pert Pa uestarttes roetelece REPORT OF THE FORTY-THIRD Pre or tHe \% Yi Ty SS BRITISH ASSOCIATION . FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCK ; HELD AT BRADFORD IN SEPTEMBER 1873. “LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1874. [Office of the Association: 22 Arommance Serger, Loxvon, W.] PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREFT. CONTENTS, -Oxsecrs and Rules of the Association ..........60. setararat Par 6 Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ..........., Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from EDIMMICHCCMEND 5 iNet b kis Hi arath aw Bislekh cavShe plele\} susleyd) « oletiw cae MUM MCLEPER AS. ies is ee ecb ss Pee Cede eS as ~ Lectures to the Operative Classes ........ PETS eh er ea MOR OPOMHG cs, i) casas pirag: pee <9 Seto nade ot ests Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at previous Meetings. . Officers of Sectional Committees .... 00... eee eee BmerentL GUNCHe VSP O=Te eee bas pec ue ub cure ne ales ela Report of the Council to the General Committee.............005 Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports and Researches in Science........0. 02 cece eect eee eens mee Of Money Grants,.. ii osbibx eee bba ee hoes eens coon meme of Meeting in 1875.......0 0... cece Saeed dang hb General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific DORE At se Nasa 2s 8S Kas Vautbap dias woes 85,0088 awe gs Arrangement of the General Meetings ............ 00sec ueeeee Address by the President, Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S... REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xlili xliv xlvi xlvii xlyili hii lx Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Caytry, F.R.S.,, Pro- fessor Sroxrs, F.R.S., Professor Sir W. Txomson, F.R.S., Professor H. J. S. Surry, F.R.S., and J. W. L. Guatsnzr, B.A., F.R.A.S. @neporter), on Mathematical Tables ......0+0ceveccsvacnecens iv CONTENTS. Observations on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of Coal in Mines. By Wixttam Firs, of Birley Wood, “Meeds'. = \ccty.s aneercterets Concluding Report on the Maltese Fossil Elephants. By A. Lerra Apams, M.B., FLR.S., F.G.8. 2... cece cece eee eee e een e eens Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ramsay, Professor Gerrx1e, Professor J. Youne, Professor Nrcot, Dr. Bryce, Dr. ARTHUR Mircuett, Professor Hurt, Sir R. Grirvira, Bart., Dr. Kine, Pro- fessor Harxness, Mr. Presrwicn, Mr. Huaues, Rev. H. W. Crossxry, Mr. W. Jotty, Mr. D. Mityz-Home, and Mr. Prneety, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining the existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or Boulders, of indicating on Maps their position and height above the sea, as also of ascertaining the nature of the rocks composing these blocks, their size, shape, and other particulars of interest, and of endeavouring to prevent the destruction of such blocks as in the opinion of the Committee are worthy of being preserved. Drawn up by the Rev. H. W. Crossxry, Secretary ..vs,. 000 te essen es Wer i eee. Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland,.drawn up by Dr. Bryce, 188 F.G.8. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycn, F.G.8., Sir W. THom- | son, F.R.S., Guo. Forzes, F.R.S.E., and Mr. J. Brovert Ninth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Deyon- shire, the Committee consisting of Sir Cuartes Lyetr, Bart., F.R.5., Professor Puiiuirs, F.R.S., Sir Jonn Luszock, Bart., F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Gore Busx, F.R.S., Wintram Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., Wittiam Aysurorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., and Wu11um Peneetty, F.R.S. (Reporter) a0 4) ae 00 0 0 0 0 6 rie 6 « ieewunee The Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, Wevoushire, By W..Punariry, FE-S., F.G.8)25 sit. nee Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Guapsronn, Dr. C. R. A. Wricut, and W. Cuanpter Roperts, appointed for the purpose of investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils, Drawn up by Dr. Wrieur 5.) 6) bls Oyu or © 6 6 oct, 6M was Re Report of the Committee, consisting of W. Cuanpiter Rosgrrts, Dr, _ Mrts, Dr. Boycorr, and A. W. Gavrspen, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the Method of making Gold-assays, and of stating the Results thereof. Drawn up by W. Cuanvter Rosrrts, Secretary First Report of the Committee for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units, the Committee consisting of Sir W. Tomson, Professor G. C. Fosrrr, Professor J. C. Maxwett, Mr. G. J. Sronry, Professor Frermine Jenxin, Dr. Sremens, Mr. F. J. Bram- WELL, and Professor Evernre (Reporter) ...... +015 +. «> one Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Purriirs, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor Harkness, F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., James THom- son, Joun Briac, and L. C. Mratz, on the Labyrinthodouts. of the Coal-measures. Drawn up by L. C. Mrarr, Secretary to the Com- mittee rr | Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues - of Spectral Rays arranged upon a scale of Waye-numbers, the Com- 194 214. 219 222 CONTENTS. Vv : shi ; Page mittee consisting of Dr. Hugerns, J. N. Lockyer, Professor Rrynoups, Professor Swan, and G. Jounstone Sroney(Reporter) ............ 249 Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jonn Lunszock, Bart., Pro- fessor Puriiips, Professor Hueurs, and W. Boyp Dawxrns, Secretary, appointed for the ptrpose of exploring the Settle Caves. Drawn up PME PAW DIES ng. ost Sec Cod a Spgleele car awe s dahs eine be 250 Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Evrrerr, Sir W. Txomson, F.R.S., Sir Cuartes Lyrrt, Bart., F-R.S., Prof. J. Crerx Maxwett, F.R.S., Prof. Paitires, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, F.M.S., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof..A. Gurrxi, F.R.S., James GuaisHer, F.R.S., Rey. Dr. Granam, Grorcr Maw, F.G.S., W. Peneetty, F.RS., 8. J. Macuie, F.G.S., Prof. Hur, F.R.S., Prof. Ansrep, F.R.S., and J. Prestwicn, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Prof. Evererr, Bee A RCCTELALY oh 5 stds, ope se yeas pink 08 fi edt : Sretvepergetecg ss wehe oy aie 252 Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles for the years 1872-73, by a Committee, consisting of C. Brooks, F’R.S. (Chairman), J. GuatsuEr, F.R.S., Prof. J. Pures, F.R.S., J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.RB.S., R. W. Mytyz, C.E., F.R.S., T; Hawxstzy, C.E., Prof. J. C. Apams, F.R.S., Prof. J. J. Sytvester, F.R.S., C. Tominson, F.R.S., R. Fiery, C.E., Dr. Potz, C.E., F.R.S8., Prof. D. T. Ansrep, F.R.S., A. Bucwan, F.R.S.E., G. J. Symons, Secretary. Drawn up by G. J. Symons .... 257 Seventh Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of continuing Researches in Fossil Crustacea, consisting of Professor P. Marri Duncan (M.B. Lond.), F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., and Rosrrt Erurriner, F.R.S. Drawn up by Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S....... 304 Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions. By PEM ay LU SSE T IPH EUS. cies tiiecg cuxt ise: {2 Gysoasaiate, daca toy ep dbaherac! geardin ate 307 Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnns, H. E. Dresser (Secretary), T. Harranp, J. E. Hanrine, T. J. Monx, Pro- fessor Newton, and the Rev. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose of continuing the investigation on the desirability of establishing a “Close Time ” for the preservation of indigenous animals.......... 346 Report of the Committee, consisting of Jamms Graisuer, F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Rozrrr P. Gree, F.G.8., and ALEex- ANDER 8. Hurscuet, F.R.A.S., on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1872-73; drawn up by Atexanver 8S. Herscuet, F.R.AS......... 349 On the Visibility of the dark side of Venus. By Professor A. ScnaraRix, OE aa NE C2 cnn Rial diary weap ipeMOciay tes MAGNE sds Reema 404 Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Rorrzsron, Dr. Scuater, Dr. Anton Dourn, Professor Huxtry, Professor WyvitLtE Tomson, and KE. Ray Lanxesrer, for the foundation of Zoological Stations. in dif- ferent parts of the Globe. Drawn up by Axroy Donrn, Secretary 408 Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness, Wir11am Jorty, and Dr. Jamzs Brycz, appointed for the purpose of collecting Fossils from localities of difficult access in North-western Scotland, Drawn up by Wirriam Jonxy, Secretary........ eevee 402 vi CONTE NTS. Page Fifth Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage, consisting of Ricarp B. Granrman, C.E., F.G.S. (Chair- man), F. J. Bramwett, C.E., F.RS., Professor W. H. Corrrerp, M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), J. Bartuy Devon, C.E., F.G.S., J. H. Grrzerr, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., W. Hors, V.C., Professor A. W. W1114Mson, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S., and Professor J. T. Waxy «1.0... esse cere . 413 Report of the Committee for superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry, consisting of Professor A. W. WIttramson, F.R.S., Professor Franxuann, F.R.S., and Professor Roscor, F.R.S, 451 On the Bradford Waterworks. By Caarues Gorr, M.Inst.C.E. ....,. 461 Report of the Committee appointed to consider the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry, the Committee consisting of Professor Syrvesrrr, Professor Carter, Pro- fessor Hrrst, Rev. Professor BArrnotomnw Pricer, Professor H. J. 8. Surrn, Dr. Sporriswoopp, Mr. R. B. Haywarp, Dr. Satmon, Rev. R. Townsunp, Professor Futter, Professor Kutnanp, Mr. J, M. Wiuson, and Professor Crirrorp (Secretary) ...sseeseeeeeeeucees awicisats 459 Interim Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of making Experiments on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships, &e, 460 Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Crum Brown, Mr. J. Dewar, Dr. Guapstonn, Prof. A. W. Wriiramson, Sir W. THomson, and Prof. Tarr, appointed for the purpose of Determinating High Temperatures by means of the Refrangibility of the Light evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances. Drawn up by Jamus Dewar, Reporter...........-- . 461 On a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with the Sun- spot Periodicity. By Cuartms MELDRUM .......ceeeesevereuees 466 Fifth Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Structure of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals. Drawn up by Jams Tomson, Secretary. The Committee consists of Professor Harkness, F.R.S., James Tomson, F'.G.8., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., and Tomas Dayrpson, PB Ooidd 4h piles Ges Ph il Cee 1 eee SOY ETS Ogee as Olt Oe 479 Report of the Committee, consisting of Colonel Lanz Fox, Dr. Brppor, Mr. Franks, Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr. E. W. Brazsroox, Sir J. Lus- zock, Bart., Sir Watrer Exzior, Mr. Crements R. Marxuanm, and Mr. E. B. Tytor, appointed for the purpose of preparing and publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers, Ethnologists, and other Anthropological Observers. Drawn up by Colonel A. H. Lanz Fox . 482 Preliminary Note from the Committee, consisting of Professor Batrour, Convener, Dr, CrneHorn, Mr, Roperrt Hurcnison, Mr. AtpxANDER Bucnayn, and Mr. Jonn Saputer, on the Influence of Forests on the Rainfall 488 Qin Cis es Che Bs ese ince 6 Me SRS Gig Sig 6.0 O16 Be Ole SS 8 wlelece hb Weta a Report of Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, appointed at the Brighton Meeting, 1872, consisting of Henry Wirxert, R. A. Gopwrx- Ausrgn, F.R.S., W. Toptey, F.G.8., T. Davinson, F.R.S., J. Prust- wich, F.R.S., W. Born Dawxrys, F.R.S., and’ Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S.. Drawn up by Henry Witiert and W. Torney .......... 490 CONTENTS, Vii 7 , Page Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Fraycrs Ganroy, Mr. W. , Frovpe, Mr. C. W. Merrtrrexp, and Professor Ranxryn, appointed to consider and Report on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea and Measurement of Waves near shore ...... 495 Report of the Committee on Science-Lectures and Organization,—the Committee consisting of Prof. Roscox, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof. W.G. Apams, F.R.S., Prof. Anprews, F.R.S., Prof. Batrour, F.RS., F. J. Bramwett, F.R.S., Prof. A. Crum Brown, F.R.S.E., Prof. T. Dyrr, Sir Watrer Etxior, F.L.S., Prof. Frowrr, F.R.S., Prof. G. 0. Foster, F.RS., Prof. Guixre, F.R.S., Rev. R. Harter, F.B.S., Prof. Hoxtey, F.R.S., Prof. Freemme Jenni, F.R.S., Dr. Journ, F.R.S., Col. Lane Fox, F.G.8., Dr. Lanxesrer, F.R.S., J. N. Locxynr, F.R.S., Dr. O’Cattacuan, LL.D., D.C.L., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. Barrour Srewanr, F.R.S., H. T. Sramron, F.R.S., Prof. Tarr, F.R.S.E., J. A. Tinyé, F.R.G.8., Dr. AnteN Tuomson, F.R.S., Sir Wrnrram THomson, F.R.S., Prof. Wrvitte THomsoy, F.R.S., Prof. Turner, F.R.S.E., Prof. moe. Wiittmson, F.R.S., and Dr-Youne ,................... 495 Second Report of the Committee on Science-Lectures and Organization, —the Committee consisting of Prof. Roscon, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof, W. G. Avams, F.R.S., Prof. Axpruws, F.R.S., Prof. Banrour, F.RS., J. Baxenpert, F.R.AS., F. J. Bramwerr, F.R.S., Prof. A. Crux Brown, F.R.S.E., Mr. T. Bucnan, Dr. Carpenter; F.R.S., Prof. Corz, Warren De La Ruz, F.R.S., Prof. T. Dyzr, Sir Water E1107, F.LS., Prof. M. Fosrer, F.R.S., Prof. Frowrr, F.R.S., Prof. G. C. Fosrer, F.R.S,, Prof. Grixm, F.R.S., Dr. J. H. Guapstonr, F.R.S., Mr. Grrevitn, Rev. R. Harry, F.R.S., Dr. Hirsz, F.R.S., Dr. Hooxrr, F.R.S., Dr, Huecrns, F.R.S., Prof. Huxzey, F.R.S8., Prof. Fieruine Jenxry, F.R.S., Dr. Jour, F.R.S., Col. A. LANE Fox, F.G.S., Dr. Lanxesrer, F.R.S., J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S., Prof. Crrex Maxwer 1, F.RS., D. Miryz-Homy, F.R.S.E., Dr. O'CartacHay, LL.D., D.C.L., Dr. Ovurne, F.R.S., Prof. Rausay, F.R.S., W. Sporrrswoopr, F.R.S., Prof. Barrour Srewart, F.R.S., H. T. Srarton, F.R.S., Prof. Tarr, F.R:S.E., J. A. Trxnt, F.R.G.S., Dr. Arren TxHomwson, F.R.S., Sir Wiit1am Tomson, F.R.S., Prof. Wryvirte Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. Turner, F.R.S.E., Col. Srrancz, F.R.S., Prof. A. W. WILLIAMson, ‘ P0.5.,.G,..V, Veunon, F.R.A.S., and Dr, Young . ppeltyelc nana ocean ar ~— on the Negative Minima of the Gamma function .. -——-—— on the Introduction of the Decimal Point into AUVII ING A” Abington ODre a OtOn DoD bibooabre mode seae Bod jens 5 ccs Mr. G. O. Hanton on the Formation of an extended Table of Logarithms .. The Rey. Roprert Har ey on the Theory of Differential Resolvents ...... on Professor Eyans’s Method of solving Cubic and other Trinomial Equations..........0..00008 pokes stolons ei. sietite M. Cu. Hermite sur l’lrrationalité de la Base des Logarithmes Hyperboliques Professor Henry J. StrPHEN SmirH on Modular Equations .......... oles Mr. W. SporriswoopEk on Triple Tangent Planes ............005: + Sameer The Rev. Henry Wace on the Calculation of Logarithms........+s+s000% MeEcHANICS AND Puystcs. Dr. Ropert STAWELL Bary on a Geometrical Solution of the following problem :—A quiescent rigid body possessing three degrees of freedom receives an impulse; determine the instantaneous screw about which the body commences to twist .......+.. Sos quene don sisreua leu ots ss, salu iste —_————. —-—— on the Theory of Screws ...sseccceeseeeees Professor J. D, EvyERETT on the Kinematics of a Rigid Body ............ ‘I to b> to pr bo He H He bD bD 27 28 z a J 5 CONTENTS. Professor G. Forbes on certain connexions between the Molecular Properties of Metals ..........00+- Gobousuat SGeucosouuEoonadaunodKNe HoOUG wee Professor J. CLerk MAxweE tt on the Final State of a System of pera in Motion subject to Forces of any kind 1.1... eee eee cece eee eee eee My. Joun Nevitze on the Axis of least Moments in a Rectangular Beam .. Professor OsBorNE ReyNoups on certain Phenomena of Impact .......... Professor Batrour Stewart on Aithereal Friction. ...scccsee sees weeeees ASTRONOMY. Mr. W. R. Brrr on the Importance and Necessity of continued Systematic Observations on the Moon’s Surface... ... 6... cee cece cee eee eee tenes Dr. Wri1amM Hveers on the Proper Motions of Nebul .......+....0005 M. Janssen on the Application of Photography to show the Passage of Venus across the Sun’s Disk ....... ec. eee ee seen SO ORO UIC 5h Sd HO oODpaOT Mr. J. Norman Lockyer on the Results of some recent Solar Investigations Professor A. Scraranik on the Visibility of the Dark side of the Planet Venus Lieut. Mr. Putire Brawam on Light with circularly ruled plates of Glass........ Mr. W. 8S. Davis on some Abnormal Effects of Binocular Vision ...... Fee Professor J. D. EvErErTT on a Refraction-Spectrum without a Prism ...... Professor G. Forbus on Irradiation... ... eee recess enero ip wtnchanaveednens Dr. GrapsTronr on Photographs of Fluorescent Substances.........+++++4+ Mr. J. Norman Lockyer on the Dresser-Rutherford Diffraction-grating. .. Professor CLERK MaxweEtt on the Relation of Geometrical Optics to other Branches of Mathematics and Physics.......e cece ceceeen eee ennnens are Lord RayieiGH on a Natural Limit to the Sharpness of the Spectral Lines. . Mr. Artuur ScuustTeEr on the Influence of Temperature and Pressure on the Widening of the Lines in the Spectra of Gases «0.1... +e seer eee eee nee — — — on a curious Phenomenon observed on the top of BOWOOU npc cede steers esse ress arte le eslataat oes DOOR O ONS LchaRe bic Hear. Professor G. Forsrs on Thermal Conductivity...... THDOOCONGT Ga bic Ote Professor A. S. HErscuet on the Thermal Conductivities of BE Rocks. . Professor ZENGER on the Correlation between Specitic Weight and Specific Heat of Chemical Elements .....:.esceseeeee ee eeenee eens at tebe ou: o Exrcrricity AND MAGNETISM. Mr. W. F. Barrett on the Molecular Changes that pecomnang the eee zation of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt ............ RGEC. Sap Oe nine —______—— on the Relationship of the Mcavee Metals, Iron, N ickel, PME WODALG stele cies os 6 viele epiniscam 52 ale «ars. e'e)e Snr tetolaareuererer etal stay ctatens ata) e Professor Cx. V. ZENGER on Symmetric Conductors, and the construction of Lightning-conductors ...sssesesereverenereenenreeennnessraranerenes 1X 40 41 4 CONTENTS, Merroropoey &e. Page Dr. Witi1am B. CarpeNTER on the Undercurrents of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles .....,... Marpelsiersirelehs BCCGT Ann onnnrinorinindaare:crect Mr. W. S. Davis on the Refraction of Liquid Waves ..ccsscscsseveesesse 48 My. J. Park Harrrson on Lunar Influence on Clouds and Rain .......... 43 M. Asruro pr Marcoartu on the Application of Telegraphy to Navigation BMG eVEGLEOTOLOLY..isrei0%s 6's inn vein ele wreseae yea ign de aha rays ote Seen a Weyeye fay meee Mr. C. Mriprvum on a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity ...........0ee0e: AOI Oar € sesceceee 43 Mr. 8. B. J. SkrrtcHiy on Experiments on Evaporation and Temperature saaneiAG WISDORCH *.,. ssc wes aag atte: bance Dhow vevegevens vesee 44 Mr. G. M. Wurppte on the Passage of Squalls across the British Isles,.,... 44 INsTRUMENTS. Dr. Roserr STAWELL Bax on Dynamometers in Absolute Measure ...... 44 Captain J. I. Davis on an Improvement in the Sextant..... dopant ee oe Mr. A. E. Donkin on an Instrument for the Composition of two Harmonic ON CSV ARS aaNr mir jeletaticleyeseie/el« aherelstalalel tana ao: vais etaro¥elefetefeleteyesc: o/ateiei antes D) Mr. Rogers Frexvp on an Improved Form of Aneroid for determining Heights, with a means of adjusting the Altitude-scale for various Temperatures..., 46 Mr. G. W. Horr on Eckhold’s Omnimeter, a new Surveying-Instrument.... 47 Mr. G, J. Symons on Negretti and Zambra’s Test-gauge Solar-Radiation Thermometer ........0ssssi05 5 ,tiss Seas tale ol aigte elotmniee a rantier aeen eed mae Mr. 8. C. Tistey on a Compound-Pendulum Apparatus .......... Cees <. 40 Professor A. 8. Herscuer on a new form of Pendulum for exhibiting Super- posed Vibrations....... dn He eae een eh 2 (od slelgbd ide che cee 48 Mr. F, H. Wrnuam on the Influence of Temperature on the Elastic Force of certain forms of Springs....... sie 4/ip a efesave; SGM) Avot olaiel bbavie. 0 3.8 stals ad std ae 49 Mr. G, M. Wurpptr on a New Form of Rutherford’s Minimum Thermometer, devised and constructed by Mr. James Hicks............. Seesinla Git tam OO on a New Electrical Anemograph .........0.00s0005 50 Mr. C. J, Woopwarp on an improved form of Oxyhydrogen Lantern for the Use Ol AUP CHUROES F Mriek voces mak eer ais boetdattret ante 560005 page oe CHEMISTRY. Address by W. J. Russetx, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the Section........ 52 Mr. Atrrep H, ALLEN on the Detection of Adulteration of Tea ...., devgaa be Dr. Henry E. Anmstrone on Alpha- and Beta-Naphthylic Sulphide...... 62 ——_———————— on the Action of Sulphuric acid on Ethylaniline os and Dimethylaniline ............ ccloniaemeonee site lafeletslsio/o¥s\a7s\e)nia WOE 62 es on Cresol Derivatives ......... eb eieedue eat 63 Professor Dr. Crum Brown on the Action of Sulphide of Methyl on Brom- aceHO AGIA “.55 (eFe eee cts F ication at gcaccr te pent Be Bata eves Paine Mr. JoHn SPrLver on Artificial Maonetite.... ccc ccc cee cree eee een enees Mr. C. J. Woopwanrp on a Form of Gas-generator ..... cece eee ee eee - Mr. C, R. A, Wrigut on new Derivatives from Codeine and Morphine .,., GEOLOGY. Address by Joun Paruuips, M.A., D.C.L, Oxon., LL.D, Cambridge and Dublin, HIJESSI TRAC as Sie erine cig onooe RE AE Soe ne RN MRE TOMS Cae Nee The Rey. J. F. Buake on additional Remains of Pleistocene Mammals in PEPERENINE: « 5\0-5,o/z w oisieds o.2\ oeecen SPpete RCS Wry o1 5. vi ahh asm olaiain| wis sh aiers aa cheias Mr. W. T. BLanForD on some Evidence of Glacial Action in Tropical India in Paleozoic (or the oldest Mesozoic) times....., ‘eabtad § be shou dernier Pais Mr. Henny B. Brapy on Archediscus Karrert, a New Type of Carboniferous Foraminifera ......++00. Saholanitn cates teavtratetac a hae Mestetocew shove Gta ane i Mr. Jonw Briee on such of the Industries of Bradford as relate to its Geolo- gical Position ....... she sebetaieterslcys: efetete ites eve penerienianncagnec SAMT Cae Mr. A. CoaMPERNOWNE on the Discovery of a Species of Starfish in Devonian : Beds of South Devon; with a Note by Hrnry Woopwarp ............ Mr. J. R. Daxyns on the Geology of part of Craven..........0c0eceeeeeas Mr. W. Boyp Dawxrns on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated in the Ingleborough Cave ...... Bresstitaretiictaieenaigl el aiekoveteres 4 chug avcuonees teres tanens Mr. J. W. Exxis on the Stump-Cross Caverns at Greenhow near Pately Bridge Mr. W. GomERSALL on the Round Boulder Hills of Craven ...........00. The Rey. J. Gunn on the Probability of finding Coal in the Eastern Counties Professor HARKNESS on the Occurrence of Faults in the Permian Rocks of the lower portion of the Vale of the Eden, Cumberland ...............00005 Mr, Henry Hicxrs on the Arenig and Llandeilo Rocks of St. David’s ...... Mr. Joun Hopxinson on some Graptolites from the Upper Arenig Rocks of Pemney Palend, St; MRRN sce c es laces eka see vdgeretyacsberececsdut — on the Occurrence of numerous Species of Graptolites mathe: Ludlow Hecker SATOpshire, .. 0.06.5 ccccaacvacssvecdessuguacs Mr. W. Horne on the Occurrence in the Yoredale Rocks of Wensleydale of Fish and Amphibian Remains ..:........ Petes ates =: ss sieve oustat eee ierre rete Mr. J, Logan Losey on the British Paleozoic Arcade...... Madea dewvay Dr. T. Morrar on a Horn and Bones found in a Cutting in a Street in Maiden- REEMMEEAOTHAS Seo tints aii ete ala’ cialk's Wa «CRC E RRS eco as ach eabitee we aha ad cove on Geological Systems and Endemic Diseases .............. Dr. Joun Pumuirs on the Ammonitic Spiral in reference to the power of Flotation attributed to the Animal wo sssseescssenesenenarens 85 Xl CONTENTS. Page Dr. Joun Purxies on the Ammonitic Septa in relation to Geological Time . 86 Baron von RicuTHoren on the Loess of Northern China, and its Relation Lomhe;oalt-basins of @entral Agia 4.07 '. 0 ns seisie/sis apne, ssretederste Meals deianeletere 86 Mr. R. Russerx on the Geology of the Country round Bradford, Yorkshire... 88 Mr. J. E. Taytor on the Occurrence of Elephant-remains in the Basement Bedsior thewed: Crag C7. cas visiis s)ole lee. ci is ee MME tice thine cho ty ake, : 91 Mr. W. Topiey on the Correspondence between some Areas of apparent Up- heaval and the Thickening of subjacent Beds.......... siaje/s(el nope CeeR tele 91 and Mr, G. A. LeBour on the Whin Sill of Northumberland 92 Mr. W. Wuiraxer on the Occurrence of Thanet Sand and of Crag in the 8. W. part.of Suffolle (Sudbury) \-eccecerccssccleccsscooens a8 bial o Raney aes 92 Mr. Henry Woopwarp and Mr. Ropert ETHERIDGE, jun., on some Speci- mens of Dithyrocaris from the Carboniferous Limestone Series, East Kilbride, and from the Old Red Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire; with Notes on their COLO CICHMEDSIMOD G60. 6.5. sr 6c vignia tn veins ping ss aeeaphre ces ase 92 —___—_—__——_-———-_ on new Facts bearing on the Inquiry concerning Forms intermediate between Birds and Reptiles...... aereiare soatatate Seite . 93 BIOLOGY. Address by Groner J. Atuman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F-R.S.E., M.R.LA., Hal Se TesMent OltHhe SECUOM sare el cieslsitrcles pesos 0 ©» sisalaloia stile Jceemes Botany. Mr, W: Ancuer on Parasitic Allow... 0. eee ee nes catetn a aaltteats come, LOL Mr. T. Baryes on a Tree-Aloe from South-East Africa... cesses sees eee 104 Professor THISELTON DyEnr on the Plants collected in Bermuda by Mr. H. N. MMOs Cle ype ayarohiarete, amieiersianers fete o eTeyniciswleiere see ¢ iui Spee taistelo\s lal isthe eae 104 Professor GULLIVER on the Crystals in the Testa and Pericarp of certain Plants 104 Mr. Cuantes P, Hopxiex on the Mosses of the West Riding of Yorkshire... 104 Dr. J. D. Hooker on the Subalpine Vegetation of Kilimanjaro, E. Africa.... 105 Professor Lawson on Plants collected by the Voyager Dampier............ 105 — on a Course of Practical Instruction in Botany.......... 105 Myr. H. N. Mosrtey on the Vegetation of Bermuda..........cseseeeeeees 105 Mr. Jonn SHAw on some of the Changes going on in the South-African Vege- tation through the Introduction of the Merino Sheep ........e.eeeeeeee 105 Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON on Fern-stems and Petioles of the Coal-measures 106 Dr, Wixuts on the Flora of the Environs of Bradford .......ceeeeeeeeeees LOG Zoouoey. Professor ALLMAN on some Recent Results with the Towing-net on the South AWopsti Ofsorel am da tariateys tiene ate Botnteh fave), o%e ovata nol footers atelerel ote tefale alienate 106 Mr. W. T. Branronp on the Distribution of the Antelopes in Southern and BeStorn LA SIA ce cls cpetdiacenth Srenetmbeteretes ele pianelers te gbte Penis tais Save nitetetaiens Pere JUG) ———————— on the Fauna of Persia ........ gUReac ta: ara levc. us Rate 110 Myr. J. Gwyn JEFFREYS on the Mollusca of the Mediterranean ..........,, Lil CONTENTS. xii Page Mr. E. Ray LANKESTER on a Peach-coloured Bacterium ...+seeeeer eens 116 —________-——- on the Genealogy of the Mollusca........++eeeees 116 Mr. T. Lister on Birds observed in the West Riding of Yorkshire in former fand recent Years 1... cc ccc c eee e ete e neces eee tanerscnseaeseeeee ees Mr. R. MacLacnan on anew Insect belonging to the Family Ephemerida, with Notes on the Natural History of that Barnaby « caeacuen ssuee cae GELS ANATOMY AND PuysIoLoey. Professor Ruruerrorp’s Address to the Department of Anatomy and Phy- DEVE shs-ssisiais 5.5 048 pea dteie seta ataten eaters here Sak cdg genie ga cans 119 Mr. Atrrep W. BENNETT on the Movements of the Glands of Drosera .... 123 Dr. Buvz on the Action of Alcohol on Warm-blooded Animals ............ 124 Dr. Lauper Brunton on the Nature of Cholera ...... Se eiae ous S Seeuelp ey Sore Mr. A. 8. Davis on some Abnormal Effects of Binocular Vision............ 126 Dr. Dewar and Dr. MacKernpnricx on the Action of Light on the Retina and BENEEMDISSUES wn tesla li-rdeivsie sce eee cewe neces sensei Nn eedsae eee , 126 Professor P, Martin Duncan on the Motion of Protoplasm in the Fucaceous BUS at esecle,04sqeseieve ese spss eye aiejeieieatseeieds ye sodadeese Ae sao ODN ey Pte gs 126 Dr. Davip Ferrier on the Localization of Function in the Brain.......... 126 Dr. J. Minner ForuHerGity on the Heart and Brain ......,. ahha) ofa = eect 127 Dr. Tuomas R. Fraser on the Physiological Action of Crystalline Aconitia BMG MACUGO-ACONIIA .. cess en ces euesecstens Tice OninioePO Gee Pam jon, LS Sir G. Duncan Grpp on the Vocal Organs in Living Centenarians.......... 128 Dr. J. Goopman on White Corpuscles, their Nature and Origin in the Animal MOTCAMISM fo ).0jele.ee.0c8.8,0 By o Day iE on 0. PAREN Cem etree ee alee Dr. GEorGE Haruey on the Mode of Bonen of Renal Calculi.......... 130 Mr. E. Ray Lanxester on the Structure of the Ege, and the early ee ment of the Cephalopod Zoligo ..........6645 agate Dr. Joun Ross on Microzymes as partial Bionta ........ Lusuehistais br va cteie crete tetera Dr. Burpon SanpErson on Huizinga’s Experiments on Abiogenesis........ 1b — —_+_——____——— on the Electrical Phenomena which accompany the Contractions of the Leaf of Dionea muscipula Professor ©, A. StruTuHERS on the Diverticulum of the Small Intestine in _ Man, considered as a Rudimentary Structure..........0.eeene linens ee LOS Mr. C. 8. Tomus on the Development of the Armadillo’s Teeth............ 134 Dr. Morrison Watson on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Indian Ele- | LLGlin eb noob po og onoopy tom OmOogene 6 nOhc os oombe Sanit eryesc eoranktete 134 ANTHROPOLOGY. Dr. Joun Beppor’s Address to the Department of Anthropology .......... 134 -—— Note on the Iberians ....... cee e eee ene eens seriieaie nk e0 Mr. A. W. Bucxianp on the Serpent in connexion with Primitive Metallurgy 140 Mr. C. H. E. Carmicuart on Professor Gennarelli’s Paper “On the Exist- ence of a Race of Red Men in Northern Africa and Southern Europe in Prehistoric Times ” teoreetree ree erese eer er eee er reer errr eer rereneerereree 4 xiv CONTENTS. Page Mr, Hypr Ciarxe on Prehistoric Names of Weapons,....-..-++eeeeeeees IAL ——_——- on the Comparative Chronology of the Migrations of Man in America in relation to Comparative Philology ......sssseseeees ovens La on the Ashantee and Fantee Languages ...,...+0+6.++++ 142 —— on the Report concerning Bushman researches of Dr. W. Hi. Bleek, Ph.D. TNE PP eis Se Ee a eee Ee aL YP ES a ih) 142 Ma. W. Boyp Dawxins on the Northern Range of the Iberians in Europe ., 142 Mr. RopErt Dunn on Ethnic Psychology ,...scceussreessesstccevesevwe 145 The Rey, W. Wyarr Grit on Coral-Caves with Human Bones in Stalagmite _ on Mangaia, South Pacific...........05 Soraneenac ayeerreta pocihin cin oir .. 144 Mr. J. Park Harrison on the Passage of Eastern Civilization across the Pacific evevoeeeveeesreeoeeseseeerveeee & eeeeveeene © 6 2:00 66 8 6 6 '6:9'8 6.06 Sig tee 146 Dr. J. Styciarr HoLpEn on a hitherto undescribed Neolithic Implement ., 146 Mr, J. Karyus on a true Cerebral Theory necessary to Anthropology ,,.... 146 Mr. Jou S. Puen on an Age of Colossi ......... waters Sees ree aVvieiarae . 147 Mr. F. W. Rupier on Stone Implements from British Guiana ..... peas ted Mr. Epwarp B. Tytor on the Relation of Morality to Religion in the Early PGE OL. OLVIUZALION o 6004550059544 sad nia 54.999 4495519 1a GEOGRAPHY. Address by Sir RurHerrorp Axucock, K.C.B., President of the Section,.,. 150 Dr. Cuartes T, Bexe on the true Position and Physical Characters of Mount Sinai . Oo ws hfe 854 1500 TORT OG 0G ‘atu ta raTUnb Ie "4 "oe aTH PENIS HETERO Mr. W. 1. ieiuardlonls on the Be Geography of the Deserts of Persia Bnd Contra ASG. sires pie te 30s bes ws ed eta vhs Mo see hsb vee Dr. Wit1raM B, Carpenter on the ec Geography of the Mediterranean, considered in relation to that of the Black Sea and the Caspian...... éoae 6B —_—___—_—__—_—_————— on the Physical Geography of the Caspian Sea, in its relations to Geology ...... aig aeaca tal aca ters ahavate ig a Wieve, siete oleiereanie gietemeeeteim Rae Signor Guipo Cora on the Equatorial Lakes of Africa ..sseeeeeeeeeeeees 167 Mr, G, H. Darwin on a Portable Globe, and on some Maps of the World ,; 167 Captain J. KE. Davis on the Scientific Voyage of the ‘ Challenger’......,. +6 LOT Mr, Ney Extas on Trade-routes through Mongolia and Zungaria .....,.... 169 The Rey. W. Wyarr Giut on Three Visits to New Guinea...........005 £9, 169 Colonel Sir FrepERIc GoLpsmip on recent Travel in Persia ..........05 va ME: Major Brresrorp Loverr on a Visit to Koh-Khodja.........ceeeceee eee 172 Dr. J. M‘Cosx on Assam, and an Overland Communication with China ..,, 172 Mr. CLements R. Marxuam on Recent Arctic Explorations.............. 172 Captain J. Morrssy on Discoveries at the Eastern End of New Guinea .... 172 Mr. E, DrtMar Morean on Russian Accounts of Khiva and Turcomania ,. 172 Mr. E. L, Oxenuam on a Journey from Peking to Han-kow .......... pereeee Baron voN RIcHTHOFEN on the Distribution of Coalin China ...,..,..... 173 CONTENTS. Xv Page Captain Roxrsy on the Survey for a Telegraph-line between Berber and E ouakim Pr ee ee 173 Major Sr. Jonn on Trade-routes in Persia... sessse eevee e rere ees Vi ende .. 173 Major Evan Surru on the Livingstone East-Coast Aid Expedition ..,...., 173 on the Trade of the East-African Coast sissseeeesevee 178 Mr, J. Tuomson on the Gorges and Rapids of the Upper Yangtsze.....+10+s 173 ECONOMIC SCIENCE anp STATISTICS. Address by the Right Hon. W. HE, Forster, M.P., President of the Section., 174 ~ Major-General Sir Jamzs ALEXANDER on the Use and Abuse of Peat ...... 183 Dr. C. E. Appteron on some of the Economical Aspects of Endowments of Education and Original Research,......... eee e eee e eee e rece renee . 183 Mr. S. C. T. Bartiey on the Poor-Law and its Effect on Thrift ,..,..,... 189 Mr. J. AnTHuR Bryns on Benefit Building Societies ........, Prasat yo» 185 Mr, Wri11aM Bory on Dwellings for the Industrial Classes .........++4.. 186 Mr. Hypr Crarxz on the Influence of Large Centres of Population on Intel- lectual Manifestation ......eccseueeeeees Fave r,1 wheats § or ste bekaiy LOG Mee. tiAcne DANCHEDT on.Poat —s55 50 ndvds 6s ss odd Gina aeds 5p ana E86 : Fi \ Mr. Franx P. Fetiows’s Statistics and Observations on the National Debt _and our Disbursements from the Revolution in 1688 to the present time, showing the advisability of ascertaining our Annual Governmental Capital and Current Expenditure. ..c.ccccceeceeeeeeereeaeeees Hehehe’ ¢ AGO _ Mr. J. G. Frrcu on the Savings-Bank in the School.........0.00+ sesivvde LOY Mr. Txomas Hare on the East Morley and Bradford Savings-Bank ........ 188 Mr. T. G. P. Harter on the Income-Tax Question. .......ssseecevevevee 188 Mr, Jamus Hanson on Educational Statistics of Bradford ....5+.ss+0+++++ 189 Mr. W. Hasrines on Postal Reform ........eeeseeeseneeenenes ieee cao eee ‘Mr. B. Haveuron on Railways Amalgamated in Competing Groups......., 191 ‘Mr. W. D. Henperson on Commercial Panics ,.......+: Arcee Pees “Mr. Samurn Jupp on the Shoddy Trade......sseeeceeecseeevenes preenate [2 Mrs. E. M. Kine on Confederated Homes and Cooperative Housekeeping..., 195 Professor Lone Levr on the Effect of the Increase of Prices of certain Neces- saries of Life on the Cost of Living, and its Relation to the Rates of Wages ES UNS Ee corr rir nee Core ME eeterT sae Pee 5 gue eee Mr, J. M. D. MerKirsoun on the Economic Use of Endowments ..,....... 196 Mr. W. Morris on Capital and Labour .......... fiobkentviwn eas teseree ‘Mr. Arcuipatp Netz on the Bradford Building Trades..........ee000008 196 Mr. R. H. Ineris PALGRAVE on the Relation of the Banking Reserve of the ' Bank of England to the Current Rate of Interest ........+;sseeereneves 199 Major-General Mittineton SyncE on Purity and Impwrity in the Use and nO Of WRT YT ET eae ee eee ees Nee cede et ta eps Fes ee eOO xvi CONTENTS. MECHANICAL SCIENCE, Address by W. H. Bartow, Esq., C.E., F.R.S., President of the Section.... 200 Mr. W. H. Bartow, Jun., on the Lisbon Steam Tramways, 1873 ......++. . 210 Mr. Danret BatrMan on the Manufacture of Cards for Spinning Purposes ., 210 Mr. C. Bergeron on the Saint-Gotthard Tunnel ...... ccc cee e ee peeeeeces 210 The Rey. E. L. BertHon on the Hydrostatic Log .... cs eseceeeeeeeseeee 210 Mr. F. J. Bramwe tu on Huggett’s System of Manufacturing Horse-nails.... 210 Dr. W. J. Capp on the Nant-y-glo Coal-cutting Machine .........e0eee ee 213 Mr, Hypr Crarxe on the Progress of the Through Railway to India ....., 215 Mr. Samvet Davis on Brain’s System of Mining by means of Boring-machinery, Dynamite, and Electric Blasting .............s.00 saotiotte SPA AAST . 213 Mr. R. Eaton on further Results on the Working of Locomotives with Heated Air'and Steam....... Haye ated aaisio gies eile ey etereteraeiare ior yack aaaeters eoovale Mr. C. Le Neve Foster on the “ Duty” of Arrastres in reducing Gold Ore in Italy ......00000+ We 6 seule lee e'eeld ens wide eedws onde vay epee ee oer Mr. P, Lz Neve Foster, Jun., on the Irrigation of the Casale District .... 214 Mr. S. C. Lister on the Mechanical Treatment of Fibrous Substances...... 214 Mr. Jamis R. Naprsr on Napier’s’ Pressure Loo" ..... 0. cess eee sseeees SUA Mr. AncurBaLp Nrict on Stone-dressing in Bradford............4. Ay ee 214 Mr. W. E. NewTon on the Sand-Blast Process for Cutting and Ornamenting Stone, Glass, and other Hard Substances......... bi ose, Sra a nug laden orste 25 Pig Mr, Jonny Poant on.the Burleigh Rock-drill..... ccc vcessccsvecvererce . 216 Prof. Ossorne REYNOLDS on the Resistance of the Screw Propeller as affected PY LOMWICTSION. 5 orcs cio sci oo aisle eyes Mocha. steno trtcaa gerd See pacts 2.038 - oie SE LO ——-—____—_—__——— on the Friction of Shot as affected by different kinds Git Lhe amo Oe o peRnoNa cin. 6 Oo OAD oOAUGmo mes en dated Arion ees Mr. Robert SvuTcuiFFe on the Economical Generation of Steam .......... 216 —_—____________—— on the Economical Utilization of Steam ........ sin DU Mr. W. Cave Tuomas on the Centre-rail Railway ...,.....seeeees uke 219 Mr. Joun Waveu on the Prevention of Incrustation in Steam-Boilers...... 219 Mr. Tomas WessTer on the Advancement of Science by Industrial Inyen- LOH Restate ear ae eo eA rae a EEN ts Sete RE ee Se rh ace 219 ee on the Assimilation of the Patent Systems of Great Britain and of the United States .......+..... Sco okaG didiaic us alert cease 219 Mr. Joun WHITE on a Form of Channel Steamer......csecceeeccecceeees 219 Mr. JosrpH Witicock on the History, Progress, and Description of the MSO WAU THOM WOLKE atse'sic's't'sarsis’e's's'o'n'e's uv W esse te Ten seenv haa dese SOR Dee APPENDIX. Prof. A. S. Herscurn and G. A. Lenour on the Conducting-powers for Heat of certain Rocks, with Remarks on the Geological Aspects of the Investigation RC AOR Oe SO Se ee ee ck eM een) euicoa 223 ti Oe” Se ERRATA IN REPORT FOR 1872. Omitted from Index I. ~ Gaussian constanta for the year 1829, report on the, or a theory of terrestrial magnetism founded on all available observations, 1 _ Mascarene Islands, second supplementary report on the extinct birds of the, by A. Newton, 23. Progress of chemistry, report of the Committee for superintending the monthly reports of the, ERRATA IN THE PRESENT VOLUME. In THE REPORTS. Page 369, line 22 from bottom, for Duncan read Dunkin. 8, after 11:09 insert per cent. 383, ,, 4, for Biichner read Buchner. 384, ,, 16, for Arnaud read Amand. 390, ,; 23 from bottom, for Persii read Persei. 396, ,, 13 from bottom, after Professor Baden Powell insert a nota, thust. 399, 20, for intrastellar read interstellar. In the footnote of the Table of “ Numbers of Meteors seen &c. in August 1872” (facing p- 895), observation of an aurora at Rothbury, for August 10th vead August 9th. In THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Page 43, fourth line from bottom, for Asturo read Arturo. 64, tenth line from bottom, for uranium oxide 1 1}, 13, &e. read uranium oxide 13, 13, &e. 70, line 11, for which it accom- read which it has accom- 173, lines 5 and 7, for Major Evan Smith read Major Euan Smith. List OF PLATES, PLATES I. IL, II. Tilustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures. OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. OBJECTS. Tur Assocration contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by other institutions. Its objects are :—To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. RULES. Admission of Members and Associates. 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On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the General Com- mittee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 p.m., in their Com- mittee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present at the Meeting whose as- sistance they may particularly desire. The Sectional Committees thus con- stituted shall have power to add to their number from day to day. The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day, in the Journal of the Sectional Proceedings. Business of the Sectional Commuttees. Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to 11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association, and specified below. The business is to be conducted in the following manner :— At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to read the Report of the Organizing Committee t. The List of Communications to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally appointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in the Journal. On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days, the read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, of a length suitable for in- sertion in the published Transactions of the Association, and that he should send it, toge- ther with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or before .. ....+-....seeeeeeeeesees , addressed thus—“ General Secretaries, British Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section ....... ” Tf it should be inconvenient to the Author that his Paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. + * Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. + This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXl Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as possible to the Printers, who are charged with printing the same before 8 a.m. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of each Section should call at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening. Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of the Committee. Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec- tional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary. The Vice- Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xix), and will receive, on ap- plication to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling them to attend its Meetings. The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the communi- cations made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Committees for the exe- eution of such Reports or researches ; and to state whether, and to what de- gree, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to Government, Philosophical Insti- tutions, or Local Authorities. In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and one of them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business. Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assistance they may require. The recommendations adopted by the Committces of Sections are to be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary for pre- sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association. N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the General Committee. Notices Regarding Grants of Money. Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches in Science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the Association a Report ofthe progress which has been made ; and the Individual or the Member first named of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must (pre- viously to the next meeting of the Association) forward to the General XX ' RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which haye been expended, and the balance which remains disposable on each grant. Grants of money sanctioned at any one meeting of the Association expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by the General Committee. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the British Association without special permission from the General Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance with the rules of the Association. In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled to eall on the Treasurer, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, S.W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be required. In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the members. Tn all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Association are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scientific inquiries for the Association. Business of the Sections. The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from 10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Assocration. At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communica- tions, in the order previously made public, be commenced. At 3 p.m. the Sections will close. Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications de- livered in may render such divisions desirable. A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author. Duties of the Doorkeepers. 1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are ap- pointed during the whole time for which they are engaged. 2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the exhibi- tion of a Member's, Associate’s or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s Ticket signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the Assistant General Secretary. 3.—Persons unproyvided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room. _No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the Asso- ciation whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXiil Duties of the Messengers. To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, during the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on mes- sages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms. Committee of Recommendations. The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Researches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations. Local Committees. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. Officers. A President, two or more Vice- Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. Council. In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be ma- naged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. Papers and Communications. The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. Accounts. 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ESTE OS WA COTT SCW ‘OME rssajorg S'U'd ‘AGTMOUUVH JO TUS WL sie Se WA Ca “weg ‘uowesq Avry sedjeyy op diy ag “oSwwd “sad “vn ‘40782770144 piory oy, B . ; x55 “Joo=Imav] “Sata “baat oouses woDEAR | Py, 1 eee “ysuy ,solueyoary [INE ‘sarg “bsq ‘sqooue yayjogq “fqar90 zai a ‘sorts 100 ty ee spear’ Sih eae f teueevestaeses th BAB aan Fie iat fies ‘sold *Ao100g "Yd BT TMH “aA “CI ‘tadoog Asuayy Tee eee Roe are TTL OU HOF Reade “VES aL oP hice e ate ad en eees en ge I ; SW VW “Mapas ‘Jord “vow "SAT “T'O'a ‘Keptavy sossqorg | BOSD “SUA A “VIN “bsgy ‘SNINGOH WVITTIM sal4) o's: sve sia ‘'S'u'a ‘yBnosogsapuoy proy ‘Sy ‘a]StpIVO Jo je” oy “SSIYVLIYDAS TW9071 “SLN3GISAYd-35IA “SLN3GIS3Yd bso ‘staeq “q "O ‘SO “bsa *9100 J] 76 “VT ‘pOOMULA, "HH “AOU eu ‘bsg ‘weydeyg "Od *bsq Quny “H snjsndny “bsg ‘21G9N *V "VI ‘SioLad ‘WW 'N “AW SOUL ‘WI ‘Sureary ‘q 9 Jossajoig ‘STA “S'u'a “VI ‘uozBurqeg “9 *D Jossajord *y'q ‘a00s0y ‘G "H JOssajorg *bsq “WN ‘amosuny anyjIy "bsq ‘PION PPULV ‘s'O'a “Va “bsg ‘auysiqied "Cd “U '‘S'O'a “CV'IN “bsq wwuy 23.1095) ‘sod SVN “bs ‘unis ‘Ss “¢ "H "STA “CIN ‘u07sa][0y 231099 — 'S'D'a Gory “bsq ‘saapueg "A see ebsgy ‘uosuryoIq *H sour inj sisIe,6fe |p j.csecccwissss sees (Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart. 1836. Bristol ...... Dr. Roget, F.R.S. .......00 Senenese (Dr. Symonds. 1837. Liverpool ...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. «ss... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. 1838. Newcastle .../T. E. Headlam, M.D. ............ T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. 1839. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ....../Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. 1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D................ Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid. 1841. Plymouth.../P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.S. ...|\Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr, R. S. Sargent. 1842. Manchester.|Edward Holme, M.D., F.LS. ...|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent. 1843. Cork......... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.......... Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. W544 oY ork fh 504 J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ......0.008« I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. SECTION E,—PHYSIOLOGY. 1845. Cambridge (ee J. Haviland, M.D. .........|Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster. 1846.Southampton|Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......... C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent. 1847. Oxford* ss ae Ogle, M.D., F.R.S...........,Dr. Thomas IK. Chambers, W. P. Ormerod. PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D. 1850. Edinburgh |Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1855. Glasgow ...'Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ...|Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers. 1857. Dublin ...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......... 'Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern. 1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart..F.R.8.\C. G. Wheelhouse. 1859. Aberdeen ...|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S. .../Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. 1860. Oxford ...... Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S. |Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith. 1861. Manchester.|Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E....|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. 1862. Cambridge .|C. BH. Paget, M.D. ............00086+ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. 1863. Newcastle...|Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. .../Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. 1864, Bath........ Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.R.S.|J. S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. 1865. Birminghmf.|Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.|Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner, GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES, [For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxxii.] ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D. 1846, Southampton oe Pritchard .35)...csassardes sess [Dr. King. 1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. .....: — Buckley. LSABS Swansea, fh AWeee eer ieee oh ona nee G. Grant Francis. 1849. Bigmineham| .. 5. ef. se ee ees a Dr. R. G. Latham. * By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were incorporated under the name of “Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” (see p. xxxiv). he Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography, 1 Vide note on preceding page, j PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, Date and Place. ne ce ee tl Ler ett a at re ee ae ree ee SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. , Oxford . Exeter . Ipswich ... . Belfast ee eeee . Hull seeeeeeee . Liverpool... . Glasgow ... . Cheltenham . Dublin ...... . Aberdeen ... eeeeee . Manchester . . Cambridge . F Newcastle vee . Birmingham . Nottingham . Dundee...... . Norwich ... seeeee . Liverpool... . Edinburgh. . Brighton ... . Bradford ... | . Cambridge . Edinburgh . Dublin Bristol ...... Presidents. Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., Pres. R.G.S. Col. Chesney, R.A. D.C.L., E.RBS. R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., RS FE.RBS. Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B. Rey. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres. R.I.A. Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.8., E.R.S. Rear-Admiral Sir James Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., E.RS. John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........0.. Francis Galton, F.R.S............. Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., E.R.S. Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., Major-General Sir R. Rawlinson, M.P., K.C.B., F.B.S. Sir Charles Nicholson, L Bart., Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S....... \Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N., FBS. XXXVil Secretaries. R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr- Norton Shaw. R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton Shaw. ..|R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr. Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw. Dr. W. G. Blackie, R, Cull, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H. Rum- sey, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad- den, Dr. Norton Shaw. R.Cull, Francis Galton, P.O’ Callaghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas Wright. Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr. Norton Shaw. Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C. Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw. Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode. J. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr. Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright. C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield, C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson. H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt, R. M. Murchison, 'T. Wright. H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright. H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R. H. Major, Clements R. Markham, D. W. Nash, T. Wright. H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R. Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock. T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark- ham, T. Wright. SECTION E (continwed).—GEOGRAPHY. \Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.GS. Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt., K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. ... Francis Galton, F.R.S. ............ Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.... H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham, J. H. Thomas. H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert J. Mott, Clements R. Markham. Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan, J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston. H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas. H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johr ston, Cle- ments R. Markham. STATISTICAL SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—-STATISIICS, eee ee enenee Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. ......... J. E. Drinkwater. Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean. SECLION F.—STLATISTICS. |\Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......++ Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S. W. Greg, Prof. Longfield. Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp, James Heywood. XXXV1il REPORT—187 3. Date and Place. 1837. Liverpool... 1838. 1839. Newcastle... Birmingham 1820. 1841. 1842, 1843. 1844. York......... 1845. Cambridge . 1846. Southampton 1847. Oxford Glasgow Plymouth... Manchester . ser teneee teens 1848. Swansea . 1849, Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh .. 1851. Ipswich 1852. Belfast ...... 1853. Hull ......... 1854, Liverpool ... 1855, Glasgow ..... \Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. .... Presidents. Rt. Hon: Lord Sandon wee neeeeeeee Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ....seseeeee Henry Hallam, F.RS. ............ ...(Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, F.R.S., M ale? Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. ......... G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S8. Rt. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam... G: BR: Porter; FURS. isc. .sisaasiess Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... ..|J. H. Vivian, M.P., PRS. is... Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton ...,..... Very Rev. Dr. John Lee, V.P.R.S.E. Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...... Dublin. James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.... Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ........000- R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...... His Grace the Archbishop of) Secretaries. W.R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C. Tayler. W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood. F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C. Tayler. C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W. Rawson. ; Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R. . Rawson. Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr. W. C. Tayler. ../Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock, J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D. J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott. Rey. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G. P. Neison. J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede. Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F, G. P. Neison. Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J. Stark. J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock. Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James MacAdam, Jun. : Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch. E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H. Duncan, W. Newmarch. A J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New- march, Prof. R. H. Walsh. SECTION F (continued).—-ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, 1856. Cheltenham |Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. ... 1857. Dublin ......JHis Grace the Archbishop of 1858. Leeds......... 1859. Aberdeen 1860. Oxford ...... 1861, Manchester 1862. Cambridge... 1863. Newcastle ... USO4 Bathisccass: 1865. Birmingham 1866. Nottingham 1867, Dundee...... 1868, Norwich ... Dublin, M.R.LA. Edward Baines ...sccsesesessee Wee =+.|COL Sykes, IPs WSRN. ..ssesssseresnosse COMO EO £1241 7 0 | Vertical AtmosphericMovements 13 0 0 - | Dredging Shetland ............... 50 0 0 chap Shar ee Dredging North-east coast of Maintaining the Establishment Scotland s..2sssiviasassachaecomee 25 0 0 of Kew Observatory asanasae sens 500 0 0 Dredging Northumberland and Earthquake Experiments......... 25 0 0 Durham: ..<..-scieueseeses eheeeee 17 310 Dredging North and East Coasts Dredging Committee superin- of Scotland.......+++++. sevsreeeeee 23 0 0 LEndeNCEss.se50.-s0smenveoreecevane 10 0 0 Dredging Committee :— Steamship Performance «.......- 100 0 0 1860 ...... £50 0 0 72 0 © | Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 1861 ...... £22 0 0 Carbon under pressure..... .....- 10 0 0 Excavations at Dura Den......... 20 0 0 | Volcanic Temperature ..........- 100 0 0 Solubility Of SaltS/cocssestencsewecne 20 0 0 Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 00 Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0 | Rectrical Standards............0. 100 0 0 Fossils of Lesmahago sites Senerey lO. I0 Construction and distribu- Explorations at Uriconium ...... 20 0 0 (10) | PRR RC OSE arena acter or: 40 0 0 Chemical Alloys ...++++..sesssee0s 20 0 0 | Luminous Meteors ....... s+ 17 0 0 Classified Index to the Transac- Kew Additional Buildings for tions coetecesseecasccecesccocerece 100 0 0 Photoheliograph GS a 100 0 0 Dredging in the Mersey and Dee = =5 0 0 | Thermo-Electricity ...... soins 15 0 0 Dip Circle teseeerseeeteneeeenes seeeeee 30 0 0 Analysis of Rocks’ 2.3. foe 8 00 phe tsheligpraphic(Observations 2°s0 se al biydrbitial oxy, 10 0 0 Prison Diet ..... scaswessacupcconste 20 0 0 ; £16083 10 Gauging of Water.......... cebionate: 10 0 0 Alpine Ascents ...... Sedessndsesescst OMEOMEEL 1864. Constituents of Manures ......... 25 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment £1111 5 10 of Kew Observatory........... - 600 0 0 Coal Fossils .. .......-cecccsceses ~ 20°°0, 0 Be nC, 1862. Vertical Se Move- Maintaining the Establishment tls) ( baobeacnarbadoscricaciioc: were 20 0 0 of Kew Observatory sesseceeeeee 500 0 0 Dredging Shetland ............ Eee a) Patent Waws) sen cnscseosseness ose 21 6 0 Dredging Northumberland ... 2 0 0 Mollusca of N.-W. America... 10 0 © | Balloon Committee .......0+.0000 / 200 0 0 Natural History by Mercantile Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0 Marine AGUDS rteeeeeeeeneeeeees conc 5 0 0 | Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0 Tidal Observations ...........06 eae) Or 10 Analysis of ROCKS...........000+000 10 0 0 Elotohebometer at Kew), /-sr-, » 40 0 0 | Pydroida .......sss-cece0e coke ee EO Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0 | Aciham’s Gift ....c0cccceeeecee Mi, 50 0 0 Rocks of Donegal ............+00+ 25 0 0 | Nitrite of Kinyle: ¢c8 tee 10 0 0 Dredging Durham and North- Nomenclature Committee ...... 5 0 O umberland spon bo Sescoohbaocteds 25 0 0 Rain-Gauges .....-...010+ cesses 2 SEO STS! 8 Connexion Of Storms.....:s.:0es+-- 20 0 0 Cast-Iron Investigation ......... 20 0 0 vet ARE ES Doe gt Soc Tidal Observations inthe Humber 50 0 0 Scotland......... eeececcesencecs eee 6 9 6 Spectral RAYS: cusissesse ceo 45 0 0 Besse 8 Gh De ted ee sesveeee 3 11 0 | Tuminous Meteors .........0 20 0 0 Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 0 0 Gnas Railway Accidents .............66 10 0 0 £1289 15 8 Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 1865. Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment Dredging tht Mersey ............ 5 0 0 of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 rigguy Det « is. sascsestacneceat «asakcc 20 0 0 | Balloon Committee ............+- 100 0 9 Gauging of Water.................. 12-10, 30) |, Hydroida’ .....c.wex.crensttex seen 13 0 0 Rain-Gauges ..... cscssseeseereeees GENERAL STATEMENT. Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 6 Hexylic Compounds..............+ 20 Amy! Compounds............0.+06 20 MIND EIOUA "“iscssssessesccccecescnee 25 American Mollusca .......+..-.++- 3 Organic Acids ...........:0seeseee 20 Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 10 Eurypterus .........+ssse0s cements 50 Electrical Standards............... 100 Malta Caves Researches ......... 30 Oyster Breeding ..............-+-+ 25 Gibraltar Caves Researches...... 150 Kent’s Hole Excavations........- 100 Moon’s Surface Observations ... 35 Marine Fauna ..........2.cseeeee 25 Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25 Dredging Channel Islands . 50 Zoological Nomenclature......... 5 Resistance of Floating Bodies in i) eccoocoocooocoooocooocooowoseonos coo cooocoososeeecooooco® MMGEL Seatseccsdcasacerecsessceses 100 Bath Waters Analysis ............ 8 10 Luminous Meteors .............-. 40 0 £1591 7 10 1866. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory............ 6600 0 0 Lunar Committee............+.00+. 6413 4 Balloon Committee ............0+ 50 0 0 Metrical Committee..........0.++. 50 0 0 British Rainfall................+..+- 50 0 0 Kilkenny Coal Fields ............ 16 0 0 Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15 0 0 Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0 Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 0 Chemical Constitution of Cast MRONW I. ..cccessszsissaiesssccsscess 50 0 0 Amy] Compounds...............++ 25 0 0 Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 0 Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 0 Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and Cornwall .....0...ccesssseeseevee 25 0 0 Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 0 Dredging Hebrides Coast......... 