proposed the question, can canonical forms not be found in which the nodal cone of each constituent is not resolvable into circular cones and planes? This question is answered by the present communication. [A diagram was roughly sketched on the board, to illustrate the nodal cone of a harmonic differing infinitely little from a tessaral harmonic ; which, with 27 others differing infinitely little from the other 2:—3 tessaral, the two sectorial, and the zonal, constituting the polar canonic, would constitute a generalized canonic. | we have therefore GENERAL Puysics. Account of Experiments upon the Resistance of Air to the Motion of Vortea- rings. By Rosrert Staweit Batt, A.M., Professor of Applied Mathe- matics and Mechanism, Royal College of Science for Ireland. The experiments, of which the following is an abstract, were carried out with the aid of a grant from the Royal Irish Academy. A paper containing the results has been laid before the Academy. The author proposed to bring this subject before the Association in order to elicit discussion. He would greatly value any suggestions as to the direction in which future experimental researches would be likely to prove fruitful. Such suggestions, though acceptable from all sources, would come with peculiar usefulness from those who are conversant with the profound hydrodynamical problems of vortex motion. A brief account of one series of the experiments, and a Table embodying them, will be given. Air-rings, 9 inches in diameter, were projected from a cubical box, each edge of which is 2 feet. The use of this box was suggested by Professor Tait (see a * Thomson and Tait’s ‘ Natural Philosophy,’ § 781. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Pi paper by Sir William Thomson, Phil. Mag. July 1867; also a paper by the Author, Phil. Mag. July 1868). The blows were delivered by means of a pendulum called the striker, which, falling from a constant height, ensured that the rings were projected with a constant velocity. In the experiments described in the present series, this velocity was somewhat over 10 feet per second. The pendulum was released to deliver the blow from a pair of forceps, each jaw of which was in connexion with a pole of a battery. After the ring had traversed a range varied from 2 inches to 20 feet, it impinged upon a target. The blows upon the target closed the circuit, which had been opened at the release of the striker. An electric chronoscope (devised, it is iRclisved, by Wheatstone) measured the interval of time between the release of the striker and the impact upon the target. The target was placed successively at distances of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 feet from the orifice of the box. Not less than ten observations of the time were taken at each range. The probable error of the mean time at each range is in every case less than 1 per cent. of the whole amount. A special series of experiments, which need not be described, determined the value of the chronoscope readings in seconds. The observations are next represented in a curve, of which the abscisse are the ranges, and the ordinates the corresponding mean chronoscope readings. By drawing tangents to this curve, the velocity of the ring at its different points is approximately found. A second projection is made in which the abscissz are the ranges and the or- dinates are the velocities; the points thus determined are approximately ina straight line. It follows that the rings are retarded as if acted upon by a force proportional b the velocity, and an approximate value of the numerical coefficient becomes own. A more accurate value haying been determined by the method of least squares, the results are embodied in the following Table (p. 28), of which a description is first given. The Roman letters refer to the several columns of the Table. I. contains a series of numbers for convenience of reference. II. It was found that the motion of the ring in the immediate vicinity of the box was influenced by some disturbing element. The zero of range was therefore taken at a point 4 feet distant from the orifice. This column contains the ranges. Ill. The interval between the release of the striker and the arrival of the ring at a point 4 feet from the orifice is 6-5 chronoscopic units, or about 0:93 second. This constant must be subtracted from the mean readings of the time, in order to reduce the zero epoch to the instant when the ring is 4 feet from the orifice. This column contains the mean readings of the chronoscope corrected by this amount. IV. When the ranges are taken as abscisse, and the corresponding times as ordinates, it is found that a curve can be drawn through or near all the points thus produced. To identify the points with the curve, small corrections are in some cases required. These corrections are shown in column IV. In the case of experi- ment 5 the correction amounts to 0°7 ; this is about 0:09 second. The magnitude of this error appears to show that some derangement, owing possibly to a current of air or other source of irregularity, has vitiated this result. For the sake of uniformity, however, the corrected value has been retained. V. This column merely contains the corrected means, as read off upon the curve ‘determined by the points. VI. The value of the chronoscope unit after the first few revolutions is . 0'1288 second, with a probable error of 0:0002 second. By means of this factor the corrected means in column V. are evaluated in seconds in column VI. VU. This column contains the time calculated on the hypothesis that the rings are retarded as if acted upon by a force proportional to the velocity, the coefficients being determined by the method of least squares; the formula is t=9:016—6:25 log (27:7—s). REPORT—1871. 28 9.1 £4 A 10,04 PEEsee “|e. Se. Lgl 1.0— Z.QI gr 8 6.1 0.$ 2S 00.0 errr oe roen g.b1 £.0+ S.bx Se A °L LZ 3.5 6.5 00,0 Cee yaex fF bE a 6.11 1.0— 0.21 ‘oser "9 ¥.z S.9 $.9 10.0— “22.1 RAF $.6 j4.o— Z.O1 amor i Lt cA Cae 10,0— 2610 (© 26.0 £.2 0.0 £.2 Saag ss o.£ 0.8 LL 10,0— “99.0 «19.0 z.$ Z.0— +S tet) € 7. L.g +. 10,0— “ ah.o Lae) £.€ 1.0— v. a 4 S.£ $.6 £.6 10,0— *8008 07.0 "8008 17.0 9.1 0.0 9.1 qooy @ I ‘(s—L.Lz : qe ‘8 : ) ‘(s—L.£z) *‘uoTjona4st100" a ue ae) ‘Surpros ord| = -to0y *S.g snurut joo} fF gf owe ese [eorqdeag "| Pedtesqo aS ie. ‘SpU0d0s8 | -OdsOUOAYO | -Onaysuod | ‘edoosouoayo| snutut ; SP 89 = 5p wWO.1; poonpep ad 9 a 3 UL ‘OULIy uvout [worydeas | jo Surproa ‘OOO fii lc fq eae Aq poyenoywo |} —*Ay100]04 a oun queyearnbyy | jo onjea [dq poonpep| Surpuods |uoay goSavy| PUM erticiot ‘€y100Tea ona, | oyeuarxoaddy eoussagrct | peyernoyep PopatLo | MOTJOeALOD | -o1to0 uve [Jo courystcy Bx x ‘XI TIHTA “ITA TA ‘A ‘AI ‘TI ‘II I *puooos rod 309} &-F 0} poonp -a St APOOTOA S}L PUB Gooy QT podour sey Burt oY spuooos Fz.g aoqge puw { Ayro0Joa oy} 0} [euonyzodoad st eo10} Surpavyax oy, ‘puooes tod yoo Z.OT Jo Ajoojoa [wIATOT UL sy PUL ‘LoJeUMVIP UL soqOUT G st Sutt-xoz10A oy, ‘onssoad pure ormyviodurey oures 04} 48 tre YSnoryy SurAow usya soouowedxe awe Jo Su-xo}L0A V YONA Uoyprejor oY} SuLMoYs ‘syuemLedxG Jo aIavy, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 VI. This column shows that the difference between the corrected mean time and the calculated time in no case exceeds 0:01 second. IX. The approximate velocities, deduced by drawing tangents to the curve. X. The true velocities, calculated from the formula ds 70 368(27-7 —5) XI. The retarding force, calculated by Experiments on Vortex-rings in Liquids. By H. Deacon. On Units of Force and Energy. By Professor J. D. Everert, F.R.S.E. The object of the paper was to urge the necessity of giving names to absolute units of force and energy, that is, units not varying with locality, like the gravita- tion units vulgarly employed (pound, foot-pound, &c.), but defined by reference to specified units of length, mass, and time, according to the condition that unit force acting on unit mass produces unit acceleration. The author proposed that the units of force and of energy (or of work), thus related to the metre, gramme, and second, be called respectively the dyne and the pone (Stvapts, wovos), and that the names kilodyne, megadyne, kilopone, megapone be employed to denote a thousand and a million dynes and pones. The megadyne and megapone will thus be the units of force and energy related to the metre, the tonne, and the second. He also proposed that the units of force and energy related to the foot, the pound, and the second be called respectively the Ainzt and the erg *, On the Corrosion of Copper Plates by Nitrate of Silver. By J. H. Guapstonz, F.A.S., and Atrrep Trisz, F.C.S. In some recent experiments in chemical dynamics, the authors had occasion to study the action of nitrate of silver on copper plates in various positions. They observed that when the plate was vertical there was rather more corrosion at the bottom than at the top. Thisis easily accounted for by the upward current, which flows along the surface of the deposited crystals, and which necessitates a movement of the nitrate-of-silver solution towards the copper plate especially impinging on the lower part. It was also found that when the copper plate was varnished on one side it produced rather more than half the previous decomposition, and was most corroded at the edges of the varnish. By making patterns with the varnish, this edge action became very evident. This was explained by the fact that the long crystals of silver growing out from the copper at the borders can spread their branches into the open space at the side, and so draw their supply from a larger mass of solution than the crystals in the middle can do; and increased crystalliza- tion of silver means increased solution of copper. This was proved by making the varnish a perpendicular wall instead of a thin layer, when the greater corrosion was not obtained. In a plate completely surrounded with liquid, the greatest growth of crystals is also evidently from the angles. It was likewise observed that if a vertical plate be immersed, the lower part in nitrate of copper, and the upper part in nitrate of silver, there is greater corrosion about the point of junction. This was attributed to the greater conduction of the stronger liquid. Some Remarks on Physics. By M. Janssen. * Since the reading of the paper, a Committee has been appointed by the Association “to frame a nomenclature of absolute units of force and energy.” 30 REPORT—1871. On Democritus and Lucretius, a Question of Priority in the Kinetical Theory of Matter, ByT. M. Lrxpsay and W. RB. Surrn. Physicists who have recently called attention to the anticipation of modern doctrines as to the ultimate nature of matter by the ancient atomists, have looked too exclusively to Epicurus and his expositor Lucretius, to the neglect of Demo- critus and Leucippus. Democritus had no such expositor as Lucretius, but his main views are accessible in the fragments collected by Mullach, and in the well- known references of Aristotle, Simplicius, and Laertius. With the help of these sources, the paper sketches the main features of the earliest atomic theories. The following are leading points :— Democritus and Leucippus trace the variety of phenomena to three primitive differences in the ultimate elements of nature, viz. differences (1) in Figure, cxja, as between A and N; (2) in Order, rags, as AN, NA; (8) in Position, éc1s, as Z, N [Arist. Met. A. 4]. From the motion zm vacuo of atoms with these primary differences, the whole variety of nature is deduced, generation and corruption being merely syncretion and division (ctyxpicis, Sudkpuois) [Ar. De Gen. et Cor. i. 8, i, 2, Phys. viii. 9]. All atoms have the same density and the same dp) ris popas (specific gravity ?) [Ar. De Ceelo, i. 7, Theophrastus De Sensu, 71]. Hence all tend to fall in one downward direction * ; but being ignorant of the law of inertia, Democritus supposes that the larger atoms fall faster, impinge on lighter particles, and produce a vortex motion (di). In this vortex similars come together and cohere, lighter particles go to the surface, and at length worlds (kéopov) are gene- rated [ Diog. Laertius, ix. 31]. Epicurus differs from Democritus mainly by main- taining that all atoms have equal and invariable downward velocities, and come into collision only by fortuitous automatic deflection from the line of fall. The first half of this theory /ooks like the first law of motion, but is really as far from being in harmony with the laws of acceleration and other known truths as the earlier view. As physicists, therefore, Epicurus and Lucretius made no advance on Democritus, while by mixing up with legitimate physical speculation the incongruent metaphysical notion of chance (not the mathematical notion of chance, which plays a part in the modern kinetic theory of gases), they produced that hybrid of physics and meta- physics, a materialistic philosophy. It was by adopting the Epicurean doctrine of chance that Gassendi, the first of modern atomists, became also the father of modern materialism. Speculations on the Continuity of the Fluid State of Matter, and on Relations between the Gaseous, the Liquid, and the Solid States. By Prof. James Tuomson, LL.D. Through the recent discovery of Dr. Andrews on the relations between dif- ferent states of fluid matter, a difficulty in the application of our old ordinary language has arisen. He has shown the existence of continuity between what is ordinarily called the liquid state and what is ordinarily called the gaseous state of matter. He has shown that the ordinary gaseous and ordinary liquid states are only widely separated forms of the same condition of matter, and may be made to pass into one another by a course of continuous physical changes pre- senting nowhere any interruption or breach of continuity. If, now, there be no distinction between the liquid and gaseous states, is there any meaning still to be attributed to those two old names, or ought they to be abandoned, and the single name the fluid state to be substituted for them both? The answer must be that in speaking of the whole continuous state we have now to call it simply the fluid state; but that there are two regions or parts of it, meet- Ae one another sharply in one way, and merging gradually into one another in a different way, to which the names Uiguid and gas are still to be applied. We can have a substance existing in two fluid states different in density and other proper- ties, while the temperature and pressure are the same in both: and we may then find that an introduction or abstraction of heat without change of temperature or of pressure will effect the change from the one state to the other, and that the * Cf. the argument in Zeller, Phi]. der Griechen, i. 913, ff. ~4 Se Te TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 change either way is perfectly reversible. When we thus have two different states present together in contact with one another, we have a perfectly obvious distine- tion, and we can properly continue to call one of them a liquid state and the other a gaseous state of the same matter. The same two names may also reasonably be applied to regions or parts of the fluid state extending away on both sides of the Biavp or definite boundary, wherever the merging of the one into the other is little or not at all apparent. it we denote geometrically all possible points of tempera- ture and pressure jointly, by points spread continuously in a plane surface, each point in the plane being referred to two axes of rectangular coordinates, so that one of its ordinates shall represent the pressure and the other the temperature de- noted by that point, and if we mark all the successive boiling- or condensing- points of pressure and temperature as a continuous line on this plane, this line, which may be called the boiling-line, will be a separating boundary between the regions of the plane corresponding to the ordinary liquid state and those corre- sponding to the ordinary gaseous state. But by consideration of Dr. Andrews’s experimental results (Phil. Trans. 1869), we may see that this separating boun- dary comes to an end at a point of temperature and pressure which, in conformity with his language, may be called the critical point of pressure and temperature jointly; and we may see that from any ordinary liquid state to any ordinary gaseous state the transition may be gradually effected by an infinite variety of courses passing round the extreme end of the boiling-line. Fig. 1 is a diagram to illustrate these considerations and some allied consider- ations to which they lead in reference to transitions between the three states, the Fig. 1. Press ure—> gaseous, the liquid, and the solid. This figure is intended only as a sketch to illustrate saa ee and is not drawn according to measurements for any particular substance, though the main features of the curves shown in it are meant to relate ina general way to the substance of water, steam, and ice. AX and AY are the axes of co- ordinates for pressures and temperatures respectively ; A, the origin, being taken as the zero for pressures and as the zero for temperatures on the Ganoeaay scale. The curve L represents the boiling-line. This terminates towards one direction in the critical point E;-it passes in the other direction to T, the point of pressure o2 REPORT—1871. and temperature where solidification sets in. This point T is to be noticed as a remarkable point of pressure and temperature, as being the point at which alone the substance, pure from admixture with other substances, can exist in three states, solid, liquid, and gaseous, together in contact with one another. In making this statement, however, the author wishes to submit it subject to some reserve in re- spect to conditions not as yet known with perfect certainty. He observes that we might not be quite safe in assuming that the melting-point of ice solidified from the gaseous state is the same as the melting-point of ice frozen from the liquid state, and in making other suppositions, such as that the same quantity of heat would become latent in the melting of equal quantities of ice formed in these two ways. Such considerations as these into which we are forced if we attempt to sketch out the course of the boiling-line, and to examine along with it the corre- sponding boundary-lines between liquid and solid and between gas and solid, may be useful in suggesting questions for experimental and theoretical investigation which may have been generally overlooked before. Proceeding, however, upon assumptions such as usually are tacitly made, of identity in the thermal and dyna- mic conditions of pure ice solidified in different ways, the anthor points out that we must suppose the three curves (namely, the line between gas and liquid, the line between liquid and solid, and the line between gas and solid) to meet in one point, shown at T in the figure. This point of pressure and temperature for any substance may then be called the triple point for that substance. In the figure the line T M represents the line between liquid and solid. It is drawn showing in an exaggerated degree the lowering of the freezing temperature of water by pressure, the exaggeration being necessary in order to allow small changes of temperature to be per- ceptible in the diagram. The line TN represents the line between the gaseous and the solid states of water substance. The two curves T L and TN, one between gas and liquid and the other between gas and solid, have been constructed for water sub- stance through a great range of temperatures and pressures by Regnault, from his ex- periments on the pressure of saturated aqueous gas at various temperatures above and below 0° Centigrade*. He has represented and discussed his results above and below the temperature at which the water freezes (which in strictness is not 0° C., butis the freezing temperature of water in contact with no atmosphere except its own gas), as if one continuous curve could extend for both. As brought out experimentally, indeed, they present so little appearance of any discontinuity that the distinctness of the two curves from one another might readily escape notice in the considera- tion of the experimental results. Prof. Thomson points out, however, that the range from temperatures below to temperatures above freezing comprises what ought to be regarded as two essentially distinct curves meeting one another in the point T; and he further suggests that continuations of these curves, sketched in as dotted lines T P and T Q, may have some theoretical or practical significance not yet fully discovered. He thinks it likely that out of the three curves at least the one, MT, between liquid and solid may have a practically attainable extension past T, as shown by the dotted continuation TR. Various known experiments seem to render this supposition tenable, whether the condition supposed may have been actually realized in experiments hitherto or not. He thinks, too, that there is much reason to suppose that the curve LT between gas and liquid has a practically attainable extension past T, as shown by the dotted continuation T P. In reference to the continuity of the liquid and gaseous states, Prof. Thomson showed a model in which Dr. Andrews’s curves for carbonic acid are combined in a curved surface, obtained from them, which is referred to three axes of rectangular coordinates, and is formed so that the three coordinates of each point in the curved surface shall represent, for any given mass of carbonic acid, a pressure, a tempe- rature, and a volume, which can coexist in that mass. This curved surface shows in a clear light the abrupt change or breach of continuity at boiling or condensing, and the gradual transition round the extreme end of the boiling-line. Using this model and a diagram of curves represented here in fig, 2, the author explained a view which had occurred to him, according to which it appears probable that although there be a practical breach of continuity in crossing the line of boiling- points from liquid to gas, or from gas to liquid, there may exist, in the nature of * Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, 1847, pl. viii. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33 things, a theoretical continuity across this breach, having some real and true sig- nificance. The general character of this view may readily be seen by a glance at fig. 2, in which Dr. Andrews’s curves are shown by continuous lines (not dotted), and curved reflex junctions are shown by dotted lines connecting those of Dr. An- Fig. 2. Zero Line for Volumes 5|0 5\5 6|o G|5 7\0 7\5 Pres Ste res Z2 AE OS/Aheres drews’s curves which are abruptly interrupted at their boiling- or condensing-points of pressure. It is to be understood that each curve relates to one constant tempe- rature, and that pressures are represented by the horizontal ordinates, and corre- sponding volumes of one mass of carbonic acid constant throughout all the curves are represented by the vertical ordinates. The author points out that, by experi- ments of Donny, Dufour, and others*, we have already proof that a continuation of the curve for the liquid state past the boiling stage for some distance, as shown dotted in fig. 2, from ato some point 6 towards f, would correspond to states already attained. He thinks we need not despair of practically realizing the physical con- ditions corresponding to some extension of the gaseous curve such as from ¢ to d in the figure. The overhanging part of the curve from e to f he thinks may re- present a state in which there would be some kind of unstable equilibrium; and so, although the curve there appears to have some important theoretical significance, yet the states represented by its various points would be unattainable throughow- any ordinary mass of the fluid. It seems to represent conditions of coexistent tem- erature, pressure, and volume, in which, if all parts of a mass of fluid were placed, it would be in equilibrium, but out of which it would be led to rush, partly into the rarer state of gas, and partly into the denser state of liquid, by the slightest inequality of temperature or of density in any part relatively to other parts. * Donny, Ann. de Chimie, 1846, 3rd series, vol. xvi. p. 167; Dufour, Bibliothéque Universelle, Archives, 1861, vol. xii. 1871. 3 34 REPORT— 1871. Observations on Water in Frost Rising against Gravity rather than Freezing in the Pores of Moist Earth. By Professor James Tuomson, LL.D. In this paper Prof. Thomson, in continuation of a subject which he had brought before the British Association at the Cambridge Meeting in 1862*, on the Disinte- gration of Stones exposed to Atmospheric Influences, adduced some remarkable instances which he had since carefully observed. In one of these, observed by him in February 1864, he showed that water from a pond in a garden had in time of frost raised itself to heights of from four to six inches above the water surface- level of the pond by permeating the earth-bank, formed of decomposed granite, which it kept thoroughly wet, and out of the upper surface of which it was made to ascend by the frost, so as to freeze as columns of transparent ice, rather than that it would freeze in the earth-pores. The columns were arranged in several tiers one tier below another, the lower ones having been later formed than those above them, and having pushed the older ones up. From day to day during the frost the earth remained unfrozen, while a thick slab of columnar ice, made up of successive tiers of columns, formed itself by water coming up from the pond and insinuating itself forcibly under the bases of the ice-columns so as to freeze there, pushing them up, not by hydraulic pressure, but on principles which, while seem- ing not to have been noticed previously to their having been suggested by the author at the Cambridge Meeting, appear to involve considerations of scientific in- terest, and to afford scope for further experimental and theoretical researches. In the case referred to, the remarkable phendepeen showed itself very clearly, of water passing from a region of less than atmospheric pressure in the wet pores of the earth, into a place in the base of the columns where it was subject to more than atmospheric pressure, and subject also to stresses unequal in different direc- tions, from its being loaded with the mass of ice and also with some gravel or earthy substances above it; and this action went on rather than that the water would freeze in the pores of the moist earthy bottom on which the columns stood, and which was above the water surface-level of the pond. ASTRONOMY. Note on the Secular Cooling and the Figure of the Earth. By Prof. Crirrorp. Observations on the Parallax of a Planetary Nebula. By Dr. Gut. On the Coming Solar Eclipse. By M. Janssen. On the Recent and Coming Solar Eclipses. By J. Norman Lockyer, P.2B.S. On the Construction of the Heavens. By RK. A. Proctor, B.A. On Artificial Coronas. By Professor OsBorne Reyno.ps. On a Method of Estimating the Distances of some of the Fixed Stars. By H. Fox Tatszor, LL.D., PRS. The method proposed in this paper for ascertaining the distances of the stars applies only to binary systems, which are not too faint or too close to be well ob- served. It has this peculiarity, that it can be applied to remote stars with as much accuracy as to nearer ones, always supposing that such remote stars are still bright * Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1862, Trans. of Sect. p. 55. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 enough to allow of accurate observation ; whereas the method of determining the distance of a star by its parallax becomes more difficult as the distance of the star increases, notwithstanding any brightness which it may have. The method now proposed is founded on that of spectral analysis. I suppose a certain ray, which I will call X, to be chosen as the standard ray, and to be care- fully observed at various times in each of the stars of a binary system during an interval of some years. The orbit described by the stars around their common centre of gravity must not lie in a plane perpendicular to the visual ray joining those stars and the earth, nor must it approach that position too nearly, otherwise the true result would be masked by the errors of observation, The simplest case is that of two stars, equal in mass and brightness, and revolving in circles about their common centre of gravity. Supposing such a system of two stars to exist, the most favourable case is when the plane of their motion passes through the earth, If it does so, the stars will appear to move in straight lines, Supposing them to be, when first observed, at their greatest elongation, they will approach each other with an increasing apparent velocity, varying as the sine of the time (or circular arc described) until they come into apparent conjunction, when one star will be hidden by the other for a certain time, after which they will recede from each other in like manner as they had approached. But the observer would not be able to say with certainty which of the two stars was nearest to him, since the same phenomena would be presented if the distances of the two stars were inter- changed, and at the same time the direction of their motions reversed. Now suppose the method to be applied which I have proposed. At the time of their conjunction, or near it, neither star would be approaching the earth, consequently the observed deviation of the ray X (if any) from its normal position would be due to the proper motion of the system of the two stars relatively to the earth, which is a constant quantity to be allowed for in all other observations. Now suppose another set of observations to be made at the time of the greatest elongation of the two stars. At that time each of the stars is apparently stationary, but in fact one of them is approaching and the other receding from the earth with a maximum velocity. The observed deviation of the ray X will therefore be different in the spectra of the two stars, and (allowance having been made for the proper motion of the system) it will appear at once which of the two stars is approaching the earth, and the question ofits direct or retrograde orbit will be resolved. At the same time the distance of the two stars from the earth will result from the calculation. It will be well, perhaps, to take a hypothetical example, which will show how this element results from observation. I suppose, then, that observation has shown: (1) The period of one complete revolution of the binary star round its centre of gravity to be fifty years. (2) The greatest elongation of the stars to be ten seconds. (3) And at the time of this greatest elongation the deviation of the ray X to be such as to prove that one of the stars is then approaching the earth at the rate of ten miles per second, and the other star receding from the earth at the same rate. And this will evidently be their true velocity in their orbit. Now 50 years =1,577,880,000 seconds, and therefore since each star moves in its orbit at the rate of ten miles per second, it describes in the course of one whole revolution of 50 years a circle of 15,778,800,000 miles in circumference. The radius of this circle is the distance of the star from the common centre of gravity, and therefore the diameter of the circle is the distance of the two stars from each other (which in the hypothetical example I have selected is constant), This diameter will be found to be about equal to 54 radii of the earth’s orbit. Now, when the stars were at their greatest elongation, observation showed their angular distance to be ten seconds. Consequently we have only to calculate at what distance from the earth a‘length of 54 radii would subtend an angle of 10", and we find that this would occur at a distance of 1,113,500 radii. Such, then, is the distance of the binary star from the earth, namely, 1,113,500 times the distance which sepa- rates the earth from the sun. So simple a case as the hypothetical one which I have here calculated is, indeed, not likely to occur in practice; most cases would require a greater ae of 3 36 REPORT—1871. calculation, but the principles involved would be the same. When the distances and positions of the two components of a binary star have been carefully observed by astronomers for a certain Ratner of years, ithas been found possible in manyinstances to determine the elements of their orbit, its ellipticity, the inclination of its plane to the ecliptic, the time of one complete revolution, the apparent maximum elonga- tion, &e. &c. But the distance of the double star from the earth has hitherto re- mained unknown, because that is dependent upon the real size of the orbit, and observation (without the spectroscope) gives only the apparent size of it. Knowing the elements of the orbit we can, indeed, calculate the velocity of either of the stars in the direction of the earth at any moment, relatively to that which it has at any other moment. But the determination of the absolute velocity requires the distance of the stars from the earth to be known. Nowa few observations (if per- fectly correct) of the deviation of the ray X supply this wanting element, viz. the actual velocity at the time of observation, and likewise enable us, as I have already explained, to eliminate the proper motion of the double star. This might be some- times difficult, but geometrical considerations, quite in harmony with those now employed by astronomers to determine the other elements of the binary system, would undoubtedly effect this also. In what I have written above, I have supposed great precision in the observa- tions—greater, no doubt, than would be practicable with the optical means now in use; but this makes no difference in the theory of the subject, which for a certain time may be allowed to pass ahead of its practical realization. It will doubtless be remembered that the method of determining the sun’s distance by means of a transit of Venus was proposed by James Gregory in his ‘Optica Promota,’ and by Halley in his ‘ Catalogus Stellarum Australium,’ nearly 100 years before an opportunity offered of testing it by an actual observation. On the Nutoscope, an Apparatus for showing Graphically the Curve of Precession and Nutation. By Professor Cuartes V, ZENGER. In the case of a rapidly revolving solid body two different cases may occur, the mass of the solid body being quite uniformly distributed around the axis of rota- tion, or, on the contrary, the uniformity being destroyed by the accumulation of matter on one side of the axis. In the first instance the centrifugal force will act symmetrically on opposite sides of the solid body in rotation, and be in equilibrium. It then gives rise to the phenomenon of a free axis; that is to say, the axis of rotation steadily holds its position during the rotation, because the particles of the body will also have the tendency to retain their position while the motion is going on with sufficient speed. ote facts may best be shown by Fessel’s apparatus, called the gyroscope, in which a circular disk is put in rapid rotation round an axis freely movable in every direction. If there is a force acting only on one side, for instance a weight pressing on the axis, or an impulse given to it, the axis will show a lateral motion, and describes a cone, or at its extremity a circle. But if there is on the disk itself an unequal distribution of the mass, which is produced by fastening a small circular disk or sheet of paper with an excentric hole upon the axis, the motion becomes more complicated; and if the velocity be con- sidered uniform for the short time required fur the axis to describe a circle, there will be an additional lateral motion produced by the adhering paper sheet dis- turbing the motion, and a small ellipse will be described by the end of the axis revolving upon the circle, as is shown in the diagram traced on blackened paper by the top of such an apparatus. The greater the mass of the disturbing paper sheet, and the more the speed of the motion diminishes, the larger becomes the diameter of the ellipse described by the top, and the more disturbed are its revolutions on the periphery of the circle, both axis of the ellipses becoming much larger. Diminution of the speed origi- nates, instead of the circular motion of the top, a spiral motion, and the effect is TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 that the velocity of the disk’s motion decreasing, the top no longer describes a circle, but a continuous spiral line, on which the small ellipse revolves, These motions, however complicated they may be, may be graphically shown by holding a blackened paper to the top of the axis of the apparatus, and causing it to approach steadily, when the axis becomes more inclined by the diminution of the velocity. ° To do this more easily and with more precision, near the rotating disk is placed a support, with a brass frame for holding a sheet of blackened paper, exactly at a right angle to the support. The top of the inclined axis may be brought into slight contact with the blackened surface of the paper by lowering the brass frame on the stand by means of a micrometer-screw, so as to maintain the contact for some time. The specimens of curves described by the apparatus show that without any disturbing force the top describes a circle. ; Ifwe put a circular disk excentrically on the axis of the apparatus, it still describes a circle, but also an ellipse revolving on its periphery, whose length of axis de- pends on the weight of the circular disk fastened to the axis. If the top marks for a longer time, instead of a circle a spiral line is described, with ellipses revoly- ing on it. ‘Diagrams were exhibited, showing the same curves, but with heavier circular disks on the axis. These experiments may be made also by putting on the top of the axis a globule of silvered glass, reflecting the light of the sun, or of a lamp, showing at a con- siderable distance the pretty designs of the nutation curves. It is very instructive to exhibit and explain the complicated phenomena of the luni-solar precession and nutation of the earth’s axis by the same apparatus. The combined action of the sun and moon’s masses on the earth are represented by the small paper sheets put excentrically on the axis of the rotating brass disk of the apparatus. The sun and moon’s distances from the centre of the earth continually changing, produce the same effect as those circular disks put excentrically upon the axis of the apparatus, and produce an entirely similar motion of the axis of the earth, describing likewise a cone, or a circle on the top of the earth’s axis; and by the changing action of the sun and moon at different distances from the earth, there is produced an additional small elliptical motion, quite similar to those represented im the diagrams exhibited. Similar but still larger elliptical motions are produced in the same manner by the combined and varying action of the sun and earth’s masses on the moon, known in astronomy as the precession of the nodes of the moon, and as the nutation and evection of its axis, Lieut. Description of a Set of Lenses for the Accurate Correction of Visual Defect. up By Pure Brawam. The lenses shown were plano-spherical and cylindrical. By using planc- instead of double spherical lenses, we are enabled to add or diminish the power of any given plano-lens to the greatest nicety; so that without multiplying the tools used by the lens-grinders, any graduation of focus can be obtained. In correcting astigmatic defect, the cylindrical lenses being plano-, and the edges oes to the same exact diameter as the spherical, they fit together and act as one lens. Description of a Paraboloidal Reflector for Lighthouses, consisting of silvered facets of ground-glass; and of a Differential Holophote. By Tomas Srevenson, F.R.S.L., ML.C.E. The superior advantages of the Dioptric as compared with the Catoptric systems 38 REPORT—1871. of illumination for lighthouses are generally admitted. There are, however, many cases, such as harbour-lights and ship-lights, where the expense of construction becomes a barrier to the employment of refracting apparatus. In order to reduce the expense, it occurred to the author that it would be de- sirable to revive the old form of mirror, consisting of facets of ordinary silvered glass. Instead of making them small and with plane surfaces, the size may be much increased; and they may be bent or ground and polished on both faces to curyes osculating the parabola, ellipse, or whatever form may be required. If the edges of these facets were fixed together by Canada balsam (a substance which has nearly the same index of refraction as plate-glass), the large loss of light which takes place at the edges of each facet in the old reflectors will be in great measure saved. There will not, as formerly, be any refraction of the rays in passing through the edges, and thus the whole will become practically monodioptric; or, in other words, will be optically nearly the same as if the paraboloid had been made of one whole sheet of glass, while the advantage due to accurately curved surfaces, in- stead of plane surfaces, will be secured. It would be a further improvement to select different points in the flame for the foci of the different facets, so as to secure the useful destination of more of the rays. Besides, by grinding each facet to different vertical and horizontal curves, the light may be condensed or diverged by means of a single agent; and the same result may be effected with different totally reflecting plates of flint or other glass cemented to lighthouse prisms with Canada balsam, so as to form composite prisms. When coloured lights are wanted, the facets would consist of glass tinted to the required hue, so as to render stained mufHles or chimneys unnecessary. The economy of the proposed method of con- struction will render it peculiarly applicable to harbour-lights and ship-lights. The author exhibited a paraboloidal reflector constructed on the method to which he referred. The facets were successfully constructed by Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham. The pieces of glass having been first bent upon a mould, were afterwards ground by rubbing-surfaces worked by machinery of the same kind as is employed for dioptric apparatus. The facets were afterwards silvered by the patent process of Messrs. Pratt and Co., of St. Helens, Lancashire, who inform the author that so long as the paint is not removed from the back of the silvering its reflecting power will remain unaltered. Differential metallic Mirror and Holophote.—The same construction may also be adopted, as the author has already hinted, for producing a differential holophote which will, by means of single optical agents, collect, with uniform density in azimuth, the whole sphere of diverging rays into any given cylindric sector. For such a pur- pose each facet must, in the vertical plane where no divergence is wanted, be ground to a parabolic profile, while in the horizontal it must be of such hyper- bolic, elliptic, or other curve as will give the required horizontal divergence with- out interference with the apparatus for the central cone of rays, which will be dealt with according to the requirements of the case, by means either of Fresnel’s beehive fixed apparatus or of a differential lens—an instrument which the author has elsewhere described. In order to test the practicability of such an arrange- ment, a mirror was constructed of small glass facets, which were arranged optically on a surface of putty, and which answered the purpose as far as was possible with plain pieces of glass. The author sees therefore no great difficulty in making this new kind of mirror of separate facets of silvered glass of small size; but he found such difficulties in constructing one with a continuous surface that he consulted his friend Professor Tait, who kindly gave him his assistance in the solution of this difficult problem by supplying the general formula; and he has no doubt, now that the simpler form of facet has been so successfully constructed, a differential holephote will soon be made. Notice of the Researches of the late Rev. William Vernon Harcourt, on the Conditions of Transparency in Glass, and the Conneaion between the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of different Glasses. By Professor G. G. Sroxrs, /.R.S. The preparation and optical properties of glasses of various compositions formed TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 for nearly forty years a favourite subject of study with the late Mr. Harcourt. Having commenced in 1834 some experiments on vitrifaction, with the object stated in the title of this notice, he was encouraged by a recommendation, which is printed in the 4th volume of the Transactions of the British Association, to pursue the subject further, A report on a gas-furnace, the construction of which formed a preliminary inquiry, in which was expended the pecuniary grant made by the Association for this research in 1836, is printed in the Report of the Association for ioe but the results of the actual experiments on glass have never yet been ublished. $ My own connexion with these researches commenced at the Meeting of the British Association at Cambridge in 1862, when Mr. Harcourt placed in my hands some prisms formed of the glasses which he had prepared, to enable me to determine their character as to fluorescence, which was of interest from the circumstance that the composition of the glasses was known. I was led indirectly to observe the fixed lines of the spectra formed by means of them ; and as I used sunlight, which he had not found it convenient to employ, I was enabled to see further into the red and violet than he had done, which was favourable to a more accurate measure of the dispersive powers. This inquiry, being in furtherance of the original object of the experiments, seemed far more important than that as to fluorescence, and caused Mr. Harcourt to resume his experiments with the liveliest interest, an interest which he kept up to the last. Indeed it was only a few days before his death that his last experiment was made. To show the extent of the research, I may mention that as many as 166 masses of glass were formed and cut into prisms, each mass doubtless in many cases involving several preliminary experiments, besides disks and masses for other purposes. Perhaps I may be permitted here to refer to what I said to this Section on a former occasion* as to the advantage of working in concert. I may certainly say for myself, and I think it will not be deemed at all derogatory to the memory of my esteemed friend and fellow-labourer if I say of him, that I do not think that either of us working singly could have obtained the results we arrived at by working together. It is well known how difficult it is, especially on a small scale, to prepare homogeneous glass. Of the first group of prisms, 28 in number, 10 only were sufficiently good to show a few of the principal dark lines of the solar spectrum ; the rest Fad to be examined by the bright lines in artificial sources of light. These prisms appeared to have been cut at random by the optician from the mass of glass supplied to him. Theory and observation alike showed that strie interfere comparatively little with an accurate determination of refractive indices when they lie in planes perpendicular to the edge of the prism. Accordingly the prisms used in the rest of the research were formed from the glass mass that came out of the crucible by cutting two planes, passing through the same horizontal line a little below the surface, and inclined 223° right and left of the vertical, and by polishing the enclosed wedge of 45°. In the central portion of the mass the striz have a tendency to arrange themselves in nearly vertical lines, from the operation of currents of convection ; and by cutting in the manner described, the most favourable direction of the strize is secured for a good part of the prism. This attention to the direction of cutting, combined no doubt with increased experience in the manufacture of glass, was attended with such good results that ad it was quite the exception for a prism not to show the more conspicuous dark ines. On account of the inconvenience of working with silicates, arising from the difficulty of fusion and the pasty character of the fused glasses, Mr. Harcourt’s experiments were chiefly carried on with phosphates, combined in many cases with fluorides, and sometimes with borates, tungstates, molybdates, or titanates. The glasses formed involved the elements potassium, sodium, lithium, barium, strontium, calcium, glucinum, magnesium, aluminium, manganese, zinc, cadmium, tin, lead, thallium, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium, vanadium, nickel, chromium, uranium, phosphorus, ituedine, boron, sulphur. A very interesting subject of inquiry presented itself collaterally with the original object, namely, to inquire whether glasses could be found which would * Report of the British Association for 1862, Trans. of Sect. p. 1. 