50 0 0 Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 6 0 Resistance of Floating Bodies in \Etier: SipeePhideae eeesepeno avert. 50 0 0 Polycyanides of Organic. Radi- AIRAD SA wc vaccwnccacovdesctecssceve 20 0 0 Rigor Mortis..............seeeeeeeee 10 0 0 Trish Annelida ............se0seeee 15 0 0 Catalogue of Crania..............- 50 0 0 Didine Birds of Mascarene Islands 50 0 0 Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 0 Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 0 £1750 13 4 1867. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Gbservatory.........+++ 600 0 0 Meteorological Instruments, Pa- PEM E lace ieneccnssitasccscsaswss: ¢ 50 0 0 Lunar Committee............+ . 120 0 0 £ Metrical Committee............ w. 30 Kent’s Hole Explorations ...,.. 100 Palestine Explorations...... coosee 90 Insect Fauna, Palestine 30 British Rainfall.............. eee 50 Kilkenny Coal Fields ....... ausae 28 Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 25 Luminous Meteors .............++ 50 Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds... 30 Dredging Shetland ............++ 75 Steamship Reports Condensation 100 Electrical Standards............... 100 Ethyle and Methyle series ...... 25 ’ Fossil Crustacea .......0-eeeseeees 25 Sound under Water .............65 24 North Greenland Fauna ......... 75 Do. Plant Beds ... 100 Iron and Steel Manufacture Patent Laws 25 xvii mpilocoonoocoooooosooscoo” cloceocooooooscooooocooS 1868. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory...........- 600 Lunar Committee.................. 120 Metrical Committee.............-- 50 Zoological Record ............++5 100 Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 Steamship Performances......... 100 British Rainfall ..........c.02.00 50 Luminous Meteors .........00008 - 50 Organic ACIS ........-.sseseeeeeee 60 Fossil Crustacea ...... speaduamesna 25 Methyliseries, -...2..5.ese-cwowse 25 Mercury and Bile................++ 25 Organic remains in Limestone IROCKSN “v/aceoanscunasonsns ee eeegoas 25 Scottish Earthquakes ............ 20 Fauna, Devon and Cornwall ... 30 British Fossil Corals............--- 50 Bagshot Leaf-beds ..........00006 50 Greenland Explorations ......... Fossil Flora Tidal Observations ..........0000. 100 Underground Temperature ...... 90 Spectroscopic investigations of Animal Substances ...........- 5 Secondary Reptiles, &c. ......... 30 British Marine Invertebrate PAQUNA Te spesecssadeseccuancctcas re: 100 £1940 1869. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory...........- 600 Lunar Committee...... easceracsace 50 Metrical Committee............... 25 Zoological Record...........-...++ 100 Committee on Gases in Deep- well Water «.... ssstpausessaen 25 British Rainfall.................0008 50 Thermal Conductivity of Iron, (ER aera Rom mtcacacr Merely ae 30 Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 Steamship Performances......... 30 i — en —— en — i — i — i — i — er — ooo oo o°oo°o — i) oo cocoocosooo cooocecoeococece ooo coco o°o°° Ixviii cose Chemical Constitution of Cast THOM VS, otessecessveeceaevessde et O80 > OVO Tron and Steel Manufacture ... 100 0 0 Methyl Series .........005 e-eeeees 30 0 0 Organic remains in Limestone RO CKBE:. ..citecewenste-= cv ecrereees 10 0 0 Earthquakes in Scotland......... 19 0 0 British Fossil Corals ........... . 50 0 0 Bagshot Leaf-Beds ....+..s00+0+0 30 0 0 Fossil Flora .ss..ssssessssseceeerere 29 0 0 Tidal Observations .......se0...+++ 100 0 0 Underground Temperature ...... 30 0 0 Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ...... steve oe (0250 Organic ACidS .....sseeereeeeee Lon 12 ONO Kiltorcan Fossils ......0.....02++00 20 0 0 Chemical Constitution and Phy- siological Action Relations ... 15 0 0 Mountain Limestone Fossils ...... 25 0 0 Utilization of Sewage ............ 10 0 O Products of Digestion ............ 10 0 0 £1622 0 0 i 1870. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory .....+++. Hert 600 Metrical Committee........ss0000. 25 Zoological Record «..+++..++. .-e 100 Committee on Marine Fauna... 20 Ears in Fishes .......+-0+0+-++ UA ae Chemical nature of Cast Iron. .. 80 Luminous Meteors .......e00008 30 Heat in the Blood ........000- 15 British Rainfall...... eEEENaetewneead Thermal Conductivity of Tron &e. British Fossil Corals.......... aeeee Kent’s Hole Explorations Scottish Earthquakes .......0. 4 Bagshot Leaf-Beds .....0...000-. 15 Fossil Flora ....... Scantenecteseeit 25 Tidal Observations .,...-....++... 100 Underground Temperature...... 50 Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ...... 20 Mountain Limestone Fossils ... 25 Utilization of Sewage ......... «. §=50 Organic Chemical Compounds... 30 Onny River Sediment ............ 3 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 50 £1572 1871. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ...........000s 600 0 0 Monthly Reports of Poeane in Chemistry .... catssasspeecen OO 2010 Metrical Committee. S-pacd SS Aas 25 0 0 Zoological Record...... Seep ane 100 0 0 Thermal Equivalents of the Qxides of Chlorine ............ 10 0 0 Tidal Observations ......... an ae 100 0 0 OMPLULIOLA sores scsvoasteceocss.c ee ie A) eoljoceceooococeoceocoececeocoeocoe oloocooooooooococecoeocooecoe REPORT—1873. £ 8. d. Luminous Meteors .....:e0:00 30 0 0 British Fossil Corals......c0000... 20 9 O Heat in the Blood ............ 4 2 6 British Rainfall...... Saneaene socnses, Oe Oe Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0 Fossil Crustacea ...se0.ss008 20 0 0 Methyl Compounds ............... 25 0 0 Lunar Objects .......... ore Alain) Fossil Corals Sections, for Pho- tographing..........ceeeees na88b spayed ini Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........... srbaiyy 20e4 OueO Moab Explorations ......... «- 100 0 0 Gaussian Constants .........+.-0 40 0 0 £1472 2 6 1872. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ...... papas 300 0 0 Metrical Committee............+++ 75 0 0 Zoological Record..........0.+++++- 100 0 0 Tidal Committee .................. 200 0 0 Carboniferous Corals ............ 25 0 0 Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0 Exploration of Moab ............ 100 0 0 Terato-Embryological Inquiries 10 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration...... 100 0 0 Luminous Meteors ............4.+ 20 0 0 Heat in the Blood ...........-.«. 15 0 0 Fossil Crustacea .......se0ssseee0e 25 0 0 Fossil Elephants of Malta ...... 25 0 0 Lunar Objects ..........ssceseseeee 20 0 0 Inverse Wave-Lengths ...........- 20 0 0 British Rainfall..................06 100 0 0 Poisonous Substances Antago- MISHAPS. .-t...:-00-seapnea eyes coesss 10)..0.. 0 Essential Oils, Chemical Consti- tition s KC... .ce.cecsascccsacesuaee 40 0 0 Mathematical Tables ............ 50 0 0 Thermal Conductivity of Metals 25 0 0 £1285 0 0 1873. Zoological Record..........s000... 100 0 0 Chemistry Record,.......s++se00. 200 0 0 Tidal Committee ...... secssecsesen 400) 100 Sewage Committee ........... -.. 100 0 0 Kent’s Cavern Exploration ...... 150 0 0 Carboniferous Corals ............ 25 0 0 Fossil Elephants .................. 25 0 0 Wave-Lengths ....ccccrccecocseeeee 150 O O British Rainfall...... cecaceuesiee co 100 0 0 Essential Oils .o.sessecerseseerers 30 0 0 Mathematical Tables ......... -» 100 0 0 Gaussian Constants .......... ocsse LO EOMHO Sub-Wealden Explorations ...... 25 0 0 Underground Temperature ..... - 150 0 0 Settle Cave Exploration ......... 50 0 0 Fossil Flora, Ireland.............0+ 20 0 0 Timber Denudation and Rainfall 20 0 0 Luminous Meteors ............-- 30 0 0 £1685 0 0 a _ GENERAL MEETINGS. lxix General Meetings. On Wednesday Evening, September 17, at 8 p.m., in St. George’s Hall, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, LL.D., F.R.S., President, resigned the office of President to Professor Alexander W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page Ixx. On Thursday Evening, September 18, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in St. George’s Hall. On Friday Evening, September 19, at 8.30 p.m., in St. George’s Hall, Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “Coal and Coal Plants.” On Saturday Evening, at 8 p.m., in St. George’s Hall, Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “Fuel” to the Operative Classes of Bradford. On Monday Evening, September 22, at 8.30 p.m., in St. George’s Hall, Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “ Molecules.” On Tuesday Evening, September 23, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Mechanic’s Institute. On Wednesday, September 24, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members. The Meeting was then adjourned to Belfast *. * The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 19, 1874. 1873. | f ADD RE SS OF ALEXANDER W. WILLIAMSON, Pu.D., F.BS., PRESIDENT. LapIEs AND GENTLEMEN,— Instead of rising to address you on this occasion I had hoped to sit quietly amongst you, and to enjoy the intellectual treat of listening to the words of aman of whom England may well be proud—a man whose life has been spent in reading the great book of nature, for the purpose of enriching his fellow men with a knowledge of its truths—a man whose name is known and honoured in every corner of this planet to which a knowledge of science has penetrated—and, let me add, a man whose name will live in the grateful memory of mankind as long as the records of such noble work are preserved. At the last Meeting of the Association I had the pleasure of proposing that Dr. Joule be elected President for the Bradford Meeting, and our Council succeeded in overcoming his reluctance and in persuading him to accept that office. Nobly would Joule have discharged the duties of President had his bodily health been equal to the task; but it became apparent after a while that he could not rely upon sufficient strength to justify him in performing the duties of the Chair, and, in obedience to the orders of his physician, he placed his resignation in the hands of the Council about two months ago. When, under these circumstances, the Council did me the great honour of asking me to accept their nomination to the Presidentship, I felt that their request ought to have with me the weight of a command. For a good many years past Chemistry has been growing at a more and more rapid rate, growing in the number and variety of facts which are added to its domain, and not less remarkably in the clearness and consistency of the ideas by which these facts are explained and systematized. The current literature of chemical research extends each year to the dimensions of a small library ; and mere brief abstracts of the original papers published annually by the Chemical Society, partly aided by a grant from this Association, take up the chief part of a very stout volume. I could not, if I would, give you to-night even an outline of the chief newly discovered compounds and of the various changes which they undergo, describing each of them by its own name (often a very long one) and recording the specific properties which give to each substance its highest scientific interest. But I am sure that you ADDRESS. xxi would not wish me to do so if I could; for we do not meet here to study chemistry ; I conceive that we meet here for the purpose of considering what this wondrous activity in our science means, what is the use of it, and, true to our object as embodied in the name of this Association, to consider what we can do to promote the Advancement of Science. I propose to lay before you some facts bearing on each of these questions, and to submit to you some considerations respecting them. In order to ascertain the meaning of the work which has been going on in chemistry, it will, I think, be desirable for us to consider the leading ideas which have been in the minds of chemists, and which guided their operations. Now, since the father of modern chemistry, the great Dalton, gave to che- mists a firm hold of the idea of Atoms, their labours have been continually guided by that fundamental idea, and have confirmed it by a knowledge of more and more facts, while at the same time steadily adding to our know- ledge of the properties of atoms. Every chemist who is investigating a new compound takes for granted that it must consist of a great number of atom- clusters (called by him molecules), all of them alike, and each molecule con- sisting of a certain number of atoms of at least. two kinds. One of his first endeavours is to ascertain how many atoms of each kind there are in each molecule of the compound. I must not attempt to describe to you the various kinds of experiment which he performs for the purpose of getting this infor- mation, how each experiment is carried out with the aid of delicate instru- ments and ingenious contrivances found by long experience to enable him to obtain the most trustworthy and accurate results; but I want to draw your attention to the reasoning by which he judges of the value of such experi- ments when they agree among themselves, and to the meaning which he at- taches to their result. If the result of his experiments does not nearly agree with any atomic for- mula (that is, if no conceivable cluster of atoms of the kinds known to be in the compound would on analysis give such results as those obtained), the chemist feels sure that his experiments must have been faulty: either the sample of substance which he worked upon contained foreign matter, or his analyses were not made with due care. He sets to work again, and goes on till he arrives at a result which is consistent with his knowledge of the com- bining-properties of atoms. It is hardly necessary to say that even the best experiment is liable to error, and that even a result obtained with the utmost care cannot be expected to afford more than an approximation to the truth. Every good analysis of a pure compound leads to results which approximate to those required by the Atomic Theory; and chemists trust so thoroughly to the truth of that guide, that they correct the results of such analysis by the aid of it. The chemical idea of atoms serves for two purposes :— 1. It gives a clear and consistent explanation of an immense number of facts discovered by experiment, and enables us to compare them with one another and to classify them. 2. It leads to the anticipation of new facts, by suggesting new compounds which may be made; at the same time it teaches us that no compounds _¢an exist with their constituents in any other than atomic proportions, and that experiments which imply the existence of any such compounds are ; faulty. We have the testimony of the great Berzelius to the flood of light which the _ idea of atoms at once threw on the facts respecting combining proportions which had been accumulated before it was made known ; and from that time ‘ha Ixxil REPORT—1873. forward its value has rapidly increased as each succeeding year augmented the number of facts which it explained. Allow me at this point of my narrative to pause for a moment in order to pay a tribute of respect and gratitude to the memory of one who has recently passed from among us, and who in the time of his full activity was a leader of the discoveries of new facts in the most difficult part of our science. Liebig has been generally known in this country through his writings on agricultural chemistry, through his justly popular letters on chemistry, and other writings, by means of which his brilliant intellect and ardent imagination stimulated men to think and to work. Among chemists he was famed for his numerous discoveries of new organic compounds, and their investigation by the aid of improved methods ; but I believe that the greatest service which his genius rendered to science was the establishment of the chemical school of Giessen, the prototype of the numerous chemical schools for which Germany is now so justly celebrated. I think it is not too much to say that the Giessen laboratory, as it existed some thirty years ago, was the most efficient organization for the promotion of chemistry which had ever existed. Picture to yourselves a little community of which each member was fired with enthusiasm for learning by the genius of the great master, and of which the best energies were concentrated on the one object of experimental inyes- tigation. The students were for the most part men who had gone through a full curriculum of ordinary studies at some other University, and who were attracted from various parts of the world by the fame of this school of research. Most of the leading workers of the next generation were pupils of Liebig; and many of them have established similar schools of research. We must not, however, overlook the fact that Liebig’s genius and enthusiasm would have been powerless in doing this admirable work, had not the rulers of his Grand-Duchy been enlightened enough to know that it was their duty to supply him with the material aids requisite for its successful accomplishment. Numberless new compounds have been discovered under the guidance of the idea of atoms; and in proportion as our knowledge of substances and of their properties became more extensive, and our view of their characteristics more accurate and general, were we able to perceive the outlines of their natural arrangement, and to recognize the distinctive characteristics of various classes of substances. I wish I could have the pleasure of describing to you the origin and nature of some of these admirable discoveries, such as homologous series, types, radicals, &c. ; but itis more to our purpose to consider the effect which they have had upon the idea of atoms, an idea which, still in its infancy, was plunged into the intellectual turmoil arising from a variety of novel and original theories suggested respectively by independent workers as best suited for the explanation of the particular phenomena to which their attention was mainly directed. Each of these workers was inclined to attach quite sufficient importance to his own new idea, and to sacrifice for its sake any other one capable of inter- fering with its due development. The father of the atomic theory was no more; and the little infant had no chance of life, unless from its own sterling merits it were found useful in the work still going on. What then was the result? Did it perish like an ephemeral creation of human fancy? or did it survive and gain strength by the inquiries of those who questioned Nature and knew how to read her answers? ADDRESS. Ixxill Although anticipating my answer to these questions, you will probably be surprised to hear the actual result which I have to record, a result so won- derful that the more I think of it the more I marvel at it. Not only did these various theories contain nothing at variance with the atomic theory ; they were found tu be natural and necessary developments of it, and to serve for its application to a variety of phenomena which were unknown to its founder. Among the improvements of our knowledge of atoms which have taken place, I ought to mention the better evaluations of the relative weight of atoms of different kinds, which have been made since Dalton’s time. More accurate experiments than those which were then on record have shown us that certain atoms are a little heavier or lighter than was then believed, and the work of perfecting our observations is constantly going on with the aid of better instruments and methods of operation. But, apart from these special corrections, a more sweeping change has taken place, not in consequence of more accurate experiments interpreted in the usual way, but in consequence of a more comprehensive view of the best experi- mental results which had been obtained, and a more consistent interpreta- tion of them. Thus the atomic weight of carbon had been fixed at 6 by Dumas’s admirable experiments; and it was quite conceivable that a still more perfect determination might slightly increase or diminish this number. But those who introduced the more sweeping change asserted in substance that two of these supposed atoms, whatever may be the precise weight of each, always are together and never separate from ‘one another; and they accordingly applied the term atom to that indivisible mass of carbon weighing twice as much as a carbon atom had been supposed to weigh. So also with regard to other elements, it has been shown that many atoms are really twice as heavy as had been supposed, according to the original interpretation of the best experiments. This change was brought about by what I may be permitted to call the operation of stock-taking. Dalton first took stock of our quantitative facts in a business-like manner; but the amount and variety of our chemical stock increased so enormously after his time, that the second stock-taking absorbed the labours of several men for a good many years. They were men of different countries and very various turns of mind; but, as I mentioned just now, they found no other fundamental idea to work with than Dalton’s; and the result of their labours has been to confirm the truth of that idea and to extend greatly its application. One of the results of our endeavours to classify substances according to their natural resemblances has been the discovery of distinct family relationships among atoms, each family being distinguished by definite characteristics. Now, among the properties which thus characterize particular families of atoms, there is one of which the knowledge gradually worked out by the labours of an immense number of investigators must be admitted to consti- tute one of the most important additions ever made to our knowledge of these little masses. I will endeavour to explain it to you by a simple example. An atom of chlorine is able to combine with one atom of hydrogen or one atom of potas- sium; but it cannot combine with two atoms. An atom of oxygen, on the other hand, can combine with two atoms of hydrogen or with two atoms of potassium, or with one atom of hydrogen and one of potassium; but we cannot get it in combination with one atom of hydrogen or of potassium solely. Again, an atom of nitrogen is known in combination with three atoms of hydrogen ; while an atom of carbon combines with four of hydrogen. Other lxxiv REPORT—1873. atoms are classified, from their resemblance to these respectively, as Monads, Dyads, Triads, Tetrads, &e. The combining value which we thus recognize in the atoms of these several classes has led us naturally to a consideration of the order in which atoms are arranged in a molecule. Thus, in the compound of oxygen with hydro- gen and potassium, each of these latter atoms is directly combined with the oxygen, and the atom of oxygen serves as a connecting link between them. Hydrogen and potassium have never been found capable of uniting directly with one another; but when both combined with one atom of oxygen they are in what may be called indirect combination with one another through the medium of that oxygen. One of the great difficulties of chemistry some few years ago was to ex- plain the constitution of isomeric compounds, those compounds whose mole- cules contain atoms of like kinds and in equal numbers, but which differ from one another in their properties. Thus a molecule of common ether contains four atoms of carbon, ten atoms of hydrogen, and one of oxygen. Butylic aleohol, a very different substance, has precisely the same composition. We now know that in the former the atom of oxygen is in the middle of a chain of carbon atoms, whereas in the latter it is at one end of that chain. You might fancy it impossible to decide upon any thing like consistent evi- dence such questions as this; but I can assure you that the atomic theory, as now used by chemists, leads frequently to conclusions of this kind, which are confirmed by independent observers, and command general assent. That these conclusions are, as far as they go, true descriptions of natural phe- nomena is shown by the fact that each of them serves in its turn as a step- ping-stone to further discoveries. One other extension of our knowledge of atoms I must briefly mention, one which has as yet received but little attention, yet which will, I venture to think, be found serviceable in the study of the forces which bring about chemical change. The original view of the constitution of molecules was statical; and che- mists only took cognizance of those changes of place among their atoms which result in the disappearance of the molecules employed, and the appearance of new molecules formed by their reaction on one another. Thus, when a solution of common salt (sodie chloride) is mixed with a solution of silver nitrate, it is well known that the metallic atoms in these respective com- pounds change places with one another, forming silver chloride and sodic nitrate ; for the silver chloride soon settles to the bottom of the solution in the form of an insoluble powder, while the other product remains dissolved in the liquid. But as Jong as the solution of salt remained undecomposed, each little molecule in it was supposed to be chemically at rest. A parti- cular atom of sodium which was combined with an atom of chlorine was sup- posed to remain steadily fixed to it. When this inactive solution was mixed with the similarly inactive solution of silver nitrate, the interchange of atoms known to take place between their respective molecules was nominally ex- plained by the force of predisposing affinity. It was, in fact, supposed that the properties of the new compounds existed and produced effects before the compounds themselves had been formed. I had oceasion to point out a good many years ago that molecules which appear to be chemically at rest are reacting on one another when in suitable conditions, in the same kind of way as those which are manifestly in a state of chemical change—that, for instance, the molecules of liquid sodic chloride exchange sodium atoms with one another, forming new molecules of the same —_— 2 ADDRESS. lxxv compound undistinguishable from the first, so that, in an aggregate of like molecules, the apparent atomic rest is the result of the interchange of like atoms between contiguous molecules. Such exchanges of atoms take place not only between molecules of iden- tical composition, but also between contiguous molecules containing different elements. For instance, in a mixture of sodic chloride and potassic iodide an interchange of metallic atoms takes place, forming potassic chloride and sodic iodide. The result of the exchange in such a case is to form a couple of new molecules different from the original couple. But these products are subject to the same general law of atomic exchanges, and their action on one another reproduces a couple of molecules of the materials. Thus a liquid mixture formed from two compounds, contains molecules of four kinds, which we may describe as the two materials and the two products. The materials are reacting on one another, forming the products; and these products are, in their iat reacting on one ‘atiother, reproducing the materials. If one of the products of atomic exchange between two molecules is a solid while the other remains liquid (as when sodic chloride is mixed with silver nitrate), or if one is gaseous while the other remains liquid, so that the molecules of the one kind cannot react on those of the other kind and re- produce the materials, then the continued reaction of the materials on one another leads to their complete mutual decomposition. Such complete mu- tual decomposition of two salts takes place whenever they react on one another under such conditions that the products cannot react on one another and reproduce the materials; whereas partial decomposition takes place whenever the materials form a homogeneous mixture with the products. Now, if in any such homogeneous mixture more exchanges of atoms take place between the materials than between the products, the number of mole- cules of the products is increased, because more of them are being made than unmade ; and reciprocally, if more exchanges of atoms take place between the products than between the materials, the number of molecules of the materials is increased. The mixture remains of constant composition when there are in the unit of time as many decomposing changes as reproducing changes. Suppose that we were to determine by experiment the proportion between the number of molecules of the materials, and the number of molecules of the products, in a mixture the composition of which remains constant, and that we found, for instance, twice as many of materials as of products ; what would this mean? Why, if every two couples of materials only effect in the unit of time as many exchanges as every one couple of products, every couple of materials is only exchanging half as fast as every couple of products. In fact you perceive that a determination of the proportion in which the substances are present in such a mixture will give us a measure of the rela- tive velocities of those particular atomic motions; and we may thus express our result :—The force of chemical combination is inversely proportional to the number of atomic interchanges. I cannot quit this part of our subject without alluding to the fact that some few chemists of such eminence as to be entitled to the most respectful attention, have of late years expressed an opinion that the idea of atoms is not necessary for the explanation of the changes in the chemical constitution of matter, and have sought as far as possible to exclude from their language any allusion to atoms. It would be out of place on this occasion to enter into any discussion of the questions thus raised; but I think it right to point out :— lxxvi REPORT—18738. I. That these objectors have not shown us any inconsistency in the atomic theory, nor in the conclusions to which it leads. II. That neither these nor any other philosophers have been able to ex- plain the facts of chemistry on the assumption that there are no atoms, but that matter is infinitely divisible. III. That when they interpret their analyses, these chemists allow them- selves neither more nor less latitude than the Atomic Theory allows; in fact they are unconsciously guided by it. These facts need no comment from me. Our science grows by the acquisition of new facts which have an intel- ligible place among our ideas of the order of nature; but in proportion as more and more facts are arranged before us in their natural order, in pro- portion as our view of the order of nature becomes clearer and broader, we are able to observe and describe that order more fully and more aecurately— in fact, to improve our ideas of the order of nature. These more extensive and more accurate ideas suggest new observations, and lead to the discovery of truths which would have found no place in the narrower and less accurate system. Take away from Chemistry the ideas which connect and explain the multifarious facts observed, and it is no longer a science; it is nothing more than a confused and useless heap of materials. The answer to our question respecting the meaning of the earnest work which is going on in our science must, I think, now be plain to you. Chemists are examining the combining-properties of atoms, and getting clear ideas of the constitution of matter. Admitting, then, for the present, that such is the meaning of chemical work, we have to consider the more important question of its use; and I think you will agree with me that, in order to judge soundly whether and in what manner such a pursuit is useful, we have to consider its effect upon Man. What habits of mind does it engender? What powers does it de- velope? Does it develope good and noble qualities and aspirations, and tend to make men more able and more anxious to do good to their fellow men? Or is it a mere idle amusement, bearing no permanent fruits of improvement ? You will, I think, answer these questions yourselves if I can succeed in describing to you some of the chief qualities which experience has shown to be requisite for the suecessful pursuit of Chemistry, and which are neces- sarily cultivated by those who qualify themselves for such a career. One of the first requirements on the part of an investigator is accuracy in observing the phenomena with which he deals. He must not only see the precise particulars of a process as they present themselves to his observation ; he must also observe the order in which these particular appearances present themselves under the conditions of each experiment. No less essential is accuracy of memory. An experimental inquirer must remember accurately a number of facts; and he needs to remember their mutual relations, so that one of them when present to his mind may recall those others which ought to be considered with it. In fact he cultivates the habit of remembering facts mainly by their place in nature. Accuracy in manual operations is required in all experimental inquiries; and many of them afford scope for very considerable skill and dexterity. These elementary qualities are well known to be requisite for success in experimental science, and to be developed by careful practice of its methods ; but some higher qualities are quite as necessary as these in all but the most rudimentary manipulations, and are developed in a remarkable degree by the higher work of science. ADDRESS. Ixxvil Thus it is of importance to notice that a singularly good training in the accurate use of words is afforded by experimental Chemistry. Every one who is about to enter on an inquiry, whether he be a first-year’s student who wants to find the constituents of a common salt, or whether he be the most skilled and experienced of Chemists, seeks beforehand to get such in- formation from the records of previous observations as may be most useful for his purpose. This information he obtains through the medium of words ; and any failure on his part to understand the precise meaning of the words conveying the information requisite for his guidance is liable to lead him astray. Those elementary exercises in analytical chemistry, in which brief directions to the students alternate with their experiments and their reports of experiments made and conclusions drawn, afford a singularly effective training in the habit of attending accurately to the meaning of words used by others, and of selecting words capable of conveying without ambiguity the precise meaning intended. Any inaccuracy in the student’s apprehension of the directions given, or in the selection of words to describe his obser- vations and conclusions, is at once detected, when the result to which he ought to have arrived is known beforehand to the teacher. Accuracy of reasoning is no less effectively promoted by the work of ex- perimental chemistry. It is no small facility to us that the meaning of the words which we use to denote properties of matter and operations can be learnt by actual observation. Moreover each proposition comprised in che- mical reasonings conveys some distinct statement susceptible of verification by similar means; and the validity of each conclusion can be tested, not only by examining whether or not it follows of necessity from true premisses, but also by subjecting it to the independent test of special experiment. Chemists have frequent occasion to employ arguments which indicate a probability of some truth; and the anticipations based upon them serve as guides to experimental inquiry by suggesting crucial tests. But they distin- guish most carefully such hypotheses from demonstrated facts. Thus a pale green solution, stated to contain a pure metallic salt, is found to possess some properties which belong to Salts of Iron. Nothing else pos- sesses these properties except Salts of Nickel; and they manifest a slight dif- ference from Iron Salts in one of the properties observed. The analyst could not see any appearance of that peculiarity which distin- guishes Nickel Salts; so he concludes that he has probably got Iron in his solution, brt almost certainly either Iron or Nickel. He then makes an ex- periment which will, he knows, give an entirely different result with Iron Salts and Nickel Salts; and he gets very distinctly the result which indicates Tron. Having found in the green liquid properties which the presence of Iron could alone impart, he considers it highly probable that Iron is present. But he does not stop there; for, although the facts before him seem to admit of no other interpretation, he knows that, from insufficient knowledge or attention, mistakes are sometimes made in very simple matters. The analyst therefore tries as many other experiments as are known to distinguish Iron Salts from all others; and if any one of these leads distinctly to a result at variance with his provisional conclusion, he goes over the whole inquiry again, in order to find where his mistake was. Such inquiries are practised largely by students of chemistry, in order to fix in their minds, by frequent use, a know- ledge of the fundamental properties of the common elements, in order to learn by practice the art of making experiments, and, above all, in order to acquire the habit of judging accurately of evidence in natural phenomena, 1873. g Ixxvili REPORT—1873. Such a student is often surprised at being told that it is not enough for him to conduct his experiments to such a point that every conclusion except one is contrary to the evidence before him—that he must then try every confirma- tory test which he can of the substance believed to be present, and ascertain that the sample in his hands agrees, as far as he can see, in all properties with the known substance of which he believes it to be a specimen. Those who tread the path of original inquiry, and add to human know- ledge by their experiments, are bound to practise this habit with the most scrupulous fidelity and care, or many and grave would be the mistakes they would make. Thus a Chemist thinks it probable that he might prepare some well-known organic body of the aromatic family by a new process. He sets to work and obtains a substance agreeing in appearance, in empirical composition, in molecular weight, and in many other properties with the compound which he had in view. He is, however, not satisfied that his product is a sample of that compound until he has examined carefully whether it possesses all the properties which are known to belong to the substance in question. And many a time is his caution rewarded by the discovery of some distinct dif- ference of melting-point, or of crystalline form, &c., which proves that he has made a new compound isomeric with the one which he expected to make. It seemed probable, from the agreement of the two substances in many particulars, that they might be found to agree in all, and might be considered to be the same compound; but complete proof of that conclusion consists in showing that the new substance agrees with all that we know of the old one. In the most various ways chemists seek to extend their knowledge of the uniformity of nature; and their reasonings by analogy from particulars to particulars suggest the working hypotheses which lead to new observations. Before, however, proceeding to test the truth of his hypothesis by experi- ment, the chemist passes in review, as well as he can, all the general know- ledge which has any bearing on it, in order to find agreement or disagree- ment between his hypothesis and the ideas established by past experience. Sometimes he sees that his hypothesis is at variance with some general law in which he has full confidence, and he throws it aside as disproved by that law. On other occasions he finds that it follows of necessity from some known law ; and he then proceeds to verify it by experiment, with a confident anticipation of the result. In many cases the hypothesis does not present sufficiently distinct agreement or disagreement with the ideas established by previous investigations to justify either the rejection of it or a confident belief in its truth; for it often happens that the results of experience of similar phenomena are not embodied in a sufficiently definite or trustworthy statement to have any other effect than that of giving probability or the contrary to the hypothesis. Another habit of mind which is indispensable for success in experimental chemistry, and which is taught by the practice of its various operations, is that of truthfulness. The very object of all our endeavours is to get true ideas of the natural processes of chemical action ; for in proportion as our ideas are true do they give us the power of directing these processes. In fact our ideas are useful only so far as they are true; and he must indeed be blind to interest and to duty who could wish to swerve from the path of truth. But if any one were weak enough to make the attempt, he would find his way barred by innu- merable obstacles. Eyery addition to our science is a matter of immediate interest and im- ADDRESS. lxxix portatice to those who are working in the same direction. They verify in various ways the statements of the first discoverer, and seldom fail to notice further particulars, and to correct any little errors of detail into which he may have fallen. They soon make it a stepping-stone to further disco- yeries, Any thing like wilful misrepresentation is inevitably detected and made known. It must not, however, be supposed that the investigator drifts uncon- sciously into the habit of truthfulness for want of temptation to be un- truthful, or even that error presents itself to his mind in a grotesque and repulsive garb, so as to enlist from the first his feelings against it; for I can assure you that the precise contrary of these things happens. Error comes before him usually in the very garb of truth; and his utmost skill and attention are needed to decide whether or not it is entitled to retain that garb. You will easily see how this happens if you reflect that each working hypothesis employed by an investigator is an unproven proposition, which _ bears such resemblance to truth as to give rise to hopes that it may really be true. The investigator trusts it provisionally to the extent of trying one or more experiments, of which it claims to predict the specific result. Even though it guide him correctly for a while, he considers it still on trial until it has been tested by every process which ingenuity can suggest for the pur- pose of detecting a fault. _ Most errors which an experimentalist has to do with are really imperfect _ truths, which have done good service in their time by guiding the course of discovery. The great object of scientific work is to replace these imper- fect truths by more exact and comprehensive statements of the order of ~ nature. Whoever has once got knowledge from nature herself by truthful reason- _ ing and experiment, must be dull indeed if he does not feel that he has ac- quired a new and noble power, and if he does not long to exercise it further, and make new conquests from the realm of darkness by the aid of known truths. The habit of systematically searching for truth by the aid of known truths, and of testing the validity of each step by constant reference to nature, has : now been practised for a sufficiently long time to enable us to judge of some _ of its results. Every true idea of the order of nature is an instrument of thought. It can only be obtained by truthful investigation; and it can only be used effec- tively in obedience to the same laws. But the first idea which is formed of any thing occurring in nature affords only a partial representation of the actual reality, by recording what is seen of it from a particular point of view. By examining a thing from different points of view we get different ideas of it; and when we compare these ideas accurately with one another, recollect- : ing how each one was obtained, we find that they really supplement each _ other. 