40 REPORT—1871. achromatize each other so as to exhibit no secondary spectrum, or a single glass which would achromatize in that manner a combination of crown and flint. This inquiry presented considerable difficulties. The dispersion of a medium is small compared with its refraction ; and if the dispersive power be regarded as a small quantity of the first order, the irrationality between two media must be regarded as depending on small quantities of the second order. If striz and imperfections of the kind present an obstacle to a very accurate determination of dispersive power, it will readily be understood that the errors of observation which they occasion go far to swallow up the small quantities on the observation of which the determination of irrationality depends. Accordingly, little success attended the attempts to draw conclusions as to irrationality from the direct obser- vation of refractive indices; but by a particular method of compensation, in which the experimental prism was achromatized by a prism built up of slender prisms of crown and flint, I was enabled to draw trustworthy conclusions as to the character in this respect of those prisms which were sufficiently good to show a few of the principal dark lines of the solar spectrum. Theoretically any three different kinds of glass may be made to form a combi- nation achromatic as to secondary as well as primary colour, but practically the character of dispersion is usually connected with its amount, in such a manver that the determinant of the system of three simple equations which must be satisfied is very small, and the curvatures of the three lenses required to form an achromatic combination are very great. For a long time little hope of a practical solution of the problem seemed to present itself, in consequence of the general prevalence of the approximate law referred to above. A prism containing molybdic acid was the first to give fair hopes of success. Mr. Harcourt warmly entered into this subject, and prosecuted his experiments with unwearied zeal. The earlier molybdic glasses prepared were many of them rather deeply coloured, and most of them of a perishable nature. At last, after numerous experiments, molybdic glasses were obtained pretty free from colour and permanent. Titanium had not yet been tried, and about this time a glass containing titanic acid was prepared and cut into a prism. Titanic acid proved to be equal or superior to molybdic in its power of extending the blue end of the spectrum more than corresponds to the dispersive power of the glass; while in every other respect (freedom from colour, permanence of the glass, greater abun- dance of the element) it had a decided advantage; and a great variety of titanic glasses were prepared, cut into prisms, and measured. One of these led to the suspicion that boracic acid had an opposite effect, to test which Mr. Harcourt formed some simple borates of lead, with varying proportions of boracic acid. These fully bore out the expectation ; the terborate for instance, which in dispersive power nearly agrees with flint glass, agrees on the other hand, in the relative extension of the blue and red ends of the spectrum, with a combination of about one part, by volume, of flint glass with two of crown. By combining a negative or concave lens of terborate of lead with positive lenses of crown and flint, or else a positive lens of titanic glass with negative lenses of crown and flint, or even with a negative of very low flint and a positive of crown, achromatic triple combinations free from secondary colour may be formed without encountering (at least in the case of the titanic glass) formidable curvatures ; and by substituting at the same time a titanic glass for crown, and a borate of lead for flint, the curvatures may be a little further reduced. There is no advantage in using three different kinds of glass rather than two to form a fully achromatic combination, except that the latter course might require the two kinds of glass to be made expressly, whereas with three we may employ for two the crown and flint of commerce. Enough titanium might, however, be introduced into a glass to render it capable of being perfectly achromatized by Chance’s “ light flint.” In a triple objective the middle lens may be made to fit both the others, and be cemented. Terborate of lead, which is somewhat liable to tarnish, might thus be protected by being placed in the middle. Even if two kinds only of glass are used, it is desirable to divide the convex lens into two, for the sake of diminish- Ing the curvatures. On calculating the curvatures so as to destroy spherical as TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41 well as chromatic aberration, and at the same time to make the adjacent surfaces be very suitable forms were obtained with the data furnished by Mr. Harcourt’s glasses. ; After encountering great difficulties from striz, Mr. Harcourt at last succeeded in preparing disks of terborate of lead and of a titanic glass which are fairly homogeneous, and with which it is intended to attempt the construction of an actual objective which shall give images free from secondary colour, or nearly so. This notice has extended to a greater length than I had intended, but it still gives only a meagre account of a research extending over so many years. It is my intention to draw up a full account for presentation to the scientific world in some other form. I have already said that the grant made to Mr. Harcourt for these researches in 1836 has long since been expended, as was stated in his Report of 1844; but it was his wish, in recognition of that grant, that the first mention of the results he obtained should be made to the British Association ; and I doubt not that the members will receive with satisfaction this mark of consideration, which they will connect with the memory of one to whom the Association as a body is so deeply indebted. On one Cause of Transparency. By G. Jouxstonz Stonny, M.A., PRS. The motion of the ether which constitutes light is known to be subject to four restrictions :—First, it is periodic; secondly, it is transversal; thirdly, it is (at all events temporarily) polarized; and, fourthly, its periodic time lies between the limits which correspond to the extent of the visible spectrum. By temporary polarization is meant the persistence of the same kind of wave over a long series of waves before waves of another kind succeed, that persistence which the phenomena of diffraction have made known to us*. And the many respects in which radiant heat and light have been found to be identical enable us to say that the first three of the foregoing restrictions apply to radiant heat. We also know (see ‘Philosophical Magazine’ for April and for July 1871) that the lines in the spectra of gases arise from periodic motions in the molecules of the gas, each such motion giving rise to one or more lines corre- sponding to terms of an harmonic series. And we know that under certain con- ditions these lines dilate and run into one another, so as in many cases to produce regions of continuous absorption. All these phenomena may safely be attributed to periodic motions in the molecules of the gas, the dilatation of the lines being due to perturbations which affect the periodic times. After the periodic time has been disturbed (probably on the occasion of the collisions between molecules) it seems to settle down gradually towards its normal amount,.thus imparting breadth to the corresponding spectral lines. The question now naturally presents itself{—What results from motions in the molecules which are not periodic, or which are in any other way unfitted to pro- duce radiant heat? And here the phenomena of acoustics come to our aid. When a bell is struck, more or less regularly, periodic motions are both peered The more regularly periodic motions produce the tone of the bell which is heard at a distance, while the less regular motions, though they are often very intense, pro- duce a clang heard only in the vicinity of the bell; in other words, the energy is expended in the neighbourhood of the bell. Similarly, if the molecules of a body are engaged in irregular motions, such motions, though they may occasion a violent agitation of the others, are mechanically incapable of producing such an undulation as constitutes radiant heat. The disturbance is necessarily local; in other words, as much energy is restored by the moving ether to the molecules as is imparted by the motion of the molecules to the ether. This absence of radiation is one of the properties of a transparent body; and the other thermal (or optical) properties of transparent bodies may be presumed to depend also on these partially irregular motions. Thus Fizeau has proved by experiment that a flow of water of about * Rays of common light have been found to interfere, of which one was retarded 15 millims., or about 30,000 wave-lengths, behind the other, showing what a long series of nearly similar waves usually succeed one another in unpolarized light before waves of another type come in. 42 REPORT—1871. seven metres per second produced a very sensible effect on the velocity with which light was propagated in the direction of the motion; in other words, when the molecular motions had a preponderance in one direction, this was found to alter the refractive index in that direction. This shows that the molecular motions do affect the refractive index; and it is perhaps not too much to presume that the phenomena of the irrationality of the spectra produced by prisms of different mate- rials of double refraction and polarization in crystals of other than the cubical system, and of circular polarization in solids and liquids, will be found to result from modifications of the irregular motions either of or within the molecules. Other facts appear to confirm this presumption: where from the form of a crystal we have reason to suppose that the irregular molecular motions are not symme- trically distributed in different directions, there we uniformly find the phenomena of double refraction; and in those solids where they are symmetrically disposed the refraction becomes double if they are exposed to strain, 7.e. as soon as an unsymmetrical distribution of the molecular motions is artificially induced. On the whole we appear justified in drawing the probable inference that all the phenomena of transparency are intimately associated with the molecular motions which want that kind of regularity which would fit them to be the source of luminous undulations. What is certain is, first, that certain periodic molecular motions do produce the phenomena of opacity in gases; and secondly, that irre- gular molecular motions are incapable of producing the effect of opacity, since they cannot radiate. By irregular motions, where the phrase occurs in this communi- cation, are to be understood motions which are not approximately periodic, or which from any other cause cannot set up in the ether such an undulation as that which constitutes radiant heat. On the advantage of referring the positions of Lines in the Spectrum to a Scale of Wave-numbers. By G. Jounstone Stoney, M.A., F.R.S. At the last Meeting of the British Association Mr. Stoney made a communica- tion, from which it seemed to appear that each periodic motion in the mole- cules of a gas will in general (¢.e. unless the motion be a simple pendulous one, or else mechanically small) give rise to several lines in the spectrum of the gas, and that the lines which thus result from one motion have periods that are harmonics of the periodic time of the parent motion. Since that time he has been engaged, in conjunction with Dr. Emerson Reynolds, of Dublin, in testing this theory ; and in this inquiry it has been found convenient to refer the positions of all lines in the spectrum to a scale of reciprocals of the wave-lengths. This scale has the great convenience, for the purposes of the investigation, that a system of lines with periodic times that are harmonics of one periodic time are equidistant upon it; and it has the further convenience, which recommends it for general use, that it resembles the spectrum as seen in the spectroscope much more closely than the scale of direct wave-lengths used by Angstrom in his classic map. The position marked 2000 upon this scale occurs about the middle of the spectrum, and corresponds to Angstrém’s wave-length 5000, The numbers which Angstrom uses are tenth-metres, z.e. the lengths obtained by dividing the metre into 10 parts; and from this it follows that each number on the new scale signifies the number of light-waves in a millimetre: thus 2000 upon a map drawn to this scale marks the position of the ray whose wave-length is 5,5, of a milli- metre. The new scale may therefore be appropriately called a scale of wave- numbers. If, then, % be the wave-number of a fundamental motion in the eether, its wave-length will bes th of a millimetre, and its harmonics will haye the wave- = = &c.; in other words, they occupy the positions 2h, 3k, &e. upon the new map. Hence it is easy to see that a system of lines which are equally spaced along the map at intervals of % divisions are harmonics of a fundamental lengths motion whose wave-number is k, whose wave-length is ith of a millimetre, and TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 whose periodic time is zi where 7 is the periodic time of an undulation in the zther consisting of waves one millimetre long. If we use Foucault’s determination of the velocity of light, viz. 298,000,000 metres per second, the value of this constant is tT = 3'3557 twelfth-seconds, meaning by a twelfth-second a second of time divided by 10’, which, in other words, is the millionth part of the millionth of a second of time. Thus the proposed numbers give the same information as a list of direct wave- lengths, and in a more commodious form for theoretical purposes; while at the same time the map of the spectrum drawn to this scale is to be preferred for use in the laboratory, because it represents the spectrum formed by a prism with com- paratively little distortion. This will be apparent from the following Table of the waye-numbers of the principal lines of the solar spectrum :— A 13151 || E, | 18967 || F 2057°3 B 1456-2 || 5, 98:0 || G 2321-7 C 15239 b, | 19293 h | 2488-3 D, | 16963 b, 33-4 || H, | 25201 D, 98-0 b, 354 | H 426 On the Wave-lengths of the Spectra of the Hydrocarbons. By Professor Wrrr1am Sway, LL.D., RSL. The author stated that in 1856 he had communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh a paper, published in yol. xxi. of their Transactions, entitled “ On the Prismatic Spectra of the Flames of Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen.” In his observations on these substances he made use of an arrangement (employed by him still earlier in 1847) identical with that which, since the publication of Kirch- hoff and Bunsen’s researches in Spectrum-analysis, is familiarly known as a ‘ Spec- troscope,” namely, an observing telescope, a prism, and a collimator, receiving the light to be examined through a narrow slit at its principal focus. The observations published in 1856 consist of carefully obseryed minimum devi- ations of fourteen dark lines of the sun spectrum, and of twelve bright lines of the hydrocarbon spectra, which bright lines were found to be identical in fifteen dif- ferent hydrocarbons examined. No absolute coincidences between the lines in the solar and terrestrial spectra were observed, except that, long before discovered by Fraunhofer, between the double sun-line D and the double yellow line of ordinary flames, now, wherever it may be seen, referred to sodium. The yellow line was generally present in the hydrocarbon spectra; but, from a careful quantitative experiment, it was ascertained that the 2,500,000th part of a troy grain of sodium rendered its presence in a flame sensible: and the conclusion was then distinctly stated, it is believed for the first time, that whenever or where- ever the double yellow line appears it is due to the presence of minute traces of sodium. In this state the observations of 1856 had remained until lately, when the author was requested by his friend Professor Piazzi Smyth to compute the wave-lengths of some of the hydrocarbon lines, As no exact coincidence existed between these and the lines of the solar spectrum, it was necessary to have recourse to some pro- cess of interpolation; and that which suggested itself to the author was founded upon Lagrange’s well-known Interpolation theorem. In order to verify as far as possible the results, the computation of the wave-lengths of the hydrocarbon lines was repeated by interpolating between different groups of sun lines; and the dis- crepancies between the numbers so obtained in no case extended beyond the place of units in Angstrém’s scale of wave-lengths, where unity expresses the ten mil- lionth part ofa millimetre. The subject was brought before the Association in order 44. REPORT—1871. to elicit an opinion whether the results likely to be obtained would be of sufficient importance to warrant a more elaborate discussion of the entire series of observa- tions with a view to future publication. Poste Photographique. By the Azs& Moteno. An Account of a New Photographic Dry Process. By RK. Surron. Heat. Description of Experiments made in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Glasgow to determine the Surface Conductivity for Heat of a Copper Ball. By Donatp M‘Farnane. The experiments described in this paper were made under the direction of Sir W. Thomson during the summers of 1865 and 1871. A hot copper ball, having a thermoelectric junction at its centre, was suspended in the interior of a closed space kept at a constant temperature of about 16° Cent., the other junction was kept at the temperature of the envelope, the circuit was completed through a mirror galvanometer, and the deflections noted at intervals of one minute as the ball gradually cooled. The method of reducing the observations was explained at length. The difference of the Napierian logarithms of the differences of temperatures of the junctions, indicated by the deflections, divided by the intervals of time, gives the rate of cooling ; and this, ape ae by a factor depending on the capacity for heat of the ball and on the extent of its surface, gives the quantity of heat emitted in gramme water units in the unit of time per square centimetre, per 1° of difference of tem- peratures. Formule were given which express the results of the experiments very closely, and a table calculated by them exhibits the rates of emission for every 5° of difference throughout the range. The first and second series had a range of from 5° to 25° only, which was too small to give decided results; but the third and fourth series, made with a polished copper surface and a blackened surface respectively, gave variations in the emissive power from ‘000178 at 5° diff. of temperature to -000226 at 60° diff. for the polished surface, and from °000252 at 5° diff. to 000328 at 60° diff. for the blackened sur- face; and the emissive powers of the two surfaces exhibit throughout a nearly constant ratio to each other of about ‘694. On a Respirator for Use in Extinction of Hires. By Wrt11am Lavo, F.RA.S. This instrument combines the advantages of the charcoal and the cotton-wool respirators. The respirator is intended to be fitted on the heads of firemen, and it will enable a fireman to enter into the midst of any smoke, however dense. There is sufficient protection fcr the eyes, by means of glasses. The results of an experi- ment with the respirator have been stated by Prof. Tyndall. In a small cellar-like chamber, furnaces containing resinous pine-wood were placed, and the wood being lighted, a dense smoke was generated. In this room, Prof. Tyndall and his assistant, using these respirators, remained for more than half an hour, when the smoke was so dense and pungent that a single inhalation through the unprotected mouth and nostrils would have been perfectly unendurable. The instrument has been tested by Capt. Shaw, chief officer of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, who has taken very great interest in perfecting it, by attaching to it suitable hoods. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 On the Temperature-equilibrium of an Enclosure in which there is a Body in Visible Motion. By Prof. Barrour Srewart, /.R.S. It is now several years since Professor Tait and the author of this paper came jointly to entertain the belief that there is some transmutation of energy, the exact nature of which is unknown, when large bodies approach or recede from one another. It is desirable to vindicate an idea of this nature, both from the theo- retical and the practical point of view—that is to say, we ought, if possible, to exhibit it as a probable deduction from those laws of nature with which we are already acquainted; and, on the other hand, it ought to be supported by observa- tions and experiments of a new kind. In our case the experiments and observations have been of a difficult nature, and are yet in progress; it is therefore premature to bring them before the notice of the Association. A theoretical vindication of the idea has been obtained by Professor Tait, and more recently one has occurred to the author of these remarks, which he now ventures to bring forward. Men of science are now sufficiently well acquainted with Prevost’s theory of exchanges, and its recent extension. We know that in an enclosure, the walls of which are kept at a constant temperature, every substance will ultimately attain the very same temperature as these walls, and we know also that this temperature-equili- brium can only be brought about by the absorption of every particle being exactly equal to its radiation, an equality which must separately hold for every individual kind of heat which the enclosure radiates. This theoretical conclusion is sup- ported by numerous experiments, and one of its most important applications has been the analysis of the heavenly bodies by means of the spectroscope. Let us now suppose that in such an enclosure we have a body in visible motion, its tem- erature, however, being precisely the same as that of the walls of the enclosure. ad the body been at rest, we know from the theory of exchanges that there would haye been a perfect equilibrium of temperature between the enclosure and the body; but there is reason to believe that this state of temperature-equilibrium is broken by the motion of the body. For we know both from theory and expe- riment that if a body, such for instance as a star, be either rapidly approaching the eye of an observer or receding from it, the rays from the body which strike the eye will no longer be precisely the same as would have struck it had the body been at the same temperature and at rest—just as the whistle of a railway engine rapidly approaching an observer will have to him a different note from that which it would have had if the engine had been at rest. The body at motion in the enclosure is not therefore giving the enclosure those precise rays which it would have given it had it been at the same temperature and at rest; on the other hand, the rays which are leaying the enclosure are unaltered. The enclosure is there- fore receiving one set of rays and giving out another, the consequence of which will be a want of temperature-equilibrium in the enclosure, in other words, all the various particles of the enclosure will not be of the same temperature. Now, what is the consequence of this? The consequence will be that we can use these particles of different temperature so as to transmute part of their heat into the energy of visible motion, just as we do in a steam-engine ; and if it is allowable to suppose that during this process the moving body has retained all its energy of motion, the result will be an increase of the amount of visible energy within the enclosure, all the particles of which were originally of the same temperature. But Sir W. Thomson has shown us that this is impossible; in other words, we cannot imagine an increase of the visible energy of such an enclosure unless we acknow- ledge the possibility of a perpetual motion. It is not, therefore, allowable to sup- pose that in such an enclosure the moving body continues to retain all its energy of motion, and consequently such a body will have its energy of motion gradually stopped. Evidently in this argument the use of the enclosure has been to enable us to deduce our proof from the known laws of heat and energy, and we may alter the shape of the body without affecting the result; in other words, we should expect some loss of visible energy in the case of cosmical bodies approaching or receding from one another. On a new Steam-gauge. By Prof. Cu. V. Zunerr. This gauge is intended to avoid the defects of common air-gauges, which have 46 REPORT—1871. hitherto prevented the employment of the air-manometer, and at the same time to be more accurate and unalterable in its working than the spring gauges now commonly used for steam-boilers. In the first place, it is a great defect in the common air-gauge that the divisions on the manometric tube diminish rapidly at high pressures, and consequently the reading becomes less and less accurate the higher the pressure. The new steam-gauge, on the contrary, possesses the same degree of accuracy at all pressures, and even enables us to make the accuracy of reading greater at higher pressures. Another serious defect of the air-manometer is the liability to rupture of the narrow column of mercury when the steam is suddenly shut off or turned on. This is entirely avoided in the present instrument by the use of two closed vessels communicating with each other only by very narrow capillary tubes. Finally, the small column of mercury enclosed in the glass tube of common air-manometers is subject to capillary depression, and to the disturbing effects of heat upon the air- bulb and upon the mercury. In the instrument now to be described it is sought to avoid these defects by not using capillary tubes for the manometer, and by disposing the air and mercury in such a way as to make the effect of heat insensible. The air-tube of the manometer consists of a series of tubes of equal leneth, but different diameters, joined together by means of a blowpipe, and ending at the top in a glass bulb. The lower end is connected by an air-tight screw, joined with the first of two iron yessels containing each mercury or some other liquid, and communicating only by a very narrow capillary tube or channel. The manometric tube is sealed at the bottom, but there are two fine capillary openings through the side at points below the surface of the mercury or other liquid contained in the two iron vessels. Hence the communication of pressure from the steam or other compressed gas, whose pressure is to be measured, and which presses directly upon the surface of the liquid in the second iron vessel, can only take place through a system of two capillary channels; and the resistance which these channels oppose to the motion of the mercury, by which they are filled, makes it impossible for sudden changes to occur in the height of the mano- metric column, and thus entirely prevents the division of the column or the entry of steam or gas into the manometer. The capacities of the tubes and of the globe, which compose the manometric tubes, are so adjusted that they decrease_in the same ratio in which the pressure increases, which is evidently what is required by Mariotte’s law in order that an increase of pressure of one atmosphere may cause the first tube to be filled by the enclosing liquid, and that a further increase of pressure of the same amount may cause the second tube to be filled, and so on, each equal increment of pressure causing the same rise of the liquid in the manometric tube. This adjustment of the capacities is eflected as follows :—Let the capacity of a manometer, to be di- vided so as to show pressures up to, say, four atmospheres, be called unity, and let Vj) Voy V3, and v, be the capacities of the first, second, and third tube and of the terminal globe respectively, then we haye— V,+0.+0;+0v,=1 for one atmosphere. 2,+v,+0,= 4 for two atmospheres. v,+v,=4% for three ” v,=+ for four 3 This gives for the capacities of the tubes and their radii :— ane Y= = ; 1 2 T.2 1 V Qnh PRA Wik esol. 2) 6 5) 3 y= MV 6rh 1 1 a on — ; Sad lo tay lee ] %=1, =37 ; — e TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. A7 where / is the length of each tube. To prevent accidental breakage of the mano- meter, it is fastened to the graduated brass plate, and with it screwed to a glass cover { of an inch thick, capable of supporting a pressure of 20 atmospheres. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. On the Influence of Clean and Unclean Surfaces in Voltaic Action. By Tuomas Broxam, Lecturer on Chenustry, Cheltenham College. 1. Gas was evolved by the contact of zinc and platinum surfaces, then an equal amount from the same surfaces when the platinum had been cleaned by hot oil of vitriol; the time was exactly half when the clean surfaces were used; contact of the surfaces with the fingers or dipping them in solutions of various substances was found to retard the evolution in a very marked degree. 2. Heating the platinum in a measure cleaned it, but not so satisfactorily as hot oil of vitriol. Copper and other metals behaved similarly to platinum. 3. Platinized silver, from its method of manufacture, appeared to be already clean, no advantage being obtained by chemically cleaning it. 4. Mechanically roughened surfaces of platinum exhibited a decided advantage over smooth ones. 5. The cell of a Smee’s battery, examined by a galvanometer, gave vastly better results when the negative plate had been chemically cleaned. 6. Voltameters, the plates of which had been chemically cleaned, exhibited a marked superiority over those not so cleaned ; thus it appears that in all voltaic action the results are superior where the surfaces of the negative metals, elec- trodes, &c. have been chemically cleaned, and that mere contact with the finger is sufficient to modify the evolution of gases from the surface. On a new Form of Constant Galvanic Battery. By Latimer Crarx, 0.2. (Extracted from a Letter to Sir William Thomson.) I have spoken to you several times about a form of battery which can be set up under such conditions as to ensure uniformity of tension within limits of about ‘05 or ‘06 per cent., and that without any special precautions as to the purity of the materials employed. I have not yet been able to make the necessary experiments for determining its value in absolute units, though I hope shortly to have made an independent determination. I have, however, set up about 200 of the elements in question, and haye measured them on about 30 different days; and from the mean of these experiments, taking the Daniell at 1:079 volts, I make this element to be 1:403 volts. In obtaining this result I have had to make care- ful measurements of electromotive force of more than 1000 different elements, comprising some 40 or 50 different kinds; in fact I have been working at it for six years. The element in question varies about ‘07 per cent. for each degree Centigrade, getting weaker with increased temperature: the temperature at which our com- parison with the Daniell’s cell is made is 18° Centigrade. The element consists of a cylinder of pure zinc resting on a paste of protosulphate of mercury and saturated solution of sulphate of zinc, previously jailed to expel the air, the other electrode being metallic mercury, connexion being made with the latter by a platinum wire. It is desirable that the materials should be pure; but if commercial materials be employed the error does not exceed ‘06 per cent. at first, and after three or four hours the value becomes sensibly the same as with pure materials. The precautions necessary are that the protosulphate of mercury should be free from persulphate, and that the solution of persulphate of zinc should be supersatu- rated. The elements do not vary sensibly for two or three months, say ‘05 per cent. It is essential that the element showld not be worked through small interpolar 48 REPORT—187 1. resistance; but the measurement should be made by the use of a condenser, or, infinitely better, by my “ Potentiometer,’ which, with a Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer, readily measures to the millionth part of a Daniell’s cell, or very much less if required. Notice of and Observations with a New Dip-circle. By J. P. Journ, LL.D., F.BRS., Fe. The method of suspension of the needle, which formed the principal feature of the new instrument, was explained. The increased facilities of observation had enabled the author to trace the diurnal variation of inclination with greater accuracy than he believed had hitherto been done. At Manchester, about the summer solstice, the greatest inclination was found to occur at 215 40™ local time, and the range extended to 5’. The simultaneous variation of horizontal intensity was such as to indicate that the total intensity was very nearly a constant quantity. On Thermo-electricity. By Professor Tarr. It results from Thomson’s investigations, founded on the beautiful discoveries of Peltier and Cumming, that the graphic representation of the electromotive force of a thermo-electric circuit, in terms of temperatures as abscissze, is a curve symme- trical about a vertical axis. This I have found to be, within the limits of experi- mental error, a parabola in each one of a very extensive series of investigations which I have made with wires of every metal I could procure. To verify this result with great exactness, and at the same time to extend the trial to temperatures beyond the range of a mercurial thermometer, I made a graphic representation, in which the abscissze were the successive indications of one circuit, the ordinates those of another, the temperatures being the same in both. It is easy to see that if the separate circuits give parabolas (as above) in terms of temperature, this pro- cess also should lead to a parabola, the axis, however, being no longer vertical. This severe test was well borne, even to temperatures approaching a dull red heat. Unfortunately, it is difficult to procure wires of the more infusible metals, with the exception of platinum and palladium, so that I have not yet been able to push this test to very high temperatures. I hope, however, with the kind assistance of M. H. Sainte-Claire Deville, to have wires of nickel and cobalt, with which to test the parabolic law through a very wide range. Parabolas being similar figures, it is easy to adjust the resistances in any two circuits so as to make their parabolas (in terms of temperature) equal. When this is done, if the neutral points be different, it is obvious that by making them act in opposite directions on a differential galvanometer we shall have deflections directly proportional to the temperature-differences of the junctions. It is a curious result of this investigation, that, supposing the parabolic law to be true, the Peltier effect is also expressed by a parabolic function of temperature, vanishing at absolute zero. I was led to this inquiry by a hypothetical application of the Dissipation of Energy to what Thomson calls the electric convection of heat, and my result is verified (within the range of my experiments), that the specific heat of electricity is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. It is scarcely necessary to point out that the above results appear to promise a very simple solution of the problem of measuring high temperatures, such as those of furnaces, the melting- points of rocks, &c. On a Method of Testing Submerged Electric Cables. By C. F. Varury. On a New Key for the Morse Printing Telegraph. By Cu. V. ZuncEr, Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy at the Polytechnic School in Prague. I had devised in 1868 a new automatic key to work the Morse telegraph. It produced three marks, viz. a point, a short line, and a long line. It con- re rE YS. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 sisted of three levers; by pressing them down steel springs moved along a very short, or along longer sheets of conducting material, and formed thus three signs of different lengths. Yet there was a certain time required to work the three keys ; to obviate it, and to put the telegraphist entirely at his ease as to the speed attain- able for him, and to obtain in neh a manner the highest speed possible, I con- structed the key in another manner. A clockwork arrangement moves a small wooden cylinder, whose steel axis is attached to it by a handle, and rotates with great velocity, the rate of velocity being accurately indicated by sounding a small bell as often in a second as the cylinder will revolve in the same time. The wooden cylinder bears three thin circular disks of brass attached to the steel axis of the cylinder ; these disks are differently cut out, in such a manner that the first is a full circle of 360°, the second a sector of nearly 120°, the rest of the circle being covered with an insulating material, viz. wood or india-rubber, to pre- vent metallic contact. The third disk is only a segment of 10°, the rest being cut out and covered with the insulating material. Three levers, put in front of the three disks, bear on their ends platinum wires or lates that touch the disks during one revolution of the cylinder when pressed own. From the levers a conducting-plate, uniting them, leads to the printing apparatus, and the levers are reduced to their former position by strong steel springs, so that they regain rapidly their positions after the pressure of the finger has ceased. What- ever be the velocity of the paper and the rollers, and the clockwork moving it, the relative length of the sizes and their distances remain unalterably the same. In the model presented to the General Post Office, the motion endures for 15 = hig and, being only a model, it is worked by a spring, and it has no rollers for the paper. i the working apparatus for telegraphic use, the rollers and whole printing ap- paratus are teckel to the key, and the same clockwork moves both the rollers and the rotating cylinder, forming thus only one apparatus together. From that contrivance we obtain :— 1. A quite equal distance between the signs, as in printing. . 2. By putting the fans of the alenksyal in differently inclined positions, the velocity may be carried to as great an extent as a clever clerk can manage it. 3, By using three signs instead of two, the signs for letters, figures, and phrases are reduced about one-third, and as much of time and space is spared. Merroronoey. On the Importance of the Azores as a Meteorological Station. By Dr. Buys Bator. Tn this paper the author classed his remarks under three heads :—(1) as to the importance of the station ; (2) as to the present condition of the question of its esta- blishment'; (3) what remains to be done. He showed that, although we have very copious results of observations made by vessels crossing the various oceans in all directions, there is great deficiency of actual observations at jived points. After pointing out the very important position occupied by the Azores, as illustrated by the researches of Mr. Buchan and Prof. Mohn with reference to the normal tracks of European storms, and also in their lying so completely in the path of merchant vessels, Dr. Ballot explained that about five years ago he submitted to the British Admiralty a proposal for establishing a chain of barometric stations in the '$. and W. of the British Isles, and at the Azores, and obtaining meteorological reports from thence, In April 1866 he applied to the Portuguese Government and to various learned meteorologists ; and the Director of the Lisbon Observatory has been to Holland to consult Dr. Ballot on the subject. A concession has been granted for the laying of a cable to the Azores; a learned 1871. f 50 , REPORT—1871. Portuguese has undertaken to provide the instruments and instruct the observer. The only expense involved is the charge for the transmission of the telegraph- messages: it would be most unfair that a country like Portugal should bear ail the cost (about £350 per annum for one message daily); and Dr. Ballot thinks that it should be raised jointly and proportionally by the European Maritime States, all of whom would largely benefit by the adoption of the proposal. Mean Temperature of Arbroath. Latitude 56° 33' 35" North, Longitude 2° 35’ 30" W. of Greenwich. By ALEXANDER Brown, LL.D. Mean Temperature iff Months. Mean temperature. of different Periods. Recess oi and ey 3] 4 5} 6 7 8 4 18 | 22 | 26 | 18 | 22 | 26 peor, Rope: ee8-| 1610: years. |years. years. years. | years.| years.| years. ° ° ° fe) ° ° ° ° ie} °o ° January ...... 33°0| 41°3| 41°0| 36°4| 37°9| 37°5| 364| 366 |—o'4 |—1°5 |—13 February ...| 42°1| 42°3| 42°7| 36°7| 40°9| 38°4| 37°0| 37°6|—2°5 |—3°9 |—3°3 March ...... 37°8| 43°6| 389) 40°8| 40°2| 39°9| 39°7| 39°7 |—0°3 |—0°5 |—0'5 April ws... 47°1| 47°4| 47°7| 48°0| 47°5| 48°0| 43°8| 443 |+0°5|—3°7|—32 VERY, cca? os 47°4| 52°6| 46°8| 52°3| 49°7| 49°7] 49°2| 49'2| o'0|—0'5 |—o'§ JUNE «.seeeeee 55°9| 5773 | 54°6) 57°7| 56°3| 55°9| 55°3| 55°4|—0'4 |—1'0 |—0'9 OLY ahecesees 540] 60°6| 61'6| 61°0| 59°3} 58°3| 58°2| 58:3 |—1°0|—1'1 |—10 August ...... 58°6| 59°5| 57°8| 58°4] 58°6) 57°6| 57°2| 57°4|—1:0|—1°4|—1'2 September ...| 55°7| 54°6| 55°4) 55° | 55°2| 54°3| 53°4| 53°6|—o'9 |—1°8 |— 16 October ...... 47°7| 45°5| 48°1| 47°7| 47°2| 47°3| 46°8| 46-9 |+o'1 |—04 |—0°3 November ...! 42°5 | 41°4| 41°6| 40°0| 41°4| 40°8| 40°4| 40°5 |—0'6 |—1°0 |—o'9 December ...| 38°38] 412] 35°2| 35°3| 37°6| 38°38] 37°9| 37°9 |+1'2 |\+0°3 |+03 Means...... 46°7| 48°9| 47°6| 47°4| 47°6| 47°0| 46°3 | 464 |—0°6|—1°3 |—1'°2 The author constructed from his meteorological journals the foregoing Table for the purpose of showing the Mean Annual Temperature at Arbroath, in the county of Forfar, on the east coast of Scotland. In the Table, columns nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 give the monthly mean temperature, and also the annual mean temperature, of each of the years 1867, 1868, 1869, and 1870. The warmest of these four years was 1868, and the coldest the year immediately preceding, namely 1867. The mean temperature of 1868, as shown by the Table, was 48°'9, and that of 1867 46°-7, the difference between the warmest and coldest year of the four being 2°-2, Column5 is the mean of the monthly and annual temperature of the four years already men- . tioned; column 6 is the mean of 13 years, from 1857 to 1869 inclusive; co- lumn 7 is the mean of 22 years, from 1845 to 1866 inclusive; and column 8 is the mean of 26 years, from 1845 to 1870 inclusive. The annual mean temperature of the 4-year period is 47°-6, of the 13-year period 47°:0, of the 22-year period 46°-3, and of the 26-year period 46°4. It will be observed that the annual means of the two long periods differ by only one tenth of a degree, and are therefore a near ap- proximation to the mean temperature of the locality. The thermometers used are the Minimum thermometer of Rutherford and the Maximum thermometer of Negretti and Zambra, which have been tested by the Standard instruments of the Scottish Meteorological Society. They are attached to a wooden frame fixed to a window-sill having a northern exposure. Very great care is taken to protect the instruments from the effects of radiation and other causes, The thermometers are placed 11 feet from the ground and 70 feet aboye the level of the sea, and distant therefrom 783 yards in a direct line, ars. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 On the Thermo-Dynamics of the General Oceanie Circulation. By Writr1am B. Carpenter, LL.D., M.D., PRS. lence of a temperature not much above 32° F. over the bottom of the great Ocean- beds, at depths greater than 2000 fathoms. As it has been proved by Temperature- soundings made in: the Mediterranean that the temperature of its bottom at like depths is about 54° F., it is obvious that depth, per se, has no relation to the pheno- menon. And the explanation of it propounded by the author is, (1) that a body of Polar water flows over the deepest portions of the Oceanic basins which communi- cate with the Arctic and Antarctic areas; (2) that this flow has its origin in the action of Polar cold on the water subjected to its influence, whereby a descending movement is imparted to the whole mass; besides which, the Polar column, in virtue of its greater density, will have a Seon downward pressure than the Equatorial column at the same level; (3) that this bottom outflow will produce an indraught of the more superficial stratum of Ocean water towards the Polar areas; (4) and that a vertical circulation will thus be maintained by difference of Temperature alone, carrying the lower cold stratum of Ocean water from the Polar towards the Equatorial area, and the upper warm stratum from the Equatorial to- wards the Polar. A different explanation of the facts, however, has been offered by those who regard the Horizontal Circulation, of which the Trade-winds are the primum mobile, as the sole cause of the amelioration of the temperature of the Arctic basin, by an afflux of warm water; for it has been urged that the driving off of the superficial stratum of Equatorial water in the Gulf-stream must produce a partial yoid in that area, which will be filled by a deep indraught of Polar water.—This appears to the author extremely improbable, on general physical grounds. A horizontal movement of surface-water in the open Ocean would not draw up water from below, so long as a /ateral influx can keep up its level; so that any such horizontal Wind-current must have another horizontal movement to complete the circulation. Such a horizontal complement is obvious in the case of the Gulf- stream, of which one portion turns round the Azores to re-enter the Equatorial current, thus completing the shorter circulation ; whilst the other portion, which flows onwards in a N.E. direction, has as its complement the various cold surface-currents which are known to set southwards, and of which it is shown by recent observations that one tends towards the coast of Mogador, sending an offset through the Strait of Gibraltar. ; Further, it was argued by the author that the temperature-phenomena obtained in recent explorations indicate that a N.E. movement of the upper stratum of Oceanic water extends between the coast of Spain and the Faroe Islands to a depth of 500 or 600 fathoms, and that while this cannot be attributed to any propulsive action derived from the Gulf-stream (the thinned out edge of which is less than 50 fathoms in depth), it is exactly such a flow as would be anticipated on the hypo- thesis of a vertical circulation sustained by opposition of Temperature. On the Mathematical Theory of Atmospheric Tides. By the Rev. Professor Cuatiis, M.A., LLD., PRS. The purpose of the author in this communication was to point out a process of analytical reasoning by which the solution of the problem of atmospheric tides might be strictly derived from the general equations of hydrodynamics, For the sake of simplicity, the surface on which the atmosphere rests was supposed to be exactly spherical, the earth was conceived to have no motion of rotation, and the tidal motion to be produced by the moon revolving westward in the plane of the earth’s equator, at her mean distance (R), and with the mean relative angular yelocity (»). Also it was assumed that the relation between the pressure (p) and density (p) is at all times and at all points of the atmosphere p=a’p, the effects of yariation of temperature not being taken into account. As tidal motion is oscillatory, and the oscillations are so small that it is uns 4% 52 REPORT—-1871. necessary to proceed beyond the first order of small quantities, the following equa- tions, expressed in the usual notation, were adopted as being sufficiently general and approximate for the purpose :— &p ier ap ae &h a dh F (1) Pa) de dy? Gi tHlth. Aided taaial cee ee a@(dp) _ Xdv 4 Vdy + Bde — a. 49. abt vet «faye ae p ( The proposed method of solving the problem of tides requires, first, that equa- tion (1) should be satisfied by a particular integral of assigned form; and then that the arbitrary quantities contained in this integral, together with that arising from the integration of equation (2), should admit of being determined by the given conditions of the problem. Before giving the details of the method it is necessary to state the meanings of the literal symbols. The resolved parts of the velocity being wu, v, w at the point xyz at the time ¢, dp = udx + vdy + wde. The attractions of the earth and moon at the unit of distance being respectively G and m, the impressed forces X, Y, Z are the resolved parts of the forces G m q zm = Ue a sy} 07 r RY oe a being the distance of the particle at 2yz from the moon. The angular distance of the moon westward from the meridian of Greenwich at the time ¢ reckoned from the Greenwich transit is wt. If be the north latitude, and 6 the longitude west- ward, of the point zyz distant by x from the earth’s centre, x=7 cosh cos 6, y=r cosd sin 4, s=rsind. _ After transforming by these formule the rectangular coordinates in equa- tion (1) into the polar coordinates 7, 6, X, for certain specified reasons the author assumed that rp = f(r) cosh sin 2(6—pt), and then found that equation (1) is satisfied by this value of rp if the form of f be determined by integrating the equation This integration gave, after omitting the extremely small quantity ae -, the fol- ; 25a" lowing value of ¢, containing two arbitrary constants : gb = (Cr? + C'r-) cos*A sin (26—pt). The remainder of the reasoning depends altogether on this value of @, which was considered by the author to be indispensable for the solution of the problem of atmospheric tides, and, as far as he was aware, had not been before employed for that purpose. _ For determining the three arbitrary quantities there are three conditions. That introduced by the integration of equation (2) is determined by the condition that at either pole of the earth the density has a constant value, because, as may be inferred from the expression for @, the aérial columns having their bases at the poles are motionless. A second condition is, that at the earth’s surface the vertical velocity, = is always zero; so that if b be the earth’s radius, on : The third condition necessarily has reference to the circumstances of the fluid at its superior boundary, respecting which the author argues as follows :— _ That the height of the atmosphere is limited may be inferred from the considera- tion that, by the continual diminution of the density with the distance from the earth’s surface, the upward molecular repulsion must eventually be no greater than the downward acceleration of gravity, in which case there can be no further upward action, and the fluid terminates by an abnormal degradation of the density down TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 to zero at the extreme limit. The particles within the superficial stratum subjected to this disturbance are maintained in equilibrium by the combined action of mole- cular repulsion and the earth’s attraction, till at a small distance from the extreme limit, where the abnormal variation of density ceases, the density is such as might result from avery small constant pressure applied at all points of a surface bounding a terminal density of finite value. (Views of this kind respecting the condition of the atmosphere at its superior limit were entertained by Poisson.) On these prin- ciples it is easy to find a mathematical relation between the terminal density and the height of the atmosphere. The author has, in fact, made the calculation on the supposition that the atmosphere is 60 miles high, and obtains a terminal density equal to six-millionths of that at the earth’s surface. According to the above views a particle at the superior boundary may be sup- posed to remain at the surface, and to be of the same density, in successive instants. dp This condition is expressed by equating the complete differential coefficient (“) to zero. By means of this additional equation the value of the constant C can be calculated on assuming a certain height for the atmosphere. Supposing the height to be 60 miles, the author obtains C=0:000000830 x. a arbitrary quantities being determined, the following results are readily obtained :— Height of tide above the polar column, expressed in feet, = 1-084 cos*\+ 1-275 cos*A cos 2(6— pt). At the equator, where \=0, difference between high and low tide =2:55 feet, Excess of barometer-reading above that at the pole, expressed in inches, =0°00117 cos?’ +.0:00139 cos? A cos 2(8—pt). At the equator the maximum difference of the barometer-readings=0-00278 in. The data employed in calculating these coefficients were :— tte I. Big -e2ck: peGilng (9225) ol G70 Ros g ~ 82 ~ 389’ the density of air =0-C013, the density of mercury =13°568. The above determination of the maximum difference of barometer-readings at the equator admits of comparison with the results of barometric observations made at St. Helena and at Singapore, as given in p. 129 of the Philosophical Transactions for 1852. These results agree with the theory in placing the high tide immediately under the moon ; but the maximum difference of readings is 0:00365 in. at St. Helena and 0:00570in. at Singapore. Both consequently are in excess of the theoretical value 0:00278 in. But it is to be remarked that the latter depends on the assumption that the atmosphere is GO miles high; if it had heen supposed of less height, say 40 miles, there would have been a closer agreement between the observed and theo- retical values. - The author’stheory accounts in a remarkable manner for the fact that although for the atmosphere high tide occurs under the moon, there is reason to say that for ~a general ocean of the uniform depth of three or four miles it would be low tide under the moon. The explanation giyen by the theory is, that there is a certain depth of ocean or height of atmosphere for which the tide becomes infinite, namely, when the rate of propagation of waves, as due to the earth’s attraction, is equal to the rate of the moon’s relative rotation about the earth. In that case the tide would be accumulative, and might be of unlimited amount. This critical depth, or height, is shown by the theory to be about 8:4 miles for each fluid. It is because the actual mean depth of the ocean is less, and the actual height of the atmosphere greater, than this critical value, that the ocean-tide under the moon is the opposite of the atmospheric tide. Remarks on Aérial Currents. By Prof, Conprye, 54 REPORT—1871. On Wet- and Dry-bulb Formule. By Prof. J. D. Evererr, F.R.S.E. The author said August, Apjohn, and Regnault have investigated formule for determining the dew-point, by calculation, from the temperatures of the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers; but Regnault’s experiments on the specific heat of air were not performed till a later date, and all these authors have adopted, in their investigations, the value obtained by Delaroche and Berard, which is ‘267, whereas the correct value is ‘237. But when this correct value is introduced into Reg- nault’s formula, the discrepancies which he found to exist between calculation and observation are increased, and amount, on an average, to about 25 per cent. of the difference between wet-bulb temperature and dew-point. August and Apjohn erred in assuming that all the air which gives heat to the wet bulb (1) falls to the tem-~ perature of the wet bulb, and (2) becomes saturated. These two false assumptions would jointly produce no error in the result, if the depressions of temperature in the different portions of air affected were exactly proportional to their increments of vapour-tension, and if some of the air were saturated at the temperature of the wet bulb. But it is probable that, when there is little or no wind, the mass of air which falls sensibly in temperature is larger than that which receives a sensible accession of vapour, and that, in high wind, the supposition that some of the air has fallen to the temperature of the wet bulb is more nearly fulfilled than the supposition that it has taken up enough vapour to saturate it. The effect of radi- ation, which is ignored in the formulze, tends in the same direction as these two inequalities, and all three are roughly compensated by attributing to air a greater specific heat than it actually has. The discrepancies above referred to are thus explained. On the General Circulation and Distribution of the Atmosphere. By Professor J. D, Everert, F.RS.L. The object of this paper was to call the attention of meteorologists to a theory which is jointly due to Prof. James Thomson of Belfast, and Mr. Ferrel of Boston, U.S.A., and which gives the only satisfactory account of the grand currents of the atmosphere, and of the distribution of barometric pressure over the earth’s surface, the irregularities arising from the distribution of land and water being neglected. Independent proofs were also given of some of Mr. Ferrel’s results, In yirtue of the earth’s rotation, with angular velocity o, a body, in latitude A, moving along the earth’s surface with relative linear velocity v, tends to describe on the earth’s surface a curve concave to the body’s right in the northern and to its left in the southern hemisphere, the radius of cuvature of the concavity being ee feet, if the velocity is in feet per second. The deflection from a parallel of latitude into a great circle is usually negligible in comparison, being represented by the curvature of a circle of radius RcotanA, where R is the earth’s radius. To keep the moving body in a great circle, or in a parallel of latitude, requires a constraining force per unit of mass equal to 2wsind. v, which if the foot and second be units, is — ; and this formula applies alike to all horizontal directions of motion. The air over the extra-tropical parts of the earth has, upon the whole, a relative motion towards the east, and therefore presses towards the tropics with a force which can be computed by the above formula, if the eastward velocity at each parallel is known. If v denote this velocity at any parallel, in feet per second, the increase of pressure per degree of latitude at that parallel is 0019» sin\ inches of mercury. This is sufficient to account for the observed increase of pressure from the poles to the tropics, which may be roughly stated at ‘01 inch per degree. Between the tropics, the general movement of the air, relative to the earth, is towards the west, and the increase of pressure is therefore from the equator towards the tropics. If ay stratum of air have less than the average eastward or westward ve- locity (relative to the earth) which prevails through the strata above it, it will TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5D not be able to resist the differential pressure from or towards the equator which their motion produces. For this reason, the lowest stratum of air, having its velocity relative to the earth kept down by friction, generally moves from the tropical belts of high barometer to the regions of low barometer at the poles and equator. This is the origin of our S.W. winds, and of the prevalent N. W. winds of the Southern oceans, which must be regarded as constituting an undercurrent towards the pole, beneath a topmost current, also towards the pole, and a middle return current. Between the tropics, on the other hand, the motion thus generated in the lowest stratum of air coincides with the motion due to difference of tem- perature, and this is probably the reason why the trade-winds are more constant than the winds of the temperate zones. Excess of temperature and moisture in the equatorial regions is unquestionably the prime mover of the winds, as has long been believed; but the crossing of the winds at the tropic, which has often been coupled with it, is a physical im- possibility. The tendency of a moving mass of air to swerve to its own right in the northern hemisphere explains the well-established law (Buys Ballot’s), that the wind, in- stead of blowing at right angles to the isobaric lines, and so running down the steepest gradient, usually makes an angle of only 20° or 50° with these lines, keeping the region of lower barometer on its left. The rotation of cyclones is an example of this law; and the pressure which the spirally inflowing streams exert to their own right in virtue of the earth’s rotation is the main cause of the excessive central depression. Reference was made to Prof. J. Thomson’s paper in the British Association Re- port for 1857, and to papers by Mr. Ferrel in the ‘American Mathematical Monthly for 1860, and in ‘ Nature,’ July 20, 1871. Observations Physiques en Ballon. By M. Janssuy. The Influence of the Moon on the Rainfall. By W. Puneutty, F.RS. §. The author commenced by stating that though many of the popular beliefs re- specting “The Moon and the Weather” were no doubt utterly untenable, Sir J. Herschel and M. Arago concurred in the opinion that, on the whole, the rainfall was somewhat below the general average about the time of full moon, and that the fact was ascribable to the effect of the solar heat ubsorbed by the moon and radiated by her to us. He then proceeded to show that the heat thus received by us must be greatest when, or very soon after, the moon was full, when she was in perigee, and (in the northern hemisphere) when she had north declination; that the effect of this heat would be a diminution of the rainfall, not during the lunation as a whole, but during a certain portion of it, and therefore an augmentation during some other period; that the effect would be variable and never considerable ; and that in the northern hemisphere it would be a maximum when the moon was, at one and the same time, full, in perigee, and in her highest north declination. The paper was illustrated with several tables and diagrams based on rainfall obser- yations made at Torquay during eighty-seven complete lwnations ending with January 19, 1871. The following were amongst the conclusions with which the paper closed :— No indication of the moon’s influence on the rainfall can be detected in the data furnished by an isolated /unation, or by even a few successive dunations. Though it may be doubted whether the rainfall statistics of a period shorter than that in which the moon’s nodes complete a revolution, or of a solitary locality, would justify general inferences, the data under discussion appear to indicate that, in the long run, the moon does somewhat influence the rainfall; that on the average the dry period of a /unation extends from the first day before full moon to the first day before the third quarter, and the wet period from the day of the first quarter to the second day before the full moon; that the moon’s influence on the number of wet days is less marked ; and that the rainfalls are, on the whole, rather least heavy when the moon has north declination, and when she is in perigee—all indications harmonizing well with physical considerations. 56 REPORT—1871. On the Inferences drawn by Drs. Magnus and Tyndall from their Experiments on the Radiant Properties of Vapour. By R. Russert. The author agreed in the main with Tyndall’s deductions. He endeayoured to show that vapour of water had no power of transmitting its radiant heat into space. This proposition was supported by arguments from various natural phenomena. On Parhelia, or Mock Suns, observed in Ireland. By Wriiu1am A. Tratt, of the Geological Survey of Ireland. The author began by stating that the above phenomena were analogous to the araselenze or mock moons, and though of not unfrequent occurence in northern Pe aaae were in these countries of great rarity. The phenomena observed by him were seen on the 28th of January, 1869, near the village of Strangford (Co. Down), lat. 54° 21’, long. 5° 35’, west of Greenwich, and first appeared as three brilliant suns situated in the same horizontal line, about 15° to 20° above the horizon, and of equal brightness. The two outer, or mock suns, gradually assumed the prismatic colours, and lengthening out joined above, thus forming the “ ordinary halo,” in which the red colour was nearest to the real sun. Concentric and exterior to it was another prismatic halo, the “extraordinary halo,” which was rather fainter, in which also the red colour was innermost. Touching this latter externally was the “ circumzenithal halo,” which was by far the most brilliant of the three, lying as if horizontally overhead. In this like- wise the red colour was next the sun, thus forming the outer periphery of the halo, The phenomena began a little after 2 p.m., and lasted only for about half an hour, attaining its greatest splendour at 2" 20™ p.m. Throughout the duration of the phenomena the sky was of a clear blue colour, and almost unobscured ; a few light fleecy clouds were, however, drifting northward, slight “ cirrus ” clouds stretched across part of the sky, from E. to W., and through- out the whole time the points where the mock suns had first appeared continued the brightest. With regard to the state of the weather at the time, the day was mild and fine, no rain falling till the evening. The sun was warm, but a cold southerly wind prevailed. The moon was full on the previous day, and exceptionally high spring- tides occurred along the N.E. portion of the Irish coast. The barometer fell rapidly ‘7 inch within twelve hours. The wind veered round gradually through 140°, and increased in velocity from 6 to 38 miles an hour, the thermometer ranging from 42° to 46°, and towards evening the rain descended in torrents*. The succeeding ten days or fortnight was characterized by excessively bad weather, rain, and storms. The author lastly touched on the different theories by which these phenomena could be most easily accounted for. Tut Progress oF Sctencer. Government Action on Scientific Questions. By Lieut.-Col. A. Srranex, F.R.S., FRAS. The author called attention to the number, variety, and importance of those national duties, involving Science, which can be performed by the Executive Government alone. He pointed out that the English Government possesses as yet no provision for regulating the performance of these duties in a systematic manner. He maintained that the requisite provision must consist of two addi- tions to the existing administration, neither of which, however, unaccompanied by the other would suffice—namely, first, a Minister of Science ; and, second, * From Observations at the Armagh Observatory. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 a permanent Consultative Council, to advise the various departments through the Minister. His purpose was not to endeavour to uproot the existing system, but to graft upon it additions demanded by experience and the progress of knowledge. Assuming that the Minister would be appointed for his station, parliamentary ability, and political influence, he would need advisers, who should be a permanent, well-paid, and therefore a responsible Council of Science, repre- senting all the main branches of science, the different arms of the military and naval services, commerce, agriculture, and the engineering profession. The Council should be quite independent of political influences. The author described the mode of election to the Council which he proposed, and in which he would give a certain voice to the Scientific Societies. ‘The duties of the Council would be— first, to advise the Government on all questions arising in the ordinary routine of administration submitted to it by the various departments; second, to advise the Government on special questions, such as the founding of new scientific institu- tions and the modification or abolition of old ones, the sanctioning of scientific expeditions and applications for grants for scientific purposes; third, to consider and decide upon inventions tendered to Government for the use of the State; and, fourth, to conduct or superintend the experiments necessary to enable it to perform these duties. This ao not entirely relieve the Government of all responsibility in scientific matters. The advantages to the nation accruing from a sound and comprehensive administration of science were incalculable. The author referred, for fuller particulars regarding the subject, to his paper “On the Necessity for a Permanent Commission on State Scientific Questions,” read before the Royal United Service Institution on the 15th of May last, and published in No. 64 of the Journal of the Institution. Obstacles to Science-Teaching in Schools. By the Rey. W. Tuckwett. After describing the slow progress made in scientific teaching since the Report of the Public Schools’ Commission in 1864, and declaring that the first-class English schools teaching science systematically at the present momentcan b e counted on the fingers of one hand, the author proceeded to show that the head masters were not altogether to be blamed for this state of things. They have inherited an order of tuition some hundred years old, fortified with minute, unbroken venerable traditions, looked upon for ages past as the supreme instrument and test of intellectual power, whole and complete in itself, supported by immense experience, worked by tried machinery. Into the midst of this well- mapped, well-proved system is thrust a strange and foreign subject, comprising many branches, and demanding multifold appliances, whose value as a mental weapon they have had no means of testing; they are called upon to surrender to this a portion of the time which already seems too short for other work, and to in- augurate a department of school labour over which they can exercise no sort of supervision or control. They ask for guidance in the new arrangements which they are called upon to form ; whether any one department is educationally funda- mental to the rest; whether sciences of experiment should precede or follow those of observation; what portions of the old course are to be abandoned; how far the Universities, which in many cases stamp the practical value of their work, will recognize such abandonment. They look round for accredited teachers and ap- proved text-books, for enlightenment as to the amount of apparatus and its cost, for details of teaching and of testing, and they look in vain. They must fall back upon their own moral consciousness, for no help is tendered to them trom without. I lace this helplessness of head masters first on the list of obstacles which we five to chronicle; and I plead, for the moment, in their behalf, almost more than in behalfof science. For their attitude is frank and cordial; they are prepared as a body to meet the demands of the scientific public loyally and with all their might. If those who are pressing modern subjects on them will entertain their just appeal and try to understand their difficulties, they will prove the best auxiliaries science can hope to gain; for they will bring to this new department of their work the same energy and wisdom, the same self-sacrificing impartial zeal, which have 58 REPORT—187]1. already won for them the deserved esteem of the community; but if we fail to work in harmony with them, their want of sympathy and interest will be simply fatal to our schemes. Next to this helplessness of head masters came the difficulty of obtaining pro- perly trained and certificated science-teachers. With the admirable German system, comprising special examination of Candidates for Masterships, not only in knowledge, but in teaching power, together with a year of trial in some large school before entering on their work, was compared the insufficient test offered by the English University Degree, a high test, no doubt, of intelligence and know- ledge, but not of power to communicate knowledge or to infuse intelligence. Third in rank amongst the obstacles to be surmounted was placed the cost of paying science masters; and the School Commissioners, now redistributing the endowments of the country, were urged to set apart funds for science-teaching in every large school, and to insist on their being faithfully expended for the purpose. The necessity of having good teachers was then dwelt on. The first condition of success in scientific, as of other teaching, is obviously the teacher. He must be a man thorough in his special knowledge, and, if his special knowledge is to be well balanced in reference to other subjects, of the widest general culture. He must not spend all his time in teaching, but must have leisure to prepare lessons and experiments. He must possess the delicate art of handling many pupils, the force of manner which attracts them, the enthusiasm which puts and keeps them en rapport with him, the insight which reads their minds, the tact which can pre- serve discipline without checking inquiry, and, possessing all this and more, he must be well and highly paid. An exact estimate was offered of the cost of apparatus; and the value of work- shops, museums, and other accessories of the kind was dwelt upon. After glancing at the action of the universities, the author touched on a grave item in the catalogue of difficulties. Granting that scientific teaching is essential to a perfect education, the anxious question meets us—How is it to be inserted in the curriculum of an established school? We are told that, to meet the demands of University competition, the highest pressure is already put upon the time and brains of boys; and that if four hours a week are to be accepted as the minimum demand of science, classical work must suffer. And, in order to solye this pro- blem, some well-known schools have instituted a system of bifurcation, to which the author was opposed. If linguistic training is bad without the rationalizing aid of scientific study, no less is exclusive science bad when divorced from the refining society of literature and philology ; and an admission that certain institu- tions stunt particular faculties is oddly followed by a device which causes each to work unchecked. The difficulty must be met fairly, and on premises which scholars as well as savans can understand. It must be met by asking whether in purely classical schools no time is wasted; why it is that in the lower forms a boy takes years to master what a clever tutor teaches in a few months at home ; why the weapon of analysis, which opens every other chamber of human know- ledge, should be discarded in the case of scholarship alone; whether unattractive- ness is an inherent vice in Greek and Latin only, or whether, if judicious method wakens pleasure and keeps alive attention, that of itself is not economy of time; whether, lastly, the day has not arrived when Greek and Latin verse-making may not be allowed to disappear. After having written some thousand Greek and Latin verses in his own school-days, the author pronounced them waste of time, and protested against them altogether. Their elimination from our school system will be clear gain in itself, and will set free at once a much larger amount of time than is demanded for the prosecution of natural science. After enumerating at some length the details essential to the giving a fair place to science in education, the paper ended as follows :—“‘The summary of what I have to say is this, that our schools, in their readiness to establish science, must be aided from without. All questions of funds, of apparatus, of teachers, of selected text-books, of coordinated subjects, of University influence, and of united action come to the same point at last. We must have central leadership, at once commanding and intelligent, if the introduction of science into our schools is to be simultaneous and effective. The question has passed out of the realm of general Te TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 59 discussion ; it is ripe, if ever a question was, for detailed and practical settlement. There must be within this Association, there must be within this room, men qualified in all respects to appreciate the nature of our difficulties, to formulate rules for our guidance, to press our pecuniary needs on those who are for a time the bursars of our educational endowments, to watch and influence the action of the Universities, as on other points, so especially in the projected ‘Leaving Exa- minations.’ To them I confidently appeal. I appeal on behalf of countless schools, which, ready to admit reform, are helpless to initiate it. I appeal on behalf of those few schools which have initiated it, and are endeayouring courageously and honestly, but with little of useful concert, with much of wasted force, to work it out. Let it once be announced to the educational community that a committee of distinguished men, having at heart not merely scientific interests, but the interests of the Uni- versities and the Schools, has been armed by this Association to counsel and to assist, to recommend and to accredit, to harmonize and to combine, to become, in short, the recognized representatives and controllers of scientific education, and they will not lack grateful clients, or attain inadequate results. If science is to flourish in the land, preliminary knowledge and training, bestowed with care upon our boy- hood, must leave our manhood free for original research. If our English educa- tion is to be abreast of continental teaching, one half of our mental faculties must no longer be suffered to lie dormant. To have removed this great reproach, and to have helped this great reform, will be an achievement worthy to take high rank even amongst those splendid services to science and to the community which give lustre to the British Association.” CHEMISTRY. Address by Professor Anprews, FBS. L. § E., President of the Section. Amupst the vicissitudes to which scientific theories are liable, it was scarcely to be expected that the discarded theory of Phlogiston should be resuscitated in’ our day and connected with one of the most important generalizations of modern science. The phlogistic theory, elaborated nearly two hundred years ago by Beecher and Stahl, was not, it now appears, wholly founded in error; on the con- trary, it was an imperfect anticipation of the great principle of energy, which lays so important a part in physical and chemical changes. The disciple of hlogiston, ignorant of the whole history of chemical combination, connected, it is true, his phlogiston with one only of the combining bodies, instead of recog- nizing that it is eliminated by the minor of all. “There can be no doubt,” says Dr. Crum Brown, who first suggested this view, “that potential energy is what the chemists of the 17th century meant when they spoke of phlogiston.” “ Phlo- giston and latent heat,” playfully remarks Volhard, “ which formerly opposed each other in so hot a combat, have entered into a peaceful compact; and, to banish all recollection of their former strife, have assumed in common the new name of energy.” But, as Dr. Odling well remarks, “in interpreting the phlogistic writings by the light of modern doctrine, we are not to attribute to their authors the pre- cise notion of energy which now prevails. It is only contended that the phlogis- tians had in their time possession of a real truth in nature, which, altogether lost sight of in the intermediate period, has since crystallized out in a definite form.” But whatever may be the true value of the Stahlian views, there can be no doubt that the discoveries which have shed so bright a lustre round the name of Black mark an epoch in the history of science, and gave a mighty impulse to human progress. A recent attempt to ignore the labours of Black and his great contemporaries, and to attribute the foundation of modern chemistry to Lavoisier alone, has already been amply refuted in an able inaugural address delivered a short time ago from the Chair formerly occupied by Black. The statements of Dr. Crum Brown may, indeed, be confirmed on the authority of Lavoisier himself. Through the kindness of Dr, Black’s representatives I have heen permitted to 60 REPORT—1871. examine his correspondence, which has been carefully preserved, and I have been so fortunate as to find in it three original letters from Lavoisier to Dr. Black. They were written in 1789 and 1790, and they appear to comprise the whole of the correspondence on the part of Lavoisier which passed between those distin- guished men. Some extracts from these letters were published soon after Dr. Black’s death by his friends Dr. Adam Ferguson and Dr. Robison ; but the letters themselves, as far as I know, have never appeared in an entire form. I will crave permission to have them printed as an appendix to this address*, Lavoisier, it will be seen, addresses Black as one whom he was accustomed to regard as his master, and whose discoveries had produced important revolutions in science. It may, indeed, be said with truth that Lavoisier completed the foundation on which the grand structure of modern chemistry has since arisen; but Black, Priestley, Scheele, and Cavendish were before Lavoisier, and their claims to a share in the great work are not inferior to those of the illustrious French chemist. Among the questions of general chemistry, few are more interesting, or have of late attracted more attention, than the relations which subsist between the che- mical composition and refractive power of bodies for light. Newton, it will be remembered, pointed out the distinction between the refractive power of a medium = 77 2 where p is the refractive index, and d the density of the refracting medium. Sir J. Herschel, anticipating later observations, remarked, in 1830, that Newton’s function only ex- presses the intrinsic refractive power on the supposition of matter being infinitely divisible ; but that if material bodies consist of a finite number of atoms, differing in weight for different substances, the intrinsic refractive power of the atoms of any given medium will be the product of the above function by the atomic weight. The same remark has since been made by Berthelot. Later observations have led to an important modification in the form of Newton’s function. Beer showed that the experiments of Biot and Arago, as well as those of Dulong, on the refractive power of gases, agree quite as well with a simpler expression as with that given by Newton; and Gladstone and Dale proposed in 1863 the formula and its refractive index, and gave for the former the expression — as expressing more accurately than any other the results of their experiments on the refractive power of liquids. The researches of Landolt and Wiillner have fully confirmed the general accuracy of the new formula. An important observa- tion made, about twenty years ago, by Delfis has been the starting-point for all subsequent investigations on this subject. Delffs remarked that the refractive indices of the compound ethers increase with the atomic weight, and that isomeric ethers have the same refractive indices. The later researches of Gladstone and of Landolt have, on the whole, confirmed these observations, and have shown that the specific refractive power depends chiefly on the atomic composition of the body, and is little influenced by the mode of grouping of the atoms. These inquiries have gone further, and have led to the discovery of the refraction-equivalents of the elements. By comparing the refractive power of compound bodies differing from one another by one or more atoms of the same element, Landolt succeeded in obtaining numbers which express the refraction-equivalents of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and corresponding numbers have been obtained for other elements by Gladstone and Haagen. The whole subject has been recently discussed and enriched with many new observations in an able memoir by Gladstone. As might be expected in so novel and recondite a subject, some anomalies occur which are difficult to explain. Thus hydrogen appears in different classes of compounds with at least two refraction-equivalents, one three times as great as the other; and the refraction-equivalents of the aromatic compounds and their derivatives, as given by observation, are in general higher than the calculated numbers. A happy modification of the ice-calorimeter has been made by Bunsen, The principle of the method (to use as a measure of heat the change of volume which ice undergoes in melting) had already occurred to Herschel, and, as it now appears, still earlier to Hermann; but their observations had been entirely overlooked by physicists, and had led to no practical result. Bunsen has, indeed, clearly pointed * Ordered by the General Committee to be printed among the Reports. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 out that the success of the method depends upon an important condition, which is entirely his own. The ice to be melted must be prepared with water free from air, and must surround the source of heat in the a of a solid cylinder frozen artificially iz situ. Those who have worked on the subject of heat know how dif- ficult it is to measure absolute quantities with certainty, even where relative results of great accuracy may be attained. The ice-calorimeter of Bunsen will therefore be welcomed as an important addition to our means of research. Bunsen has applied his method to determine the specific heats of ruthenium, calcium, and indium, and finds that the atomic weight of indium must be increased by one half in order to bring it into conformity with the law of Dulong and Petit. He has also made a new determination of the density of ice, which he finds to be 0-9167. In a report on the Heat of Combination, which was made to this Association in 1849, the existence of a group of isothermal bases was pointed out. “ As some of the bases” (potash, soda, baryta, strontia), it was remarked, “form what we may perhaps designate an isothermal group, such bases will develope the same or nearly the same heat in combining with an acid, and no heat will be disengaged during their mutual displacements.” The latest experiments of Thomsen have given a remarkable extension to this group of isothermal bases. He finds that the hydrates of lithium, thallium, calcium, and magnesium produce, when all corrections are made, the same amount of heat, on being neutralized by sulphuric acid, as the four bases before mentioned. The hydrate of tetramethylammonium belongs to the same class of bases. Ethylamin, on the other hand, agrees with ammonia, which, as has been long known, gives out less heat in combining with the acids than potash or soda. An elaborate investigation of the amount of heat evolved in the combustion of coal of different kinds has been made by Scheurer-Kestner and Meusnier, accompanied by analyses of the coal. Coal rich in carbon and hydrogen diseneages more heat in burning than coal in which those elements are partially replaced by oxygen. After deducting the cinders, the heat produced by the com- bustion of 1 gramme of coal varied from 8215 to 9622 units. Tyndall has given an extended account of his experiments on the action of a beam of strong light on certain vapours. He finds that there is a marked dif- ference in the absorbing-power of different vapours for the actinic rays. Thus nitrite of amyl in the state of ,vapour absorbs rapidly the rays of light competent to decompose it, while iodide of allyl in the same state allows them freely to pass, Morven has continued these experiments in the south of France, and among other results he finds that sulphurous acid is decomposed by the solar beam. Roscoe has prosecuted the photo-chemical investigations which Bunsen and he began some years ago. For altitudes above 10 degrees, the relation between the sun’s altitude and the chemical intensity of light is represented by a straight line. Till the sun has reached an altitude of about 20 degrees, the chemical action pro- duced by diffused daylight exceeds that of the direct sunlight; the two actions are then balanced; and at higher elevations the direct sunlight is superior to the diffused light. The supposed inferiority of the chemical action of light under a tropical sun to its action in higher latitudes proves to be a mistake. According to Roscoe and Thorpe, the chemical intensity of light at Para under the equator in the month of April is more than three times greater than at Kew in the month of August, Hunter has given a great extension to the earlier experiments of Saussure on the absorptive power of charcoal for gases. Cocoanut-charcoal, according to Hunter's experiments, exceeds all other ‘varieties of wood-charcoal in absorptive power, taking up at ordinary pressures 170 volumes of ammonia and 69 of carbonic acid. Methylic alcohol is more largely absorbed than any other vapour at temperatures from 90° to 127°; but at 159° the absorption of ordinary alcohol exceeds it. Cocoanut-charcoal absorbs forty-four times its volume of the vapour of water at 127°. The absorptive power is increased by pressure, Last year two new processes for improving the manufacture of chlorine attracted the attention of the Section: one of these has already proved to be a success; and I am glad to be able to state that Mr. Deacon has recently overcome certain diffi- culties in his method, and has obtained a complete absorption of the chlorine. May we hope to see oxygen prepared by a cheap and continuous process from 62 RErPoRT—1871. atmospheric air? With baryta the problem can be solved yery perfectly, if not economically. Another process is that of Tessier de Mothay, in which the man- ganate of potassium is decomposed by a current of superheated steam, and after- wards revived by being heated in a current of air. A company has lately been formed in New York to apply this process to the production of a brilliant house- light. A compound Argand burner is used, haying a double row of apertures; the inner row is supplied with oxygen, the outer with coal-gas or other combustible. The applications of pure oxygen, if it could be prepared cheaply, would be very numerous; and few discoveries would more amply reward the inventor. Among other uses it might be applied to the production of ozone free from nitric acid by the action of the electrical discharge, and to the introduction of that singular body, in an efficient form, into the arts as a bleaching and oxidizing agent. Tessier de Mothay has also proposed to prepare hydrogen gas on the large scale by heating hydrate of lime with anthracite. We learn from the history of metallurgy that the valuable alloy which copper forms with zinc was known and applied long before zinc itself was discovered. Nearly the same remark may be made at present with regard to manganese and its alloys. The metal is difficult to obtain, and has not in the pure state been applied to any useful purpose ; but its alloys with copper and other metals have been pre- pared, and some of them are likely to be of great value. The alloy with zinc and copper is used as a substitute for german silver, and possesses some advantages over it. Not less important is the alloy of iron and manganese prepared according to the process of Henderson, by reducing in a Siemens’s furnace a mixture of car- bonate of manganese and oxide of iron. It contains from 20 to 30 per cent. of manganese, and will doubtless replace to a large extent the spiegeleisen now used in the manufacture of Bessemer steel. The classical researches of Roscoe have made us acquainted for the first time with metallic vanadium. LBerzelius obtained brilliant scales, which he supposed to be the metal, by heating an oxychloride in ammonia; but they have proved to be a nitride. Roscoe prepared the metal, by reducing its chloride in a current of hydrogen, as a light grey powder, with a metallic lustre under the microscope. It has a remarkable affinity fate for nitrogen and silicon, Like phosphorus, it is a pentad, and the vanadates correspond in composition to the phosphates, but differ in the order of stability at ordinary temperatures, the soluble trluesa salts being less stable than the tetrabasic compounds. Sainte-Claire Deville, in continuation of his researches on dissociation, has ex- amined the conditions under which the vapour of water is decomposed by metallic iron. The iron, maintained at a constant temperature, but varying in different experiments from 150° C, to 1600° C., was exposed to the action of vapour of water of known tension. It was found that for a given temperature the iron con- tinued to oxidize, till the tension of the hydrogen formed reached an inyariable value. In these experiments, as Deville remarks, iron behaves as if it emitted a vapour (hydrogen), obeying the laws of hygrometry. An interesting set of expe- riments has been made by Lothian Bell on the power possessed by spongy metallic iron of splitting up carbonic oxide into carbon and carbonic acid, the former being deposited in the iron. A minute quantity of oxide of iron is always formed in this reaction. The fine researches of Graham on the colloidal state have received an interesting extension by Reynolds’s discovery of a new group of colloid bodies. A solution of mercuric chloride is added to a mixture of acetone and a dilute solution of potassium hydrate till the precipitate which at first appears is redissolved, and the clear liquid poured upon a dialyzer which floated upon water. The composition of the colloid body thus obtained in the anhydrous state was found to be ( (CH). CO), Hg,0,. The hydrate is regarded by Reynolds as a feeble acid, even more readily decomposed than alkaline silicates. A solution containing only five per cent. forms a firm jelly when heated to 50°C. Analogous compounds were formed with the higher members of the fatty ketone series. In the same direc- tion are the researches of Marcet on blood, which he finds to be a strictly collvid fluid containing a small proportion of diffusible salts. In organic chemistry the labours of chemists have been of late largely directed by Se TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 to a group of hydrocarbons which were first discovered among the products of the destructive distillation of coal or oil. The central body round which these researches have chiefly turned is benzol, whose discovery will always be asso- ciated with the name of Faraday. With this body naphthalin and anthracene form a series, whose members differ by C, H,, and their boiling-points by about 140°. The recent researches of Liebermann have proved, as was before suspected, that chrysene is a fourth member of the same series. J may add that ethylene, which boils at about —76°, corresponds in composition and boiling-point to a lower member of the same series. Kekulé propounded some time ago with great clearness the question as to whether the six atoms of hydrogen in benzol are equivalent, or, on the contrary, play dissimilar parts. According to the first hypothesis, there can be only one modification of the mono- and penta-derivatives of ior while three modifications of the bi-, tri-, and tetra-derivatives are possible. On the second hypothesis, two modifications of the mono-derivatives are possible, and in general a much larger number of isomeric compounds than on the first hypothesis. Such is the problem which has of late occupied the attention of some of the ablest chemists of Germany, and has led to a large number of new and important investigations. The aromatic hydrocarbons, toluol, xylol, &c., which differ from one another by CH,, have been shown by Fittig to be methyl derivatives of benzol. According to the first of the two hypotheses to which I haye referred, only one benzol and one methyl benzol (toluol) are possible, and accordingly no isomeric modifications of these bodies have been discovered. But the three following members of the series ought each to be capable of existing in three distinct isomeric forms. The researches of Fittig had already established the existence of two isomeric compounds having the formula C, H,,,—methyl- toluol (obtained synthetically from toluol) and isoxylol (prepared by the removal of an atom of methyl from the mesytelene of Kane). The same chemist has since obtained the third modification, orthoxylol, by the decomposition of the paraxy- lylic acid. These three isomeric hydrocarbons may be readily distinguished from one another by the marked difference in the properties of their trinitro-compounds, and also by their different behaviour with oxidizing agents. Other facts have been adduced in support of the equality or homogeneity of position of the hydrogen atoms in benzol. Thus Hiibner and Alsbere have prepared aniline, a mono- derivative, from different biderivatives, and have always obtained the same body. The latest researches on this subject are those of Richter. Baeyer has prepared artificially picoline, a base isomeric with aniline, and dis- eovered by Anderson in his very able researches on the pyridine series. Of the two methods described by Baeyer, one is founded on an experiment of Simpson, in which a new base was obtained by heating tribromallyl with an alcoholic solution of ammonia. By pushing further the action of the heat, Baeyer succeeded in expelling the whole of the bromine from Simpson’s base in the form of hydro- bromic acid, and in obtaining picoline. The same chemist has also prepared artificially collidine, another base of the pyridine series, To this list of remark- able eyeshenical discoveries, another of the highest interest has lately been added ift—the preparation of artificial coniine. He obtained it by the action of ammonia on butyric aldehyde (C,H,0O). ‘The artificial base has the same com- position as coniine prepared from hemlock. It is a liquid of an amber-yellow colour, haying the characteristic odour and nearly all the usual reactions of ordi- nary coniine. Its physiological properties, so far as they have been examined, agree with those of coniine from hemlock; but the artificial base has not yet been obtained in large quantity, nor perfectly pure. Valuable papers on alizarine have been published by Perkin and Schunck. The latter has described a new acid, the anthraflayic, which is formed in the artificial preparation of alizarine. Madder contains another colouring principle, purpurine, which, like alizarine, yields anthracene when acted on by reducing agents, and has also been prepared artificially. These colouring principles may be distinguished from one another, as Stokes has shown, by their absorption bands; and Perkin has lately confirmed by this optical test the interesting observation of Schunck, that finished madder prints contain nothing but pure alizarine in combination with the mordant employed. 