4 _ We try to form in our minds a distinct image of a thing capable of pro- ~ ducing these various appearances ; and when we have succeeded in doing so, ~ We look at it from the different points of view from which the natural object had been examined, and find that the ideas so obtained meet at the central _image.. It usually happens that an accurate examination of the mutual bearings of these ideas on the central image suggests additions to them, and correction of some particulars in them. Thus it is that true ideas of a natural phenomenon confirm and strengthen g 2 ———— _——- es, * — PA m a lxxx REPORT—1873. one another; and he who aids directly the development of oneo them is sure to promote indirectly the consolidation of others. Each onward step in the search for truth has made us stronger for the work ; and when we look back upon what has been done by the efforts of so many workers simply but steadily directed by truth towards further truth, we see that they have achieved, for the benefit of the human race, the con- quest of a systematic body of truths which encourages men to similar efforts while affording them the most effectual aid and guidance. This lesson of the inherent vitality of truth, which is taught us so clearly by the history of our science, is well worthy of the consideration of those who, seeing that iniquity and falsehood so frequently triumph for a while in the struggle for existence, are inclined to take a desponding view of human affairs, and almost to despair of the ultimate predominance of truth and goodness. I believe it would be impossible at the present time to form an adequate idea of the vast consequences which will follow from the national adop- tion of systematic measures for allowing our knowledge of truth to develope itself freely, through the labours of those who are willing and able to devote themselves to its service, so as to strengthen more and more the belief and trust of mankind in its guidance, in small matters as well as in the highest and most important considerations. T am desirous of describing briefly the more important of those measures ; but first let me mention another habit of mind which naturally follows from the effective pursuit of truth,—a habit which might be described in general terms as the application to other matters of the truthfulness imparted by science. The words which the great German poet put into the mouth of Mephisto- pheles when describing himself to Faust, afford perhaps the most concise and forcible statement of what we may call the anti-scientific spirit :— ,, Ich bin der Geist der stets verneint, Dem alles, was entsteht, zuwider ist.’ The true spirit of science is certainly affirmative, not negative ; for, as I men- tioned just now, its history teaches us that the development of our knowledge usually takes place through two or more simultaneous ideas of the same phe- nomenon, quite different from one another, both of which ultimately prove to be parts of some more general truth ; so that a confident belief in one of those ideas does not involve or justify a denial of the others. I could give you many remarkable illustrations of this law from among ideas familiar to Chemists. But I want you to consider with me its bearing on the habit of mind called toleration, of which the development in modern times is perhaps one of the most hopeful indications of moral improvement in man. In working at our science we simply try to find out what is true; for although no usefulness is to be found at first in most of our results, we know well that every extension of our knowledge of truth is sure to prove useful in manifold ways. So regular an attendant is usefulness upon truth in our work, that we get accustomed to expect them always to go together, and to believe that there must be some amount of truth wherever there is manifest usefulness. hie The history of human ideas, so far as it is written in the records of the progress of science, abounds with instances of men contributing powerfully to the development of important general ideas, by their accurate and conscien- tous experiments, while at the same time professing an actual disbelief in j ADDRESS. lxxxi those ideas. Those records must indeed have been a dead letter to any one who could stand carping at the intellectual crotchets of a good and honest worker, instead of giving him all brotherly help in furtherance of his work. To one who knows the particulars of our science thoroughly, and who knows also what a variety of ideas have been resorted to in working out the whole body of truths of which the science is composed, there are few more impressive and elevating subjects of contemplation than the unity in the clear and bold outline of that noble structure. I hope that you will not suppose, from my references to Chemistry as pro- moting the development of these habits and powers of mind, that I wish to claim for that particular branch of science any exclusive merit of the kind ; for I can assure you that nothing can be further from my intention. I conceived that you would wish me to speak of that department of science which I have had occasion to study more particularly ; but much that I have said of it might be said with equal truth of other studies, while some of its merits may be claimed in a higher degree by other branches of science. On the other hand, those highest lessons which I have illustrated by chemistry are best learnt by those whose intellectual horizon includes other provinces of knowledge. Chemistry presents peculiar advantages for educational purposes in the combination of breadth and accuracy in the training which it affords ; and I am inclined to think that in this respect it is at present unequalled. There is reason to believe that it will play an important part in general education, and render valuable services to it in conjunction with other scientific and with literary studies. I trust that the facts which I have submitted to your consideration may suffice to show you how fallacious is that materialistic idea of Physical Science which represents it as leading away from the study of man’s noblest faculties, and from a sympathy with his most elevated aspirations, towards mere inani- mate matter. ‘The material work of science is directed by ideas towards the attainment of further ideas. ach step in science is an addition to our ideas, or an improvement of them. A science is but a body of ideas respecting the order of nature. Each idea which forms part of Physical Science has been derived from ob- servation of nature, and has been tested again and again in the most various ways by reference to nature; but this very soundness of our materials enables us to raise upon the rock of truth a loftier structure of ideas than could be erected on any other foundation by the aid of uncertain ma- terials. The study of science is the study of man’s most accurate and perfect intel- — lectual labours; and he who would know the powers of the human mind must go to science for his materials. Like other powers of the mind, the imagination is powerfully exercised, and at the same time disciplined, by scientific work. Every investigator has frequent occasion to call forth in his mind a distinct image of something in nature which could produce the appearances which he witnesses, or to frame & proposition embodying some observed relation; and in each case the image or the proposition is required to be true to the materials from which it is formed. There is perhaps no more perfect elementary illustration of the ac- curate and useful employment of the imagination than the process of forming in the language of symbols, from concrete data, one of thcse admirable general propositions called equations ; on the other hand, the contemplation of the order and harmony of nature as disclosed to us by science supplies the Ixxxii REPORT—1873. imagination with materials of surpassing grandeur and brilliancy, while at the same time affording the widest scope for its efforts. The foregoing considerations respecting the meaning and use of scientific work will, I trust, afford us aid in considering what measures ought to be taken in order to promote its advancement, and what we can do to further the adoption of such measures. Like any other natural phenomenon, the growth of knowledge in the human mind is favoured and promoted by certain circumstances, impeded or arrested by others ; and it is for us to ascertain from experience what those circumstances respectively are, and how the favourable ones can be best com- bined to the exclusion of the others. The best and noblest things in this world are the result of gradual growth, by the free action of natural forces ; and the proper function of legislation is to systematize the conditions most favourable to the free action which is desired. I shall consider the words “‘ Advancement of Science” as referring to the development and extension of our systematic knowledge of natural phenomena by investigation and research. The first thing wanted for the work of advancing science is a supply of well-qualified workers. The second thing is to place and keep them under the conditions most favourable to their efficient activity. The mest suitable men must be found while still young, and trained to the work. Now I know only one really effectual way of finding the youths who are best endowed by nature for the purpose; and that is to systematize and develope the natural conditions which accidentally concur in particular cases, and enable youths to rise from the crowd. The first of these is that a young man gets a desire for knowledge by seeing the value and beauty of some which he has acquired. When he has got this desire, he exerts himself to increase his store ; and every difficulty surmounted increases his love of the pursuit, and strengthens his determination to go on. His exertions are seen by some more experienced man, who helps him to place himself under circumstances favourable to further progress. He then has opportunities of seeing original inquiries conducted, perhaps even of aid- ing in them ; and he longs to prove that he also can work out new truths, and make some permanent addition to human knowledge. If his circumstances enable him to prosecute such work, and he succeeds in making some new ob- servations worthy of publication, he is at once known by them to the com- munity of scientific men, and employed among them. We want, then, a system which shall give to the young favourable oppor- tunities of acquiring a clear and, as far as it goes, a thorough knowledge of some few truths of nature such as they can understand and enjoy—which shall afford opportunity of further and further instruction to those who have best profited by that which has been given to them, and are anxious to obtain more—which shall enable the best students to see what original investigation is, and, if possible, to assist in carrying out some research—and, finally, which shall supply to each student who has the power and the will to conduct researches, all material conditions which are requisite for the purpose. But investigators, once found, ought to be placed in the circumstances most favourable to their efficient activity. The first and most fundamental condition for this is, that their desire for the acquisition of knowledge be kept alive and fostered. They must not merely retain the hold which they have acquired on the general body of their ADDRESS, Ixxxili science ; they ought to strengthen and extend that hold, by acquiring a more complete and accurate knowledge of its doctrines and methods ; in a word, they ought to be more thorough students than during their state of preli- minary training. They must be able to live by their work, without diverting any of their energies to other pursuits ; and they must feel security against want, in the event of illness or in their old age. They must be supplied with intelligent and trained assistants to aid in the conduct of their researches, and whatever buildings, apparatus, and ma- terials may be required for conducting those researches effectively. The desired system must therefore provide arrangements favourable to the maintenance and development of the true student-spirit in investigators, while proyiding them with permanent means of subsistence, sufficient to enable them to feel secure and tranquil in working at science alone, yet not sufficient to neutralize their motives for exertion ; and at the same time it must give them all external aids, in proportion to their wants and powers of making good use of them. ' Now I propose to describe the outline of such a system, framed for the sole purpose of promoting research, and then to consider what other results would follow from its working. If it should appear possible to establish a system for the efficient advance- ment of science, which would be productive of direct good to the community in other important ways, I think you will agree with me that we ought to do all that we can to promote its adoption. Let the most intelligent and studious children from every primary school be sent, free of expense, to the most accessible secondary school for one year ; let the best of these be selected and allowed to continue for a second year, and so on, until the élite of them have learnt all that is to be there learnt to advantage. Let the best pupils from the secondary schools be sent to a col- lege of their own selection, and there subjected toa similar process of annual weeding ; and, finally, let those who get satisfactorily to the end of a college curriculum be supplied with an allowance sufficient for their maintenance for a year, on condition of their devoting their undivided energies to research, under the inspection of competent college authorities, while allowed such aids and facilities as the college can supply, with the addition of money-grants for special purposes. Let all who do well during this first year be allowed similar advantages for a second, and even a third year. Each young investigator thus trained must exert himself to obtain some appointment, which may enable him to do the most useful and creditable work of which he is capable, while combining the conditions most favourable to his own improvement. Let there be in every college as many Professorships and Assistantships in each branch of science as are needed for the efficient conduct of the work there going on, and let every Professor and Assistant have such salary and such funds for apparatus &c. as may enable him to deyote all his powers to the duties of his post, under conditions favourable to the success of those duties ; but let each Professor receive also a proportion of the fees paid by his pupils, so that it may be his direct interest to do his work with the utmost attainable efficiency, and attract more pupils. Let every college and school be governed by an independent body of men, striving to increase its usefulness and reputation, by sympathy with the labours of the working staff, by material aid to them when needed, and by getting the very best man they can, from their own or any other college, to supply each vacancy as it arises. Ixxxiv REPORT—-1878. In addition to colleges, which are and always have been the chief institu- tions for the advancement of learning, establishments for the observation of special phenomena are frequently needed, and will doubtless be found de- sirable in aid of a general system for the advancement of science. Now, if a system fulfilling the conditions which I have thus briefly sketched out were once properly established on a sufficient scale, it ought to develop and improve itself by the very process of its working; and it behoves us, in judging of the system, to consider how such development and improvement would come about. The thing most needed at the present time for the advancement of science is a supply of teachers devoted to that object—men so earnestly striving for more knowledge and better knowledge as to be model students, stimulating and encouraging those around them by their example as much as by their teaching. Young men do not prepare themselves in any numbers for such a career :— I. Because the chief influences which surround them at school and at college are not calculated to awaken in them a desire to obtain excellence of such kind. II. Because they could not expect by means of such qualities to reach a position which would afford a competent subsistence. Let these conditions be reversed, to the extent that existing teachers have powerful inducements to make their students love the study of science for its own sake, with just confidence that they will be able to earn a livelihood if they succeed in qualifying themselves to advance science, and the whole thing is changed. The first batch of young investigators will be dispersed among schools and colleges according to their powers and acquirements, and will at once improve their influence upon the pupils, and enable them to send up a second batch better trained than the first. This improvement will go on increasing, if the natural forces which promote it are allowed free play ; and the youth of each successive generation will have better and more fre- quent opportunities of awakening to a love of learning, better help and guidance in their efforts to acquire and use the glorious inheritance of know- ledge which had been left them, better and more numerous living examples of men devoting their whole lives to the extension of the domain of truth, and seeking their highest reward in the consciousness that their exertions have benefited their fellow men, and are appreciated by them. A young man who is. duly qualified for the work of teaching the investi- gation of some particular branch of science, and who wishes to devote him- self to it, will become a member of an association of men selected for their known devotion to learning, and for their ability to teach the methods of investigation in their respective subjects. Around this central group is arranged a frequently changing body of youths, who trust to them for en- couragement and guidance in their respective studies. Our young investigator finds it necessary to study again more carefully many parts of his subject, and to examine accurately the evidence of various conclusions which he had formerly adopted, in order that he may be able to lead the minds of his pupils by easy and natural yet secure steps to the dis- covery of the general truths which are within their reach. He goes over his branch of science again and again from the foundation upwards, striving cach time to present its essential particulars more clearly and more forcibly, arranging them in the order best calculated to stimulate an inquiring mind to reflect upon their meaning, and to direct its efforts effectively to the dis- covery of the general ideas which are to be derived from them, He is en- ADDRESS. Ixxxv couraged in these efforts by the sympathy of his colleagues, and often aided by suggestions derived from their experience in teaching other branches of science, or by information respecting doctrines or methods which throw a light upon those of his own subject. No known conditions are so well calculated to give a young investigator the closest and strongest grasp of his subject of which he is capable as those in which he is placed while thus earnestly teaching it in a college; and in- asmuch as a thorough mastery of known truths is needed by every one who would work to advantage at the discovery of new truths of that kind, it will, in most cases, be an object of ambition to the ablest young investigators to get an opportunity of going through the work of teaching in a college, in order to improve themselves to the utmost for the work of original research, There is, however, another advantage to them in having such work to do; for the best way to ascertain at any one time what additions may be made to a science, is to examine the facts which have been discovered last, and to consider how far they confirm and extend the established ideas of the science, how far they militate against those ideas. An investigating teacher is con- stantly weaving new facts into the body of his science, and forming antici- pations of new truths by considering the relation of these new facts to the old ones. When our investigator has thus got a thorough mastery of his science and new ideas for its extension, he ought to have the opportunity of turning his improved powers to account by devoting more of his time to original research ; in fact he ought to teach research by example more than hitherto, and less by elementary exercises upon known facts. If he has discharged the duties of his first post with manifest efficiency, he will be promoted, either in his own or some other college, to a chair affording more leisure and facility for original research by his own hands and by those of his assistants and pupils. Some investigators may find it desirable to give up after a while all teaching of previously published truths, and confine themselves to guiding the original researches of adyanced pupils, while stimulating them by the example of their own discoveries. But most of them will probably prefer to do elemen- tary teaching work from time to time, for the sake of the opportunity of going over the groundwork of their science, with a knowledge of the new facts and enlarged ideas recently established. Now it must be observed that such a system as the above, once developed to its proper proportions, so as to send annually to secondary schools many thousands of poor children who would otherwise never enjoy such advantages, and so as to train to original investigation a corresponding proportion of them, would not only provide more young investigators than would be needed for systematic teaching functions, but would also give a partial training of the same kind to many whose abilities proved to be insufficient, or whose tastes were not congenial to such pursuit. Some would be tempted by an advan- tageous opening in an industrial pursuit or in the public service to break off their studies before completion, and others would find, after completing their training, a position of that kind more desirable or more attainable than a purely scientific appointment. Not only would much good of other kinds be accomplished by this circumstance, but we may say with confidence that the system could not work with full advantage for its own special purpose of promoting the advancement of science if it did not diffuse a knowledge of the truths and methods of science beyond the circle of teachers. There is an urgent need of accurate scientific knowledge for the direction of manufacturing processes, and there could not be a greater mistake than to Ixxxvi REPORT—1873. suppose that such knowledge need not go beyond the elementary truths of science. In every branch of manufacture improvements are made from time to time, by the introduction of new or modified processes which had been discovered by means of investigations as arduous as those conducted for purely scientific purposes, and involving as great powers and accomplish- ments on the part of those who conducted them. Any manufacturer of the present day who does not make efficient arrange- ments for gradually perfecting and improving his processes ought to make at once enough money to retire; for so many are moving onwards in this and other countries, that he would soon be left behind. It would be well worth while to establish such a system of scientific educa- tion for the sake of training men to the habits of mind which are required for the improvement of the manufacturing arts; and I haye no doubt that the expense of working the system would be repaid a hundred times over by the increase of wealth of the community; but I only mention this as a secondary advantage of national education. A system of the kind could not expand to due dimensions, nor could it, once fully established, maintain itself in full activity, without intelligent sympathy from the community; and accordingly its more actiye-minded members must be taught some good examples of the processes and results of scientific inquiry, before they can be expected to take much interest in the results achieved by inquirers, and to do their share of the work requisite for the success of the system. I need hardly remind you that there are plenty of other strong reasons why some such knowledge of the truths of nature, and of the means by which they are found out, should be diffused as widely as possible throughout the community. You perceive that in such educational system each teacher must trust to his own exertions for success and adyancement; and he will do so if he is sure that his results will be known and compared impartially with those attained by others. Each governing body must duly maintain the efficiency of their school or college, if its support depend in some degree on the evi- dences of that efficiency ; and they will try to improve their school if they know that every improvement will be seen and duly appreciated. The keystone of the whole structure is the action of the State in distri- buting funds carefully among schools and colleges proportionally to the eyi- dence of their doing good work, which could not be continued without such aid. I am inclined to think that the State ought, as far as possible, to confine its educational grants to the purpose of maintaining and continuing good work which is actually being done, and rarely if ever to initiate educational experiments: first, because it is desirable to encourage private exertions and donations for the establishment of schools and colleges upon new systems, or in new localities, by giving the public full assurance that if any new institution establishes its right to existence, by doing good work for a while, it will not be allowed to die off for want of support; and, secondly, because the judicial impartiality required in the administration of public funds, on the basis of results of work, is hardly compatible with an advocacy of any particular means of attaining such results. On the other hand, experience has shown that special endowments, which tie up funds in perpetuity for a definite purpose, commonly fail to attain their object under the altered circumstances which spring up in later generations, and not unfrequently detract from the efficiency of the institutions to which they are attached, by being used for objects other than those which it is their proper function to promote, ADDRESS. Ixxxvil When there is felt to be a real want of any new institution for the promo- tion of learning, men are usually willing enough to devote time and money to the purpose of establishing it and giving it a fair trial. It is desirable that they should leave the State to judge of their experiment by its results, and to maintain it or not, according to the evidences of its usefulness. No institution ought, for its own sake, to have such permanent endowments as might deprive its members of motives for exertion. The State could not, however, discharge these judicial functions without accurate and trustworthy evidence of the educational work done at the various schools and of its success. For this purpose a record must be kept by or under the direction of every teacher of the weekly progress of each pupil, showing what he has done and howhe has done it. Official inspectors would have to see to these records being kept upon a uniform scale, so that their results might be comparable. The habit of keeping such records conduces powerfully to the efficiency of teachers; and, for the sake of the due develop- ment of the teaching system, it ought to prevail generally. Having such full and accurate means of knowing what opportunities of improvement pupils haye enjoyed and what use they have made of those opportunities, Govern- ment ought to stimulate their exertions and test their progress by periodical examinations. It is of the utmost importance to allow any new and improved system of instruction to develope itself freely, by the exertions of those who are willing to undertake the labour and risk of trying it on a practical scale ; and the pupils who acquire upon such new system a command of any branch of science, ought to have a fair opportunity of showing what they have achieved and how they have achieved it. An able and impartial examiner, knowing the new systems in use, will encourage each candidate to work out, his results in the manner in which he has been taught to work out results of the kind, Examinations thus impartially conducted with a view of testing the suc- cess of teachers in the work which they are endeavouring to do, have a far higher value, and consequent authority, than those which are conducted in ignorance or disregard of the process of training to which the candidates have been subjected; and we may safely say that the examination system will not attain its full usefulness until it is thus worked in intimate connexion witha system of teaching, In order to give every one employed in the educational system the utmost interest in maintaining and increasing his efficiency, it is essential that a due measure of publicity be given to the chief results of their respective labours. Schools and colleges ought, toa considerable extent, to be supported by the fees paid by pupils for the instruction received; and every Professor being in part dependent upon the fees of his pupils will have a direct interest in attracting more pupils to his classes or laboratories. The fame of important original investigations of his own or his pupils, published in the scientific journals, is one of the natural means by which a distinguished Professor attracts disciples, and the success of his pupils in after life is another. His prospects of promotion will depend mainly on the opinion formed of his powers from such materials as these by the governing bodies of colleges and by the public; forif each college is dependent for success upon the efficiency of its teaching staff, its governing body must do their best to fill up every vacancy as it arises by the appointment of the ablest and most successful Professor whom they can get; and any college which does not succeed in obtaining the services of able men will soon lose reputation, and fall off in numbers, Ixxxyvili REPORT—1873. There are, however, further advantages to the working of the system to be derived from full publicity of all its more important proceedings. It will supply materials for the formation of a sound public opinion respecting the proceedings of the authorities in their various spheres of action. A claim for money might be made upon Government by the rulers of some college upon inadequate grounds ; or a just and proper claim of the kind might be disre- garded by Government. Neither of these things will be likely to happen very often if the applications, together with the evidence bearing on them, are open to public scrutiny and criticism ; and when they do occasionally happen, there will be a natural remedy for them. If I have succeeded in making clear to you the leading principles of the plan to be adopted for the advancement of science, including, as it necessa- rily must do, national education generally, you will, I think, agree with me that, from the very magnitude and variety of the interests involved in its action, such system must of necessity be under the supreme control of Government. Science will never take its proper place among the chief ele- ments of national greatness and advancement until it is acknowledged as such by that embodiment of the national will which we call the Government. Nor can the various institutions for its advancement develope duly their useful- ness until the chaos in which they are now plunged gives place to such order as it is the proper function of Government to establish and maintain. But Government has already taken, and is continuing to take, action in various matters affecting elementary popular education and higher scientific education, and it would be difficult to arrest such action, even if it were thought desirable to do so. The only practical question to be considered is how the action of Government can be systematized so as to give free play to the natural forces which have to do the work. By establishing official examinations for appointments and for degrees, Government exerts a powerful influence on the teaching in schools and colleges, without taking cognizance, except in some few cases, of the systems of teaching which preyail in them. Again, they give grants of public money from time to time in aid of colleges or universities, or for the establishment of a high school under their own auspices. Sometimes they endow a Professor- ship. In taking each measure of the kind they are doubtless influenced by evidence that it is in itself a good thing, caleulated to promote the advance- ment of learning. Buta thing which is good in itself may produce evil effects in relation to others, or good effects incommensurate with its cost. Thus examinations afford most valuable aid to educational work when carried on in conjunction with earnest teachers; yet when established in the absence of a good system of education, they are liable to give rise to a one-sided train- ing contrived with a special view of getting young men through the exami- nations. If no properly educated young men were found for a particular de- partment of the public service, and an examination of all candidates for such appointments were to be established for the purpose of improving the system of training, candidates would consider their power of answering such ques- tions as appeared likely to be set as the condition of their obtaining the ap- pointments, and they would look out for men able and willing to train them to that particular work in as direct and effective a manner as possible. The demand for such instruction would soon be supplied. Some teachers would undertake to give instruction for the mere purpose of enabling candidates to get through the examination; and by the continued habit of such work would gradually come to look upon the examiners as malignant beings who keep youths out of office, and whose vigilance ought to be evaded by such means ADDRESS. lxxxix as experience might show to be most effective for the purpose. Once this kind of direct examination-teaching has taken root, and is known to produce the desired effect of getting young men through the examinations, its exist- ence encourages the tendency on the part of the candidates to look merely to the examination as the end and aim of their study ; and a class of teachers is developed whose exertions are essentially antagonistic to those of the examiners. There are, no doubt, teachers with a sufficiently clear apprehension of their duty, and sufficient authority, to convince some of the candidates that the proper object of their study should be to increase their power of usefulness in the career for which they are preparing themselves, by thoroughly master- ing up to a prescribed point certain branches of knowledge ; and that until they had honestly taken the means to do this and believed they had done it effectually, they ought not to go up for examination nor to wish to commence their career. But it is desirable that all teachers be placed under such circumstances that it may become their interest as well as their duty to cooperate to the utmost of their powers in the object for which the examiners are working. For this purpose their records of the work done under their guidance by each pupil ought to be carefully inspected by the examiners before framing their questions, and ought to be accepted as affording the chief evidence of the respective merits of the pupils. This is not the place for considering how the general funds for an effective system of national education can best be raised, nor how existing educational endowments can best be used in aid of those funds. It is well known that some colleges, of Oxford and Cambridge are possessed of rich endowments, and that many distinguished members of those universities are desirous that the annual proceeds of those endowments should be distributed upon some system better calculated to promote the advancement of learning than that which generally prevails. Indeed we may confidently hope that, true to their glorious traditions, those colleges will be led, by the high- minded and enlightened counsels of their members, to rely upon improving usefulness in the advancement of learning as the only secure and worthy basis of their action in the use of their funds, so that they may take a leading part in such system of national education as may be moulded out of the present chaos. But the foundations of a national system of education ought to be laid independently of the present arrangements at Oxford and Cambridge, for we may be sure that the more progress the system makes the more easy will become the necessary~reforms in the older universities and colleges. ‘ It is clearly undesirable that Government should longer delay obtaining such full and accurate knowledge of the existing national resources for educational purposes, and of the manner in which they are respectively utilized, as may enable them to judge of the comparative prospects of use- fulness presented by the various modes of distributing educational grants. They ought to know what has been done and what is doing in the various public educational establishments before they can judge which of them would be likely to make the best use of a grant of public money. We have official authority for expecting such impartial administration of educational grants; and it cannot be doubted that before long due means will be taken to supply the preliminary conditions. You are no doubt aware that a Royal Commission was appointed some xe rEerort—1878. time ago in consequence of representations made to Government by the British Association on this subject, and it is understood that their instruc- tions are so framed as to direct their particular attention to the manner in which Government may best distribute educational grants. The Commission is moreover composed of most distinguished men, and we have every reason to anticipate from their labours a result worthy of the nation and of the momentous occasion. In speaking of public educational establishments, I refer to those which by their constitution are devoted to the advancement of learning without pecuniary profit to their respective governing bodies. ‘The annual expen- diture requisite for keeping up a national system of popular education will necessarily be considerable from the first, and will become greater from year to year; but once Englishmen are fully alive to the paramount importance of the object, and see that its attainment is within their reach, we may be sure that its expense will be no impediment. England would not deserve to reap the glorious fruits of the harvest of knowledge if she grudged the necessary outlay for seed and tillage, were it even ten times greater than it will be. It is no use attempting to establish a national system on any other than a truly national basis. Private and corporate funds inevitably get diverted from popular use, after a few generations, to the use of the influ- ential and rich. A national system must steadily keep in view the improve- ment of the poor, and distribute public funds each year in the manner best calculated to give to the youths of the poorest classes full opportunities of improvement proportional to their capacities, so that they may qualify them- selves for the utmost usefulness to their country of which they are capable. “The best possible security for the proper administration of the system will be found in the full and speedy publicity of all the particulars of its working. It has been frequently remarked that a great proportion of English in- vestigators are men of independent means, who not only seek no advance- ment as a reward of their labours, but often sacrifice those opportunities of improving their worldly position which their abilities and influence open up to them, for the sake of quietly advancing human knowledge. Rich and powerful men have very great temptations to turn away from science, so that those who devote their time and money to its service prove to us how true and pure a love of science exists in this country, and how Englishmen will cultivate it when it is in their power to do so, Now and then a youth from the poorer classes is enabled by fortunate accidents and the aid of a friendly hand to climb to a position of scientific activity, and to give us, as Faraday did, a sample of the intellectual powers which lie fallow in the great mass of the people. Now, the practical conclusion to which I want to lead you is, that it rests with you, who represent the national desire for the advancement of science, to take the only measures which can now be taken towards the establish- ment of a system of education worthy of this country and adapted to the requirements of science. In the present stage of the business the first thing to be done is to arouse public attention by all practicable means to the im- portance of the want, and to get people gradually to agree to some definite and practicable plan of action. You will, I think, find that the best way to promote such agreement is to make people consider the natural forces which have to be systematized by legislation, with a view of enabling them to work freely for the desired purpose. When the conditions essential to any national system come to be duly appreciated by those interested in the ADDRESS. xci cause of education, means will soon be found to carry out the necessary legislative enactments. “The highest offices in the State are on our present system filled by men who, whatever their political opinions and party ties, almost infallibly agree in their disinterested desire to signalize their respective terms of office by doing any good in their power. Convince them that a measure desired by the leaders of public opinion is in itself good and useful, and you are sure to carry it. Gad on the other hand, England is not wanting in men both able and willing to come forward as the champions of any great cause, and to devote their best powers to its service. I may well say this at Bradford after