64 REPORT—1871. Hofmann has achieved another triumph in a department of chemistry which he has made peculiarly his own. In 1857 he showed that alcohol bases, analogous to those derived from ammonia, could be obtained by replacement from phosphu- retted hydrogen ; but he failed in his attempts to prepare the two lower derivatives. These missing links he has now supplied, and has thus established a complete a between the derivatives of ammonia and of phosphuretted hydrogen. he same able chemist has lately described the aromatic cyanates, of which one only, the phenylic cyanate (CO, C, H,, N), was previously known, having been discovered about twenty years ago by Hofmann himself. He now prepares this compound by the action of phosphoric anhydride on phenylurethane, and by a similar method he has obtained the tolylic, xylylic, and naphthylic cyanates. Stenhouse had observed many years ago that when aniline is added to furfurol the mixture becomes rose-red, and communicates a fugitive red stain to the skin, and also to linen and silk. He has lately resumed the investigation of this subject, and has obtained two new bases, furfuraniline and furfurtoluidine, which, like rosaniline, form beautifully coloured salts, although the bases themselves are nearly colourless, or of a pale brown colour. The furfuraniline hydrochlorate (C,, H,, O, N, Cl) is prepared by adding furfurol to an alcoholic solution of aniline hydrochlorate containing an excess of aniline. We have also from Stenhouse a new contribution to the history of orcin, in continuation of his former masterly researches on that body. He has prepared the trinitroorcin (C,H, (NO,),0,), a powerful acid, having many points of resemblance to picric acid. In connexion with another research of Stenhouse made many years ago, it is interesting to find his formula for euxanthon, which was also that of Erdmann, confirmed by the recent experiments of Baeyer. The interesting work of Dewar on the oxidation of picoline must not be passed over without notice. By the action of the permanganate of potassium on that body, he has obtained a new acid which bears the same relation to pyridine that phthalic acid does to benzol. Thorpe and Young have published a preliminary notice of some results of great promise which they have obtained by exposing parafiin to a high temperature in closed vessels. By this treatment it is almost completely resolved into liquid hydrocarbons, whose boiling-points range from 18° C. to 300° C. Those boiling under 100° have been examined, and consist chiefly of olefines. In connexion with this subject, it may be interesting to recall the experiments of Pelouze and Cahours on the Pennsylvanian oils, which proved to be a mixture of carbohydrogens belonging to the marsh-gas series. An elaborate exposition of Berthelot’s method of transforming an organic compound into a fi yteoeetbtin containing a maximum of hydrogen has appeared in a connected form. The organic body is heated in a sealed tube, with a large excess of astrong solution of hydriodie acid, to the temperature of 275°. The pressure in these experiments Berthelot estimates at 100 atmospheres, but apparently without having made any direct measurements. He has thus prepared ethyl hydride (C,H,) from alcohol, aldehyde, &c., hexyl hydride (C, H,,) from benzol. Berthelot has submitted both wood-charcoal and coal to the reducing action of hydriodic acid, and among other interesting results he claims to have obtained in this way oil of petroleum. By the action of chloride of zinc upon codeia, Matthiessen and Burnside have obtained apocodeia, which stands to codeia in the same relation as apomorphia to morphia, an atom of water being abstracted in its formation. Apocodeia is more stable than apomorphia, but the action of reagents upon the two bases is very similar. As regards their physiological action, the hydrochlorate of apocodeia is a mild emetic, while that of apomorphia is an emetic of great activity. Other bases have been obtained by Wright by the action of hydrobromic acid on codeia. In two of these bases, bromotetracodeia and chlorotetracodeia, four molecules of the codeia are welded together, so that they contain no less than seventy-two atoms of carbon. They have a bitter taste, but little physiological action. “The authors of these valuable researches were indebted to Messrs. Macfarlane for the precious material upon which they operated. We are indebted to Crum Brown and Fraser for an important work on a subject of great practical as well as theoretical interest,—the relation between chemical TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 constitution and physiological action. It has long been known that the ferro- cyanide of potassium does not act as a poison on the animal system, and Bunsen has shown that the kakodylic acid, an arsenical compound, is also inert. Crum Brown and Fraser find that the methyl compounds of strychnia, brucia, and thebaia are much less active poisons than the alkaloids themselves, and the character of their physiological action is also different. The hypnotic action of the sulphate of methyl-morphium is less than that of morphia; but a reverse result occurs in the case of atropia, whose methyl and ethyl derivatives are much more poisonous than the salts of atropia itself. Before proceeding to the subject of fermentation, I may refer to Apjohn’s chemico-optical method of separating cane-sugar, inverted sugar, and grape-sugar from one another when present in the same solution, by observing the rotative power of the syrup before and after inversion, and combining the indications of the saccharometer with the results of an analysis of the same syrup after inversion. Heisch’s test for sewage in ordinary water is also deserving of notice. It consists in adding a few grains of pure sugar to the water, and exposing it freely to light for some hours, when the liquid will become turbid from the formation of a well- marked fungus if sewage to the smallest amount be present. Frankland has made the important observation that the development of this fungus depends upon the presence of the phosphate, and that if this condition be secured, the fungus will appear even in the purest water. The nature of fermentation, and in particular of the alcoholic fermentation, has been lately discussed by Liebig with consummate ability, and his elaborate memoir will well repay a careful perusal. Dr. Williamson has also given a most instructive account of the subject, particularly with reference to the researches of Pasteur, in his recent Cantor lectures. A brief statement of the present position of the question will therefore not be out of place here. It is now thirty-four years since Cagniard de La Tour and Schwann proved by independent observations that yeast- globules are organized bodies capable of reproduction by gemmation; and also inferred as highly probable that the phenomena of fermentation are induced by the development or living action of these globules. These views, after haying fallen into abeyance, were revived and extended a few years ago by Pasteur, whose able researches are familiar to every chemist. Pasteur, while acknowledging that he was ignorant of the nature of the chemical act, or of the intimate cause of the splitting up of sugar in the alcoholic fermentation, maintained that all fermenta- tions properly so called are correlative with physiological phenomena. According to Liebig, the development and multiplication of the yeast-plant or fungus is dependent upon the presence and absorption of nutriment, which becomes part of the living organism, while in the process of fermentation an external action takes place upon the substance, and causes it to split up into products which cannot be made use of by the plant. ‘The vital process and the chemical action, he asserts, are two phenomena which in the explanation must be kept separate from one another. The action of a ferment upon a fermentable body he compares to the action of heat upon organic molecules, both of which cause a moyement in the internal arrangement of the atoms. The phenomena of fermentation Liebig refers now, as formerly, to a chemico-physical cause,—the action, namely, which a sub- stance in a state of molecular movement exercises upon another of highly complex constitution, whose elements are held together by a feeble affinity, and are to some extent in a state of tension or strain. Baeyer, who considers that in the alcoholic and lactic fermentations one part of the compound is reduced and another oxidized, adopts the view of Liebig, that the molecules of sugar which undergo fermentation do not serve for the nourishment of the yeast-plant, but receive an impulse from it. Allare, however, agreed that fermentation is arrested by the death of the plant; and even a tendency to the acetous fermentation in wine may be checked, as Pasteur has shown, by heating the wine toa temperature a little below the boiling- _- point in the vessel in which it is afterwards to be kept. I regret that the limits of an address like the present forbid me to pursue further this analysis of chemical work. Had they admitted of abridgment, Tshould gladly have described the elaborate experiments of Gore on hydrofluoric acid and the iluoride of silver, The important researches of Abel on explosive 1871. 66 REPORT—1871. compounds will be explained by himself in a lecture with which he has kindly undertaken to favour the Association. Mr. Tomlinson will also communicate to the Section some observations on catharism and nuclei, a difficult subject, to which he has of late devoted much attention; and I am also informed that we shall haye important papers on recent improvements in chemical manufacture. No one can be more painfully alive than myself to the serious omissions in the historical review I have now read, more particularly in organic chemistry, where it was wholly impossible to grapple with the large number of valuable works which eyen afew months produce. I cannot, however, refrain from bearing an humble tribute to the great ability and indomitable perseverance which characterize the labourers in the great field of organic chemistry. It would scarcely be pos- sible to conceive any work more intelligently undertaken or more conscientiously performed than theirs, yet much of it, from its abstruse character, receiving little sympathy or encouragement except from the band of devoted men who have made this subject the chief pursuit of their lives. They will, however, find their reward in the consciousness that they have not lived in vain, but have been engaged, and successfully engaged, in the noble enterprise of extending for the benefit of the human family the boundaries of scientific nowledge. Nor is there any real ground for discouragement. Faraday, Graham, Magnus, and Herschel, who have left their impress on this age, were all distinguished chemical as well as physical discoverers ; and the relations of the sciences are becoming every day so intimate that the most special research leads often to results of wide and general interest. No one felt this truth more clearly or illustrated it better in his writings than our lamented and distinguished friend Dr. Miller, whose presence used to cheer our meetings, and whose loss we all most sincerely deplore. Facts developed by the Working of Hematite Ores in the Ulverstone and White- haven Districts from 1844-71. By Tuomas Arnsworre. On the Dichroism of the Vapour of Iodine. By Dr. Axprews; F.R.S. The fine purple colour of the vapour of iodine arises from its transmitting freely the red ahd: blue rays of the spectrum, while it absorbs nearly the whole of the green rays. The transmitted fight passes freely through a red copper or a blue cobalt glass. Butif the iodine vapour be sufficiently dense, the whole of the red rays are absorbed, and the transmitted rays are of a pure blue colour; they are now freely transmitted, as before, by the cobalt glass, but will not pass through the red glass. A solution of iodine in sulphide of carbon exhibits a similar dichroism, and according to its density appears either purple or blue when white light is trans- mitted through it. The alcoholic solution, on the contrary, is of a red colour, and does not exhibit any dichroism. On the Action of Heat on Bromine. By Dr. Anvrews, F.R.S. If a fine tube is filled one half with liquid bromine and one half with the vapour of bromine, and after being hermetically sealed is gradually heated till the tempe- rature is above the critical point, the whole of the bromine becomes quite opaque, and the tube has the aspect of being filled with a dark red and opaque resin. A measure of the change of power of transmitting light in this case may be obtained by varying the proportion of liquid and vapour in the tube. Even liquid bromine transmits much less light when heated strongly in an hermetically sealed tube than in its ordinary state, Some Remarks upon the Prowimate Analysis of Saccharine Matters. By Professor Avsoun, ARS, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 On the Examination of Water for Sanitary purposes. By Gustav Brscuor. The principle of the method consists in evaporating 1 cub. centim. of the water to be examined in a cell formed by cementing a glass ring on a slip of plate glass, such as used for mounting microscopic objects. By means of certain appliances dust is effectually excluded during the evaporation. The temperature at which the samples are evaporated (40° to 45° C.) is regulated by a Kemp-Bunsen gas- a improved for the purpose by the author. f pure water, such as we find naturally, be evaporated, one observes under the microscope in the residue essentially colourless, or nearly colourless, dendritic, branching, tree-like, and well-defined hexagonal and rhombohedral crystals of calcium carbonate. In the case of natural impure water, or if pure water be contaminated by adding minute quantities of either sewage or urine, the above crystals are no longer perceptible, and, according to the degree of impurity, their place is taken by more or less imperfectly defined yellowish-brown or red hexagonal or rhombohedral crystals of calcium carbonate, or by hexagonal twin-crystals, or triangles with rounded angles, or, finally, drops of fat and the so-called dumb-bells (which latter are either fatty matter or germs of fungi) make their appearance. If the presence of germs of fungi be doubtful, they are determined by cultiva- ting the residue in a damp chamber for some forty-eight hours before it is quite rated to dryness. Several well-definable species of fungi have thus been roduced. i The results of the examination of a number of samples, illustrated by several lithographed plates, proved that one-thousandth part of sewage or urine added to . pure water so completely altered the appearance of the residue as to lead to the conclusion that still more minute quantities of the above impurities can also be detected in water by this method. On the other hand, the residue of sewage which had been filtered through spongy iron (the process to which the author called attention at the last Meeting of the Association) exhibited throughout the characteristics of the purest water. Professor Voelcker arrived also, by chemical analysis, at the result that the sewage filtered through spongy iron was “remarkably free from organic matter, containing less organic matter than many excellent drinking-waters,” thus proving that analysis and the microscopic examination come to the same conclusion. _ Inconcluding, some residues of natural waters exhibited in the plates referred to above were explained as to their characteristics. On the Crystallization of Metals by Electricity. By Puitir Brawam. The author of this paper gave an account of experiments with electricity under the microscope. Solutions of neutral metallic salts were placed between terminals of the base, and crystals of several metals were formed. The author hopes by the Same means to obtain crystals of all. The apparatus for regulating the quantity and intensity of the electricity was exhibited and explained. The author then drew attention to the shape of the crystals, and suggested that, being built up of molecules, they might be typical of their elementary forms, On the Rate of Action of Caustic Soda on a watery Solution of Chloracetic Acid at 100°C. By J. Y. Bucwanan. Two sets ef experiments were made. In the one, the composition of the solu- tion was expressed by the formula C, H, ClO,+NaHO+159H, O,gjin the-other, by C, H, Cl0,-+2NaHO-+159H, O ; 10 cub. centims. of the different. solutions were used for every experiment. The results are given in the following Tables :— 5* 68 REPORT—1871. C,H, C10,+Nall04+150H,0. | C,H, Cl0,+2NaHO+159H, 0. | Duration of Cit "ClO, panes CIC. heating. decomposed. eee decomposed. la yaa ' h m 0 3 6 ee 0 63 1 9 10 12 O G6 . 0 0 11 14 0 70 1 30 14 15 0 ce 2 0 18 ne 75 0 O 19 $010 78 2 30 23 Ah) 81 0 O 22 24° 0 84 2 0 26 0 10 36 0 0 26 0 20 55 4 0 32 0 380 64 5 0 37 0 O 64 0 0 37 I 0) 7 6 0 43 OF 40 a AG 47 1 30 83 Bo 6 3 iii 8 3 9 O 57 | Zhen G: 88 10 O GO | 2 30 90 The Estimation of Sulphur in Coal and Coke. By ¥F, Crace-Catvert, F. 2S. The sulphur found in coal or coke often exists in two states, partly as sulphuric acid combined with lime, and partly as sulphur combined with iron. The part combined with lime, however, does not injure the quality of the iron produced when used in the manufacture of that article, as it remains in combination with the calcium, whilst the portion existing as sulphuret of iron greatly deterio- rates its commercial value. To determine the quantity of sulphur in the former state, the author proposes to boil the pulverized coal or coke with a solution of carbonate of soda, which decomposes the sulphate of lime or sulphuret of calcium, and the sulphur is estimated in the solution. To show the importance of this fact in estimating the suitability of coal or coke for use in the manufacture of iron, the author gave the following percentage of sulphur as the mean of the determination in six samples of coal :— Estimated Present in Present in ; together. washings. residue. Difference. 151 “92 64. 87 Thesé coals by the old process would be condemned as unsuitable for use in the blast-furnace, while they are really good coals for the purpose. In the residue from the above operation is found the sulphur combined with the iron, After attacking with oxidizing aqua regia, the author treats with carbonate of soda and heats to!near the fusing-point. By this means there can be no formation of an insoluble subsulphate of iron, and the prevention of precipitation by a salt of baryta, which occurs in a liquor containing free nitric acid, is avoided. On the Evistence of Sulphur Dichloride. By Joun Datzect and T. KE, Toorrn, The authors have confirmed the experiments of Hiibner and Guerdnt, who con- il TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 élude that, contrary to the opinion of Carius, the compound of sulphur and chlo- rine analogous to water does actually exist as an extremely unstable body, readily parting with a portion of its chloyine on being gently heated, Deacon’s Chlorine Process as applied to the Manufacture of Bleaching-powder on the larger Scale. By Henry Duacon. On Sorbit. By Professor Detrrs, of Heidelberg. Twenty vears ago M. Pelouze (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 3 ser, xxxv. p. 222) discovered a crystallized substance in the fruits of Sorbus aucuparia which he called Sordin. Since that time very few chemists have paid attention to this substance, and, as far as I know, nobody in my country has succeeded in preparing it again. The principal of one of our greatest manufactories of chemical prepara- tions, to whom I addressed myself, told me that he never found the least trace of the said substance, although he had worked up large quantities of the aboye- mentioned fruits for preparing malic acid; and to the same result came M. Byschl (Buchnev’s N. Repert. des Pharm. iii. p. 4), who asserts that there is no ready formed sorbin in the ripe berries of Sorbus aucuparia. In my two first attempts to procure sorbin I also failed; but during last year I succeeded, and at the same time I became aware of the reason of my previous failures. When I first tried to get sorbin, I thought it advisable to combine the preparation of malic acid with the process given by M. Pelouze for getting sorbin, and therefore I separated the former by means of acetate of lead. This is the reason, I think, which has te the success of myself as well as of other chemists in the preparation of sorbin. I will not repeat the method of forming sorbin given in all manuals of chemistry ; it is sufficient to say that, when I kept strictly to the prescription of M. Pelouze, I got.a large quantity of beautiful crystals, a specimen of which was contained in the tube exhibited. After I had got these, I tried to obtain the malic acid from the residue, but I found that the malic acid had quite disappeared. To this I must add that the alcoholic fermentation which takes place after the juice of the berries of Sorbus aucuparia has been left a few days in a tepid place is more easily “eae by the formation of carbonic acid than by the smell of spirit cf wine. I think it, therefore, not improbable that there is a connexion between the disap- pearance of the malic acid and the small produce of spirit of wine on the one side, and the formation of sorbin on the other. Suppose the malic acid, com- monly called dibasic, and therefore apt to form a bimalate of ethyl (=C*H’ O+ 2C* H? O'+ HO), assimilates two equivalents of water to this compound, you will have then the equation C' EH’ 04 2C! H? O'!+3HO=C” H” Ov, the right-hand side of which gives the composition of sorbin. As pertaining to the preparation of sorbin, I have only to add that the dark sticky ley in which the crystals are formed can very easily be separated by putting both on a brick. After a few days’ repose the brick has absorbed nearly all the ley, and the pale yellow-coloured crystals of sorbin, if dissolved in water and left to spontaneous evaporation, become very soon colourless. The sorbin belongs to the same group as the mannit, quercit, inosit, dulcit, pi- crit, &c.; and as the last syllable is always characteristic in chemistry, its name, I think, should be changed into sorbit. Further experiments are required to prove if the supposed genesis of sorbit is true or not; but, in any case, 1 am conyinced that there is no sorbin ready formed in the fruits of Sorbus aucuparia. On the Detection of Morphine by Iodic Acid. By Prof. Dutrrs. Among the poisonous alkaloids which in forensic cases most frequently give occasion for chemical investigations morphine occupies the first place. For its 70 REPORT—1871. detection a great many tests have been proposed, most of which, however, have little interest for the forensic chemist, particularly as they depend on phenomena which may also be produced by other substances beside morphine. It is not in- tended here to justify this assertion by a critical examination of all the tests for morphine which are liable to the reproach mentioned; it will be sufficient to signalize one of them, the iodic acid, as an example. The well-known property of this acid, of being reduced by morphine, is certainly adapted to distinguish the latter from other alkaloids, but is altogether insufficient to establish the nature of morphine, because there are a great many other substances, partly of organic, partly of inorganic origin, which likewise reduce iodic acid. Nevertheless I have found that iodic acid, with the aid of the microscope, presents a sure means of charac- terizing morphine perfectly, because the reaction between this alkaloid and the above-mentioned test proceeds under such peculiar appearances that morphine cannot be mistaken for any other substance. The process to be adopted for this purpose is the following :— After the morphine (of which the smallest particle is sufficient) is placed on a slip of glass and covered with a glass cover, as much water is added as will fill the space between the slip and the cover and extend a little beyond the margin of the latter. After the glass slip is put under the microscope and this is directed to the morphine, a particle of iodic acid is put into the water at the margin of the covering glass. In afew moments a great number of minute spherical yellow molecules, of constantly equal diameter, are seen to move in a direction from the iodic acid to the sides of the morphine, and soon form in its vicinity numerous colourless needle- shaped crystals, mostly united so as to form tufts. or the observation of this microscopic metamorphosis a magnifying-power of 300 linear would be the most suitable; when a more powerful system of lenses is employed, the difference of the focal distances of the morphine and the above-mentioned molecules and crystals readily becomes too great for the distinct observation of the whole simultaneously. Hence it is also advantageous to place under the covering glass the thinnest possible fragment of morphine. reserve for another place a more detailed communication on this subject. Experiments on Chemical Dynamics. By J. H. Guapstone, F.R.S., and Aurrep Trex, /.CS. The authors had recently communicated a paper to the Royal Society in which they investigated somewhat minutely what takes place when a plate of one metal, such as copper, is immersed in a solution of a salt of another metal, such as nitrate of silver. ‘They had shown that, while the silver was being deposited on the copper, an actual passage of the nitric element towards the more positive metal occurs, causing the formation of a dense solution of nitrate of copper inside the crystalline deposit, and a consequent downward current, and at the same time an upward current of almost pure water from the tips of the crystals. ‘They had shown, also, that with solutions of different strengths the chemical action in a given period (say ten minutes) is not in direct proportion to the strength ; but, ceteris paribus, twice the strength gives three times the chemical decomposition. This augmenta- tion had been attributed to an increased conduction of the stronger liquid. In the present paper the authors exhibited these phenomena in a dissected form, and carried the observations still further. Instead of the silver crystals being allowed to grow from the copper into the nitrate-of-silver solution, two separate plates were taken, one of copper and the other of silver. The copper plate was immersed in nitrate of copper, and the silver plate in nitrate of silver, while the two metals were connected by a wire, and the two liquids were connected by a porous cell, Silver crystals were gradually formed upon the silver plate, while the copper was dissolved; and at the end of some hours it was found that all the silver had been removed from solution, and that the loss of the copper plate was almost exactly what might be calculated from the amount of nitrate of silver originally placed in the other cell. The actual numbers were—theoretical 0°412, actual 0:402, The copper nitrate was formed in TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. rah the cell with the copper plate, the specific gravity of the liquid haying risen from 1:015 to 1:047. A similar experiment was tried with plates of copper and zinc in sulphate of copper and sulphate of zinc respectively. The result was as before, metallic copper being deposited on the copper plate, and the sulphate of zinc rising in specific gravity from 1:125 to 1-159. In order to determine whether the amount of silver deposited depended, not merely on the amount of the silver in solution, but also on the amount of copper salt that bridged over the intervening space, similar experiments were made in which the nitrate of silver was kept constant, but the nitrate of copper was increased by equivalent multiples. It was found that the silver deposited increased with the increase of the copper salt, being about double when the copper salt was seven times as strong, and that the effect of successive additions gradually diminished. This is in strict accordance with other experiments, showing that, when the copper plate is immersed in a mixture of the nitrates of copper and silver, the amount of silver deposited is increased, and increases with each successive addition of copper salt, though in a diminishing ratic. That this acceleration is not produced by a copper salt only was proved by re- peating the experiment with a variety of other nitrates, The subjoined Table shows the results, and indicates, at the same time, that the increased effect does not depend simply upon the nitric element, which was present in the same quantity in all, but likewise on the nature of the salt. Size of plate 3230 sq. millims.; volume of solution 72 cub. centims., containing 2:8 per cent, of nitrate of silver; temperature 18° C.; time 5 minutes. : Copper Increase Se. gisceived per cent. erm. GANG OL SILV OE: conc 5 ocsacccsseesececessnecseseseusios 00703 Ditto +1 equiy. of nitrate of magnesium ......... O'IOIO 436 o A af CRLCMIM cs ois cpisiedpaas 01003 42°6 # x a AOGIUM s,.424.0-<0e~ 5 0°0957 361 ” ” 2 COPPEL ......+2+00000. 0°0965 37°2 7 fi 4 potassium ......... 0°1047 48°9 ” i A strontium ......... o"1040 47°9 3 5 By GACTOLUTA sss.ees0+es. 0°1030 465 A of 3 Barta). Asst.ceretes 0'0987 403 23 A % lead, Vegeresyestes seve 00945 34'4 On Crystals of Silver. By J. H. Guanstone, /.R.S. The crystalline deposit on copper or zinc immersed in silver nitrate forms a very beautiful object when viewed under the microscope. The form, colour, and general character of it depend very much on the strength of the solution; if weak, say 1 per cent., the red metal is presently covered with a growth of small crystals, which are quite black; but as the action proceeds some of these crystals grow more rapidly than others, especially at the angles of the plate, and the new growth is white. If the solution be stronger, say 3 per cent., there is no black deposit, but the white silver simulates the appearance of furze-bushes or fern-leaves of yaried structure. In much stronger solutions, say 12 per cent., the crystals re- minded the author of juniper-branches, and in stronger still they had rather the outward form of moss. In nearly saturated solutions the crystals of silver end in thick knobs. The crystals at first advance pretty uniformly into the liquid, but when they have considerably reduced its strength, there usually happens a stop- page of the general advance, and a special growth from one or two points, forming long feathery crystals, that sweep rapidly through the lower part of the solution. In a1 per cent. solution these are long meandering threads, with tufts like the den- dritic appearances in minerals. The crystals are peculiarly beautiful when nitrate 72 rEportT—1871. of copper or of potassium has been previously added to the nitrate of silver. Some other forms were described as produced under peculiar circumstances, such as long straight threads, of extreme tenuity, often changing their direction at a sharp angle. Note on Fibrin. By Dr. Joun Goopman. The author having read a paper on the above subject at the Meeting of the Association in Liverpool last year, has been since that period constantly engaged in a long series of experiments establishing the truth of the statements there set forth. The following is an epitome of the results obtained. The experiments were performed under the microscope :— 1. Albumen immersed for some short time in cold water loses its characters as albumen, and becomes transformed into a substance which the author asserts exactly resembles blood-fibrin under the microscope. 2. This substance exhibits intense attractive powers. 3. It decomposes peroxide of hydrogen with effervescence. According to the author’s views, all these experiments showed that water is the primary source of this change, and that until albumen is in some way subjected to the influence of water, oxygen can exert no influence in producing this change. 4, The rapidity or intensity of the transformation was not increased by raising the temperature of the water. 5. Ovalbumen does not per se become transformed into fibrin by the voltaic currents, only to such an extent as its water of fluidity is available for this pur- ose, 6, But when diluted with water the entire mass of albumen submitted to the current was rapidly transformed into fibrin. 7. When this substance was submitted to potash it dissolved in three minutes, ee blood-fibrin required twelve hours and ovalbumen twenty-four hours for solution. 8, In strong hydrochloric acid both this substance and blood-fibrin dissolved in jones four hours, whilst ovalbumen was not completely dissolved in sixteen days. 9. In all acid solutions of this substance, and of blood-fibrin precipitated by alkalies, and of alkaline solutions precipitated by acids, the author asserts that he invariably finds fibrinous rods and formations perfectly identical in their appear- ance one with the other, and without any coagulum peculiar to albuminous preci- pitations; whilst on the other hand in similar solutions of albumen similarly pre- fa et he finds as invariably a dense flocculent coagulum, without the presence of fibrinous rods or other formations. Alkaline solutions, moreover, of albumen precipitated by acetic acid gave always a dense white and flocculent coagulum, and those precipitated by nitric acid gaye a lemon-yellow precipitate, whilst neither white nor lemon-yellow coagula occurred in similar precipitations from like solutions of fibrin thus produced as blood-fibrin. The author maintains that these experiments show that the substance thus produced by the agency of water is genuine fibrin, Preliminary Notice on a New Method of Testing Samples of Wood-Naphtha. By Witr1am Harxnass, FRM. The detection of wood-naphtha, when present in alcohol, is now comparatively easy, but the converse problem, viz. the detection of alcohol in wood-naphtha, does not seem to have occupied the attention of chemists generally. _ Methylated spirit, which is cheaper than wood-naphtha, is the only adulterant likely to be used, and any simple mode of determining its presence must be of some value to the chemist. One of the most common methods of examining a sample of naphtha is to ascertain its boiling-point; but this is not reliable, as different samples, even of the same specific gravity, may boil at different tempera- tures, varying from 138° F, to 156° F., and yet be free from ethylic alcohol. The following method of testing samples was discovered by the author whilst TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 engaged in the preparation of oxalate of methyl. It was noticed that different samples of naphtha gave different quantities of this crystalline body. Further investigations showed that the presence even of a small quantity of methylated spirit or alcohol in the wood-naphtha from which the oxalate was prepared, altered in the most striking manner the temperature at which solidification took place. Thus, oxalate of methyl prepared from pure wood-naphtha is always solid at a temperature exceeding 100° F. This has been confirmed by experiments on all kinds of naphtha, English and foreign. In samples containing methylated spirit or alcohol, crystallization always takes place at a temperature Jess than 100° F., such temperature depending on the per- centage of alcohol present. The following are the averages of many experiments :— Per cent. of alcohol Oxalate of methyl in naphtha. solid at or about. (0) 104° Fahr. 5 2 95 10 86 15 76 20 64 30 49 40 27 50 9 The test is easily applied. Distil at a moderate heat 1 oz. of the suspected spirit, 7 drs. oxalic acid, and 1 oz. sulphuric acid ; collect the crystals, if any, in a small beaker, and heat until the crystals melt, then with a thermometer watch the temperature at which crystallization again takes place. One precaution is necessary: the sample examined, if not miscible with water, must be rendered so by filtration through charcoal previous to testing. A Method of Preserving Food by Muriatic Acid. By the Rey. H. Hiewron, WA, As the great objection to preserving articles of food by chemical compounds is that it imparts a flavour to them more or less unpleasant, it occurred to the author to try whether they could not be preserved in the first instance by muriatic acid, and then before use be deprived of their acidity by means of soda or its carbonates. The author tried many experiments, and found that in many cases the plan might be employed with very good results, the muriatic acid not affecting the most delicate flavours, but leaving the article just as it was before, with only a slight not objectionable taste of common salt. There are two principal ways of effecting the object :— 1. To dip the meat, fish, or other substance at intervals, if necessary, and expose it freely to the air to dry. During this process of drying the coating of muriatic acid prevented the approach of decomposition. Meat and fish thus prepared re- mained perfectly sweet for many months. The only thing necessary before using them was to steep them in a very dilute solution of carbonate of soda till any slight traces of the acid were neutralized. 2, The other plan is to enclose the substance in a close vessel with a small quantity of muriatic acid, so as to prevent evaporation. A very small quantity of muriatic acid seems to be sufficient to destroy the germs of decomposition—a quantity which, when ultimately neutralized by soda, gives a scarcely perceptible flavour of salt, A too large quantity of muriatic acid tends itself to decompose the sub- stance submitted to its action. One application of the plan was described. Ifmeat be cut up small and steeped in weak muriatic acid, and when it is thoroughly penetrated boiled in a very dilute solution of carbonate of soda, carbonic acid is evolved in the pores of the meat, and splits it up into such minute fragments as to produce virtually a solution of the meat. 74 REPORT—1871. On the Aluminous Iron-ores of Co. Antrim. By Dr. J. Suyctarr Horney, of Larne. These ores have only been discovered within the last few years, and exhibit a seam both extensive and rich. It lies continuously for about seventy miles along the coast and mountain-glens of Antrim, being nearly horizontally interspread throughout the basaltic rocks which form the floor of the county, and at an average height of 300 feet above the white limestone. The elevation above sea-level varies considerably, as among the highest moun- tains it is found at a height of over 1000 feet, from which it gradually falls north and south as low as 200 feet. The general dip of the beds is south-west. _ Dr. Holden gave analyses of the ore, and adds that it is not analogous to any known iron deposit in England, and that basaltic rocks, though containing some iron in their composition, are not generally associated with large deposits of iron- ore. The ferruginous stratum consists of three qualities of ore, which, in descend- ing order, are :— “ ft Average Metallic Iron : per cent. IPISOUIEG eee geteis cs eilloveie a's ose ss 008 OPP rcutans 50 I BYOLIE 06 Si iens tart oid, REN RE CR Pea ent cucte 20 WG COLAR TE CPUC se ie cies « aso'n e092 BUG an 12 Total thickness ........ 40 These graduate into each other. The upper bed, or pisolite, is the richest in iron, and working quantities can be mined containing from 380 to 50 per cent. of metallic iron. Large quantities of this ore have now been raised and shipped to England, where it has already made a reputation for itself, in facilitating the production of pure iron from the siliceous heematites, The entire absence of phosphorus and sulphur, and the presence of a large percentage of alumina, add much to its value, both as an iron-ore and a flux. When intermixed with the siliceous ores in the smelting-furnace, the effect is to soften the slag, producing a “ loose load,” which allows the metal to pass through easily, forming a pure “ pig,” and, from a given quantity of the mixed ores, deter- mining a higher percentage of metallic iron than could be otherwise obtained. It is chiefly used in Lancashire, Cumberland, and South Wales, and is becom- ing a necessity where good steel-iron is demanded. To show that an extensive source of industry has already been developed, it may be stated that upwards of 50,000 tons were exported last year, and the quantity will be much greater this ear. : The discovery of this ore has had the effect of stimulating mineral research in the adjoining counties, and Dr. Holden states not in vain, as samples of a good siliceous hematite have been shown him, and only wait exploration where they were discovered. If found in quantity, no better outlay of capital could be in- vested than in the erection of smelting-furnaces on the Antrim coast. As suggested by the President of the Section, there could be utilized in the ‘eee smelting of the ores the large quantity of peat available in the north of reland, Loealities of Dioptase. By Professor N. Story Masxutyne, /.R.S. Dioptase has hitherto only been known as a product of the copper-mine at Altyn Tubeh, in the Kirghese steppes of Tartary, if we except certain reputed localities in Germany ; it has been recently met with among old specimens that have been traced to localities in Chili. One of these was among the specimens preserved in drawers at the British Museum, which have lately been under careful examination with a view to their identification, and another similar specimen was obtained some years since by W. G, Lettsom, Esq., the well-known mineralogist, from a dealer at Vienna. The crystals on both are minute but distinct, and are those of dioptase. The TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 gangue is a compact micaceous hematite; the locality, traced to an old sale catalogue of Heuland’s, is the Rosario Mine, Chili. It is singular that other specimens of the same mineral should have been found among the specimens preserved in the British Museum. One of these is associated with chrysocolla and ochre on a quartzose veinstone, another occurs as a thin crust on a schorlaceous rock, both being from a Chilian locality. A specimen recently obtained is associated with quartz and eisenkiesel, and is from the Mina del Limbo, Del Salado, Copiapo, Chili, On Andrewsite. By Professor N. Story Masxeryye, F.2.S. A somewhat well-marked group of minerals would seem to justify the designa- tion of the Dufrenite group, by reason of their having, as a common constituent (or being capable of being so represented), a compound of which the formula is R, P,O, +R, H,O0,; R being Fe in the case of Dufrenite. Dufrenite being Fe, P,O, + Fe, H,0,, or, in Berzelian symbols, Fe p Fe H,. Peganite is Al p Al H, t+ 3H. Fischerite is Al Pi HE, + 5H. Cacoxene is Fe p Fe H, + 9H. Wayellite is 241 P, Al FH, + 9H. A mineral recently found in Cornwall, and sent to the British Museum by Mr. Talling, may perhaps be referred to this group. It has been analyzed in the Museum Pibatatony and Professor Maskelyne named it Andrewsite, im honour of the distinguished President of the Chemical Section of the British Association, Dr. Andrews, of Belfast. Andrewsite occurs in occasional association with a bright green mineral in brilliant minute crystals, presenting a strongly marked resemblance to those of Dufrenite. This green mineral not haying been as yet, from the small amount obtained of it, submitted to an analysis, is only provisionally termed Dufrenite. The Andrewsite which it sometimes thus accompanies presents itselfin globular forms or in disks with a radiate structure, and in habit curiously resembles Wavyel- lite. Its colour is a slightly bluish green ; its surface is generally formed of a very thin layer of the mineral provisionally termed Dufrenite, crystals of which occa- sionally stand out of the globules. The interior of the globules is sometimes homogeneous, and consists of radiating crystalline fibres; oftener one perceives an almost sudden transition from an outer shell of some thickness, which consists of Andrewsite, into an inner core, formed of a brown mineral. Seen under the microscope, the two minerals appear to a certain degree to inter- penetrate each other, so that the selection of material for analysis is a work of much caution. The spherules usually stand on the projections of a quartzose veinstone, protruding into a hollow, and covered with a mass of limonite, sometimes carrying a drusy crust of Gothite, and studded occasionally with a few brilliant little crystals of cuprite. The spherules are met with in one or two cases on cuprite formed round a nucleus of native copper. Andrewsite, in fact, contains copper, four analyses of separate specimens giving the percentages of 10°651, 10-702, 10-917, and 11-002. ; bhi analyses of Andrewsite have proyed sufficiently concordant to justify the ormula, 3{Fe, P, O,+Fe, H, 0,}+CuP,0,, or 3{ Fe P, Fe H,} + Cu, P, in which, however, a portion of the ferric phosphate is replaced by ferrous phosphate, as in Vivianite is frequently the case with the two phosphates, 76 . REPORT—1871. The parallelism of Chenevixite (Cu, As, O,4Fe, H, O,) with a portion of the above formula is worthy of attention, and may justify the formula bemg written as 2{Fe, P,O,+Fe, H, O,}+Cu; P, O,4+ Fe, H, 0,4 Fe, P, O,. A larger supply of the mineral will no doubt soon be forthcoming, when the formula may be fixed on the foundation of more certain analyses. The specific gravity of this mineral is 3-475, that of Dufrenite being (from Siegen) 3:2 to 3:4. The chalkosiderite of Ullmann, the name by which, nearly sixty years ago, he designated a thin crystalline coating overlying the radiated variety of the Griineisenstein (Dufrenite) of the Hollerter Zug, Sayn, Westphalia, does not seem to have been analyzed by him. He states that it contains copper; but the subsequent analyses of Griineisenstein do not appear to confirm this statement; indeed it appears more nearly to resemble the green crystallized mineral which has in this note been provisionally described as Dufrenite, On Ozonometry. By T. Morrat, WD., F.GS. The author stated that ozone test-papers did not become permanently coloured in the neighbourhood of cesspools, and that the brown colour, when formed, is removed by the products of putrefaction. He also stated that light, the humidity of the atmosphere, and direction of the wind influence the colouring of the test- paper. Moisture with heat accelerates the chemical action, while a strong wind causes a greater amount of ozone to impinge upon the test-paper in a given time. To counteract the effect of these, he recommends that the test-paper be placed as far as possible from cesspools, and that it be kept in a box. He next described a tube-ozonometer which he had in use, and gave results obtained by an aspirator ozonometer, and concluded by stating that the results obtained by the latter imstru- ment were not satisfactory. On the Photographic Post. By the Annf& Moreno. On an Antimony-ore from New Zealand. By Parrison Murr. Note on Regianic Acid. By Dr. T. L. Purpeson, F.C.S. Regianic acid is one of several new substances which I have obtained at various times during the last few years from the fruit of Juglans regia and another species of walnut. The green husk of the walnut cedes to benzol a yellowish substance, which crystallizes, apparently in very elongated octahedra or feather-like groups of prisms. This substance, which I term regianine, is easily decomposed, and when treated with alkalies or ammonia, yields splendid red-purple solutions, whence acids precipitate a brown flocculent substance (impure regianic acid). The latter, redissolved in a weak solution of soda, precipitated again with hydro- chloric acid, and washed with boiling water, forms ajet-black amorphous powder of great density, which is pure regianic acid. It yields to analysis the composition C® H° 07, and forms a brown lead-salt, PbO, C®° H° 07, also a jet-black silver-salt, very simi- lar in appearance to the acid itself, and with lime a beautiful pink-coloured salt, which is precipitated by boiling its solutions with a little ammonia, Regianic acid is insoluble in water, but dissolves in alkalies with a beautiful red- pun tint, that has no particular action upon the spectrum. It appears to be derived from regianine by oxidation, for I extracted all the oxygen from a rolume of air by placing in it a little regianine and soda. Note on the Action of Aldehyde on the two Primary Ureas. By Dr. J. Emerson Rernotrps, The action of the dicarbon aldehyde of the fatty series, C,H, O, on certain deri- :? TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 vatives of ammonia has of late been studied with considerable care, and most in- teresting results arrived at in the course of the investigation. We have been long familiar with the reactions of aldehyde with aniline, described by Schiff, who has shown that the dyad group, C, H,", or ethyliden, as it is often called, can replace successively two distinct proportions of hydrogen in the double molecule of ani- line, water being eliminated according to the equations :— " C,H, NCL 2(C,H,, NH,)+C, H,"0= OH? NE i EMO Weis 08.0 it) " H,N 4 2(C, H, NH,)+2(C, H,’ 0)= c H, NC Ht Porno! 0) (2) We are also acquainted with analogous reactions which have been obtained with amides and aldehydes of the aromatic series ; it therefore appeared to be a matter of some interest to examine the action of aldehyde on another class of ammonia de- rivatives, the group of so-called wreas. Of these, there are at least two primary bodies—one the well-known product of the animal organism, or Wéohler’s beau- tiful artificial urea ; and the other, the sulpho-urea, which was discovered a few years ago by the author. It is unnecessary now to discuss the question of the identity or otherwise of Wohler’s and the normal urea ; it is sufficient here to mention that all these experi- ments have been made on Wohler’s urea and on the analogous sulphur compound. It will be convenient for the present to regard the two ureas just referred to as ammonia derivatives respectively of carbonic (according to Dr. Kolbe carbamic) and sulpho-carbonic acids; thus— Wohler’s urea. ..: .5/.. CO” ae Sulpho-urea 9 hs oy eye’ OS? NIL the author's object being to attempt the partial or complete replacement of hydrogen in each urea by the ethyliden group, according to the equation cs{ NE? } +0,H,"0=c8{ Nit } +H,0. The chief results arrived at in the course of the inquiry are the following :— Action of Aldehyde on the Sulpho- Urea. The first experiments were made with the sulpho-urea. A quantity of the pure compound was dissolved to saturation in nearly anhydrous aldehyde. The hot saturated solution was digested in a hermetically sealed flask, at a temperature of 100° C., for two hours, The solution was then allowed to cool. No urea-crystals were deposited. After two days’ standing, however, a number of minute, spheri- eal, subcrystalline masses were found to have attached themselves to the sides of the flask, and these gradually increased in quantity, until a considerable amount had been obtained. The clear liquid gave a copious white precipitate with water and with alcohol. The deposited body was carefully washed with cold alcohol, in which it is very slightly soluble, and then purified by solution in a large vo- lume of boiling anhydrous alcohol, from which the new body separates out to a large extent on cooling, as a somewhat starch-like granular substance, seen under the microscope to be made up of extremely minute crystals. The analysis of the body gave numbers agreeing well with the formula » {NC,H," es { Nit, and is therefore derived from the urea by the replacement of half the hydrogen by ethyliden. The new body is but slightly soluble in ether, rather more so in cold alcohol, but its solubility in boiling alcohol is much greater. In consequence of its rela- tions to these solvents, the substance can be easily purified, It is but very slightly, 73 REPORT—1871. if at all, truly soluble in cold water; but when digested at 100° C. with water, solution is obtained (but solution in consequence of decomposition), aldehyde being produced, and the urea separated with some ammonium sulphocyanate, ‘The essential reaction is probably correctly represented by the equation u NH " cs” {Nit } +H, 0=08 {xu} +0.H, 0, or the converse.of that according to which the ethyliden sulpho-urea is formed ; dilute acids and alkalies act in the same way. From the alcoholic solution the author obtained a platinum salt and a gold compound. » Action of Aldehyde on Wohler’s Urea. The urea was dissolved nearly to saturation in aldehyde, and the solution di- gested in a sealed flask for two hours at 100°C. When cool, the flask was opened, and the contents poured into a suitable vessel, and the aldehyde slowly evaporated. No crystals of the urea were deposited, but a transparent pasty mass remained when the solvent had been almost wholly driven off. After standing for twenty-four hours, the residue was found to be white and friable. The mass was powdered, and digested in the cold with nearly anhydrous alcohol, in which it is very slightly soluble at ordinary temperature, washed with the same liquid, and then boiled with alcohol. The filtered solution so obtained deposits, on rapid cooling, a con- siderable quantity of a flocculent body, seen under the microscope to be wholly made up of minute and considerably modified monoclinic crystals, Analysis gave the formula (aumNe el. co" {nH for this body. A platinum compound has been obtained, but no gold salt. The new substance is easily decomposed by digestion with water into aldehyde and the products of decomposition of the urea. The first stage of the reaction may, no doubt, be represented by the equation co{ NIE 5 } +H, 0=C0 {nix } 40, H,"0. Having succeeded in replacing half the hydrogen in each of these ureas, di- rectly and by a very simple reaction, the author endeavoured to go a step further, and substitute a hydrocarbon group for the residual hydrogen within the molecule, All attempts in this direction have hitherto been fruitless, In view of the facts above stated and others well known, proving that half the hydrogen only is capable of replacement, and that each atom of nitrogen within the molecule of the urea is somewhat differently engaged, we are clearly warranted in slightly modifying the rational formula of each urea, in order to bring it into more complete harmony with the facts. The extent of the alteration is apparent when we write the formule of the ethyliden ureas referred to in this note, thus :— NC, H, Ethyliden usea| COH NH, NC, H, Ethyliden sulpho-urea { CSH On the Analysis of a singular Deposit from Well-water. By Dr. J. Emerson Ruynoxps, On the Chemical Constitution of Glycolic Alcohol and its Heterologues, as viewed tm the new light of the Typo-nucleus Theory. By Orro Ricurer, Ph.D. The chemical constitution of glycolic alcohol and its heterologues may be ade ee 4 ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 quately expressed by means of the following table of rational formule *, where the non-essential constituents are separated from the essential constituents by a horizontal line :— H,, C, 0; H, O.,. Os Glycolic alcohol. 2C,; H, O,! 2H, C,; H, O, H, C, O, P ed Piet Deglycolic alcohol. 2077 BE OF BC); HO; H, C, 0, H, O,. 1S Oe Glycolite of water. 20,; H, 03: 2H; 20,0 HC, 0,5 H, O,. H, Ox Glycolate of water. 90,; H, 0, 2H; 20, 0, 1, 0, 0,4 5 Oe. H, O,,. Oxyglycolate of water. 2C,; H, 0,! 2H; 20, O, So far as the author Imows, the glycolic alcohol, which is the parent molecule of this family group, has not yet been obtained in a state of isolation, The ethy- len-glycol might at first sight be taken for the missing alcohol, more particularly when we couple the decidedly biatomic character of their respective molecules with the other, and even more significant fact, that the whole of the glycolic he- terologues may be produced by the simple oxidation of the ethylen-glycol. Never- theless, and notwithstanding these striking points of resemblance, the author is in- clined to believe that these two alcohols are only isomeric; and he grounds this be- lief upon the occurrence of a certain class of chemical compounds, among which the so-called diethyl-acetal is the most conspicuous and best investigated member This diethyl-acetal is strictly isomeric with the diethyl-ether of the ethylens glycol, and it is no doubt the missing glycolic alcchol to which we are indebted for this curious and instructive case of isomerism. A cursory examination and comparison of the subjoined rational formule will suffice in order to prove the correctness of this view. EC, 0; H, 0,. H, O,. Ethylen-glycol. 2H, C,; H, 0,~2C,; H, 0, H,,C, 0, H,0,. 27a Glycolic alcohol. 2C,; H, 0.' 2H, C,; H, Oj He 05,0 2H SH. O., 2H, C,; H, Ox Diethyl-ether of ethylen-glycol. oH, oF H, One 20,3 H, aes clad = OOF 2H) C;; Hy Os 2H, C,; H, O; Diethyl-acetal. 203) HB; OF 3H, ©; 0) Ethylen-glycol differs from glycolic alcohol in two essential points :—First, in the former compound the two alcoholic constituents are represented as playing the coordinate part of principal alcoholic bases, while in the latter compound one of these alcoholic bases is represented as playing the subordinate part of adjunct to the other base. Secondly, the relative positions which the two alcoholic con- stituents occupy in ethylen-glycol are exactly reversed in the glycolic alcohol. A mere glance at the two formule which express the chemical constitution of the isomeric ether derivatives will enable the reader to complete the analysis of these hitherto obscure and unintelligible cases of isomerism, To the second member in the family of glycolic heterologues, which is likewise very little known, the author has applied the term ‘“deglycolic alcohol,” in order to record the fact that it is produced from the primary alcohol by the simple abstraction of two molecules os hydrogen from the methylen adjunct of the principal water-base. This secondary alcohol, like the majority of the alcohols which occupy the second place in the * The following are some of the typical symbols of molecular grouping used in these formule : a dot connects the base with its acid, a semicolon the hydrocarbon adjunct with its principal, an inverted semicolon the halogen (acid, base, or salt) adjunct with its prin- cipal, and a concave curve two principal bases with one another— H,=2; C,=12; 0,=16. 80 REPORT—1871. family group of the heterologues of the fatty alcohols, seems, from its want of stability, very prone to merge into the isomeric and far more permanent modifica- tion of the glycolite of water. In this remarkable metamorphosis the double carbon adjunct of the principal water-base becomes first of all converted into an acid twin carbon-nucleus, which reunites under this new form with the old water- base, whereupon, under the combined influence of base and acid, the remaining water-molecule becomes decomposed, so as to surrender its oxygen to the envelope of the acid twin carbon-nucleus, while the hydrogen connects itself with the same nucleus under the typical form of a hydrocarbon adjunct. It is worthy of note that in this singular and characteristic rearrangement of the constituent elements the organic molecule has, without loss of substance and without loss of satu- rating capacity, passed at one bound from the category of a true and genuine al- cohol into the category of a true and genuine water-salt. As regards the two remaining heterologues of glycolate of water and oxyglycolate of water, you can- not but see that their formation is due to the successive absorption of two mole- cules of oxygen by the envelope of the glycolous acid constituent, and that they differ from each other in this respect only, that the former contains for its prin- cipal constituent formate of water, while the latter contains instead of it oxy- formate of water. This oxyformate is a highly interesting isomeric modification of the neutral carbonate of water, which, on account of its excessive want of stability, cannot be obtained in a state of isolation. The compound before us differs from the isomeric neutral carbonate in being decidedly monobasic, while the latter is as decidedly bibasic. The cause of this apparent anomaly becomes now fully revealed ; for it is plain that one of the two hydrogen-molecules, which in the ordinary carbonate of water are both of them readily displaceable by metals, has assumed the hydrocarbon form of grouping, in consequence of which it will cease to play the part of a basic nucleus; and although it may become eliminated or exchanged in obedience to other modes of substitution, it is certain that the ordinary process of double decomposition has no control over it. The Molecular arrangement of the Alloy of Silver and Copper employed for the British Silver Coinage. By Wrt11am Cuanpier Rosrrrs, Chemist of the Mint. Experiments have demonstrated that when a molten alloy of silver and copper is allowed to cool, the composition of the resulting metal is not uniform, the cooling being attended with a remarkable molecular rearrangement, in virtue of which certain constituents of the molten alloy become segregated from the mass, the homo- geneous character of which is thereby destroyed. Thus, to take an extreme case, an alloy containing 77:33 per cent. of silver and 22-67 per cent. of copper was cast in a cubical mould of 42 millimetres. A portion cut from the centre of the mass gave on assay 78°318 per cent. of silver, while a portion cut from one of the angles was found to contain only 77-015 per cent. of silver, showing a difference of 13:03 milliémes. Levol proved that the alloy containing 71°89 fe cent. of silver is homogeneous, and in all alloys containing more silver than this amount the centre of the soli- dified mass is richer than the exterior; on the other hand, in alloys of fineness lower than 71°89, the centre contains less silver than the external portions. The alloy employed for the British silver coinage contains 925 parts of silver and 75 parts of copper in 1000 parts of alloy. The metals are melted together and cast into bars 18 inches long and 1 inch thick ; these bars are subsequently rolled into strips or ribands, and from these ribands the disks of metal to form the coins are cut. Experiments conducted in the most careful manner proved that the centre of the riband contained more silver by two parts in the thousand than the external edges. The increase in richness from one edge of the riband to the centre, and the corresponding decrease in richness from the centre to the opposite edge, was extremely regular, as was shown by the curve or graphic representation of the results by which the paper was illustrated. — — { _ ean hardly be investigated alone. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 On the Retention of Organic Nitrogen by Charcoal. By KH. C. C. Sranvorp. Improvements in Chlorimetiy. By Joun Suyru, Jun., A.M, MLOBL, PALS. The author showed that the use of the milky solution of bleaching-powder in chlorimetry is unsatisfactory, and was therefore glad to discover a method of securing a clear solution containing all the chlorine by dissolving the sample in an alkaline solution. This is conveniently done by adding, say, 10 grammes of bleaching- powder to 20 grammes of soda-crystals (Na, CO,+10H, 0), filtering out the Be eiated carbonate of lime, which is known to be washed when it no longer ischarges the colour of dilute sulphate of indigo, and making up the filtrate by water to one litre of fluid. It isa clear colourless liquid of the sp. gr. 1:007, but if made of sp. gr. 1:233 it is slightly greenish, having a pleasant oily feeling between the fingers, contrasting favourably with the roughness of the decanted solution of the bleaching-powder, with which it gives a precipitate. Most satisfactory results are obtained from it by all the chlorimetrical methods; and it has the additional advantage of showing the amount of lime in the sample, a solution of known strength of carbonate of soda being added until a precipitate is no longer formed. It is manufactured and used in the north of Ireland for bleaching fine linens; and from the ease and accuracy with which the percentage of chlorine was obtained, the author was led to investigate the feasibility of converting bleaching-powder into it for chlorimetrical purposes, and obtained the above results. Contributions to the History of the Phosphorus Chlorides. By T. E. Toorex, Ph.D., FRS.E. I. On the Reduction of Phosphoryl Trichloride. The author has attempted, but without success, to prepare the phosphorus chlorides corresponding to the oxychlorides of vanadium discovered by Roscoe. He found that when phosphorus oxychloride was heated with metallic zinc in a sealed tube to a temperature above the boiling-point of mercury, the phosphorus trichloride (P Cl,) was produced. It appears, therefore, that the action of zine at a high temperature on phosphoryl trichloride is sensibly different from the action of this metal on the corresponding vanadium compound; in the former case the at is attended with abstraction of oxygen, in the latter with abstraction of chlorine. II. On the Preparation of Phosphorus Sulphochloride. The author found that perfectly pure phosphorus sulphochloride may be easily i by a reaction analogous to that by which phosphoryl trichloride has ong been obtained ; that is, by simply substituting P, 8, for P, O, according to the following reaction, P,8,+38 P Cl,=5 PS Cl,. The materials mixed in this proportion were heated in a sealed tube to about 150°C. ; inafew minutes combination was quietly effected, and the entire contents of the tube were transformed into colowless phosphorus sulphochloride, a mobile liquid boiling constantly at 126° at 770 millims barom. Its vapour is extremely irritating, but when diluted with air it has an aromatic odour, reminding one of that of the raspberry. On the Dissociation of Molecules by Heat. By C. R. C. Ticupornz, F.C.S., MRLA. The term dissociation is applied by the author to specify a certain class of phe- nomena somewhat distinct from ordinary decomposition. This latter term is ' generally applied to any case of molecular change which has been consummated, whilst dissociation is used to conyey a passive but present phenomenon. If this latter is carried far enough, it ultimately results in a rupture, and thus the phe- nomena of decomposition and dissociation are so intimately connected, that they 1871. 6 82 REPORT—1871. Compound molecules exist in the solid, liquid, and gaseous condition, providing that the temperature necessary to convert them into these physical modifications is not above the temperature at which their components are dissociated. Thus we can easily conceive that a substance A may be of sufficient structural stability to pass through all the increasing vibratory action of heat without dissociation of its component molecules, until it has passed through the solid, liquid, and far into the vaporous condition; whilst a substance B has what the author calls a thermanalytic point, or the point where the equilibrium is broken. If it lies below 100° C., we have dissociation in the liquid condition among compounds so- luble in water. A well-known natural group of bases had been studied as regards these phe- nomena, viz. the trioxides, alumina, chromic and ferric oxides, and it has been found that all the compound molecules of these bases were more or less disso- ciated on heating their solutions. The ferric compounds are the most easily affected. The solutions of these compounds, if pure, are almost colourless; the usual slight tinge being in most cases produced by the basic action of the water. By the cautious addition of dilute acid, almost colourless solutions will be procured. On the application of heat this solution becomes gradually darker and darker, until it becomes a dark reddish-brown fluid. If the water fees any considerable proportion to the salt, a basic precipitate falls before it has reached the boiling-point. The relative amount of the water is of the utmost importance in these phenomena, because its basic action lowers the thermanalytic point. The result of the dissociative in- fluence of heat when a precipitate is not produced, is the repartitioning of the elements by which a basic and an acid salt are produced in the same fluid simul- taneously. If these experiments are carried on under pressure, or in the presence of a great excess of water, the dissociative influence is so great from the increased range of temperature, that anhydrous oxide of iron can be produced in the pre- sence of water. The compounds of chromium are capable of dissociation in a similar manner, and the change of colour produced by heat upon these solutions is due to basic condition, and not to the state of hydration of the salt as generally stated. The aluminic molecules obey exactly the same rule; but as the thermanalytic oint is much higher, and as there is no chromatic change to mark the dissociative influence of heat, it is difficult to discern the phenomenon. Under the influence of solutions boiling at an increased pressure of 11 or 12 atmospheres alumina was procured. The same results may be obtained by increasing the basic condition of the solution by a large volume of water. As the pressure raises the boiling-point of the water until we reach the thermanalytic point of the molecule, so the basic action of the water upon the stylous group lowers the thermanalytic point until we get it within the range of 100° C. “If 500,000 to 600,000 times the weight of water is used to the amount of salt, a precipitate is produced at 100° C. This pre- cipitate is best seen by passing a beam of electric light through the flask. Most of the precipitates may be observed by the eye, but not all; they redissolve on cooling. On the behaviour of Supersaturated Saline Solutions when exposed to the open air. By Cuartes Tomurnson, F128. It is known that when a vessel containing a supersaturated saline solution is opened in a room, it immediately crystallizes provided the temperature be not too high. Mr. Tomlinson shows that supersaturated solutions of Glauber’s salt (and also of Epsom salts and of alum) may be exposed to the open air of the country for many hours, and even be taken out of the flasks in clean metal spoons, without crystallizing. From a large number of experiments conducted under various con- ditions, the following conclusions are drawn :— 1. That a highly supersaturated solution of sodic sulphate may he exposed to the open air of the country in an uncoyered flask, and in cloudy weather, for from twelve to twenty hours, without any formation of the ordimary ten- watered crystals, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 2. That if the temperature fall to 40° Fahr. and under, the modified seven- watered salt is formed at the bottom of the solution just as in covered vessels, 3. That if the exposed solution suddenly crystallize into a compact mass of needles, a nucleus may always be found in the form of an insect, a speck of soot, a black point of carbon, &c. 4. That if during the exposure rain come on, the solution generally crystallizes suddenly in consequence of an active nucleus being brought down: but if the flask be put out during heavy rain, when we may suppose all the solid nuclei to be brought down, the rain-drops, now quite clean, fall into the solution without any nuclear action. 5. That the young and newly sprouted leaves of trees, such as those of the gooseberry and currant, have no nuclear action, 6. That in clear cloudless weather, when the force of evaporation is strong, the solutions by exposure produce fine groups of crystals of the ten-atom salt, just as a saturated solution would do if left to evaporate slowly in an open dish. 7. That if the solution, after being exposed to the open air, be brought into a room, it crystallizes immediately under the action of aérial nuclei. On the Constitution of Salts. By J. A. Wanxiyy, F.CS. Recent Progress in Chemistry in the United States. By C, Gitsert WHEELER. On the Oxidation products of the Essential Oil of Orange-peel, known as “ Tssence de Portugal.” By C. R.A. Wricut, D.Se., Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, and Caartes H. Presse, Assistant Analyst in St. Thomas's Hospital. Through the kindness of Messrs. Piesse and Lubin, we haye had the opportunity of examining a specimen of pure oil of orange-peel. As stated by Soubeiran and Capitaine, and also by Dr. Gladstone, this oil consists mainly of a hydrocarbon of formula C,, H,,, boiling at 174° C., and termed Hesperidene. We find that the crude oil commences to boil at 175°, and that 97-2 per cent. comes over below 179°; on redistillation over sodium this portion all comes over between 175° and 177° (uncorrected). The remaining 2°8 per cent. is a soft resin, which does not harden on standing, andis perfectly fluid at 100°. It is not volatile without decomposition, and after complete volatilization of residual hesperidene is inodorous; in alcohol, - even boiling, it is but sparingly soluble, readily soluble in ether, and insoluble in water, to which, however, it communicates the aromatic bitter taste of orange-peel. It contains no nitrogen, and on combustion gives numbers agreeing with the formula ©, H,, O,. Hesperidene redistilled over sodium is attacked with violence by concentrated warm nitric acid ; by dilution of the acid with its own bulk of water the action becomes less violent ; after boiling some hours with an inverted condenser attached, the evolution of red fumes and of CO, almost ceases. At this stage the hydro- carbon has principally formed a brown resinous substance, becoming a very thick viscid liquid at 100°, but setting on cooling to a hard brittle mass. This contains much nitrogen and less hydrogen in proportion to the carbon than the original substance. Its examination is not yet completed, but the numbers obtained are consistent with the supposition that it is derived from the original hydrocarbon by addition of oxygen and replacement of hydrogen by NO,,. With strong nitric acid this brown resin is further acted on, producing a yellow resin not softening at 100°, and containing nitrogen and less carbon and hydrogen than the brown resin. Much oxalic acid is also produced, and probably also another acid containing nitrogen ; for the snow-white oxalic acid got by precipita- tion as lead-salt, decomposition with hydric sulphide, and several recrystallizations from water, contained much nitrogen, and yielded (as well as its silver salt) numbers not agreeing with but approximating to those required by theory. On heating one part of hesperidene with a mixture of three pe potassium 84 REPORT—1871. dichromate, one of sulphuric acid, and thirty of water, an inverted condenser being attached, a slow evolution of CO, is noticed. After six or eight hours but little action has apparently taken place ; but on distilling the product there is obtained, besides unaltered hesperidene, an acid liquid, which yields by neutralization a barium salt, giving all the qualitative reactions of acetate, and containing the cal- culated percentage of barium ; a little formiate is possibly also produced, as the barium salt reduces silver nitrate slightly on boiling. The silver salt got by precipitation with strong silver nitrate and recrystallization from boiling water 1s pure acetate. The action of potassium chlorate and sulphuric acid on hesperidene is very energetic, a viscid tarry substance, not yet examined, being produced. The production of acetic acid from hesperidene renders a grouping of carbon atoms of the following nature probable :— CH, CH (C; a) We hope to be able to gain some further insight into the structure of the group C,H,,, and propose to submit to examination several other essential oils, hoping that the results may throw some light on the causes of the “ physical isomerism ”’ of the turpentine group of hydrocarbons. On certain new Derivatives from Codeia. By C. R. A. Wrient, D.Sc., Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School. When codeia is heated to 100° C. for two or three hours with from three to six parts of aqueous hydrobromic acid containing 48 per cent. HBr, there are formed, without appreciable evolution of methyl bromide, three new bases, of which the two last are produced by a further action on the first. These are— Bromocodide C,, H,, Br NO, Deoxycodeta Ci, 2 “NO; Bromotetracodeia C,, H,, Br N, O,.. The two first are soluble in ether, and may thus be separated (after precipitation by sodium carbonate) from the last, which is almost insoluble in this medium. By agitation of the etherial extract with hydrobromic acid there is obtained a viscid liquid, which contains little but bromocodide hydrobromate, if the digestion of the codeia have been carried on for a short time only, but contains also much deoxy- codeia hydrobromate if the digestion have been continued somewhat longer. This latter salt separates in crystals from the viscid liquid on standing, the bromocodide hydrobromate furnishing a gummy mass only on standing and evaporation. By dissolving the portion insoluble in ether in dilute hydrobromic acid, and fractionally precipitating the coloured solution thus got with strong hydrobromic acid several times successively, bromotetracodeia hydrobromate is ultimately obtained in white amorphous flakes, that become tarry if warmed while moist, and colour more or less on drying. When once dry, a temperature of 100°C. does not soften the amorphous salt. The following reactions explain the productions of thesc three bases from codeia hydrobromate— Codeia hydrobromate. Bromocodide hydrobromate. C,, H,, NO,, HBr + HBr = H,0O + C,, H,, Br NO,, HBr Codeia hydro- Bromocodide hydro- Deoxycodeia hydro- = Bromotetracodeia bromate bromate. bromate. hydrobromate. 4(C,,H,,NO,,HBr)+ C,,H,,BrNO,,HBr=C,,H,,NO,,HBr+C,,H,,BrN,0,,,4HBr. By the further action of hydrobromic acid on each of the aboye bases methyl bromide is copiously evolved, and the following series of products formed :— (A) From bromotetracodeia: bromotetramorphia, probably by the reaction— Bromotetracodcia. Bromotetramorphia. C,, Hy, BrN, O,, + 4HBr = 4CH, Br + C,, H,; BrN, 0,5. Meek) ~ nm J TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 (B) From bromocodide: probably at first a lower homologue bromomorphide (not yet isolated), converted subsequently into bromotetramorphia and deory- morphia by the reaction. Bromomorphide. Deoxymorphia. Bromotetramorphia. 5C,, H,, BrNO, + 4H, O = 4HBr + ©,,H,, NO, + C,, H,; Br, 0,,. (C) From deoxycodeia: only blackened tarry substances, not fit for analysis ; hence probably the deoxymorphia got in Bis not formed from deoxycodeia pre- viously produced. Deoxymorphia and bromotetramorphia much resemble in all their properties their homologues deoxycodeia and bromotetracodeia; the first gives crystalline salts, the second amorphous ones. The constitutions of all the above have been verified by analyses of the hydro- bromates, hydrochlorates, platinum salts, &c. In qualitative reactions, the deoxy- salts are identical with apomorphia salts. On treating bromotetracodeia and bromotetramorphia with excess of cold strong hydrochloric acid, dissolving in water, and fractionally precipitating by strong hydrochloric acid, the bromine in these bases becomes replaced by chlorine, yielding the following bodies, that much resemble in all their properties the cor- responding brominated salts :— Chlorotetracodeia hydrochlorate C,, H,, C1N,0,,, 4HC1 Chlorotetramorphia hydrochlorate C,, H,;C1N,0,,, 4HCl. By digesting codeia for six hours at 100° with hydrobromic acid, there was obtained a substance that gave numbers (after treatment with hydrochloric acid) intermediate between those required for the two last-named bodies. This may have been only a mixture of these two; butit seems very probable that a series of products should exist intermediate between these extremes, viz.— C,, H,; BrN, O,, = Bromotetramorphia C,, H., Br, O,, Cro Hyp BEN, O14 C,, H,, BrN, O,, C,, H,, BrN, O,, = Bromotetracodeia C,, H,; CIN, O,, = Chlorotetramorphia C,, H,, CIN, O,, C., H., CIN, O,, = Chlorodicodeia-dimorphia C_, H,, CIN, O C., H,, CIN, O,, = Chlorotetracodeia. Assuming that this substance was not a mixture, it might be termed chloro- dicodeia-dimorphia. Dr. Michael Foster finds that the tetracodeia and tetramorphia compounds produce in adult cats a great excitement of the nervous system, and apparently paralyze the inhibitory fibres of the pneumogastric. Apparently the morphia compounds are somewhat more potent than the codeia bodies in this case. Deoxycodeia and deoxymorphia salts produce in adult cats convulsions more epileptic in character than tetanic. No trace of emetic symptoms has been observed with any of the salts of this class of bases, which in physiological effect, as well as chemical reactions, are almost indistinguishable the one from the other. This absence of emetic symptoms conclusively proves that apomorphia is not among the products of the action of hydrobromic acid on codeia. From its known production from this base by the action of hydrochloric acid, as well as from the analytical numbers obtained, the formation of apomorphia has been previously looked upon as probable. By the action of hydriodic acid containing 55 per cent. HI on codeia in presence of phosphorus, a series of substances have been formed that present the composi- tions included in one or other of the two general formule, 4X + nHI + pH, O, 4Y + nHI + pil, O, 86 REPORT—1871. where X represents a base containing two atoms of hydrogen more than morphia Ge =C,, H.. NO.), and Y a base containing one atom of oxygen less than X (i.e. = C,,H,,NO,). Simultaneously with the production of these substances, iodide of methyl, in quantity representing almost exactly 7; of the carbon in the codeia used, is evolved. : . ; By allowing the action of 10 parts codeia, 30 of 55 per cent. hydriodie acid, and 3 of phosphorus, to take place at 100°, a compound is produced separable from the viscid liquid resulting from the reaction by addition of water, washing, and drying at 100°, and representing in constitution the formula 4X + 6HI = C,, H,,1,N, Oj.) 401 Tf, however, the reaction take place at a somewhat higher temperature, a similar body containing two molecules of water less is formed, 4X + GHI — 2H, 0 = Cy, Heal, Nz O19) 4H1; whilst if the mixture be allowed to boil rapidly, so as to distil off most of the excess of hydriodic acid employed, and ultimately raise the boiling-point to 130° or upwards, the product contains four atoms of oxygen less than this last com- pound, being 4Y + 6HI— 2H,0 = C,, H,, I, N, O,, 481. Simultaneously with these bodies much phosphorous and phosphoric acids are produced. i ; : On. dissolving these substances in hot water and cooling, there are obtained products apparently crystalline to the eye, but under the microscope consisting of coalesced globules only. In this way the following bodies have been obtained :— 4X + 5HI — 2H, O = C,, H,, IN, O,,, 401 4X + 4HT — 2H,0 = C,, H,, N,O,,, 4H1 4Y + 4H1 + 2H,O = C,,H,, N,O,,, 4H1. The free bases of some of the foregoing hydricdates have also been obtained. They oxidize very readily, forming orange-coloured substances that ultimately become black. Finally, by the action of hydriodic acid on the three bodies of the formule last given, the elements of HI and also of H, O are taken up; the following compounds haying been thus obtained, 4X + 7HI + 10H,O = C,, H,,,1, N,0,., 4H1 4Y + 7H1+4 8H,O = C,,H,,,1,N,0,,, 400 4Y¥ + 5HI+ 2H,0=C,,H,, I N,O,,, 401 The H,O thus taken up remains firmly united to the body of the molecule, exposure to a temperature of 100° for days not driving off any water. qualitative reactions, all these bodies are very similar: alkalies throw down a white precipitate of variable composition in the case of those bases which contain iodine united to the molecule of base. In all cases this white precipitate rapidly becomes yellow, orange, and finally brown, oxygen being absorbed. In water and sodium carbonate these precipitates are but little soluble; in ammonia, and espe- cially caustic potash, readily soluble. Oxidizing agents (e.g. nitric acid) produce a bright yellow or orange-yellow tint. ‘ In most of the above reactions, this set of compounds differs much from those got by the action of hydrochloric and hydrobromic acids; the free bases of these latter derivatives having a tendency to become green by oxidation in the air, and yielding red or purple colorations with oxidizing agents. ee ange in the experiments phos described formed part of a large supply, exceeding twenty ounces, most liberally presented for the ose b Messrs, J.P, Metefeflane end'Oo:/lof Ridieibtieate ane =? Fe ‘ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 87 GEOLOGY. Address by Ancurpaty Geucin, F.RS., President of the Section. InsTEap of offering to the Geological Section of the British Association an * Seg Address on some special aspect or branch of general Geology, I have ought that it might be more interesting, and perhaps even more useful, if I were to lay before you an outline of the geology of the district in which we are now assembled. Accordingly, in the remarks which I am now about to make, I propose to sketch to you the broader features of the geological structure and history of Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, dwelling more especially on those parts which have more than a mere local interest, as illustrative of the general principles of our science. It would be as unnecessary as it would be out of place here to cite the long array of authors who have each added to our knowledge of the geology ef this district, and many of them also, at the same time, to the broad fundamental truths of geology. And yet it would be strange to speak here of the rocks of Edinburgh without even a passing tribute of gratitude to men like Hutton, Hall, Jamieson, Hay Cunningham, Hibbert, Hugh Miller, Fleming, Milne Home, and our late esteemed and venerable associate, Charles Maclaren—men who have made the rocks of Edinburgh familiar to geologists all over the world. If, therefore, I make no further allusion to these and other names, it is neither that I forget for a mo- ment their claims, nor that I now bring forward any new material of my own, but because I wish to be understood as dealine with facts which, thanks to the labours of our predecessors, have become part of the common stock of geological knowledge. For the purpose of gaining as clear an idea as may be of the rockgamong which Edinburgh lies, and of the way in which they are grouped together, let us imagine ourselves placed on the battlements of the Castle, where, by varying our position, We may obtain a clear view of the country in every direction for many miles round. To the south-east the horizon is bounded by a range of hich ground, rising as a long tableland above the lowland of Midlothian. Thatisa portion of the wide Silurian uplands of the south of Scotland, forming here the chain of heights known as the Lammermuir and Moorfoot Hills. Along most of its boun- dary line, in this district, the Silurian tableland descends with tolerable rapidity towards the plain, being bounded on its north-west side with a long fault, by which the Carboniferous rocks are brought down against the hills. These Silurian rocks are the oldest strata of the district ; and it is on their contorted and greatly denuded beds that the later formations have been laid down. Turning now to the south, we see the chain of heights known as the Pentland Hills, striking almost from the very suburbs of Edinburgh south-westward in the direction of the Silurian uplands, which they eventually reach in the county of Lanark. This line of hills rises along an anticlinal axis by which the broad Car- boniferous tract_of the Lothians is divided into two distinct portions. The Pent- lands themselves consist, as I shall afterwards point out, chiefly of rocks of Old Red Saudstone age; but the anticlinal fold along which they rise is prolonged through the Braid Hills, and through the Carboniferous ground by the Castle Rock of Edinburgh, even as far as the opposite shores of Fife. From the Castle we can readily follow with the eye the effects of this great dominant fold of the rocks. To the east, we mark how the strata dip away eastward from the axis of movement, as is shown in the escarpments of Salisbury Crag, Arthur’s Seat, and Calton Hill, while on the opposite or western side the escarpment of the wooded hill of Cors- torphine, facing towards us, points out the westward dip. From the same stand- point we can even detect the passage of the arch into Fife; for the rocks about Aberdour are seen dipping to the west, while eastward they bend over and dip towards the east at Kinghorn. Although the structure of the district is simple when the existence and position of this anticlinal axis is recognized, some little complication is introduced by a long powerful fault which flanks the axis on its south-eastern side. The effect of this fault is to throw out a great part of the lower division of the Carboniferous formations, and to bring the Carboniferous Limestone series in some places close 88 REPORT—1871. against the Lower Old Red Sandstone and its voleanie rocks. Another result has been the extreme tilting of the strata, whereby the Limestone series along the east side of the fault has been thrown on end, and eyen in some parts bent back into a reversed dip. Hence, while on one side of the axis the Limestone series is some- times only a few hundred yards distant from the Old Red Sandstone, on the oppo- site or north-west side the distance is fully eleven miles, the intervening space being there occupied by endless undulations of the lower divisions of the Carboni- ferous system. Hence, too, the Millstone-grit and Coal-measures come in along the centre of the Midlothian basin a short way to the east of the Pentland axis; while on the west side they are not met with till we reach the borders of Stirling- shire and Linlithgow. Another remarkable and readily observable feature is, that on the west side of the Pentland ridge the Carboniferous formations, from almost their base up to the top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, abound in contemporaneous volcanic rocks; while on the east side, beyond Edmburgh and Arthur's Seat, such rocks are absent until we reach the Garlton Hills, to the north of Haddington, where they reappear, but in a very different type from that which they exhibit to the west. Let us now pass in review the different geological formations which come into the district around us, beginning with the oldest and ascending through the others till we reach the superficial accumulations, and mark, in conclusion, how far the present surface-features are connected with geological structure. [The author then described the various geological formations of the district— Silurian, Old Red Sandstone, and Carboniferous—dwelling in particular upon the history of volcanic action in that part of Scotland. On this subject he remarked :—] Outline of the History of Volcanic Action around Edinburgh. The oldest tolcanoes of this part of Scotland were those which, during the time of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, poured out the great sheets of porphyrite and the showers of tuff which now form the main mass of the range of the Pentland Hills. During the same long geological period volcanic action was rife, as we have seen, along the whole of the broad midland valley of Scotland, since to that time we must refer the origin of the Sidlaw and the Ochil Hills, part of eastern Berwickshire, and the long line of uplands stretching from the Pentland Hills through Lanarkshire, and across Nithsdale, far into Ayrshire. Of volcanic action, during the remainder of the Old Red Sandstone period, there is around Edinburgh no trace. But early in the following or Carboniferous period, the volcano of Arthur’s Seat and Calton Hill came into existence, and threw out its tiny flows of basalt and porphyrite, and its showers of ashes. From that time onwards, through nearly the whole of the interval occupied by the deposition of the Carboniferous Limestone series, the district to the west of Edinburgh was dotted over with small cones, usually of tuff, but sometimes emitting limited currents of different basalt rocks, more especially in the space between Bathgate and the Forth, where a long bank, chiefly formed of such lava-currents, was piled up over and among the pools and shallows in which the limestones, sandstones, shales, and coal-seams were accumulated. To the north, also, similar volcanic activity was shown in the Fife tracts nearest the Forth ; while eastwards, between Haddington and Dunbar, there lay a distinct volcanic focus, where great showers of red fel- spathic tuff and widespread sheets of porphyrite were ejected to form a bank over which the Carboniferous Limestone series was at length tranquilly deposited. Volcanic activity seems to have died out here before the close of the Carboni- ferous Limestone period. It remained quiescent during the deposition of the Mill- stone-grit and Coal-measures; at least no trace of any contemporaneous igneous ejection is found in any part of these formations. The intrusive masses of various basalt rocks, which here intersect the older half of the Carboniferous system, are, in all probability, of Lower Carboniferous date, connected with the eruptions of the interbedded volcanic rocks. The next proofs of volcanic action in this neigh- bourhood are furnished by the upper part of Arthur’s Seat. At that locality we discover that after more than 3000 feet of strata had been remoyed by denudation from the Pentland anticlinal fold so as to lay bare the old Lower Carboniferous volcanic rocks of Edinburgh, a new focus of eruption was formed, from which — TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 were ejected the basalts and coarse agglomerates of the summit and shonlders of Arthur’s Seat. There is no trustworthy evidence for fixing the geological date of this eruption. Evidently, from the great denudation by which it was preceded, it must belong to a much later period than any of the Carboniferous eruptions. Yet, from the great similarity of the Arthur’s Seat agglomerate, both in compo- sition and mode of occurrence, to numerous ‘‘ necks” which rise through all parts of the Carboniferous system between Nithsdale and Fife, and which I have shown to mark the position of volcanic orifices during Permian times, I am inclined to regard these later igneous rocks of Edinburgh as dating from the Permian period. Arthur’s Seat, however, seems to have been the only volcano in action during that period in this neighbourhood. There still remains.for notice one further and final feature of the volcanic his- tory of this part of Scotland. Rising indifferently through any part of the other rocks, whether aqueous or,igneous, and marked by a singular uniformity of direction, there is a series of basalt dykes which deserves attention. They have a general easterly and westerly trend, and even where, as in Linlithgowshire, they traverse tracts of basalt-rocks, they preserve their independence, and continue as readily separable as when they are found intersecting sandstones and shales. These dykes belong to that extensive series which, running across a great part of Scotland, the north of England, and the north-east of Ireland, passes into, and is intimately con- nected with, the wide basaltic plateaux of Antrim and the Inner Hebrides. They date, in fact, from Miocene times, and, from their numbers, their extent, and the distance to which they can_be traced from the volcanic centre of the north-west, they remain as a striking memorial of the vigour of volcanic action during the last period of its manifestation in this country. Glacial Phenomena. To an eye accustomed to note the characteristic impress of ice-action upon a land-surface, the neighbourhood of Edinburgh presents many features of interest. It was upon Corstorphine Hill, on the western outskirts of the city, that Sir James Hall first called attention to striated rock-surfaces which, though erroneously at- tributed to the abrasion produced by torrents of water, were even then recognized as trustworthy evidence of the last great geological changes that had passed over the surface of the country. Even before we come to look at the surface in detail, and note the striation of its rocks, we cannot fail to recognize the distinctively ice- worn aspect of the hills round Edinburgh. Lach of them is, in fact, a great roche moutonnée, left in the path of the vast ice-sheet which passed across the land. That this ice was of sufficient depth and mass to override even the highest hills, is proved not merely by the general ice-worn surface of the landscape, but by the occurrence of characteristic strise on the summits of the Pentland Hills, 1600 feet ‘ above the sea; that it came from the Highlands, is indicated by the pebbles of granite, gneiss, schist, and quartz rock occurring in the older boulder-clays which it produced ; and that, deflected by the mass of the southern uplands, the ice in the valley of the Lothians was forced to move seawards, in a direction a little north of east, is shown by the trend of the striz graven on the rocks, as at Cors- torphine, Granton, Arthur’s Seat, and Pentland Hills. Connexion of the present form of the Surface with Geological Structure. In concluding these outlires, let me direct the attention of the Section to the bearing which the geological structure of the district wherein we are now assem- bled has upon the broad and much canvassed question of the origin of land- surfaces. In the first place, we cannot fail to be struck with the evidence of enormous denudation which the rocks of the district have undergone. Every for- mation, from the oldest to the latest, has suffered, and the process of waste has been going on apparently from the earliest times. We see that the Lower Silu- rian rocks were upheaved and denuded before the time of the Lower Old Red Sandstone; that the latter formation had undergone enormous erosion )hefore the beginning of the Carboniferous period; that of the Carboniferous rocks, a thick- ness more than 3000 feet had been worn away from the site of Arthur’s Seat be- fore the last eruptions of that hill, which are possibly as old as the Permian period 90 REPORT—1871. that still further and vaster denudation took place before the setting in of the Ice- age; and finally, that the deposits of that age have since been to a large extent removed. With the proofs, therefore, of such continued destruction, it would be vain to look for any aboriginal outline of the surface, or hope to find any of the later but still early features of the landscape remaining permanent amid the sur- rounding waste. In the second place we note that, in the midst of this greatly denuded area, it is the harder rocks which form the hills and crags. Those masses which in the long process of waste presented most resistance to the powers of destruction, are just those which, as we might expect, rise into eminences, while those whose re- sistance was least sink into plains and valleys. All the craggy heights which form so conspicuous a feature of Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, are composed of hard igneous rocks, the undulating lowlands lie upon soft aqueous rocks. In the third place, the coincidence of the position of hills and crags with the existence of ancient igneous rocks, cannot be misinterpreted by ascribing the pre- sence and form of the hills to the outlines assumed by the igneous material ejected to the surface from below. The hills are not due to igneous upheaval at all, but can be shown to have been buried deep under subsequent accumulations, to haye been bent and broken with all the bendings and breaks these later formations un- derwent, and to have been finally brought to light again only after a long cycle of denudation had removed the mass of rock under which they had been concealed. What is true of the hills of Edinburgh, is true also of all the older volcanic districts o iBritain. Even where the hills consist of voleanic rocks, their existence, as hills, can be proved to be one of the results not of upheaval but of denudation. In the fourth place, this district furnishes an instructive illustration of the in- fluence of faults upon the external contour of a country. The faults here do not form valleys. On the contrary, the valleys have been cut across them in innu- merable instances. In the Dalkeith coal-field, for example, the valleys and ra- vines of the river Esk traverse faults of 190 to nearly 500 feet, yet there is no in- equality at the surface, the whole ground having been planed down by denudation to one common level. When, however, a fault brings together rocks which differ much in their relative powers of resistance to waste, the side of the dislocation occupied by the harder rocks will tend to form an eminence, while the opposite side, consisting of softer rocks, will be worn down into a hollow or plain. Con- spicuous examples are furnished by the faults which, along the flanks of the Pent- land Hills, have brought down the comparatively destructible sandstones and shales of the Carboniferous series, against the much less easily destroyed porphy- rites and conglomerates of the Old Red Sandstone. In fine, we learn here as elsewhere in our country, and here more strikingly than often elsewhere, on account of the varied geological structure of the district, | that the present landscape has resulted from a long course of sculpturing, and that how much soever that process may have been accelerated or retarded by underground movements, it is by the slow but irresistible action of rain and frost, springs, ice, and the sea, that out of the various geological formations among which Edinburgh lies, her picturesque outline of hill and valley, crag and ravine, has, step by step, been carved, The Yorkshire Lias and the Distribution of its Anumonites. By the Rev. J. F, Braxx. The Lias of Yorkshire is exposed on the coast for a distance of about 30 miles, and owing to faults and undulations the series is repeated twice, one main area being to the north, the other to the south of Whitby; and there are two outlying patches, one of the highest beds at Peak, the other of the lowest beds at Redcar. The basis of the description in this paper is the division into Ammonite zones, as by Oppel and others. 1. Zone of Ammonites Jwrensis,—These occur at Peak. The author has not found the characteristic Ammonite tn situ, but recognizes the zone by its peculiar fauna. It appears to be divided into an upper and lower division. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 2. Zone of Posidonia Bronnit.—This the author divides into several. a. Zone of Am. bifrons.—Containing bands of cement stone. B. Zone of Am. communis—Constituting the alum-shale, and characterized throughout by Leda ovum. y. Zone of Posidonia Bronnii proper, which includes the jet-bearing beds. These form the Upper Lias. 3. Zone of Am. spinatus.—This consists of numerous ironstone bands, which form the workable beds of Yorkshire. 4, Zone of Am. margaritatus.——More micaceous beds. These two zones are not clearly separable, both Ammonites being found in each. 5. Zone of Am. Davei.—This Ammonite is very rare, if found at all, in Yorkshire, and the zone is more characterized by Am. capricornus, 6. Zone of Am. Ibex.—This form is now recognized for the first time in Yorkshize, but the associated Ammonites, Henleyi and jimbriatus, form a well-marked zone. 7. Zone of Am. Jamesoni.—The true form only found 2 situ north of Whitby ; but the allied bremspinais highly characteristic of the beds, which are very fossiliferous. 8. Zone of Am. armatus.—This is well represented; the Pinna folium is conter- minous with the two last zones, which end the Middle Lias. The last four zones are similar in lithological character, being shaly beds with scattered dogger bands. The zones below this are only seen at Robin Hood’s Bay and Redcar. 9. Zone of Am, raricostatus.—This is well developed in micaceous shaly beds, indurated at the top, which is the character also of all the succeeding zones. 10. Zone of Am. orynotus.—Also well developed, containing a strone limestone band. 11. Zone of Am. Twrneri.ts only found on the shore. 12. Zone of Am. obtusus—Seen at Peak. 13. Zone of Am. Bucklandi.—Forms the lowest beds seen at Robin Hood’s Bay, and the highest at Redcar. They do not contain limestone as elsewhere. An ichthyosaur has been found in these, such haying been hitherto only announced from the Upper Lias in Yorkshire. 14. Zone of Am. angulatus.—This is represented by thin shaly beds at Redcar, where this Ammonite is abundant; and also by a limestone-bed near Market Weighton, at which latter place it contains a new and varied fauna. 15. Zone of Am. planorbis.—Hitherto only washed up from the sea in fragments. Its beds have now been discovered near Market Weighton, where they contain numerous foraminifera, In this locality the oyster-bands and white lias are reached, but not the bone-bed. The lithological character and the position of all these zones were described in the paper. List of Ammonites in the Author’s Cabinet from the several Zones. Those marked P have not been found i situ, but their belonging to the zone is almost certain; those marked p probably belong to the zone. Zone of Ammonites Jurensis. Ammonites crassus (Y, § B.) =Raquinia- Ammonites Aalensis (Zict.). nus (D’ Orb.). striatulus (Sow.). — Lythensis (¥.& B.). ign (Stmp.). —— Mulgravius (Y. § B.). lectus (Simp.). : : Pp Tai Tey cena Bean). Zone of Ammonites communis. le variabilis (D’ Orb.) =Beanii ( Simp.) Ammonites communis (Sow.). =obliquatus (Simp.). —— delicatus (Simp.). p —— fabalis (Simp.)=Escheri (Hauer) ? Braunianus (D’ Ord.). — Mulgravius (Y. & B.). Zone of Ammonites bifrons. Ammonites bifrons (Brug.) =Walcottii From one or other of the above zones. (Sow.). Ammonites Hseri ( Oppcl). Levisoni (Stmp.)=Sxmanni (Opp.). —— Desplacei (D'Oré.). -——— heterophyllus (Y. ¢ B.). —— fibulatus (Y. & B.), 92 REPORT—187]1. Ammonites Andrew (Stmp.). crassifactus (Simp.). crassescens (Simp.). vortex (Simp.). —— fonticulus (Simp. varieties of crassus. Zone of Posidonia Bronnii. Ammonites Mulgravius (Y¥. ¢ B.). serpentinus (Sch/.). ovatus (Y. § B.). elegans (Sow.). — exaratus (Y.& B.). Aalensis (Zéet.) =rugatulus (Simp.). concayus (Sow.). delicatus (Simp.). — annulatus (Sow.). heterophyllus (Y. § B.). P semicelatus (Simp.). P —— attenuatus (Simp.). P Easingtonensis (Simp.). Pp subcarinatus (Y. § B.). p subconcavus (Y. § B.). p —— latescens (Simp.). Zone of Ammonites spinatus. Ammonites spinatus (Brug.). Common. —— margaritatus (Sch/.). Rare. conjunctivus (Simp.) =spinellii, (Hau.). 4 reticularis (Simp.) (=Engelhardtii, D’ Orb.)?? f P —— lenticularis (Y. § B.)=coynarti (D’ Orb.). Zone of Ammonites margaritatus. Ammonites margaritatus (Sch/.). Com- mon. spinatus (Brug.). Very scarce. nitescens (Y. § B.)=stahli ( Opp.). — n.sp., No. 1. p ——n.sp., No. 2. Zone of Ammonites capricornus. Ammonites capricornus (Sch/.) =macula- tus (Y. § B.). arcigerens (Ph.). Pe curvicornis (Sch/énb.). P —— subarmatus (Y. § B.). Zone of Ammonites Henleyi. Ammonites Henleyi (Sow.). fimbriatus (Sow.). P Dayidsoni (D’ Orb.) =levigatus (Sow.)=nitidus (Y. ¢ B.)? P ibex (Qu). Zone of Ammonites Jamesoni. Ammonites Jamesoni (Sow.). * brevispina (Sow.). —— caprarius (Qu. =aureus (Simp.). venustulus (Dum.). natrix (Sch/.). -—— lynx (D’ Orb.)=lens (Simp.). Ammonites polymorphus (Qv.)=trivialis (Simp.). Dennyi (Stmp.) =heterophyllus numismalis (Qz.) aculeatus (Simp.). Zone of Ammonites armatus. Ammonites armatus (Sow.). 5 ake (Simp.)=Taylori costatus te)» Taylori (Sow.). —— submuticus (Dum. non Opp.). Macdonnellii (Por?i.). —— tubellus ( Simp.) =miserabilis (Qw.). tardicrescens (Hauer), —— n. sp., No. 3. Zone of Ammonites raricostatus. Ammonites raricostatus (Zéet.), densinodus ( @Qvw.). —— subplanicosta (Opp.). Zone of Ammonites oxynotus. Ammonites oxynotus (@Qu.). —— Simpsoni (Simp.). gagateus (Y. ¢ B.). ‘Zone of Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites obtusus (Sow.). —— stellaris (Sow.). —— planicosta (Sow.). —— Ziphus (Zier.). —— n. sp. No. 4. —— n. sp. No. 5. Scipionanus (D’ Ord.). p Zone of Ammonites Turneri. Ammonites Turneri (Sow.), geometricus ( Opp.). —-—- Youngi (Simp.). P -impendens (Y. g B.)=Fowleri (Buckm.). . P ——tenellus(Simp.). =denotatus( Sémp.). Zone of Ammonites Bucklandi, Ammonites Bucklandi (Sow.). P —— Conybeari (Sow.). —— bisuleatus (Lrvgq.). —— spinaries (Qvw.). semicostatus (Y. g 4)=Wartmanni (Opp.). —— Sauzeanus (D’ Orb.).=transforma- tus (Simp.). —— Birchii (Sow.). —— difformis (mm). —— compressaries (Q#.). —— multicostatus (Sow.). Infralias. Ammonites angulatus (Sch/.), —— Johnstoni ( Sow.) =psilonotus plica- tus (Quw.). planorbis (Sow.). Pe a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 On the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland. By D. J. Brown. P This paper was illustrated by a map and section, also specimens of rocks and ossils. Ina section drawn from Moffat Water in Dumfriesshire to Kilbucho in Peeble- shire, we have, first, the Moffat rocks, which consist of hard blue grit (Grey- wacké) and shale. These are accompanied by beds of anthracite and black shale containing Graptolites; on leaving Moflat Water, we first meet anthracite beds, then a series of grit and shale; this order is repeated six times. The last time we see anthracite beds is at Holmes-water-head, where we find them plunging under the limestone and conglomerate of Wrae and Glencotho, over the whole length of the section from Moffat Water to Holmes Water. The beds stand at a high angle, and have an almost uniform northernly dip. From Holmes Water to Kil- bucho the rocks are of a more diversified character. We have first a coarse angular conglomerate, then a bed of limestone with fossils, mostly of a Caradoc type ; next a series of beds of slate, shale, and grit; these beds come up again at Kilbucho, After Holmes Water we have no longer the uniform northernly dip, but the beds undulate, and in one section are seen to form regular waves. These beds all along the line of the section, from the river Tweed to Kilbucho, are given in the Government Geological Map of Peebleshire as one series of Llan- deilo age. The author is of opinion that they form two series—a lower Moffat or Llandeilo, and an upper or Caradoc series that lies unconformable upon the lower. The author has come to the conclusion that the two series are unconformable :— First, because we find the anthracite beds at a high angle plunging under the limestone and Conglomerate of Glencotho and Wrae at Holmes-water-head, and emerging at the same angle in the Moor-foot Hills. Second, because we find these upper rocks everywhere underlaid bya bed of coarse angular Conglomerate; and this conglomerate is found in fragments, and nowhere in situ, in the neighbourhood of Moffat, which is on the opposite watershed, being, as the author thinks, fragments of the lower rocks left in the process of denudation. Third, this Conglomerate is found to con- tain numerous fragments of anthracitic shale containing Graptolites belonging to lower beds, proving that the lower rocks were consolidated, and then torn into frag- ments before the upper rocks were laid down. On the Upper Silurian Rocks of the Pentland Hills and Lesmahago. By D. J. Brown. This paper was illustrated by a map and two sections. In a paper published in the Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society, yol. i., written by Mr. Henderson and the author, it was shown that in the North Esk section of the Pentland Hills there is a very perfect Wenlock fauna, and that it is only towards the top of the section that the Ludlow species come in ; it was further shown, from Silurian fossils collected from the Red Conglomerate lying at the top of the section, that these Red Conglomerates were not a part of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, but a continuation of the Silurian, and that the whole Silurian rocks in the Lyne water form a continuous section above them. In the district of Lesmahago the Upper Silurians are said to form a continuous series with the Lower Old Red Sandstone that lies above them. In “ Memoir 82, Geological Sur- yey of Scotland,” the same phenomena are said to occur in the Pentlands, and Mr. Salter draws a parallel between these beds and those of Lesmahago ; but from this comparison he omits the section in the Lyne water, which forms a continuous series above the Red Rocks, said to be Old Red Sandstone, so that these Old Red Sand- stone beds of the Government Survey lie right in the centre of the continuous sec- tion of Upper Silurian, and contain Upper Silurian fossils. As it is only towards the top of the North Esk section that we find any fossils belonging to the Lesma- hago beds, and they differ from them very much in their lithological character, the author is of opinion that these beds are not the equivalent of the Lesmahago beds but that these latter form an upper series overlying the Pentland beds, 94. REPORT—1871. Geological Notes on the Noursoak Peninsula and Disco Island in North Greenland. By Rosert Browy, I.A., Ph.D., PR.GS., Fe. The geology of Greenland has been partially investigated, so far as the west coast is concerned, by Giesecke, Pingel, Rink, and to some extent by Inglefield, Suther- land, Kane, Hayes, and the late Mr. Olrik, so many years Inspector of North Green- land and Director of the Kgl. Grénlandske Handel in Copenhagen. More recently the author and his companions made sections and collected fossils from the vicinity of the localities named ; and this paper was an account of the geological results of this voyage, made in 1867. Since then several Swedish naturalists haye visited the country, aud the German Expedition to East Greenland has added to our know- ledge of the geology and tertiary flora of East Greenland. The formations found in Greenland are :— (1) Primitive rocks, chiefly syenite, granitic, and various gneissose rocks, very widely distributed, reaching in some places to a height of 40C0 feet or more. In this formation are found the chief economic minerals of Greenland, kryolite, soap- stone, &e. (2) “ The Red Sandstone of Igalliko Fjord,” probably Devonian, but only a patch, now being rapidly destroyed by the sea. (3) Mesozoie rocks: only a patch in the vicinity of Omenak, most probably cretaceous. (4) Miocene: confined entirely to the vicinity of the Waigatz Strait and part of Omenak Fjord, on the west coast, though most probably it once extended right over Greenland in that line, though now either destroyed or overlain by the great interior ice. It makes its appearance on the east coast, and is also found in Spitzbergen. The next portion of Dr. Brown’s paper was occupied in describing in detail the Miocene beds and sections seen at various places; the whole concluding with a criticism of the conclusions of Professor Heer, of Zurich, who had described the plants discovered by Dr. Brown and others, and in giving what he considered was a just view of the results which the palzeontologist might logically deduce from the facts already observed. After giving some account of Greenland coal, its structure, chemical composition, and economic value, he furnished a list of the animal- and lant-remains already found in the Miocene and Cretaceous beds in Greenland, and indicated what points remain still to be investigated. Chief among these he in- stanced the Mesozoic deposits already mentioned. As the Association had already voted a sum of money for this purpose, he thought that if it was judiciously ex- pended through means of some of the well-educated and intelligent Danish officers resident in Greenland, who were accustomed to such work, good results might be accomplished. Note on certain Fossils from the Durine Limestone, N.W. Sutherland. By Dr. Bryer, F.R.S.E. On the Vegetuble Contents of Masses of Limestone occurring in Trappean Rocks in Fifeshire, and the conditions under which they are preserved. By W. Carruruers, F228. The shore to the east of Kingswood End is strewn with large fragments of a limestone which Mr. G. Grieve, of Burntisland, detected to be filled with vege- table remains. This limestone was traced by Mr. Grieve to the cliffs above, where he found it enclosed in the centre of the trappean tuff. Having received from him several] specimens, the author recently spent some time, in company with Prof. Morris, in investigating this important discovery of Mr. Grieve, under his direction. The specimens occur in angular masses in the volcanic ash, and are fraements of beds existing before the formation of the bed of ash. At Elie fragments of coniferous wood abound in a similar bed, and there, as at Kingswood End, the ash contains numerous fragments of shale, limestone, sandstone, &c. The author believed that the plant-remains had been enclosed in the form of peat, from a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 surface bed, where the coal-plants were growing when the ash was thrown out of the volcano, the lime abounding in the bed, and which fills the numerous amyg- daloidal cavities of the rock, having speedily seized and fixed them, preserving all the details of the tissue. The plants are stems, fruits and leaves of carboniferous plants, and innumerable roots penetrate the mass in every direction. The characters of these plants are beautifully shown on the shore fragments, which are polished by blown sand. At this place the great power of air-driven sand is very evident on the black basalt, which is all smoothed and almost glazed on its western aspect. The author believed that the continuous bed of limestone containing vegetables, above Kingswood End, was different from the blocks on the shore and those in the trappean ash, because of the different mineral conditions and organic contents. On the General Conditions of the Glacial Epoch ; with Suggestions on the formation of Lalke-basins. By Joun Curry. The paper contains a detailed topographical account of glacial drift in the north of England, from which the author passes on to discuss the general conditions of the glacial epoch. Increase and diminution of a polar ice-cap is the cause, in the author’s judgment, of the movements of subsidence and elevation of sea-level of the glacial period. He maintains that the submerged forests of many parts of the coast have fae preserved by being imbedded in a sheet of ice. Remarks on the origin of lake-basins follow. The author cites evidence to show the power of ice and débris to dam up streams, and bases his conclusions largely upon facts quoted from Mr. Jamieson’s paper in vol. i. of the Geological Journal. On the General Geology of Queensland. . By KR. Darxtrez. This paper was illustrated by a series of photographs; a number of fossils and rock specimens had been collected by the author, but they were, unfortunately, all lost in the wreck of the ‘Queen of the Thames.’ The author recognized in Queensland metamorphic and igneous rocks, and the equivalents, to some extent, of our Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Liassic (?), Oolitic, and Cretaceous for- mations. A still higher series of sandstones occurred, but their precise age had not yet been determined. Alluvial deposits fringed all the water-courses, and had yielded remains of extinct marsupials. It was in these alluvial deposits that the miner met with his chief supply of “free” gold. In the beds which Mr. Daintree refers with doubt to the Lias, coal-seams of varied quality occur. They are only employed for local purposes, and no attempt has yet been made to ascertain their number and relative position. This coal-field occupies a certain district in the south of Queensland, but another coal-field, belonging to the Carboniferous for- mation, is met with in the north. None of the coals there have been worked, owing to the want of railway communication. In the passage-beds between the Carboniferous and Devonian formations, auriferous lodes occur, all the mineral veins of the country appearing either in Upper Paleozoic or Metamorphic rocks. Copper and lead-ore also abound. The author believes there is a close connexion between the occurrence of veins and the appearance of Trappean dis- turbance. The Relation of the Quaternary Mammatia to the Glacial Period. By W. Bory Dawxtns, F.R.S. The animals fell naturally into five distinct groups, the first of which comprises those now living in the temperate regions of Hurope and America, including the Grizzly Bear, the Lynx, the Bison, and the Wild Boar, and binds the Quater- nary to the present fauna, The second group comprises those animals which are now confined to cold regions, such as the Glutton, Reindeer, Musk Sheep, and the Tailless Hare ; they constitute the Arctic division of Quaternary Mammalia, and imply a cold climate. The third group consists of those animals which are now only found in hot regions, the Hyzena and Hippopotamus ; and they indicated 96 REPORT—187]1. a hot climate. The only mode of getting over this discrepancy is to suppose that in those days the winter cold was very severe, and the summer heat intense, so that in the summer time the animals, now found in warmer regions, migrated north- wards, and in the winter time those now found in the Arctic regions went south- wards. The fourth group consists of such extinct forms ‘as the Caye Bear, the Stag, the Mammoth, and the Woolly Rhinoceros. The fifth group includes the Sabre-toothed Tiger, the Irish Elk, Rhinoceros megarhinus and R. hemitechus, and they, with some others, show that there is no great break between the Quaternary and the Pliocene, such as would warrant any sharply defined division of great value. The interest centered more particularly in the Arctic group; and so far as the evidence went, it seemed to be extremely probable that they were in occupa- tion of the areas in Great Britain in which they were found during the time the other areas, in which they were not found, were covered with glaciers ; and this period may be put down to that of the latest sojourn of the glaciers in the highest grounds of our islands, and even so far south as the districts of Auvergne and Dauphiné. On the Progress of the Geological Survey in Scotland. By Prof. Gurr, F.R.S. When the British Association last met in Scotland, [had the honour of bringing before this Section a report upon the progress of the Geological Survey, from the time of its commencement here in 1854 by Professor Ramsay, under the direction of the late Sir Henry De la Beche, up to the year 1867, under the supervision of the present Director, Sir Roderick Murchison. During the four years which have since elapsed, considerable advance has been made in the survey of the southern half of Scotland ; and I propose now, with the sanction of Sir Roderick, to present to you a brief outline of what has been done, and of the present state of the Survey. At the time of my previous report rather more than 3000 square miles had been surveyed. Since then we have completed 2700 square miles additional, making a total area of nearly 6000 square miles. Of this area 3175 square miles haye been published on the one-inch scale, and three sheets, representing in all 632 square miles, are now in course of being engraved. The whole country is surveyed upon the Ordnance Maps on the scale of six inches to a mile, and from these field-maps the work is reduced to the one-inch scale, which is the scale adopted for the gene- ral Geological Map of the country. In addition to that general me p however, maps on the larger or six-inch are published of all mineral tracts. In this way five sheets of the six-inch maps have now been published, embracing the whole of the coal-fields of Fife, Haddingtonshire, and Edinburghshire, with a large portion of the coal-fields of Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, Ayrshire, and Dumfriesshire. The area over which the field-work of the Survey has extended lies between the mouths of the Firths of Tay, Forth, Clyde, and Solway, eastwards to the borders of Roxburghshire and the mouth of the Tweed. It includes the counties of Fife, Kinross, the Lothians, Lanark, Renfrew, Peebles, Ayr, Wigton, Kirkcudbright, Dumfries, and Selkirk, with parts of Stirling, Dumbarton, and Perth. — Of the geological formations examined, the Lower Silurian rocks of the southern uplands cover a considerable space upon the published maps. Until three years ago the mapping of these rocks continued to be most unsatisfactory, owing to the want of any continuous recognizable section from which the order of succession among the strata could be ascertained, and to the great scarcity of organic remains. Our more recent work among the Leadhills, howeyer, has at last given us the means of unravelling, as we hope, the physical structure and stratigraphical relations of the uplands of the south of Scotland. The rocks there are capable of division into several well-marked groups of strata, characterized by distinct assemblages of fos- sils. We have a lower or Llandeilo series, with a suite of graptolites, and forming probably an upper part of the Moffat group, and a higher or Caradoc set of beds, with a considerable assemblage of distinctive fossils. This higher group we be- lieve to be on the same general horizon as the limestones of Wrae and Kilbucho in Peeblesshire. The Lower Old Red Sandstone has now been mapped completely over the whole of its extent between Edinburgh and the south of Ayrshire. Fossils haye only TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 been met with at one locality in the latter county, where Cephalaspis occurs. The most characteristic feature of the formation is the enormous development of its interbedded volcanic rocks. Between Edinburgh and Lanarkshire, also, there occurs in this formation a local but violent unconformability, connected probably with some phase of the contemporaneous volcanic activity of the region. Most of the detailed work of the Survey has lain upon Carboniferous rocks. In the lowest formations of this system, known as the Calciferous Sandstones, the Survey has now been able to trace a twofold division completely across the coun- try, from sea to sea, viz. a lower group of red sandstones, and a higher group of white sandstones, green, grey, and dark shales, cement-stones, limestones, and occa- sional coal-seams, All these strata lie beneath the true Carboniferous Limestone. They are becoming daily more important from their containing in some places highly bituminous shales, from which paraffin oil can be made. The Carboniferous Limestone series, with its valuable coals and ironstones, has been mapped, and in great part published, for the eastern and south-western coal-fields; and this is also the case with the Coal-measures. Much additional information has been obtained regarding the development of volcanic action in central Scotland during the Car- boniferous period. The Permian basins of Ayrshire and Thornhill have been surveyed and in great part published. Much fresh light has in the course of this Survey been thrown on the interesting Permian volcanoes of the south-west of Scotland. Attention has been continuously given to the superficial accumulations. These are now mapped in as great detail as the rocks underneath, and plans are being prepared with the view to an issue of maps of the surface geology. By a recent order of the Director-General, each one-inch map is now accompa- nied at the time of its publication, or as soon thereafter as possible, with an expla- natory pamphlet, in which the form of the ground, geological formations, fossils, rocks, faults, and economic minerals are briefly described, and such further infor- mation given as seems necessary for the proper elucidation of the map. These amphlets are sold at a uniform price of 3d. Detailed vertical sections are pub- ished for each coal-field. For the construction of these sections, records of boring operations are procured and recorded in the register-books of the Survey. Since 1867 more than 312,200 feet of such borings have in this way been entered in our books. Sheets of horizontal sections on a large scale are likewise issued to form, with the maps and explanations, a compendium of the geological structure of each large district. Another feature of the work of the Survey is the collection of specimens of the rocks and fossils of each tract of country as it is surveyed. Since my previous Report to this Section of the British Association, we have collected 1011 speci- mens of rocks, and 7500 fossils. These are named and exhibited, as far as the resent accommodation will permit, in the Museum of Science and Art at Edin- ureh. The work of the Geological Survey is carried on, as I have said, under the guid- ance of its Director-General, Sir Roderick Murchison, a name which has long been a household word at the meetings of the British Association, and one to which I am sure you will permit me to make on this occasion more than a passing reference. While the Survey advances, as I have shown, steadily over the face of the country, unravelling piece by piece the complicated details of its geological structure, to Sir Roderick belongs the rare merit of having himself led the way, by sketching for us, boldly and clearly, the relations of the older rocks over more than half of the kingdom. Much must undoubtedly remain for future investigation, but his out- line of the grand essential features of Highland geology will ever remain as a monu- ment of his powers of close yet rapid observation and sagacious inference. At one time I had hoped that the Chair of this Section might be filled by him, and that we should be permitted to listen anew to his expositions of the rocks of his native country. There is no one among us who does not regret the absence of the fami- liar face and voice of the veteran of Siluria. We meet once more on Scottish ground, and for the first time we have not here with us the man who has laid a deeper, broader impress on Scottish geology than any other geologist either of past generations or of this. There is, however, on the present occasion, a special cause 1871. 98 REPORT—1871. for regret. Only within the last few months he founded a Chair of Geology in the University within whose walls we are now assembled—the first and only chair of the kind in Scotland. It would have been a fitting and grateful duty on the part of the University to welcome one of its most distinguished benefactors. I am well aware, indeed, that this Section-room is no place for the obtrusion of personal sentiments; yet I would fain be allowed to add in conclusion an expression of my own deep regret at the recent illness and consequent absence of one to whom, over and above the admiration which we all feel for his life-long labours and his per- sonal character, many years of friendly intercourse have bound me by the closest ties of affection, Fossiliferous Strata at Lochend near Edinburgh By D. Grieve. The strata to which this notice refers are situated on the east side of the Loch, and appear in the Trap precipice, on which stand the ruins of the ancient Keep of the Logans of Restalrig. Although it was conjectured, it was not known, until Mr. Grieve found distinctive fossils in these strata, that the Carboniferous forma- tion, so largely spread over the site of Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, extended so far to the eastward; and it would now appear that these form a continuity of the strata and shales found some years ago on the north side of the Calton Hill. They are of the Lower Carboniferous formation, and seem to be equivalents of the sandstones and shales of Burdiehouse on the south, and Wardie and Granton on the north and west of Edinburgh. The fossils found by Mr, Grieve at Lochend he enumerates as follows :—Of Plants, Calamites of a large and well-marked species, a Lepidodendron and Lepi- dophyllum, with various Sphenopterites. Of Fishes, a beautiful specimen of the genus Paleoniscus; also scales, teeth, spines, and coprolites, Lastly, a Crustacean, Cypris Scoto Burdigalensis, or of an allied species. It is to be regretted that the quarry from which the above fossils were obtained has now been obliterated in the course of agricultural improvements, On the position of Organic Remains near Burntisland. By G. J. Grieve. On “The Boulder Drift and Esker Hills of Ireland,” and “ On the position of Erratic Blocks in the Country.” By Sir Ricuarv Grirritn, Bart., FBS. Sir Richard commenced by giving a short description of his geological map, and mentioned that the direction of the mountain-ranges generally, as well as the strike of the strata, ranged from north-west to south-east. He stated that the position of Ireland with respect to Europe was further to the west into the Atlantic Ocean, and that on the west side were numerous deep bays, guarded by promontories composed of hard rocks, while on the east side the coast was only slightly indented on any part. He mentioned that the coast of Ireland all round was composed of mountains, while the interior was nearly flat, and that the rock of that plain was altogether composed of Carboniferous limestone. He stated that a line drawn from Sligo Bay on the west to Drogheda Bay on the east, would form the northern boundary of the great plain, while the southern boundary might be shown by a line drawn from Galway Bay on the west to Dublin Bay on the east, comprehend- ing an area of 5000 square miles. This large district was divided into nearly two equal parts by the river Shannon, whose source was near Lough Allen, in the county of Cavan, elevated 160 feet above the level of the sea, while the length of its course to the sea, at Limerick, was 140 miles, giving an average fall of 1 foot 2 inches in a mile; and he further stated that this fall was not equally dis- tributed, as between Limerick and Kildare, a distance of 12 miles, was a fall of 98 feet, showing that from the distance of 128 miles between Lough Allen and Killaloe, there was an average fall of less than 6 inches in a mile. The great centre plain, already described as containing 5000 square miles, contained 1,000,000 acres of bogs, each of which was surrounded by drift resting_on the top of the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 Carboniferous limestone, and it usually presented an undulating surface which occasionally affected the form of elongated elliptical hills, which usually ran parallel to each other. This fact was especially exemplified by Clew Bay, situated on the west coast, in which were upwards of 300 islands, the surface of which was composed of boulder-drift resting on Carboniferous limestone. He mentioned that at least on the eastern the boulder drift had a thickness of about 100 feet, but probably was much thicker towards the west. He described the boulder-drift as composed of a base of sandy or gravelly clay, which contained numerous rolled masses, huddled together in a confused manner without reference to size, and that their dimensions ranged between those of a small ege and two or three cubic feet in diameter. He next adverted to those remarkable ranges of hill, which varied in height above the surface of the boulder-drift from twenty to sixty feet, the ascent being usually about thirty degrees on the west side, but less steep on the east. These Esker hills were very numerous in the midland plain, especially in the counties of Mayo, Galway, and Roscommon, on the west side of the Shannon, and of the King’s County and Westmeath on the east. Their general direction was from west to east; and one great Esker, which extended from west to east from the county of Galway to Westmeath, was used as the post road from Dublin to Galway, fora length of 30 miles. This great Esker crossed the river Shannon at Athlone, and was subsequently cut through by it, exhibiting a great shoal at the present time, on which the old bridge of Athlone was built. On the western side, about 50 feet above the river, an ancient fort had been erected to defend the passage, and this fort still remained in perfect preservation. The town of Athlone was algo built on the east side of it, and extended from thence nearly 20 miles. Fifteen miles to the south of Athlone, the river Shannon was crossed again by another Esker, also running from west to east, and in this place the Hsker presented very steep acclivities on either side. He last described a very remarkable Esker called the “ Horseshoe,” from its form, the north arm of which running eastward extended for 10 miles, whilst the southern extended 8 miles, leaving an opening of 8 miles, with the town of Clara in the centre. The slopes of these horseshoe Eskers on the west side were steep, having an angle of about 30°, while on the outer side the slope was only from 10 to 15°. Having mentioned that in many cases Eskers were observed, particularly to the west of Athlone, haying a north and south direction, he gave it as his opinion that the Eskers were deposited on the top of the boulder-drift at a subsequent period, and that the materials, which were similar to the boulder-drift, with the exception of the admixture of sandy clay matter, were deposited from currents and waves in a shallow troubled sea, and possibly did not owe their existence to glacial action. Sir Richard next directed the attention of the Section to the occurrence of large erratic blocks, totally uncon- nected with the gravel, which were found resting on the surface throughout the entire district, from Galway Bay in an eastern and southern direction, passing over the summits of the Slieve-bloom mountains, near Roscrea, and extending from thence through the King’s and Queen’s counties. These blocks were all composed of a peculiar porphyritic granite from the district situated to the north of Galway Bay. This granite was composed of red and white felspar, grey quartz and black mica, and contained numerous crystals of red felspar, which rendered the appear- ance so peculiar that no doubt could be entertained that the granite blocks above mentioned were derived from the Galway district. These blocks are usually angular though occasionally slightly rounded. One, whose dimensions was 10’ by 5' by 3', equal to 4 tons in weight, is described by Mr. Joseph O'Kelly, of the Geological Survey of Ireland, as resting on Lower Silurian ground, 10 miles to the north of the Town of Roscrea, at an elevation exceeding 1000 feet above the sea; and his colleague, Mr. G. Henry Kinahan, the senior geologist, found great numbers of these blocks scattered over the limestone lain, in the neighbourhood of Athenry, to the east of Galway. He likewise Bectibed large blocks of the same granite in the valley of Glensascaul, at the western base of the Slieve-bloom mountains, the dimensions of one of which was 12' by 10' by 11’, equal to 110 in weight, and others whose weight varied from 35 to 48 tons. Sir Richard next alluded to another drift of erratic blocks, which took a course re 100 rnEeport—1871. from south to north, crossing the Curlew and Ox mountains in the county of Sligo, the direction of each being from north-east to south-west. The Curlew mountains consist of brown sandstone belonging to the Upper Silurian series, the surface being elevated above 800 feet above the level of the sea. Descending the mountains to the north, to the limestone valley of Tobercurry, which occurs between them and the Ox mountains, we find the surface with very large boulders of brown sandstone ; and continuing to the northward the ascent of the Ox mountains, which are composed of mica-slate, we find the boulders of brown sandstone continued, though diminished in size. On reaching the height of 450 feet above the limestone valley, we meet with limestgne Eskers having an east and west direction, crossing the mountain valley at right angles, and on top of which numerous angular blocks of mica-slate rest; but the mica-slate is inter-~ mixed with gravel, which is composed altogether of clean rolled masses of Carbo- niferous limestone. Milan Mountain, one of the Ox range, the summit of which is elevated to the height of 1446 feet above the sea, is composed of granite, forming part of a large protrusion through the mica-slate, which is metamorphosed near the contact. This granite is large-grained, and is composed of red and white felspar, grey quartz, and black mica, but without any crystals of red felspar such as occur in the Galway granite. Descending the mountains to the north, we reach the Easky Lough, elevated 706 feet above the sea. Here the granite is bounded by mica-slate, which continues to the base of the declivity, and we find the surface covered by blocks of granite ; and continuing still further across the limestone plain to the séa-coast, to Kasky village, a distance of 8 miles, we find the surface also covered by very large blocks of granite; and one in particular, which is situated within half a mile of the sea- shore, and near to Hasky village, was, on measurement, found to contain 1360 cubic feet, equal to 100 tons in weight. Similar granite blocks occur on the surface of the whole line of the north coast of Sligo and Mayo, all of which are similar in composition to the Easky granite, as well as to that which occurs on the summit of the Ox mountains to the west of Easky Lough as far as the town of Foxford; and no doubt can be entertained that such must haye been transported by ice. On the Agency of the Alternate Elevation and Subsidence of the Land in the formation of Boulder-clays and Glaciers, and the Excavation of Valleys and Bays. By the Rey. Joun Guyy. Mr. Gunn briefly recapitulated the contents of a paper which he read at the Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, to the effect that boulder-clays were deposited in a temperate rather than in a glacial period, inasmuch as the area of the sea was increased by the subsidence of the land ; the perpetual snow- line must have been lowered, masses of ice disengaged, icebergs set floating and the boulder-clays formed; that the glacial epoch was due to the elevation of mountain-ranges and consequent glaciers. He proceeded to show that, in some instances which he specified, the agency of the alternate elevation and depression of the land in scooping out valleys and gorges where there was no eyidence of ice action might be traced; that such effects were due to the action of shallow seas, either while ciearing off, or while gathering over the surface of the land, and cutting out with its incessant surge water-worn channels and inland bays. He stated, in conclusion, his opinion that there was no occasion to invoke any additional causes of change of climature besides those which were known to exist; but the question we remains to be solved is, to what cause are these alternate oscillations of evel due: , eis Harxness, F.R.S., F.G.S8., exhibited one of the earliest forms of Tri- obites, ~~ ee “ah * er TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 On the Age of the Felstones and Conglomerates of the Pentland Hills. By Joun Henverson, F.G.S.E., read by D. J. Brown, F.G.S.E. This paper was illustrated by two sections, and specimens of rocks and fossils were exhibited. The felstones of the Pentland Hills, with their contemporaneous conglomerates and sandstones, have hitherto been considered of Old Red Sandstone age, by Mur- chison, M*Laren, Geikie, and others. Having frequently examined the various exposed sections throughout the district, and from the evidence collected, the author endeavoured to prove that some of these felstones, conglomerates, and sandstones are as new as the upper portion of the Lower Carboniferous. The first section referred to may be seen on the north-west side of the hills at Clubbiedean, where beds of Carboniferous sandstone and shales, containing Sphenopteris affinis and other well-known Carboniferous fossils, are ruptured, tilted and hardened by the intrusion of the felstones ; and these intrusive felstones enclose fragments of hardened shales and limestones, yielding encrinites belonging to these beds, showing conclusively that these felstones are of a more recent age than the overlying carboniferous. The other section referred to occurs about four miles further to the south-west, at Bevelau and Habbies How, where these supposed Old Red Sandstones and Conglomerates may be seen resting on the upturned edges of the Silurian rocks. In these Silurian rocks the author detected a number of felstone dykes, one of which is about 30 feet broad, and may be traced up the face of Harehill, a distance of about 500 feet, where it is covered by horizontal beds of sandstone—the supposed Old Red—which it does not penetrate, while in the val- ley to the south of Harehill some limestone pebbles were found enclosed in the con- glomerates, which contain fossils evidently of Carboniferous age, such as Serpula parallela, &c., showing that these sandstones and conglomerates cannot be of Old Red age as hitherto supposed. Now, when it is considered that the Lower Carboniferous rocks in this dis- trict are everywhere broken up by intrusive felstones and greenstones, while the sandstones and conglomerates of Harehill and the Cairnhills remain almost un- touched by igneous action, and lying nearly horizontal and undisturbed, the na- tural conclusion arrived at is, that these supposed Old Red Sandstones were not deposited until after the igneous forces which have disturbed the Lower Carboni- ferous in this district were nearly exhausted ; and the whole evidence clearly shows that these supposed Old Red Sandstones, Conglomerates, and Felstones of this part of the Pentland Hills must at least be as recent as the upper part of the Lower Carboniferous. , On the relative ages of the Granitic, Plutonic, and Volcanic Rocks of the Mourne Mountains and Slieve Croob, Co. Down, Ireland. By Professor Evwarp Hott, M.A., F.RS., F.GS., and Wittram A. Traixt, B.A., of the Geological Survey of Ireland. (Communicated with the sanction of the Di- rector-General of the Geological Survey.) Haying referred to the bold and interesting physical features of the district, which in some respects resemble those of Arran, and which had already been ob- jects of investigation by Griffith*, Berger +, and Bryce {, the authors observed that there were, as in Arran itself, two varieties of granite. These had been shown by the Rey. Professor Haughton § to differ in composition; the granite of Slieve Croob (consisting of quartz, orthoclase and mica) being a “ soda granite,” and that of Mourne (consisting of quartz, orthoclase, albite, and mica) being a “yotash granite.’ Dr. Bryce had expressed an opinion that these two granites belong to different epochs ||. * Geological Map of Ireland, 1839. t “On the Geological features of the North-Eastern Counties of Ireland,” by J. F. Berger, M.D., Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond. 1st ser. vol. i. t “On the Geological Structure of the Counties of Down and Antrim,” by James Bryce, LL.D., Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1852, p. 42. § Quart, Journ, Geol, Soc, Lond, vol, xii. p. 188, and xiy, p. 300. || Supra cit. 102 REPORT—1871. The relative and (as far as possible) the actual ages of these granites still re- mained to be determined, and in the absence of stratified deposits newer than the Lower Silurian in immediate contact with the granites themselves, the authors believed that conclusions might be safely arrived at by considerations connected with the basaltic and felspathic dykes by which the rocks had on several occasions been invaded. They had arrived at the conclusion that the granite of Mourne was more recent than that of Slieve Croob by a long interval of geological time; the former being of Upper Paleozoic, the latter of, perhaps, Mesozoic age. These general conclu- sions were supported by the following considerations. The granite of Mourne at its margin in some places passes into quartziferous porphyry, and sends offshoots of this rock in the form of dykes into the surround- ing Silurian strata, as may be very clearly determined by several examples in the vicinity of Newcastle. Hence the authors inferred that the dykes of quartz-por- phyry and felstone which traverse the granite of Slieve Croob might be referred to the age of the newer granite of Mourne; and thus the greater antiquity of the Slieve Croob granite might be determined. Trap-dykes—The trap-rocks of the district were classed mineralogically as follows:—(a) Quartz-porphyries and highly silicated felstones. (6) Diorites. (e) Basalts or Dolerites of two ages. Considered with reference to relative ages of formation, the following was the order of succession, in the ascending series. (1) Older Basalts and Dolerite Dykes—These form hy far the most numerous of all the trap-rocks of the district, occurring in great numbers along the coast south of Newcastle, and amongst the interior mountains, as at Slieve Muck; they are also unquestionably the oldest of all the trap-rocks of the district. Their age, with reference to the granite of Mourne, was placed beyond question by a large number of examples in which these dykes, after traversing the Silurian rocks, are abruptly terminated at the margin of the granite; they are therefore older than the granite itself*. These older basalts were found to traverse the Silu- rian rocks in well-formed dykes within vertical (or nearly vertical) walls, and are enerally fine-grained, of dark green colour, undistinguishable from those of newer ertiary age. Sliced specimens showed under the microscope the composition to be augite, triclinic felspar, and titano-ferrite. (2) The next in order of age are the quartz-porphyries and felstones, which (as already stated) branch off from the main mass of the Mourne granite, and are un- questionably of the same age as the granite itself, and often strongly resemble it in its more compact form. Dykes of these rocks are also found traversing the older granite of Slieve Croob. They consist of a felspathic base with crystals of felspar, grains and crystals of quartz, and sometimes mica or hornblende, as acces- sories, and in small quantities. (8) The Diorite dykes are few in number, the finest example occurring at Ros- trevor. It consists of a crystalline granular aggregate of reddish felspar and horn- blende well developed, and traverses the older basaltic dykes; but is, they believe, oder span the granite of Mourne. It is therefore referable to some intermediate period. (4) Besides the older basaltic dykes, which are cut off by the granite, there are a few which traverse both the Silurian rocks and the granite of Mourne itself. These are therefore newer than those previously described ; and as they appear to be connected with those which are found traversing the Cretaceous rocks in Co, Antrim, the authors consider them to be of Miocene age. In general aspect there is no decided difference between the older and newer basaltic dykes; they have all the external appearance of the Tertiary dykes, which abound along the margin of the basaltic plateau of Antrim, and in the West of Scotland ; and had it not been for their relations with the granite of Mourne, they might have all been included in the same category. It might have been supposed that microscopical examination would show some * Sir Richard Griffith has informed one of the authors that he was already aware of this fact, but had not published his observations, Some of these dykes are represented on his Geological Map of Ireland. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 distinction in the basalts of these geological ages; but recent investigations by Zirkel, D, Forbes, Allport, and others tend to show that there is no criterion of aze amongst the constituents of basalt, dolerite, or melaphyre ; and the presence of olivine, once supposed to be distinctive of Tertiary basalts, has been detected amongst those even of Carboniferous age *. Age of the Older Basalt.—The geological age of these older basalts can only be relatively determined, They are newer than the Lower Carboniferous rocks, which they are seen to traverse at Cranfield} Point and Carlingford. Recollecting the abundant evidences of contemporaneous voleanic action which the Carboniferous rocks of Scotland’and portions of central England present, the authors are disposed to refer these older basalts to the Upper Carboniferous period itself; and having regard to the prodigious number of these dykes traversing the rocks at intervals along the coast from Dundrum Bay to Carlingford Bay, they suggest the former existence of one or more volcanic vents in their vicinity during later Carboniferous times; such a voleanic focus as is inferred to have existed in the vicinity of Oar- lingford by Professor Haughton f. Sequence of Granite, Plutonic, and Voleanic rocks in the Mourne district— The following may be regarded as the order of succession of these rocks with their approximate ages in the district north of Carlingford Bay, all being more recent than the age of the “Caradoc” or “ Bala” beds of the Silurian epoch, Commencing with the oldest, we have :— (a) Metamorphic granite of Slieve Croob, Castlewellan, and Newry. Pre-Car- boniferous, therefore Paleozoic. (6) Older basaltic dykes of Mourne and Carlingford. Upper Carboniferous. (¢) Diorite Dykes. Later than the Carboniferous. iuGranite of Mourmie s qo !24 amp ddd aati payanat fastacts Post Oar 2, Felstone and porphyry dykes penetrating the granite ae Ged @) of Slieve Grobti atl the alder icaliis dgies pig ete boniferous {. (e) Newer Basalts of Miocene (Tertiary) age. Judging by the comparative scarceness of the newer Tertiary dykes in the district of Mourne, the authors drew the conclusion, that it may be considered as the southern limit of the region affected by the volcanic outburst of the Miocene period, which so powerfully affected the district lying to the north-east of Ireland and extending into the Inner Hebrides; while on the other hand it was the seat of active volcanic energy during an earlier period, which in all probability may be identified with the Upper Carboniferous, or that of the Upper Coal-measures of England. On the Coal-beds of Panama, in reference mainly to their Economic Importance. By the Rey. Dr. Hume. On the Silurian Rocks of the Counties of Roxburgh and Selkirk. By Cuartes Larworrn and James Wrison. The authors gave a short summary of what they had already accomplished on the investigation of these strata, which they held fell naturally into five great divi- sions in this district. These divisions they had named respectively, 1. The Hawick Rocks, 4, The Gala Group, 2. The Selkirk Rocks, 5, The Riccarton Beds, 3. The Moffat Series, after the places where they are best developed. * Mr. 8. Allport, ‘ Geological Magazine,’ vol. vi. p. 115. Tt Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xii. p. 193. ¢ Professor Harkness suggests that the eruption of the granite of Mourne may be re- ferred to the period which intervened between the depositon of the Carboniferous and Permian strata, a period of great duration ; and he thinks there is a strong resemblance between the granite of Mourne and that of Kirkcudbrightshire, which is referable to this period. Against this view it is to be observed that it would bring the older basaltic dykes close upon the heels of the Mourne granite, which seems rather improbable. 104: REPORT—1871. The Hawick and Selkirk rocks fill up all the central portion of the district de- scribed, extending from near Selkirk to Mosspaul. They form the great anticline of the South Scottish Silurians, and appear to be the lowest rocks exhibited. They contain a few fossils, such as Annelida, Protichnites, Protovirgularia, Phyllopoda. The Moffat series is remarkable for the bed (or beds) of anthracitic shale which it contains, and which is famous for the large number of Graptolites found in it. The Moffat series, with its black shale-band, makes its appearance twice in the district described,—Ist, in the country between Selkirk and Melrose ; 2nd, in the region of the Moorfoot Hills ; these beds yield fossils of the genera Dicellograpsus, Dicrano- grapsus, Cladograpsus, Climacograpsus, Discinocaris, Peltocaris, Siphonotreta, Lin- gula. E The Gala group lies in the syncline formed by these two appearances of the Moffat series, and consists of grits, sandstones, shales, and conglomerates, that im- bed a Middle Silurian fauna, including Monograpsus, Diplograpsus, Retiolites, Dic- tyonema, Aptychopsis, Ceratiocarts, Dictyocarts, Orthoceras. The Riccarton beds fill up all the Silurian country to the south of a line drawn from Kirkcudbright to Jedburgh. The fossils are Upper Silurian, and include Cyr- tograpsus, Ptilograpsus, Theca, Orthoceras, Ceratiocaris, Aptychopsis, Pterygotus, Rhynchonella. The authors believe that the anthracitic bed of Moffat is of Bala age, that the Gala group contains strata of both Caradoc and Llandovery age, and that the Riccarton beds should he classed with the Wenlock or Lower Ludlow. On the Graptolites of the Gala Group. By Cuartus Lapworrn. The Graptolites found in the Gala group form an assemblage quite distinct from that afforded by the Moffat series. The species Inown at present are :— 1. Diplograpsus bullatus (Saiz). 11. Graptolites Salteri ( Getnitz). 2. palmeus (Barr.). 12. fimbriatus (Vich.). 3. Retiolites Geinitzianus (Barr.). 13. priodon (Bronn). 4. obesus (n. sp.). 14. —— colonus (Barr.). 5. Graptolites Sedgwickii (M‘Coy). 15. socialis (n. sp.). 6. sagittarius (His.). 16. turriculatus (Barr.). 7. Beckii (Barr.). Lie gemmatus (Barv.). 8. —— Nilssoni (Barr.). 18. Rastrites Linnzi (Barr.). 9. —— Halli (Barr.), 19, maximus (Carr). 10. —— Griestonensis (Vico?). 20. Dictyonema, sp. Two of these species, 7. e. Retiolites obesus and Graptolites socialis, are new to science. In Retiolites obesus the frond is diprionidian, ensiform, or elongate-elliptical in form, with a length of 13 inch in the largest specimens, to a breadth of more than 3 of aninch. The meshes on the central surface are hexagonal, ;of an inch in diameter. Round the inner margin of the frond runs a series of large subqua- drangular meshes, which forms a peculiar and characteristic braiding, distinguish- ing this form at once from all other species of the same genus. These meshes show the place of the cellules, which are from 22 to 24 to the inch. Graptolites socialts is monoprionidian, flagelliform, 1; of an inch in width and less than 2 inches in length. The cellules are formed after the type of those of Graptolites Beckit (Barr.). They are arranged along the concave side of the stipe, from 34 to 44 to the inch. This species is found in great numbers in some of the Gala beds. On the Origin of Volcanoes. By P. W. Srvanr Menrearu, The author's views are briefly stated in ‘ Scientific Opinion’ for April 7, 1869. Since that date, M. Fouqué in France, and Peschel in Germany, had published very similar views, although M. Fouqué, until lately, opposed all chemical theories of the origin of voleanoes. The author, therefore, ventured to bring forward his theory more in detail, and he believed that if chemical geology were more gene- » TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105 rally studied, that theory would not appear startling. He had considered the objec- tions of Bischof and others to chemical theories, and he believed that they did not hit the explanation he proposed. That explanation attributes the force of volcanic action to solar energy, stored up in rocks by buried organic matter—this organic matter either existing in rocks as carbon and carbonaceous compounds, or represented by sulphides and other substances, produced by the reducing-action of organic matter. Voleanoes, as has been said of steam-engines, are worked by “ the light of other days.” Starting from the five groups of well-preserved extinct volcanoes in Spain and Por- tugal, proceeding to consider the volcanoes of the Mediterranean basin, and finally volcanoes in general, the author concluded that, as had been pointed out by Sterry Hunt, volcanoes, as a rule, lie on or at the borders of much sedimentary rock; and the exceptions to this rule he considered to be explicable in conformity with his theory. These sedimentary rocks, especially in the Mediterranean basin and under the volcanoes of Catalonia, could be said to contain much organic matter. N ext, he examined the alleged fact of the occurrence of volcanoes’ along great lines of fissure, and concluded that their occurrence in lines was due to their connexion with the sea, as well as with lines of sedimentary deposition. The author believes that the sometimes alleged identity of volcanic rocks was a statement either misleading or meaningless, and that the composition of volcanic rocks was just what we should expect, if they were formed from masses of sedimentary rocks, in presence of sea- water. Proceeding to the consideration of the results of Fouqué, Deville, Daubeny, and others, regarding the gaseous products of volcanoes, he showed that these afforded striking evidence that a mixture of gases, similar to that evolved in gasworks, was oxidated in volcanoes with production of great heat. To this heat, and to the burning of separated carbon, sulphur, and probably iron, he attributed the high temperature present in some lava on its appearance in the air. From the researches of Sorby, Zirkel, Daubrée, Delesse, Stoppani, and others on the subject of lavas, he concluded that these were formed at moderate temperatures, and only exceptionally fused by the great heat produced in the crater. The enormous amount of heat assumed to be present in volcanic action was, in the author’s opinion, in great part mythical, and what was actually ascertained could be explained by the nature of the substances oxidating in the earth and burning at the crater. As to the introduction of air and water, he referred to the penetration of sea-water at Cephalonia, to the re- searches of Delesse, to the Catalan trompe, and to the fact that sea-water dissolves much oxygen; while the nitrogen evolved, in volcanic areas and elsewhere, is usually either pure or accompanied by less oxygen than would compose atmo- spheric air, He then pointed out that the amount of carbon found in rocks might be adequate to produce all the heat required, if we assumed the rocks to haye been rapidly deposited ; whereas, if they had been slowly deposited, the amount of car- bon now existing in them could only be a remaining fraction of that they formerly contained, the rest having been evolved as carbonic acid. If he were to reject geolo- ical time, as some have done, he might assume that the volcanic heat to be accounted or was just as much as the average amount of carbon was adequate to supply. After attributing the origin of the vast amount of buried carbon now in rocks to fied car- bon in former rocks, and remarking that it must have passed very gradually through the atmosphere, he discussed some correlated processes in nature which would keep yolcanic action roughly uniform, the sun-force continually passing through organic matter into volcanic heat. He confined himself chiefly to volcanic action proper, as that was generally considered the best evidence of the original-heat theory ; but he considered that such general internal heat as had been ascertained might be attri- buted to the distribution of volcanic heat by water, to general oxidation of the car- bon almost universal in rocks, to friction as shown by Bianconi, and finally, to the electric currents ascertained to exist in the earth, and to be probably produced in great part by the sun. The paper was illustrated by sketches taken by the writer in the Two Sicilies, the Greek Isles, Catalonia, &c., also by some curious specimens of metamorphosed glass, which he had found while excavating for antiquities in Ischia. 106 REPORT—1871. Further Experiments and Remarks on Contortion of Rocks. By L. C. Mratt. After recapitulating the results of some experiments on contortion of mountain limestone brought before the Association at Exeter, the author went on to state that with improved apparatus he had extended his experiments to various substances, Limestone appeared to be exceedingly plastic when long subjected to forces of low intensity. agstones from the Coal-measures with a certain amount of elasticity possessed little power of permanent deflection. This negative result is, however, to be checked by observation of cases of accidental flexure of flagstones. Examples were cited of these rocks which had yielded to strains, and had become perma- nently bent, Plaster of Paris the author finds remarkably plastic, and a long series of experiments with dry slabs shows that it can be bent and twisted inde- finitely. Slates had also been tested, but with quite inconspicuous results. A considerable elasticity was found to characterize good slate, with a quite inappre- ciable plasticity. The author had obtained striking examples of artificial contor- tion by imbedding lamine of various rocks in pitch. These results were applied to the very sharp flexures sometimes seen in hard strata lying in beds of shale. Cases of quite superficial contortion were quoted, and from numerous instances of marked undulations in strata which were underlain by horizontal and undis- turbed layers, it was inferred that many contortions extend only to trifling depths. A case of contortion traceable to the removal of part of a hill-side by a landslip was referred to as showing that flexures on a considerable scale may be of quite recent origin. In conclusion, some remarks were made on the general theory of contortions at the surface of the earth. On the so-called Hyoid plate of the Asterolepis of the Old Red Sandstone. By Joun Murer, 1.G.S8. In the Number of the ‘ Geological Journal’ for August 1869, the author pub- lished a letter, stating that he had obtained two specimens of the Asterolepis from the great flag-deposits of Caithness, which showed clearly and distinctly that what had hitherto been considered to be the hyoid plate was not a hyoid plate at all, but was in reality the dorsal plate of the Asterolepis, fitting on immediately behind the cranial buckler, pretty much in the same way as the dorsal plate of the Coccosteus fitted on behind its head-plates. He stated that he would endeavour to lay his specimens before the Geological Society of London as soon as possible; however, circumstances have prevented this. he specimens referred to were exhibited on the present occasion, in fulfilment of the pledge given to the Geological Society. It is right to premise that from the time these plates were first made known to geologists by Asmus and Eichwald in Russia, and by Sir Roderick Murchison and Agassiz in the west of Europe, they have been regarded in Russia and in this country as hyoid plates, down tu the period of the publication by Pander of his works on the Devonian system of Russia, in which he stated his opinion that they would turn out to be dorsal plates when more complete fossils turned up. This opinion was shared in by several of our most eminent paleontologists, and amongst others by Mr. Peach, who has long worked in the Astrolepis-beds of Caithness, and is well acquainted with the geology of that county. In his description of the Asterolepis, Hugh Miller says (‘Footprints of the Creator,’ p. 85 of the edition of 1861) :—“ That space comprised within the arch of the lower jaws, in which the hyoid-bone and branchiostegous rays of the osseous fishes occur, was filled by a single plate of great size and strength, and of singular form” (ibid. fig. 40), , And again, at p. 87 (cbid.):—“The two angular terminations of the hyoidal plate (a, a, fig. 40) were received, laterally and posteriorly, into angular grooves in a massive bone of very peculiar shajie (fig. 42), of which the tubercled portion (a, a) seems to have swept forwards in the line of the lower jaw.’’ In these short extracts Hugh Miller, with his characteristic unmistakable clearness, states the generally received opinion regarding the position of the so-called hyoid plate ; and ibe + TAS ee. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 it was the author's object to show that the generally received opinion on the subject is a mistake, and that the plate in question is in reality a true dorsal plate, fittmg on immediately behind the cranial buckler or head-plates, and that those naturalists who had previously supposed that this would ultimately prove to be its right position, from Pander down to Peach, were found to have been quite correct in their opinion. The author exhibited a sketch of his best specimen, in which was seen the upper surface of the cranial buckler, described by Hugh Miller, with the dorsal plate, in its true position, and attached to the cranial buckler by two “massive bones of very peculiar shape,” alluded to in the quotation above. Conservation of Boulders, By D. Mutne-Homn, F.R.S.E. Professor Geikie having stated that the next subject to be brought under the notice of the Section was the conservation of remarkable boulders, begged to men- tion that the Sectional Committee had passed a resolution, intimating their sense of the importance of the subject, and recommending that the British Association should appoint a Committee, with a grant of money at its disposal, to endeavour to discover the position of remarkable boulders in any part of the United Kingdom, and also to have them preserved. The Royal Society of Edinburgh had already taken steps for these objects as regards Scotland; and it would be well to have the movement extended so as to embrace England and Ireland; and the two Committees would no doubt cooperate, as far as Scotland was concerned. He then called on Mr. Milne-Home, the Chairman of the Committee of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, to explain more particularly the objects contemplated, and the measures which might be taken to carry them out. Mr. Milne-Home said that his attention to the subject had first been awakened by an article in ‘ Nature,’ from the pen of their President, Professor Geikie, giving an account of proceedings which had been commenced in Switzerland for the pre- servation of remarkable boulders. Being acquainted with Professor Favre, of Geneva, he had learned from him that the movement embraced Dauphiny and other provinces in the South of France, and that the effect had been to create a strong popular sympathy in the object. Following this precedent, he had induced the Royal Society of Edinburgh to appoint a Committee, whose duty it was to send circulars to all the parishes in Scotland, with the view of ascertaining the existence in them of any boulders remarkable for size or for other features. Many questions of much geological interest could be solved by ascertaining the nature of the rocks composing boulders, and studying their shapes, in order to deduce conclusions as to the transporting agent. These boulders, however, were fast disappearing, some- times owing to agricultural improvements, and sometimes affording, when broken up, materials for building or for road-metal. It was therefore important to discover the localities where any remarkable boulders existed, in order that they might be examined by those who took an interest in such speculations, and in order also to have them preserved. He had reason to believe that the proprietors and tenants of the lands on which such boulders might be situated woul willingly accede to any application which might be made to them by scientific societies to preserve them. He was sure that, were this Section to express views favourable to that object, great good would result. Further Remarks on the Denudation of the Bath Oolite. By W. 8. Mircwe. On Geological Systems and Endemic Disease. By Dr. Morrar. The author remarked that the district in which he lived consisted geologically of the Carboniferous and of the New Red or Cheshire sandstone systems; that the inhabitants of the former were engaged in mining and agriculture, and those of the latter in agriculture chiefly. Anzmia, with goitre, was very prevalent among those on the Carboniferous system, while it was almost unknown among those of the Cheshire sandstone, and phthisis was also more prevalent among the 108 REPORT—1871. former than the latter. As anzemia was a state in which there was a deficiency in the oxide of iron in the blood, he was led to examine chemically the relative com- position of wheat grown upon a soil of Cheshire sandstone, carboniferous lime- stone, millstone grit, and a transition soil between the Cheshire sandstone and the erit ; and the analysis showed that wheat grown upon Cheshire sandstone yielded the largest quantity of ash, and that it contained a much larger quantity of phos- phorie acid and oxide of iron than that grown upon the other formations. He cal- culated that a dweller on the Cheshire sandstone who consumed 1 lb. of wheat daily, grown upon the latter formation, took in nearly five grains more per day of oxide of iron than one who dwelt on the Carboniferous system who did the same. The analysis showed also that the wheat grown upon the Carboniferous system was deficient in phosphates or nutritive salts; and one who consumed a pound of Cheshire wheat per day took in nine grains more of phosphoric acid than one who took one pound of wheat grown upon the Carboniferous system. He had endea- youred to ascertain whether the bread of those who dwelt upon the two systems was relatively as deficient in these important nutritive elements as the wheat grown upon them. He had collected twenty samples of bread used by twenty dif- ferent families living upon each system, and analysis afforded results as conclusive as the examination of the wheat. The deficiency of the nutritive salts in the bread compared with those in the wheat was very remarkable; and it was no doubt owing to the removal of the bran from the flour with which the bread was made. The writer then gave some statistics as to the diseases prevalent in the counties of Chester, Flint, and Denbigh, and stated that the practical deductions to be drawn from the inquiry were, that all young persons living on a Carboniferous formation having symptoms of incipient goitre and anemia, ought to be moved to a soil upon Red Sandstone, and persons of strumous habit ought to reside upon sandstone at an elevation of at least 800 or 1000 feet above the sea; and that both classes of persons should live upon food, both animal and farinaceous, which contained the maximum quantity of oxide of iron and the phosphates or nutritive salts. Medi- cal men could not too much impress upon the minds of the public the importance of using flour made from the whole of the wheat, or “‘ whole grain.” On the Systematic Position of Sivatherium giganteum, Faule. and Caut*. By Dr. James Morir, /.GS., PLS, §e. Among the fossil fauna discovered in the Sewalik Hills, the Sivatherium, one of these, as attested by its remains, must have attained the size of a full-grown ele- phant. It appears, however, to haye been a ruminant, in some respects Deer- like, in others more resembling the Antelope. Still stranger, it seems to have had some characteristic features of Pachyderms—the Tapir, for example. After a careful review of the statements and deductions that have been made upon the Sivatherium, the author went on to show that it belonged to those radical forms which by some may be regarded as one of the progenitors of diverse herbivorous groups. The fossil bones studied by him are those contained in the British Museum. There is also a remarkable fragment in the Edinburgh University Museum. The points which he regarded as affording a safe basis of the affinities of this curious animal are :—1. The form and structure of the horns; 2. the shape of the bones of the face; 3. the nature of the teeth; 4. the formation of the basis of the skull; and 5. other peculiarities of the neck, chest, and limb-bones. The Stvatherium, according to him, is unlike all other living ruminants but one, the Prongbuck, from the fact of its having had hollow horns, evidently subject to shedding. It differs thus from Deer, whose solid horns annually drop off, and from the Antelope tribe, Sheep, and Oxen, whose hollow horns are persistent. Save one living form, the Saiga, no recent ruminant possesses, as did the Stvatherium, a muzzle resembling in several ways the proboscis of the Tapirs and Elephants. The dentition partook of the characters of the ancient Elasmotherium, &e. The * This paper has been published iz extenso in the Geol. Mag., October 1871, accom- panied by two double plates of the restoration of the skeleton and a representation of the animal, g, 2 e¢juv. Therein references to the several authorities &c. will be found. x prey TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 basis and hind end of the skull is typical of oxen. The sternum, portion of the spine, and general strength of the limb-bones show configurations allying it with the Bovidee. Other features of the legs hint an affinity to the Camel. On the strength of his own researches, and those of Mr. Bartlett and Dr. Canfield, the author is inclined to plave the Sivatherium in the family Antilocapride ; Drs. Sclater and Gray having raised the Prongbuck to a group equivalent to the Cervidee and Antilopids, chiefly from the singular fact of its horns being hollow and periodi- cally deciduous. The great Indian Sivatheriwm he considers might as well be taken as the centre type of a family, the Sivatheride. He points out that radi- ating from it can be traced a differentiation of structure allying it to the ancient Bramotherium and Megacerops. Diversely, links lead through the Prongbuck towards the Deer, Giraffe, and Camel. On the other hand, configurations point undoubtedly to the Saiga; and there it is, as it were, split into lines directed towards the Antelope, the Sheep, and even the Pachyderms. Additions to the list of Fossils and Localities of the Carboniferous Formation in and around Edinburgh. By C. W. Puacu, ALS. The author, after a few preliminary remarks, stated that he had found Spzrorbis carbonarius rather plentiful at Burdiehouse, showing that the limestone there had been deposited in brackish water; Estheria, in Camstone quarry, in Arthur’s Seat, plentiful; Zeza in an ironstone nodule at Wardie, Professor R. Jones says, “ the most northern locality at present known ;” -Acanthodes Ward: plentiful in the Par- rot-coal at Loanhead, rare at the brickwork and No. 1 Pit and Shield Hill, Fal- kirk, and in the black-band and gas-coal at Auchenheath, Lesmahagow. In ad- dition to the well-known Pygopterus of Wardie, he had got from Loanhead splendid specimens, with large and beautifully carved jaws and striated teeth, for which, should it prove new, he proposed to name it P. elegans. It is rare. He next exhibited a portion of a splendid spine, beautifully tubercled, and covered as well with thorn-like hooks, differing from all figured by Agassiz. He exhibited other things, probably new; also a shagreen-covered fish ; he had found it in several localities. As all were so imperfect he refrained from doing more than showing them to the members, so that any one knowing it might throw light on it. He next exhibited and commented on a series of beautiful specimens of coal- field plants, consisting of large leaves and stem of Cordaites borassifolia ; Calamites nodosus in a splendid state, showing its pairs of branches, pinnee, and leaves; from these he had been able to make nearly a complete restoration of the plant. The greatest prize was Antholithes Pitcairnie, with its fruit Cardiocarpon attached, hanging gracefully by its swan-like stem; these, with many other interesting plants, he got in the blaes above the coal at Coach-road pit, near Falkirk. He remarked that some of the jaws and portions of the fishes from the coal-fields retained their greasy nature, throwing off water when wetted like the chalk used by lithographers, and instantly drying, whilst the matrix in which they were enclosed remained wet, On Hydro-Geology. By V?Anpk Ricwarp. On the Contents of a Hyena’s Den on the Great Doward, Whitchurch, Ross. By the Rey. W. 8. Symonns, £.G.S. The following is the order of deposition of materials in the Cave known as King Arthur’s Cave. 1, Fallen débris containing Roman pottery and recent human bones. 2. Cave-earth No. 1, three feet thick. Flint flakes and a flint knife. Cores of ' chert and Silurian quartz rock. Teeth and jaws of Felis spelea, Ursus speleus and Hyena spelea, Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Equus fossilis, Mega- ceros hibernicus, and Cervus tarandus. 3. Old river-bed of red sand and Wye pebbles from the Silurian rocks of Rha-= yader and Builth, three or four feet thick, 110 REPORT—1871. 4, A thick floor of stalagmite, on which the river-bed rests. 5. Cave-earth No. 2. Several flint flakes, with abundant remains of Cave Lion, Hyena, Rhinoceros, Mammoth (three sizes and ages), Irish Elks, Horse, Bison, and Reindeer. The Wye now flows 300 feet below the ancient river-deposit of sand and pebbles. In the lower cave-earth are associated the relics of ancient men and the extinct mammalia; and the author expressed his conviction that there are no better authenticated evidences of the antiquity of man in the records of caye-history. On a New Fish-spine from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Hay, Breconshire, By the Rey. W. 8. Symonps, /.G4S. This is a new Icthyodorulite now in the possession of the Earl of Enniskillen. It is described by Mr. Etheridge, of the School of Mines, under the name of Onchus major. It is the largest known spine from the Lower Old Red Sandstone. The stratigraphical position of this Fish-spine was described to Mr. Symonds by Mr. John Thomas, C.E., of Hay, Brecon. It was found at Llidiart-y-Warn quarry, near Hay. The following is Mr. Thomas’s account :— “This fossil, with several others, was found by Mr.-David Jones, of Hay, some three or four years ago, who, not knowing its value, left it to lie in his garden on a rockery. It is much weathered in consequence. “ Ail geologists acquainted with this district will recollect the fine section of Old Red as seen from the summit of the Black Mountains overlooking the Wye valley, between Hay and Glasbury. In ‘Siluria,’ p. 272, Sir Roderick Murchison has given a reduced copy of a section from the outcrop of the Carboniferous Limestone of the South Wales basin, across the Wye valley to the Upper Ludlow, in Rad- norshire. The summit of the Black Mountain is occupied i chocolate-coloured sandstones, called by Mr. Symonds “ Brownstones.” Then, in descending, we have the red and green marls and the cornstones. The cornstones are very clearly defined and exposed on the slope of the hills from the Usk valley to Mouse- castle, opposite Hay. “ About 200 feet below the cornstone-beds and at this point is Llidiart-y-Warn quarry, where the fossil was discovered. The beds in the quarry are formed of cornstone and very fine layers of whitish sandstone.” The structure of this Fish-spine is thus described by Mr. R. Etheridge, F.R.S, :— “Form gently arcuated, of mie | equal diameter from base to apex, slightly com- pressed. Posterior free, concave, destitute of denticles. Sides apparently smooth, having no ridge or sulci, though it appears to have been originally delicately lined ; base of spine round or obtuse, broad, smooth, or delicately striated; outer sub- stance thick, internal axis large, and rugose on outer layer. Length 5 inches, breadth 2 inch. Loe. Llidiart-y-Warn. Position. Cornstone of Lower Old Red Sandstone.” The anterior face of the spine is not seen; whether it is obtusely keeled or not is therefore unknown. The osseous structure and substance is well defined. The author doubts not that originally, orif we had the outer surface preserved, the spine was longitudinally ridged by deep, narrow sulci. On the later Crag-Deposits of Norfolk and Suffoll.. By J. 8. Taytor. On the Stratified Rocks of Islay. By Jamns Tuomson, F.GS. The author described briefly the physical conditions of the island of Islay, then in detail the dip, strike, mineral character, and superposition of the stratified rocks, in the following order :— 1st. The calcareous deposits in the centre of the island, consisting of limestone, talcose shale, clay-slate, and interbedded quartzites, belong to the Lower Silurian group. The author remarked that rthouee these calcareous deposits had not yet yielded identifiable organic remains, he did not despair, if they were properly in- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111 vestigated, of finding characteristic forms, which would enable us to place them with certainty as the equivalents of the Lower Silurian rocks, so well defined by Sir Roderick Murchison as occurring in Ross and Sutherlandshire. 2nd. The deposits on the eastern side of the island, and skirting the shore of the Sound of Islay from Ard-na-huamh on the north to Balleochreoch on the south, are of Cambrian age. Although the author has not seen the precise equivalents of the greenish-grey micaceous flags, with the felspathic partings found on the north side of Big-Free-Port Bay, on which we find sun-cracks, rain-prints, and what some suppose to be annelid tracks or burrows, yet they coincide so well with similar rocks, so very clearly shown by Sir Roderick Murchison as occurring in Suther- landshire, where their relation to the inferior conglomerates is so ably traced, and also those described by the late Mr. Salter from the Longmynd beds in Wales, that if similarity of fossil forms are to govern us in determining the relation of forma- tions, then those stratified rocks exhibited on the shore at Big-Free-Port and to Balleochreoch, folding over and surrounding the: basic conglomerate mass, can only be placed in a similar stratigraphical position to those referred to by the above able authors, thus extending our knowledge of Cambrian rocks occurring fur- ther south in Scotland than has been hitherto recorded. The author quite agreed with Prof. Ramsay in supposing that these rocks were deposited in an inland and freshwater lake ; and that those cracks are due to the influence of the sun is abun- dantly evident, If they had been deposited in an estuary of the sea, the soft mud would not have got time to crack, as each inflowing tide would have kept the matrix sufficiently moist to prevent its shrinking. 8rd, The metamorphic rocks on the western extremity of the island, and skirt- ing the shores of Lochendale for nine miles to the east, and dipping 8.S.W. or nearly at right angles to the plains of stratification of the preceding deposits, are of Laurentian age. They differ so widely both in mineral character and strati- graphical aspect from those of the central valley and eastern side of the island, that there can be little doubt regarding their proper identification, Their litho- logical aspect and mineral character coincides so well with the fundamental Gneiss of Sutherlandshire, and designated by Sir Roderick Murchison as of Laurentian age, that we have not the slightest hesitation in identifying those of Islay as be- longing to the same period. 4th, In the basic conglomerates on the eastern side of the island we have got traces of striated rocks imbedded in the mass, although we are not prepared to speak with any degree of certainty regarding the source or direction of the materials constituting the conglomerate mass. If, however, we glance at the topographical aspect of the Highlands and Island, and compare the imbedded boulders of granite with the granites found 2 situ throughout the Highlands, we feel the necessity of tracing them to another source, and hope we do not overstep the bounds of prudent speculation in suggesting that those erratics are the reassorted materials of some eat northern continent that has yielded to the ceaseless gnawing tooth of time, eaving those scattered fragments as the wreckage of its former greatness, and that the materials of which the mass is composed have in time, deeper than we have hitherto suspected, been transported by the agency of ice. If so, then this is another proof that we are not in a position to limit the agency of ice to any single period of our earth’s history. Additions to the Fossil Vertebrate Fauna of Burdichouse, near Edinburgh. By Prof. Traquatr. On the Structure of the Dictyoxylons of the Coal-measuires. By Professor W. C. Wittiamson, F.2.S. Professor W. C. Williamson referred to Mr. Binney’s original description, in 1866, of Dadoxylon Oldhamium, and to his own subsequent paper, in which he se- arated his new genus Dictyoxylon from the Dadozylons, tie then described the ormer genus in detail, commencing with D. Oldhamium. In this plant there was 112 REPORT—1871. a central medullary axis of cellular tissue with several detached longitudinal bundles of vascular tissue at itscircumference. Outside this is a lax ligneous zone, to the interior of which the bundles just referred to are adherent. The vessels of the ligneous zone are reticulated, and arranged in radiating series, the radiating laminz being separated at very frequent intervals by thick cellular medullary rays, consisting of numerous vertical series of cells. External to the woody zone is a very thick and characteristic bark, the inner portion of which is loosely cellular, but the exterior has a different structure. It consists of a combination of cellular parenchyma and dense elongated prosenchyma, the latter appearing in the trans- verse section as a series of dark bands, radiating at varying angles from the inner to the epidermal layer of the outer bark. Vertically these prosenchymatous bands are prolonged as layers, which extend upwards and downwards in a wavy manner, alternately approaching and receding from one another, so that a tangential section exhibits a series of lenticular areole whose longer axes correspond with that of the stem. The outermost bark-layer appears to be a cellular epidermal tissue, which has probably supported external appendages, either scales or leaves. In the inner layer of the bark we see a series of variously developed vascular bundles which spring as branches from the ligneous zone, but which ascend for a considerable distance without escaping through the bark, whilst a second series of branches are given off in like manner, but which at once perforate the bark in their passage out- wards. This plant is from the lower coal-measures of Lancashire and Yorkshire. A second form of Dictyoxylon, to which the author gives the name of D. radicans, has evidently been a branching root which has been traced continuously into its ultimate rootlets. This plant has no pith, and its compact woody zone, consisting of reticulated vessels, is furnished with medullary rays of a much simpler con- struction than those of D, Oldhamium. They are not unfrequently represented in the tangential section by a single cell; and there are rarely more than five or six such cells in each vertical pile. The bark consists of parenchymatous cells arranged in rows perpendicular to the surface. This is also a Lancashire form. A third species of Dictyorylon discovered in beds of the lower Carboniferous series of Burntisland is named D. Girievit after its discoverer, Mr. Grieve. Its central axis is much deranged, resembling the Heterangium paradoxum of Corda; but several specimens have occurred showing that there was a central vascular axis surrounded by a lax radiating ligneous zone, which in turn was invested by a re- markable cellular bark, which exhibited, both in radiating and tangential sections, a characteristic series of parallel horizontal lines, resulting from a peculiar condition of the cellular parenchyma at the points where they exist. As in D. Oldhamium, vascular bundles ascend through the inner bark. The plants described were con- nected by the author with some large casts of bark from the Coal-measures, some ot which have been described as Sagenarize and Lyginodendra. These specimens have upon their surface elongated lenticular scars arranged as in Lepidodendron; but usually much more elongated in a vertical direction than in that genus, and always lacking the central spots marking the issue of vascular bundles. These areole are not leaf-scars, but casts of depressions in the outer surface of the bark from which the epidermis was removed, and which correspond with the spaces enclosed by the sinuosities of the prosenchymatous layers. The functional uses of these areolé are undetermined, and there is as yet much uncertainty as to the true affinities of the genus, On the Structure of Diploxylon, a Plant of the Carboniferous Rocks. By Professor W. C. Witxramson, PRS, On the Discovery of a new and very perfect Arachnide from the Ironstone of the Dudley Coal-field. By Henry Woopwarp, £.GS., F.Z.8., &e., of the British Museum. The Penny-stone Ironstone of the Coalbrook Dale Coal-field has long been cele- brated for yielding, when the nodules are split, impressions of leaves of ferns, Lepidostrobi and other fruits, King-crabs, and the rare remains of Insects. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113 A recently discovered and very perfect specimen of the so-called Curculiotdes Prestvicii of Buckland (figured in his ‘ Bridgewater Treatise,’ pl. 46”, fig. 2), from Dudley, proves this insect to have been one of the “ False Scorpions,” nearly related to the living genus Phrynus, and not a Coleopterous insect as supposed by Samouelle. The specimen is so preserved as to expose its dorsal and ventral aspect each distinctly preserved upon the two halves of the nodule; the former richly orna- mented with rows and rosettes of tubercles, and the latter showing the smooth segmented under-surface of the body bearing the tracheal openings. The hinder border bears four short and stout spines. Four pairs of legs are seen, whose wedge- shaped basal joints meet beneath the cephalothorax, which is very tumid, and has a rather prominent rostrum, probably giving rise to Mr. Samouelle’s mistake of calling it a Curculio. Mr. Woodward proposed to name this new genus of “false scorpions ” Lophrynus, retaining the name Curculioides for C. Ansticit, another example which may truly belong to the Rhynchophora. There are now 44 insects known and de- scribed from the Coal-measures, namely 8 Arachnida, 5 Myriapoda, 3 Coleoptera, 13 Orthoptera, 14 Neuroptera, and a doubtful Lepidopterous insect. Relies of the Carboniferous and other old Land-surfaces. By Henry Woopwarp, /.GS., F.Z.S. Whilst admitting that during particular eras circumstances may have favoured the development of special groups of organisms, which in consequence flourished in greater abundance than the rest, the author deprecated the idea of the preva- ce of peculiar conditions at any time since the advent of organic life on the lobe. i Although in the earlier Paleozoic rocks we have little or no evidences of land, yet the fact of stratified deposits being formed at the bottom of the sea is positive evidence of the waste of neighbouring land-surfaces, which must have been always in existence. And further, if conditions in the sea were favourable to the de- velopment of abundance of animal life, those on the land were in all probability equally so. Bie: Wosdward referred to the abundance of evidence of land-surfaces every- where, both in Quaternary and in Tertiary times, the former differing but little, saye in the geographical distribution of its fauna, from that of the present day, the latter differmg more and more from the existing fauna and flora, and also in its relation to existing lands. When, however, the das of the Tertiaries is reached, the land-surfaces are divided by greater marine accumulations; nevertheless we find, both in Europe and America, freshwater deposits with remains of land-plants and animals often in rich abundance. yen the truly marine deposits (such as the Chalk) testify to the presence of land by the fossil remains of Pterodactyles, Che- loniz, and other shore-dwelling reptiles. Mr. Woodward instanced the Wealden beds, the Purbeck limestone, and Oolitic plant-shales as affording abundant proofs of Mesozoic lands, whilst truly marine accumulations (such as the Solenhofen limestone) contain swarms of insects, flying lizards, and a true bird, with branches of Coniferze and other trees to tell of a land- fauna adjacent to its waters. The author noticed the earliest mammals found in the Triassic bone-beds of Stuttgart and Somerset, and the ripple-marked slabs covered with bird-like tracks and Labyrinthodont foot-marks, telling of the denizens of the old Triassic sea- shores and lakes. He next described the coal-period, with its stores of land-plants and Reptilia, both aquatic and terrestrial, its insects and mollusca. He controverted the argu- ments of Dr. T. Sterry Hunt as to the exceptional condition of the atmosphere of the Coal-period, and showed that the presence of animal life disproved the existence of an atmosphere charged with eaabanie acid gas, and that plants would not be benefitted thereby, as Dr. Hunt supposed. With respect to the wide distribution of coal, Mr. Woodward pointed out that it was not necessary to assume that all coal was formed throughout the world during one and the same epoch, but, on the contrary, he showed that coal might be alike as regards its fauna and flora, and yet of very widely different ages. 1 114 " REPORT—1871. He advocated the formation of coal from the slow but sure accumulation of peat- growth, as that mode of conservation of vegetable matter was proved to be the most certain to yield pure hydrocarbons such as we find the coal to consist of, wn- mived with foreign matter, Such pure accumulations could not (in the opinion of the author) be formed in river-valleys, deltas of great rivers, or in marine swamps and marshes, but on wide plains covered with a thick ub peep and tending, by its clayey soil, to check drainage and produce peat-growth. Mr. Woodward referred to the discoveries of Devonian land-plants and insects by Dr. Dawson in North America, and to the occurrence of seed-spores of land- plants in Silurian strata; he suggested that the veins of Graphite may be accepted as evidence of old coal-seams, altered by heat and pressure; and that the oil- springs in the Silurian rocks may be due to the destructive distillation of old coal- beds in Nature’s own retort. BIOLOGY. Address by Dr. AttzN Tuomson, F.R.SS. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Glasgow, President of the Section. Iy now opening the Meetings of the Biological Section, it is my first duty to ex- press my deep sense of the honour which has been conferred upon me in appointing me to preside over its deliberations. I trust that my grateful acceptance of the office will not appear to be an assumption on my part of more than a partial con- nexion with the very wide field of science ated under the term Biology. I should gladly have embraced the opportunity now afforded me of conforming to a custom which has of late become almost the rule with the Presidents of Sections, viz. that of bringing under your review a notice of the more valuable discoveries with which our science has been enriched in recent times, were it not that the subjects which I might haye been disposed to select would require an amount of detail in each which would necessarily limit greatly their number, and that any attempt to overtake the whole range of this widespread department of science, even in the most general remarks, would be equally presumptuous and futile on the part of one whose attention has been restricted mainly to one of its divisions. I am further embarrassed in the choice of topics for general remark by the circum- stance that many of those upon which I might have ventured to address you haye been most ably treated of by my predecessors, as, for example, in the Sectional Addresses of Dr. Acland, Dr. Sharpey, Mr. Berkeley, Dr. Humphry, and Dr. Rol- leston, as well as in the General Presidential Addresses of Dr. Hooker and Pro- fessor Huxley. I must content myself, therefore, with endeavouring to convey to you some of the ideas which arise in my mind in looking back from the present ape the state of Biological Science at the time when, forty years since, the Meetings of the British Association commenced—a period which I am tempted to particu- larize from its happening to coincide very nearly with that at which I began my career as a public teacher in one of the departments of Biology in this city. In the few remarks which I shall make, it will be my object to show the prodigious advance which has taken place not only in the knowledge of our subject as a whole, but also in the ascertained relation of its parts to each other, and in the place which Biological knowledge has gained in the estimation of the educated part of the com- munity, and the consequent increase in the freedom with which the search after truth is now asserted in this as in other departments of science. And first, in connexion with the distribution of the various subjects which are included under this Section, I may remark that the general title under which the whole Section D has met since 1866, viz. Biology, seems to be advantageous both from its convenience, and as tending to promote the greater consolidation of our science, and a juster appreciation of the relation of its several parts, It may be that, looking merely to the derivation of the term, it is strictly more nearly synony- rr id 7 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 415 mous with physiology in the sense in which that word has been for a long time employed, and therefore designating the science of life, rather than the description of the living beings in which it is manifested. But until a better or more compre- hensive term be found, we may accept that of biology under the general definition of “the science of life and of living beings,” or as comprehending the history of the whole range of organic nature—vegetable as well as animal. The propriety of the adoption of such a general term is further shown by a glance at the changes which the titles and distribution of the subordinate departments of this Section have under- gone during the period of the existence of the Association. During the first four years of this period the Section met under the combined designation of Zoology and Botany, Physiology and Anatomy—words sufficiently clearly indicating the scope of its subjects of investigation. In the next ten years a connexion with Medicine was recognized by the establishment of a subsection or department of Medical Science, in which, however, scientific anatomy and phy- siolory formed the most prominent topics, though not to the exclusion of more strictly medical and surgical or professional subjects. During the next decade, or from the year 1845 to 1854, we find along with Zoology and Botany a subsection of Physiology, and in several years of the same time along with the latter a separate department of Ethnology. In the eleven years which extended from 1855 to 1865, the branch of Ethnology was associated with Geography in Section EK. More re- cently, or since the arrangement which was commenced in 1866, the Section Biology has included, with some slight variation, the whole of its subjects in three departments, Under one of these are brought all investigations in Anatomy and Physiology of a general kind, thus embracing the whole range of these sciences when without special application. A second of these departments has been occu- pied with the extensive subjects of Botany and Zoology ; while the third has been deyoted to the subject of Anthropology, in which ali researches having a special reference to the structure and functions or life-history of man have been received and discussed. Such I understand to be the arrangement under which we shall meet on this occasion. At the conclusion of my remarks, therefore, the depart- ment of Anatomy and Physiology will remain with me in this room; while that of Zoology and Botany, on the one hand, and of Anthropology on the other, will majenme to the apartments which have been provided for them respectively, ith regard to the position of Anthropology, as including Ethnology, and com- prehending the whole natural history of man, there may be still some differences of opinion, according to the point of view from which its phenomena are regarded : as by some they may be viewed chiefly in relation to the bodily structure and fune- tions of individuals or numbers of men; or as by others they may be considered more directly with reference to their national character and history, and the affini- ties of languages and customs; or by a third set of inquirers, as bearing more im- mediately upon the origin of man and his relation to animals, As the first and third of these sets of topics entirely belong to Biology, and as those parts of the second set which do not properly fall under that branch may with propriety find a place under Geography or Statistics, I feel inclined to adhere to the distinct recog- nition of a department of Anthropology, in its present form; and I think that the suitableness of this arrangement is apparent, from the nature and number of the appropriate reports and communications which haye been received under the last distribution of the subjects. The beneficial influence of the British Association in promoting biological re- search is shown by the fact that the number of the communications to the Sections, veceived annually has been nearly doubled in the course of the last twenty years. And this influence has doubtless been materially assisted by the contributions in money made by the Association in aid of various biological investigations; for it appears that, out of the whole sum of nearly £34,500 contributed hy the Associa- tion to the promotion of scientific research, about £2800 has been devoted to biolo- ical purposes, to which it would be fair to adda part at least of the grants for alzeontological researches, many of which must be acknowledged to stand in close relation to Biology, The enormous extent of knowledge and research in the various departments of Biology has become a serious impediment to its more complete ameed and leads to 116 rePortT—-1871. the danger of confined views on the part of those whose attention, from necessity or taste, is too exclusively directed to the details of one department, or even, as often happens, to a subdivision of it. It would seem, indeed, as if our predecessors in the last generation possessed this superior advantage in the then existing nar- rower boundaries of knowledge, that it was possible for them to overtake the con- templation of a wider field, and to follow out researches in a greater number of the sciences. To such combination of varied knowledge, united with their transcen- dent powers of sound generalization and accurate observation, must be ascribed the widespread and enduring influence of the works of such men as Haller, Linneus, Gavik Von Baer, and Johannes Miiller. There are doubtless brilliant instances in our own time of men endowed with similar powers; but the diffi- culty of bringing these powers into effectual operation in a wide range is now so great, that, while the amount of research in special biological subjects is enormous, it must be reserved for comparatively few to be the authors of great systems, or of enduring broad and general views which embrace the whole range of biological science. It is incumbent, therefore, on all those who are desirous of promoting the advance of biological knowledge to combat the confined views which are apt to be engendered by the too great restriction of study to one department. However much subdivision of labour may now be necessary in the original investi- gation and elaboration of new facts in our science (and the necessity for such sub- division will necessarily increase as knowledge extends), there must be secured at first, by a wider study of the general principies and some of the details of collateral branches of knowledge, that power of justly comparing and correlating facts which will mature the judgment and exclude partial views. To refer only to one bright example, I might say that it can scarcely be doubted that it is the unequalled variety and extent of knowledge, combined with the faculty of bringing the most varied facts together in new combination, which has enabled Dr. Darwin (what- ever may be thought otherwise of his system) to give the greatest impulse which has been felt in our own times to the progress of biological views and thought ; and it is most satisfactory to observe the effect which this influence is already producing on the scientific mind of this country, in opposing the tendency per- ceptible in recent times to the too restricted study of special departments of natural history. I need scarcely remind you that for the proper investigation and judg- ment of problems in physiology, a full knowledge of anatomy in general, and much of comparative anatomy, of histology and embryology, of organic chemistry and of physics, is indispensable as a preliminary to all successful physiological observation and experiment. The anatomist, again, who would profess to describe rationally and correctly the structure of the human body, must have acquired a knowledge of the principles of morphology derived from the study of comparative anatomy and development, and he must have mastered the intricacies of histological research. The comparative anatomist must be an accomplished embryologist in the whole range of the animal kingdom, or in any single division of it which he professes to cultivate. The zoologist and the botanist must equally found their descriptions and systematic distinctions on morphological, histological, and embryological data. And thus the whole of these departments of biological science are so interwoven and united that the scientific investigation of no one can now be regarded as altogether separate from that of the others. It has been the work of the last forty years to bring that intimate connexion of the biological sciences more and more fully into prominent view, and to infuse its spirit into all scientific investigation. But while in all the departments of biology prodigious advances have been made, there are two more especially which merit particular mention as having almost taken their origin within the period I now refer to, as having made the most rapid progress in themselves, and as having influenced most powerfully and widely the progress of discovery, and the views of biologists in other departments—I mean Histology and Embryology. I need scarcely remind those present that it was only within a few years before the foundation of the British Association that the suggestions of Lister in regard to the construction of achromatic lenses brought the compound microscope into such a state of improvement as caused it to be restored, as I might say, to the place which the more imperfect instrument had lost in the previous century. The re- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117 sult of this restoration became apparent in the foundation of a new era in the knowledge of the minute characters of textural structure, under the joint guidance of Robert Brown and Ehrenberg, with contributions from many other observers, so as at last to have almost entitled this branch of inquiry to its designation, by Mr. Huxley, of the exhaustive investigation of structural elements. All who hear me are aware of the influence which, from 1839 onwards, the researches. of Schwann and Schleiden exerted on the progress of Histology and the views of anatomists and physiologists as to the structure and development of the textures both of plants and animals, and the prodigious increase which followed in varied microscopic observations. It is not for me here even to allude to the steps of that rapid progress by which a new branch of anatomical science has been created ; nor can I venture to enter upon any of the interesting questions presented by this de- partment of microscopic anatomy; nor attempt to discuss any of those difficult problems possessing so much interest at the present moment, such as the nature of the organized cell or the properties of protoplasm. I would only remark that it is now very generally admitted that the cell-wall (as Schwann indeed himself pointed out) is not a constant constituent of the cell, nor a source of new production, though still capable of considerable structural change after the time of its first formation. The nucleus has also lost some of the importance attached to it by Schwann and his earlier followers, as an essential constituent of the cell, while the protoplasm of the cell remains in undisputed possession of the field as the more immediate seat of the phenomena of growth and organization, and of the contrac- tile property which forms so remarkable a feature of their substance. I cordially agree with much of what Mr. Huxley has written on this subject in 1853 and 1869. The term physical basis of life may perhaps be in some respect objection- able ; but I look upon the recognition of protoplasm which he has enforced as a most important step in the recent progress of histology, adopting this general term to indicate that part of the organized substance of plants and animals which is the constant seat of the growing and moving powers, fad not implying identity of nature and Jal elns in all the variety of circumstances in which it may occur. To Haeckel the fuller history of protoplasm in its lowest forms is due. To Dr. Beale we owe the minutest and most recent investigation of these properties by the use of magnifying-powers beyond any that had previously been known, and the success- ful employment of reagents which appear to mark out its distinction * from the other elements of the textures. I may remark, however, in passing, that I am inclined to regard contractile protoplasm, whether vegetable or animal, as in no instance entirely amorphous or homogeneous, but rather as always presenting some minute molecular structure which distinguishes it from parts of glassy clearness. Admitting that the form it assumes is not necessarily that of a regular cell, and may be various and irregular in a few exceptional instances, I am not on that ac- count disposed to give up definite structure as one of the universal characteristics of organization in living bodies. I would also suggest that the terms formative and non-formative, or some other such, would be preferable to those of “ living and dead,” employed by Dr. Beale to distinguish the protoplasm from the cell-wall or its derivatives, as these latter terms are liable to introduce confusion. To the discoveries in embryology and development I might have been tempted to refer more at large, as being those which Ser had, of all modern research, the greatest effect in extending and modifying biological views, but I am warned from entering upon a subject in which I might trespass too much on your patience. The merits of Wolff as the great leader in the accurate ob- servation of the phenomena of development were clearly pointed out by Mr. Huxley in his presidential address of last year. Under the influence of Dollinger’s teaching, Pander, and afterwards Purkinje, Von Baer, and Rathke, established the foundations of the modern history of embryology. It was only in the year 1827 that the ovum of mammals was discovered by Von Baer; the segmentation of the yelk, first observed by Prevost and Dumas in the frog’s ovum in 1824, was ascertained to be general in succeeding years; so that the whole of the interesting and important additions which have followed, and have made the history of em- bryological development a complete science, have been included within the eventful * Under the appropriate name of “ bioplasm.” 118 REPORT—1871. eriod of the life of this Association. Ineed not say how distinguished the Germans hava been by their contributions to the history of animal development. The names of Valentin, R. Wagner, Bischoff, Reichert, Kélliker, and Remak are sufficient to indicate the most important of the earlier steps in recent progress, without at- tempting to enumerate a host of others who have assisted in the great work thus founded. I am aware that the mere name of development suggests to some ideas of a disturbing kind as being associated with the theory of evolution recently pro- mulgated. To one accustomed during the whole of his career to trace the steps by which every living being, including man himself, passes from the condition of an almost imperceptible germ, through a long series of changes of form and structure into their perfect state, the name of development is suggestive rather of that which seems to be the common history of all living beings; and it isnot wonderful therefore that such a one should regard with approval the more extended view which sup- poses a process of development to belong to the whole of nature. How far that principle may be carried, to what point the origin of man or any animal can by facts or reasoning be traced in the long unchronicled history of the world, and whether living beings may arise independently of parents or germs of previously existing organisms, or may spring from the direct combination uf the elements of dead mat- ter, are questions still to be solved, and upon which we may expect this Section to guide the hesitating opinion of the time. I cannot better express the state of opinion in which I find myself in regard to the last of these problems, than by quoting the words of Professor Huxley from his address of last year, p. Ixxxiii :— “ But though I cannot express this conviction of mine too strongly [viz. that the evidence of the most careful experiments is opposed to the occurrence of spon- taneous generation], I must carefully guard myself against the supposition that I intend to suggest that no such thing as abiogenesis ever has taken place in the past, or ever will take place in the future. With organic chemistry, molecular physics, and physiology yet in their infancy, and every day making prodigious strides, I think it would be the height of presumption for any man to Bay that the conditions under which matter assumes the properties we call ‘vital,’ may not, some day, be artificially brought together.” And again, “If it were given me to look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time to the still more remote period when the earth was passing through physical and chemical conditions, which it can no more see again than a man can recall his infancy, I should expect to be a witness of the evolution of living protoplasm from not living matter.” I will quote further a few wise words from the discourse to which many of you must have listened last evening with admiration. Sir William Thomson said :— “The essence of science, as is well illustrated by astronomy and cosmical physics, consists in inferring antecedent conditions, and anticipating future evolutions, from phenomena which have actually come under observation. In biology, the diffi- culties of successfully acting up to this ideal are prodigious. Our code of biologi- cal law is an expression of our ignorance as well as of our knowledge.” And again, “ Search for spontaneous generation out of inorganic materials; let any one not satisfied with the purely negative testimony of which we have now so much against it, throw himself into the inquiry. Such investigations as those of Pas- teur, Pouchet, and Bastian are among the most interesting and momentous in the whole range of natural history, and their results, whether positive or negative, must richly reward the most careful and laborious experimenting.” The consideration of the finest discoverable structures of the organized parts of living bodies is intimately bound up with that of their chemical composition and properties. The progress which has been made in organic chemistry be- longs not only to the knowledge of the composition of the constituents of or- ganized bodies, but also. to the manner in which that composition is che- mically viewed. Its peculiar feature, especially as related to biological inves- tigation, consists in the results of the introduction of the synthetic method of research, which has enabled the chemist to imitate or to form artificially a greater and greater number of the organic compounds. In 1828 the first of these substances was formed by Wéohler, by a synthetic process, as cyanate of ammonia. But still, at that time, though a few no doubt entertained juster views, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 the opinion generally prevailed among chemists and physiologists that there was some great and fundamental difference in the chemical phenomena and laws of organic and inorganic nature. Now, however, this supposed barrier has been in a great measure broken down and removed, and chemists, with almost one accord, regard the laws of combination of the elements as essentially the same in both classes of bodies, whatever differences may exist in actual composition, or in the reactions of organic bodies in the more complex and often obscure conditions of vitality, as compared with the simpler and, on the whole, better known pheno- mena of a chemical nature observed in the mineral kingdom. Thus, by the syn- thetic method, there have been formed among the simpler organic compounds a great number of alcohols, hydrocarbons, and fatty acids. But the most remarkable example of the synthetic formation of an organic compound is that of the alkaloid conia, as recently obtained by Hugo Schiff by certain reactions from butyric aldehyde, itself an artificial product. The substance so formed, and its com- pounds, possess all the properties of the natural conia—chemical, physical, and physiological—being equally poisonous with it. The colouring-matter of madder, or alizarine, is another organic compound which has been formed by artificial processes. It is true that the organized or containing solid, either of vegetable or animal bodies, has not as yet yielded to the ingenuity of chemical artifice; nor, indeed, 1s the actual composition of one of the most. important of these, albumen and its allies, fully known. But as chemists have only recently begun to discover the track by which they may be led to the synthesis of organic compounds, it is warrantable to hope that ere long cellulose and lignine may be formed; and, great as the difficulties with regard to the albumenoid compounds may at present appear, the synthetic formation of these is by no means to be despaired of, but, on the contrary, may with confidence be expected to crown their efforts. Fyrom all recent research, therefore, it appears to result that the general nature of the properties belonging to the products of animal and vegetable life can no longer be regarded as different from those of minerals, in so far at least as they are the subject of chemical and physical investigation. The union of elements and their separation, whether occurring in an animal, a vegetable, or a mineral body, must be looked upon as dependent on innate powers or properties belonging to the elements themselves; and the phenomena of change of composition of organic bodies occurring in the living state are not the less chemical because they are different from those observed in inorganic nature. All chemical actions are liable to vary according to the conditions in which they occur; and many*instances might be adduced of most remarkable variations of this kind, observed in the che- mistry of dead bodies from very slight changes of electrical, calorific, mechanical, and other conditions. But because the conditions of action or change are infi- nitely more complex and far less known in living bodies, it is not necessary to look upon the phenomena as essentially of a different kind, to have recourse to the hypothesis of vital affinities, and still less to shelter ourselves under the slim curtain of ignorance implied in the explanation of the most varied chemical changes by the influence of a vital principle. On the subjects of zoological and botanical classification and anthropology, it would be out of place for me now to make any observations at length. I will only remark, in regard to the first, that the period now under review has wit- nessed a very great modification in the aspect in which the aflinities of the bodies belonging to these two great kingdoms of nature are viewed by naturalists, and the principles on which groups of bodies in each are associated together in syste- matic classification ; for, in the first place, the older view has been abandoned that the complication of structure rises in a continually increasing and continuous gra- dation from one kingdom to the other, or extends in one line, as it were, from group to group in either of the kingdoms separately. Evolution into a- gradually in- creasing complexity of structure and function no doubt. exists in both, so that _ types or general plans of formation must be acknowledged to exist, presenting typical resemblances of the deepest interest; but in the progress of morphological research it has become more and more apparent that the different groups form radiations, which touch one another at certain points of greatest resemblance, rather than one continuous line, or a number of lines which partially pass each other. . The 120 REPORT—187]. simpler bodies of the two kingdoms of nature exhibit a gradually increasing re- semblance to each other, until at last the differences between them wholly disap- pear, and we reach a point of contact at which the epee ee become almost in- distinguishable, as in the remarkable Protista of Haeckel and others. I fully agree, however, with the view stated by Professor Wyville Thomson in his recent intro- ductory lecture, that it is not necessary on this account to recognize, with Haeckel, a third or intermediate kingdom of nature. Each kingdom presents, as it were, a radiating expansion into groups for itself, so that the relations of the two king- doms might be represented by the divergence of lines spreading in two different directions from a common point. Recent observations on the chorda dorsalis, or supposed notochord, of some Ascidians, tend to revive the discussion, at one time prevalent, but long in abeyance, as to the possibility of tracing an homology be- tween the vertebrate and invertebrate animals; and, should this correspondence be confirmed and extended, it may be expected to modify greatly our present views of zoological affinities and classification. It will also be an additional proof of the importance of minute and embryological research in systematic determinations. The recognition of homological resemblance of animals, to which in this country the researches of Owen and Huxley have contributed so largely, form one of the most interesting subjects of contemplation in the study of comparative anatomy and zoology in our time; but I must refrain from touching on so seductive and difficult a subject. There is another topic to which I can refer with pleasure as connected with the cultivation of biological knowledge in this country, and that is the introduction of instruction in natural science into the system of education of our schools. As fo the feasibility of this in the primary schools, I believe most of those who are intimately acquainted with their management have expressed a decidedly favourable opinion—it being found that a portion of the time now allotted to the three great requisites of a primary education might with advantage be set Se for the purpose of instructing the pupils in subjects of common interest, calculated to awaken in their minds a desire for knowledge of the various objects presented by the field of nature around them. As to the benefit which may result from this measure to the persons so instructed, it is searcely necessary for me to say anything in this place. It isso obvious that any varied knowledge, however easily acquired or elementary, which tends to enlarge the range of observation and thought, must have some effect in removing its recipients from grosser influences, and may eyen supply information which may prove useful in social economy and in the occupa- tions of labour. Nor need I point out how much more extended the advantages of such instruction may prove if introduced into the system of our secondary schools, and more freely combined than heretofore with the too exclusively literary and philosophical study which has so long prevailed in the approved British education. Without disparagement to those modes of study as in them- selves necessary and useful, and excellent means of disciplining the mind to learn- ing, I cannot but hold it as certain that the mind which is entirely without scien- tific cultivation is but half prepared for the common purposes of modern life, and is entirely unqualified for forming a judgment on some of the most difficult and yet most common and important questions of the day, affecting the interests of the whole community. I refer with pleasure to the published Essay of Dr. Lankester on this subject, and to the arguments addressed two days ago by Dr. Bennett to the medical graduates of the University, in favour of the establishment of physi- ology as a subject of general education in this country with reference to sanitary conditions. It is gratifying, therefore, to perceive that the suggestions made some years ago in regard to this subject by the British Association, through its com- mittee, have already borne good fruit, and that the attention of those who preside over education in this country, as well as of the public themselves, is more earnestly directed to the object of securing for the lowest as well as the highest classes of the community that wholesome combination of knowledge derived from education, which will duly cultivate all the faculties of the mind, and thus fit a greater and greater number for applying themselves with increased ability and knowledge to the pa of their living and its improved condition. If the law of the survival of the fittest be applicable to the mental as well as to the physical improvement TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 of our race (and who can doubt that in some measure it must be so?), we are bound by motives of interest and duty to secure for all classes of the people that kind of education which will lead to the development of the highest and most varied mental power. And no one who has been observant of the recent progress of the useful arts and its influence upon the moral, social, and political condition of our population, can doubt that such education must include instruction in the phenomena of external nature, including, more especially, the laws and condi- tions of life and health; and that it ought to be, at the same time, such as will adapt the mind to the ready acquisition and just comprehension of varied knowledge. It is obvious, too, that while this more immediately useful or beneficial effect on the common mind may be produced by the diffusion of natural knowledge among the people, biological science will share in the gain accruing to all branches of natural science, by the greater favour which will be accorded to its cultivators, and the increased freedom from“prejudice with which their statements are received and considered by learned as well as by unscientific persons. q I cannot conclude these observations without adverting to one aspect in which it may be thought that the appreciation‘of biological science has taken a retrograde rather than an advanced position. In this, I do not mean to refer to the special cultivators of biology in its scientific acceptation, but to the fact that there ap- pears to have taken place of late a considerable increase in the number of persons who believe, or who imagine that they believe, in the class of phenomena which are now called spiritual, but which have been known, since the exhibitions of Mesmer, and, indeed, long before his time, under the most varied forms, as liable to occur in persons of an imaginative turn of mind and peculiar nervous suscep- tibility. It is to be regretted that a number of persons devote a large share of their time to the practice (for it does not deserve the name of study or investiga— tion) of the alleged phenomena, and that a few men of acknowledged reputation in some departments of science have lent their names, and surrendered their judgment, to the countenance and attempted authentication of the delusive dreams of the practitioners of spiritualism, and similar chimerical hypotheses. The natu- ral tendency to a belief in the marvellous is sufficient to explain the ready accept- ance of such views by the ignorant ; and it is not improbable that a higher species of similar credulity may frequentlyjact with? persons of greater cultivation, should their scientific information and training have been of a partial kind. It must be admitted, further, that extremely curious and rare and, to those who are not ac- quainted with the nervous functions, apparently marvellous phenomena, present themselves in peculiar states of the nervous system—some of which states may be induced through the mind and may be made more and more liable to recur, and to be greatly exaggerated by frequent repetition. But making the fullest allowance for all these conditions, it is still surprising that persons, otherwise appearing not to be irrational, should entertain a confirmed belief in the pdeeit ey of phenomena, which, while they are at variance with the best established physical laws, have never been brought under proof by the evidences of the senses, and are opposed to the dictates of sound judgment. It is so far satisfactory, in the interests of true biological science, that no man of note can be named from the long list of thoroughly well-informed anatomists and physiologists, who has not treated the belief in the separate existence of powers of animal magnetism and spiritualism as wild speculations, devoid of all foundation in the carefully tested observation of facts. Ithas been the habit of the votaries of the systems to which I have referred to assert that scientific men have neglected or declined to investigate the pheno- mena with attention and candour ; but nothing can be further from the truth than this statement. Not to mention the admirable reports of the early French acade- micians, giving the account of the negative result of an examination of the earlier mesmeri¢c phenomena by men in every way qualified to pronounce judgment on their nature, I am aware that from time to time men of eminence, a fully competent, by their knowledge of biological phenomena, and their skill and accuracy in con- ducting scientific investigation, have made the most patient and careful examina- tion of the evidence placed before them by the professed believers and practitioners of so-called mesmeric, magnetic, phrenomagnetic, electrobiological, and other like phenomena; and the result has been uniformly the same in all cases when they 122 REPORT—1871. were permitted to secure conditions by which the reality of the phenomena, or the justice of their interpretation, could be tested, viz. either that, on the one hand, the phenomena were not essentially different from those weil known to physiologists as modifications of the nervous and muscular functions under peculiar mental states; or that, on the other hand, the experiments signally failed to educe the results professed, or that the experimenters were detected in shameless and deter- mined impostures. I have myself been fully convinced of this by repeated ex- aminations ; and I can scarcely doubt that the same fate awaits the fair scientific examination of the so-called spiritualistic phenomena*. But were any guarantee required for the care, soundness, and efficiency of the judgment of men of science on such phenomena and views, I have only to mention, in the first place, the revered name of Faraday, and in the next that of my life-long friend Dr. Sharpey, whose ability and candour none will dispute, and who, I am happy to think, is here among us, ready, from his past experience of such exhibitions, to bear his testimony against all cases.of levitation, or the like, which may be the last wonder of the day among the mesmeric or spiritual pseudo-physiologists. The phenomena to which I have at present referred are in great part dependent upon natural principles of the human mird, placed, as it would appear, in dangerous alliance with certain ten- dencies of the nervous system. They ought not to be worked upon without the greatest caution, and they can only be fully understood by the accomplished physi- ologist who is also conversant with healthy and morbid psychology. The experi- ence of the last hundred years tends to show that, while there are always to be found persons peculiarly liable to exhibit the phenomena in question, there will also exist a certain number of minds prone to adopt a belief in the marvellous and striking in preference to that which is easily understood and patent to the senses ; but it may be confidently expected that the diffusion of a fuller and more accurate knowledge of physiology among the non-scientific classes of the community may lead to a juster appreciation of the phenomena in question, and a reduction of the number among them who are believers in scientific impossibilities, On some new Experiments relating to the Origin of Life. By Dr. Cuarxton Bastian, L228. On the Action of Heat on Germ-life. By F. Crace-Catverr, /LR.S. The question of building ovens for disinfecting purposes, gives the subject of this paper more than a merely scientific interest, as it thus becomes one of great practical importance. As it is found that certain forms of life can exist when exposed to a temperature equal to that at which the charring of organic matter commences, it is unsafe to assume that the particular forms of life which propa- gate certain forms of disease will be destroyed below this temperature. As from the nature of the case stoving can only be partially applicable, and as it is at pre- sent not proved effective where it is applicable, it is unadvisable to spend public money until a greater degree of certainty is arrived at. The experiments described were not, however, undertaken with an intention of influencing the settlement of this question, but were part of a series on the question of putrefaction and the development of life. t has hitherto been assumed by the advocates of the theory of spontaneous generation, that a temperature of 212° Fahr., or the boiling-point of the fluid operated on, was sufficient to destroy all protoplasmic life, and that any life sub- sequently observed in such fluids must have been developed from non-living matter. * Tn consequence of several remonstrances made to me since the address was delivered, representing that the phenomena of spiritualism had not yet been subjected to a full scientific investigation, I have been induced to alter the two preceding sentences from their original into their present form. But I am still of opinion that these phenomena belong essentially to the same class as those of Mesmerism and Electrobiology. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 To determine this point experiments were made with solution of sugar, hay in- fusion, solution of gelatine, and water that had been in contact with putrid meat. To carry out these experiments, the author prepared a series of small tubes made of very thick well-annealed glass, each tube about 4 centimetres in length and having a bore of 5 millimetres. The fluid to be operated upon was introduced into them, and left exposed to the atmosphere for a sufficient length of time for germ-life to be largely developed. Each tube was then hermetically sealed and wrapped in wire gauze. They were then placed in an oil-bath and gradually heated to the required temperature, at which they were maintained for half an hour. The sugar solution was prepared by dissolving one part of sugar in ten parts of common water, and exposed to the atmosphere all night, so that life might im- pregnate it, then placed in tubes and allowed to stand five days. Some of the tubes were kept without being heated, others heated to 200, 300, 400, and 500° Fahr. respectively. After being kept twenty-four days, the contents of the tubes were microscopically examined. In the solution not heated, much life was seen; at 212° a great portion of the life had disappeared, at 300° the sugar was slightly charred but the life not en- tirely destroyed, while at 400° and 500° the sugar was almost entirely charred, and no trace of life observed. (It isasmall black vibrio which resists the high tempera- ture, and remains unaffected by all chemical solutions.) The hay infusion was made by macerating hay in common water for one hour, filtering the liquor and leaving it exposed to the atmosphere all night, when it was sealed in the small tubes. The results were examined twenty-four days after being heated. In this case, as in the sugar solution, life was observed in the solutions heated to 200° and 800° Fahr., while in those heated to 400° and 500° F, life was de- stroyed. In the solution not heated fungus matter was observed, while none ap- peared in any of the heated solutions. A solution of gelatine of such strength that it remained liquid in cooling, was exposed to the atmosphere for twenty-four hours, and introduced into the small ttibes which were sealed and heated. The fluids were examined twenty-four days after being heated. The animalcules in this case were principally of a different class to those observed in the two preceding cases, and this class were injured at 100° Fahr. At 212° a considerable diminution in the amount had taken place, whilst at 300° all life was destroyed. Water was placed in an open vessel, and a piece of meat suspended in it until it became putrid. This fluid was placed in the usual tubes heated, and the contents examined after twenty-four days. In this case life was still observed at 800° Fahr., while at 400° it had disappeared. As previous experimenters have not exposed their solutions to so high a tempera- ture as 300° Fahr., the life which they found was due to the development of germs remaining in the fluid. Parts of the putrid meat solutions that had been heated were mixed with albu- men, to ascertain whether they still possessed the power of propagating life, the result being that up to 300° Fahr. life and its germs had not been destroyed, whilst at 400° they had. Putrid meat liquor was exposed for twenty hours to a temperature ranging from the freezing-point to 17° below that point. Immediately after melting the ice the animalcules appeared languid, and their power of locomotion was greatly decreased, but in two hours they appeared as energetic as before. On Spontaneous Generation, or Protoplasmic Life. By F. Cracu-Catvert, FBS. The publication of Dr. Tyndall’s paper on the abundance of germ-life in the at- mosphere, and the difficulty of destroying this life, as well as other papers pub- lished by eminent men of science, suggested the inquiry if the germs existing or produced in a liquid in a state of fermentation or of putrefaction could he conveyed 124. REPORT—1871. to a liquid susceptible of entering into these states; and during the inquiry some facts were observed which I wish now to lay before you. , The first is the rapid development of germ-life. If the white of a new-laid ege be mixed with water (free from life), and exposed to the atmosphere for only fifteen minutes, in the months of August or September, it will show life im abundance ; and to the want of a knowledge of this fact may be traced the erroneous conclu- sions arrived at by several gentlemen who have devoted their attention to the subject of spontaneous generation. An essential point in the carrying out of such an investigation, was the prepara- tion of pure distilled water. In distilled water prepared by the ordinary methods, 1 always found life after it had been kept for a few days; but by employing an ap- paratus through which a gas could be passed to displace the air, and adding to the water to be distilled a solution of potash and. permanganate of potash, I obtained a water which, after three or four distillations, was found to be free from life. The gas employed in the first three series was hydrogen. The water was kept in the apparatus till wanted, to prevent any contact with air. Water so distilled having been kept free from life for seventeen days, was intro- duced into twelve small tubes, and left exposed to the atmosphere for fifteen hours when the tubes were closed. Every eight days the tubes were examined; on the first and second examination no life was observed, but the third discovered two or three black vibrios in each field. As this slow and limited development of life might be owing to the small amount of germs in the atmosphere, during the winter months a second series of experi- ments was made, placing the water in the tubes near putrid meat for two hours, at a temperature of 21° to 26° C. Six days after some of the tubes were examined and life observed, showing that by being placed near a source of protoplasmic life, the water had in two hours absorbed germs in sufficient quantity, for life to become visible in one fourth the time required in the first experiment; after six days a slight increase of life was noticed, but no further development could be afterwards seen. The limited amount of life developed in pure water suggested a third series of experiments, in which albumen was added to the water. In this case life appeared in five days, and a considerable increase in ten. Albumen, therefore, facilitated the development of life. The quantity of life produced in the above experiments being comparatively small, some fresh water was distilled, oxygen being substituted for the hydrogen in the apparatus ; and a fourth series was commenced, which resulted in showing that although oxygen appears to favour the development of germs, it does not favour their reproduction. : When the weather had become much warmer and a marked increase of life in the atmosphere had taken place, some of the albumen solution employed in the above experiments was left exposed in tubes to its influence, when a large quantity of life was rapidly developed and continued to increase, proving the increase to be due not merely to reproduction, but to the introduction of fresh germs. As no life appeared in that portion of the distilled water remaining in the ap- paratus before mentioned, which was examined from time to time, whilst it ap- peared in all the solutions made with it and impregnated by their exposure to the atmosphere, it is obvious that germs are necessary to the production of life. On the relative Powers of various Substances in preventing the Generation of Animalcules, or the Development of their Germs, with special reference to the Germ Theory of Putrefaction. By Dr. Joun Doveat. On the advantage of Systematié Cooperation among Provincial Natural- History Societies, so as to make their observations available to Naturalists generally. By Sir Warrrr Extior, A.C.S.1., F.L.S. Sir Walter stated that he had been led to consider the subject in the prepara- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 tion of an address delivered to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh last November, in the course of which he attempted to show what contributions had been made by provincial societies to botanical knowledge and literature. He found that the number of these societies had greatly increased of late years, and that they had done much useful and valuable work. This they publish in their own Proceedings or Transactions, the circulation of which is confined almost exclusively to their own members. The results of their labours are thus, in a great measure, lost both to their neighbours and to naturalists generally. After entering into some details of the subjects, illustrated by the Devonshire and Corn- wall Societies, by the Berwickshire, Tyneside, Cotteswold, Woolhope, and other Field Clubs in their published ‘ Transactions,’ many of the earlier volumes of which are so scarce as to be unprocurable by later members, he proceeded to show that this state of things had attracted the attention of others as well as of himself, and had given rise to a very general desire for greater unity of procedure. He concluded, therefore, that the time had come for taking action in the matter; and as the pre- sent occasion afforded an opportunity for discussing it with advantage, he invited the Section to take it up, with a view of eliciting practical suggestions (at the same time offering some himself) of such a nature as might be laid before the General Committee of the Association, and so enlisting the patronage of that body in its behalf. The Origin and Distribution of Microzymes (Bacteria) in water, and the cir= cumstances which determine their Existence in the Tissues and Liquids of the Living Body. By Dr. Burvon Sanperson, /.B.S., and Dr. Ferrier. The paper read was an abstract of the chief results of an experimental investi- gation into the intimate nature of contagion published in extenso in the ‘Thirteenth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council.’ It was considered necessary to examine the conditions of origin and life of microzymes in special reference to the phyto-pathological doctrines of Professor Hallier. in ones to test the presence or absence of microzymes in contagious or healthy liquids and tissues, the method was adopted of cultivating these organisms in soils suitable for their growth, and under conditions favourable to their multiplication and development. By the enormous reproductive power of these organisms, and the changes which they induce in the organic liquids in which they are cultivated, the presence of micro- zymes can be most satisfactorily determined. The organic liquids employed as soils were chiefly Pasteur’s solution and albuminous liquids, such as serum, &e. Before using these liquids as tests, however, it had first to be shown that they do not, in themselves, contain the conditions of evolution. For this purpose the liquids were introduced into capillary tubes, and investigated under the most varied conditions of exposure, temperature, and pressure. The results of numerous experiments, lasting over several months, proved satis- factorily that when these liquids had been raised to a temperature of 150°-200° C., or even to 100° C., and carefully preserved from contact from air or surfaces which had not been superheated, no evolution of organic forms ever took place; while in the same liquids which had not been heated, but otherwise kept under exactly the same conditions, organisms were found in large numbers. The results were not modified by any variations in the tension of the air to which the liquids were ex- posed, Other experiments made with boiled and unboiled Pasteur’s solution, in- troduced into glasses which had been previously heated, showed that fungi (Zorula and Penicillium) appeared in unboiled solutions whether they were exposed or not, but much more abundantly when they were exposed than when they were pro- tected with cotton-wool, and that in boiled solutions the growth of Penicillium was more luxuriant than in unboiled solutions under similar circumstances, Bacteria did not appear in the boiled liquids under any circumstances. Bacteria and fungi, therefore, seemed to differ in regard to their conditions of origin and growth. The result of numerous experiments demonstrated that the solutions in which micro- zymes appeared were those which had come in contact with surfaces which had 126 REPORT—1871. Boh been superheated, or had been contaminated by water which had not been oiled. Bacteria were shown not to exist in the air under ordinary circumstances, Water was shown to be the primary source from which the germinal particles of Bacterva are derived, whenever they seem to originate in the organic solutions experimented with. This conclusion was satisfactorily demonstrated by impregnating organic solutions (which otherwise could be kept indefinitely barren of all organisms) with a drop or two of ordinary water, whereupon, in the course of a week, the deyelop- ment of Bacteria manifested itself in the clearest manner to the naked eye. This zymotic property (7. e. the faculty of determining the development of organic forms in a test solution to which it is added) is not possessed by all kinds of water in a like degree, Distinct degrees of opalescence (due to Bacteria chiefly) are manifested in Pasteur’s solution when eprouyettes, charged with a given quantity of boiled Pasteur’s solution, are impregnated with equal quantities of water from different sources, Eyen ordinary distilled water was never found to be free from Bacteria germs. This was attributed to contamination with other water, or improperly cleaned receptacles. Filtration seems to have no appreciable influence on the zymotic pro- perty of water. From the most careful and repeated examination of water proved to be zymotic, it was found that such waters often contain no elements or particles which can be detected by the microscope. Experiments were made with optically pure water as in the sense used by Prof. Tyndall, or so nearly optically pure, that the electric beam in passing through it displays a blue colour; such water obtained by the fusion of ice was shown to be as zymotic as many other yarieties of water, which in the beam are seen to be full of light-scattering particles. Microzymes and their germs are deprived of vitality by thorough desiccation ; they are likewise lilled pe ermanganate of potash, ozone, carbolic acid in the proportion of ‘5 per cent. of the liquid, sulphate of quinia in the same proportion, peroxide of hydrogen, and chlorine. Torula and Penicillium, however, flourished in solutions which were fatal to Bac- teria, When an albuminous or saccharine fluid is superheated (7, e, above 100° C.), it does not support microzyme life. Experiments were made to determine whether the liquids and tissues of the living body parbicapate in the zymotic property possessed by microzymes, It was shown that blood, fresh tissues, urine, milk, white of egg, pus from deep-seated ab- scesses, were free from microzymes, and further, that these tissues and fluids could be kept indefinitely free from all traces of decomposition if proper precautions were taken to preserve them from external contamination, Tt was further shown that the slightest contact with ordinary water, or surfaces cleanéd in the ordinary manner, was sufficient to set up septic changes in these tissues and liquids, It was therefore concluded that if microzymes are. not the only cause of putrefaction, yet their presence is sufficient to set it up in liqnids which otherwise manifested no tendency to septic changes. In regard to contagious liquids, few experiments had yet been made, Only in reference to pyeemic pus an experiment had been made; it was found full of Bacteria. From numerous facts and observations made during the progress of the inquiry, it was concluded that there is no developmental connexion between Bacteria and Torula, and that their puparent association is merely one of juxtaposition. his conclusion is a direct contradiction to the botanical doctrines on which Hallier’s theory of contagion is founded. On the Establishment of Local Museums. By T, B. Grierson. The establishment of local museums was pointed out as a means of giving a taste for learning and science to the people, for which, in the smaller towns and rural districts, there was no provision, Collections could readily be made; and in every district objects of interest would be met with, which a local museum would be the means of saving and bringing to light. Persons commissioned by scientific societies or one of the central institutions should make periodic visitations, and aid TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 by advice and otherwise. If an arrangement of this kind were extended all over the country, a knowledge of science would exist among the people, of which they are at present altogether destitute. The author entered upon some details of the system he proposed. Borany, On the Cultivation of Ipecacuanha in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden for trans- mission to India. By Professor Barrour, RSS. L. & EH. Ipecacuanha is a valuable remedy for dysentery, and has been administered in large doses with decided benefit by medical men in India. The cultivation of the plant, however, owing to the rashness or carelessness of collectors and other causes, has failed to a certain extent in South America; and unless means can be taken for more extended cultivation, it seems probable that the quantity of Ipeca- cuanha might be insufficient for medicinal purposes, and its price might rise in the market to such an extent as to interfere with its general use. In these ‘circumstances the Secretary of State for India (His Grace the Duke of Argyll) applied to the Directors of the Botanic Gardens in Britain with the view of ascertaining whether a sufficient stock of plants could be procured for exportation to India with the view of cultivation there for medicinal purposes. In the Kdin- burgh Botanic Garden there were some specimens of the plant which had been cultivated for forty years or more, and it was found by Mr. M*Nab that these could be easily multiplied by making sections of the root or rhizome. ad *, 7 7 4 } as Ye ‘ } j ° v4 ; “hee b i i ¥ i ie 116 ia bis ee GL ye hia