the results achieved by your Member in the Elementary Education Act. * Objections will of course be raised to any system on the score of difficulty and expense, more especially to a complete and good system. Difficult of realization it certainly must be, for it will need the devoted and indefatigable exertions of many an able and high-minded man for many a long year. Only show how such exertions can be made to produce great and abiding results, and they will not be wanting. And as for expense, you will surely agree with me that the more money is distributed in such frugal and effective manner, the better for the real greatness of our country. What nobler privilege is attached to the possession of money than that of doing good to our fellow men? and who would grudge giving freely from ’ his surplus, or even depriving himself of some comforts, for the sake of pre- paring the rising generation for a life of the utmost usefulness and consequent happiness ? I confidently trust that the time will come when the chief item in the annual budget of the Chancellor of the Exchequer will be the vote for National Education. And when in some later age our nation shall have passed away, when a more true civilization has grown up and has formed new centres for its throbbing life, when there are but broken arches to tell of our bridges and crumbling ruins to mark the sites of our great cathedrals —then will the greatest and noblest of England’s works stand more perfect and more beautiful than ever; then will some man survey the results of Old England’s labours in the discovery of imperishable truths and laws of nature, and see that her energy and wealth were accompanied by some nobler attributes—that while Englishmen were strong and ambitious enough to grasp power, they were true enough to use it for its only worthy purpose, that of doing good to others. i I must not, however, trespass longer upon your time and your kind at tention. My subject would carry me on, yet I must stop without having half done justice to it. If I have succeeded in convincing you that a National system of Educa- + tion is now necessary and possible, and in persuading you to do what you respectively can to prepare the way for it, 1 shall feel that the first step is made towards that great result. af ce pe Nai el gongs Eke BS he ae a. weed, a 4 - e? ca - aaah Rion or id ~ are, ae ‘ Mach tN = 7 ae hte ub “e hea fae = Mas teeetl Pei f city git ; * Nie Wk aptiesi- SEBO T Hr Ait ; uf Fivqennde Watetity athe ® atr & oo i. wi hs peewee icne ying bt al 7 ere: = ae absia, Lbrvd ark nt: Spechty nay a grate i er eh Bata. Ut Tene Bader, Or ids 1 yl a eee % MEer wravte: |: : 7 peyreeaels Tereky it 2 x 7 a PM thi Jiletd:2 >, d) sey SAbar. cf . “pepe eeteieg tote Gig alcien 3 ‘ ee eae i7.? el g7 eR: eis ; es Hn ¥ pr b date: Bab ws init id ae »aiarlac! rang Ye irirt. SY secs ; jaar we 3 a ui chan sf Pa Ey ARS ire po bia tof ad £7 é i, ab iogte Me ; Pitts); beat ios @ He te fed Tae “ave Oks fess easier asiy (FL mihare. Pepe > (eet f ity tapti ik 14 even th: iting. «; vata ve Wer a, #2>2,...7%# true to the nearest unit. Of course the assumption of 10 as a divisor is conventional, and any table giving 22a =—1)z ; =, =, oie seas would equally be called a proportional-part table. . Ordi- nary proportional-part tables (viz. in which a=10) are given at the sides of the pages in all good seven-figure tables of logarithms that extend from 10,000 to 100,000, The difference between consecutive logarithms at the commencement of the tables (viz. at 10,000) is 434, and at the end is there- fore 43 ; so that a seven-figure table of the above extent gives the proportional ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 21 parts of all numbers from 43 to 434 (note that near the commencement of the table, viz. from diff. 434 to diff. 346, the proportional parts are only given for every other difference in some tables; whether a table gives the proportional parts of all the differences or not is generally noted in § 4). Several seven-figure tables extend to 108,000; and for the last 8000 the dif- ferences decrease from 434 to 403. Tables in which a=60 often accompany canons of trigonometrical functions that give the results for every minute, for convenience of interpolating for seconds; such must be sought from the descriptions of trigonometrical tables in § 3, arts. 10 and 15, and in § 4; we have also seen tables for which a=30, where the functions are tabulated for every two minutes or two seconds. There are several tables to which proportional parts of the differences to hundredths (viz. in which a=100) are attached, e.g. Gray (§ 3, art. 19), Firrrowski (§ 4), and Prnero (§ 3, art. 13); but the ranges of the differences are generally so small that it is not worth while giving references. In Pinero, for instance, the range of the differences is only from 4295 to 4343 (in this work multiples are given, the last two figures being separated by a comma). The only separate table of proportional parts, properly so called, that we have seen, is Bremiker, 1843 (‘Tafel der Proportionaltheile’). Proportional parts to hundredths (viz. multiples from 1 to 100, with the last figure omitted, and the last but one corrected) of all numbers from 70 to 699. A very useful table, chiefly intended for use in interpolating for the sixth and seventh figures in logarithmic calculations. T. ILL. of Scurén (§ 4) (which is there called an Interpolation Table) is a large table of proportional parts. It is to be noticed that all multiplication tables are, or rather can be used as proportional-part tables. A table of multiples, with the last figure omitted, and the last but one corrected (which can be done at sight), is a proportional- part table to tenths; and if the last two figures are omitted, and the last remaining figure corrected, to hundredths (see therefore § 3, arts. 1 and 3). It is proper here to allude to slide-rules and other mechanical appliances for working proportions &c. A card intended to do the work of a very large slide-rule is described in § 4 (Evererr) ; and some information and references about slide-rules of different shapes will be found in a paper “On a New Proportion Table,” by Prof. Everett, in the Phil. Mag. for Nov. 1866. The following are references to works described in § 4:— Tables of Proportional Parts —Sir J. Moors, 1681 [T. I1.]; Ducom, 1820, T. XX.; Lynn, 1827, T. Z; Cazter, 1853 [T. VIII.]; Scurén, 1860, oo, Art. 3. Tables of Quarter Squares. Tables of quarter squares have for their object to facilitate the performance of multiplications; and the principle on which their utility depends is con- tained in the formula ab=3(a+b) —j(a—b)’, so that with such a table to multiply two numbers we subtract the quarter square of the difference from that of their sum; the multiplication is there- fore replaced by an addition, a subtraction, two single entries of the tables, and a final subtraction—a very considerable saving if the numbers be high. The work is more than with a product table, where a double entry gives the result at once; but the quarter squares occupy much less space, and can 22 REPORT—1873. therefore be tabulated to a much greater extent without inconvenience. In tables of quarter squares the fraction + which occurs when the number is odd is invariably left out; this gives rise to no difficulty, as the sum and difference of two numbers must be both odd or both even. A product can, of course, be obtained by logarithms with about the same facility as by a table of quarter squares ; but the latter is preferable when all the figures of the result are required. Luvotr, 1690 (see § 3, art. 4), in the preface to his ‘ Tetragonometria,’ explains the method of quarter squares completely, and shows how his table is to be used for the purposes of multiplication. The earliest table of quarter squares De Morgan had heard of was Votsty, 1817; but CenrnerscHwer (see below) refers to one by Biirger of the same date, the full title of which we have quoted from Rogg. Cretxe, in the preface to the first edition of his ‘ Rechentafeln’ (1820, p. xv.), speaks cf “ Quadrat-Tafeln nach Laplace und Gergonne, mittelst welcher sich Producte finden lassen,” &c. The allusion to Laplace doubtless refers to the memoir in the ‘Journal Polytechnique,’ noticed further on in this article; but we cannot give the reference to Gergonne. The largest table of quarter squares that has been constructed is that published by the late Mr. Launpy, which extends as far as the quarter square of 100,000; it would be desirable, however, to have a table of double this extent (viz. to 200,000), which would perform at once multiplications of five figures by five figures (Mr. Laundy’s table is only directly available when the sum of the numbers to be multiplied is also of five figures). The late General Shortrede constructed such a table, we believe, in India, but unfortunately abandoned the idea of publishing it on his return to England, where he found so much of the field already covered by Laundy’s tables. De Morgan, writing when it was anticipated that Shortrede’s table would be published, suggested that it would be convenient that the second half should appear first; and we should much like to see the publication of a quarter- square table of the numbers from 100,000 to 200,000. Mr. Lavnpy, in the preface to his ‘Table of Quarter Squares’ (p. vi), says that Galbraith, in his ‘General Tables,’ 2nd edit. 1836, which were intended as a supplement to the second edition of his ‘ Mathematical and Astronomical Tables,’ gives a table (T. xxxiv.) of quarter squares of numbers from 1 to 3149. This book is neither in the British Museum nor the Cambridge Uni- versity Library. The second edition of his ‘ Mathematical and Astronomical Tables’ (1834) contains no such table. There is, however, no doubt about the existence of the work, as the Babbage Catalogue contains the title “Galbraith, W., New and concise General Tables for computing the Obliquity of the Heliptic, &e. Edinburgh, 1836.” In 1854, Prof. Sylvester having seen a paper in Gergonne in which the method was referred to, and not being aware that tables of quarter squares for facilitating multiplications had been published, suggested the calculation of such tables, in two papers—“ Note on a Formula by aid of which, and of a table of single entry, the continued product of any set of numbers... may be effected by additions and subtractions only without the use of Logarithms” (Philosophical Magazine, 8. 4. vol. vii. p. 430), and “On Multiplication by aid of a Table of Single Entry ” (Assurance Magazine, vol. iv. p. 236). Both these papers were probably written together ; but there is added to the former a postscript, in which reference is made to Vorsrn and Shortrede’s manuscript. Prof. Sylvester gives a generalization of the formula for ab as the difference of two squares, in which the product a, @, +++ My is expressed as the sum of ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 23 nth powers of a,, @,,...@,, connected by additive or subtractive signs, For the product of three quantities the formula is abe=3,{(a+b+c)—(a+b—c)'—(c+a—b—(b+e—a)'}. And at the end of the ‘ Philosophical-Magazine’ paper, Prof. Sylvester has added some remarks on how a table to give triple products should be arranged. At the end of a memoir, “Sur divers points d’Analyse,” Laplace has given a section “Sur la Réduction des Fonctions en Tables” (Journal de l’Hcole Polytechnique, Cah. xy. t. viii. pp. 258-265, 1809), in which he has briefly discussed the question of multiplication by a table of single entry. His analysis leads him to the method of logarithms, quarter squares, and also to the formula sin a sin6=4{cos(a—b)—cos(a+b)}, by which multiplication can be performed by means of a table of sines and cosines. On this he remarks, “* Cette manicre ingénieuse de faire servir des tables de sinus 4 la multiplication des nombres, fut imaginée et employée un siécle environ avant invention des logarithmes.” It is worth notice that the quarter-square formula is deduced at once from sin a sin b=3{cos(a@—b)—cos(a+b)}, by expanding the trigonometrical func- tions and equating the terms of two dimensions; similarly from sin a sin } sin c=}{sin (a+c—b)+sin (a + b—c) + sin(b4+c—a)—sin (@+b+¢)}, by equating the terms of three dimensions, we obtain abe=,{(a+6+¢)'—&e.}, as written down above, and so on, the general law being easily seen. We may remark that there is an important distinction between the trigonometrical formule and the algebraical deductions from them, viz. that by the latter to multiply two factors we require a table of squares, to multiply three a table of cubes, and so on; 2.¢. each different number of factors requires a sepa- rate table; while one and the same table of sines and cosines will serve to multiply any number of factors. This latter property is shared by tables of logarithms of numbers, the use of which is of course in every way preferable ; still it is interesting to note the inferiority that theoretically attaches to the algebraical compared with the trigonometrical formule. Other remarks on the subject of multiplication by tables are to be found in § 3, art. 1. It is almost unnecessary to remark that a table of squares may be used instead of one of quarter squares if the semisum and semidifference of the numbers to be multiplied be taken as factors. Tables of squares and cubes are described in the next section. *Voisin, 1817. Quarter squares of numbers from unity to 20,000. We have taken the title from the introduction to Mr. Launpy’s ‘ Quarter Squares’ (1856). De Morgan also so describes the work. We have seen no copy; but there is one in the Graves Library, although we were unable to find it: it will be described from inspection in the supplement to this Report. Geslie, 1820. On pp. 249-256 there is a table of quarter squares of numbers from 1 to 2000, reprinted from Vorsry, 1817, whose work Leslie met with at Paris in 1819. There is also given, facing p. 208, a large folding sheet, containing an enlarged multiplication table, exhibiting products from 11x11 to 99x 99, the table being of triangular form. There are also, on the same sheet, two smaller tables, the first giving squares, cubes, square roots (to seven places), cube roots (to six places), and reciprocals (to seven places) of numbers from 1 to 100, and the second being a small multiplication table from 2x 2 to 25x25. In the first edition (1817, pp. 240) the quarter- square table does not appear; and in the folding sheet (which follows the 24, RErORT—1873. preface) the smaller multiplication table is not added ; squares and cubes only are given in the other small table. Centnerschwer, 1825. [T.I.] A table of quarter squares to 20,000; viz. 7 is tabulated from w=1 to v=20,000, the fraction 3, which occurs when w is odd, being omitted. The last two figures of the quarter square, which only depend on the last two figures of the number, are given once for all on two slips bound up to face pp. 2 & 41. Full rules are given as to how to use the table as a table of squares; and three small tables are added, by means of which the square of any number of five figures can be found tolerably easily. The arguments are printed in red. [T. IL.] Square roots of numbers from 1 to 1000 to six places. There is a long and full introduction prefixed. In his preface Centnerschwer states that after his work was in the press, he received from Crelle a table, by J. A. P. Biirger, entitled ‘‘Tafeln zur Erleichterung in Rechnungen,” Karlsruhe, 1817, in which the author claims to be inventor of the method, while Centnerschwer states it was known to Lupotr (1690), and even Euclid. That Luporr was the inventor of the method is true; and there is attached to his work a table of squares to 100,000 (see Luporr, § 3, art. 4). The full title of Biirger’s work, which we have not been successful in ob- taining a sight of, is (after Rogg) as follows :—‘ Tafeln zur Erleichterung in Rechnungen fiir den allgemeinen Gebrauch eingerichtet. Deren iiusserst ein- fach gegebene Regeln, nach welchen man das Product zweier Zahlen ohne Mul- tiplication finden, auch sie sehr vortheilhaft bei Ausziehung der Quadrat- und Cubiewurzel anwenden kann, sich auf den binomischen Lehrsatz griinden. Nebst Anhang tiber meine im vorigen Jahr erschienene Paralleltheorie. Carlsruhe, 1817. 4to.” The book last referred to was entitled “Vollstindige Theorie der Parallellinien &e. Carlsruhe, 1817; 2nd edit. 1821,” as given by Rogg under Elementar-Geometrie. Merpaut, 1832. The preméire partie gives the arithnome (i. e. quarter square) of all numbers from 1 to 40,000, so arranged that the first three figures of the argument are sought at the head of the table, the fourth figure at the head of one of the vertical columns, in which, in the line with the final (fifth) figure in the left-hand column, is given the quarter square required. The quarter squares are printed in groups of three figures, the second group being under the first, &c. A specimen of this table is given by Launpy (1856, p. v of his Introduction). The deuxiéme partie gives the reciprocals of all numbers from 1 to 10,000 to nine figures. The author seems not to have been aware of the existence of any of the previous works on the subject of quarter squares. Laundy, 1856. Quarter squares of all numbers from unity to 100,000, the fraction 7, which occurs when the number is odd, being, as usual, omitted. The arrangement is es in a seven-figure logarithm table; viz. the first four figures are found in the left-hand column, and the fifth in the top row; the three or four figures common to the block of figures are also separated as in logarithmic tables, and the change in the fourth or fifth figure is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to all the quarter squares affected: at the extreme left of each page is a column of corresponding degrees, minutes, and seconds (thus, corresponding to 43510 we have 12° 5’ 10"=43510"). At the bottom of the page are differences (contracted by the omission of the last two figures) ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 23 and proportional parts. The figures are very clear; and there is a full intro- duction, with explanations of the use, &c. of the tables. Mr. Laundy was induccd to construct his table by Prof. Sylvester’s paper in vol. iv. of the ‘Assurance Magazine,’ referred to above; and a description of the mode of construction &c. of the table (most of which is also incor- porated in the introduction to it) is given in vol. vi. of the ‘ Assurance Magazine.’ Art. 4. Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square roots, and Cube roots. Tables of squares (or square roots of square numbers) are of nearly as great antiquity as multiplication tables, and would, we think, be found to be rather common in early manuscripts on arithmetic. They are, as a rule, but slightly noticed in histories of the subject (see references in § 3, art. 1), partly because the latter are very meagre, and very many manuscripts remain still unexamined, and partly because it is rather the province of a history to de- scribe the improvement of processes. The perfection of the methods of ex- tracting the square root of numbers not complete squares, however, occupies a conspicuous place. In the MSS. Gg. ii. 33 of the Cambridge University Library, are two frag- ments, one of Theodorus Meletiniotes, the second of Isaac Argyrus (both much of the same date, time of John Paleeologus, 1360) (concerning the first, see Vin- cent, Manuscrit de la Bibliotheque Impériale, xix. pt.2. p.6). The fragment is a portion of the first book, and contains rules and small tables for multi- plication, fractional computation &c. The tract of Isaac Argyrus is entitled “‘ rov "Apyipou etipeots rwy TeTpayw- rikoy mAEvpwY THY pi) PyTOY apLOpay.” At the end there is a table of the square roots of all integral numbers from 1 to 120, in sexagesimal notation. The table is prepared as if for three places of sexagesimals; but usually two only are perfect. Errors (probably due to the copyist) are frequent. Before the table is a description of the method of its use, including an explanation of the method of proportional parts. De Morgan speaks of two early (printed) tables in Pacioli’s ‘Summa,’ 1494, and by Cosmo Bartoli, 1564, extending respectively to the squares of 100 and 661. The tables which we have examined are described below; but there are several of some extent, which De Morgan refers to, that we have not seen, viz. :—Guldinus, 1635, squares and cubes to those of 10,000; W. Hunt, 1687, squares to that of 10,000; and J. P. Biichner’s ‘Tabula Radicum,’ Nuremberg, 1701, which gives squares and cubes up to that of 12,000 (full title given in Rogg). Lamserr (Introd. ad Suppl. &c. 1798) says that Biichner’s table is ‘‘plena errorum.” Rogg gives the title “ Bobert, K. W., Tafeln der Quadratzahlen aller natiirlichen Zahlen von 1—-25,200; der Kubik- zahlen von 1-1200; der Quadrat- u. Cubicwurzeln yon 1-1000. Neu berechnet, Leipzig, 1812 ;” and the title occurs in the Roy. Soc. Lib. Cat. (though the book is not to be found in the Library). De Morgan mentions “Schiert, ‘Tafeln,’ &. Rohn om Rheim, 1827,” as giving squares to 10,000, which is no doubt a misprint for “Schiereck, J. F., Tafeln aller Quadrate von 1 bis 10,000. 4to. K6ln am Rhein, 1827,” which occurs in the Babbage Catalogue, and also in Rogg. From the title of another work of Schiereck’s given in the former catalogue, it appears that the table of squares also appeared as an appendix to his ‘ Handbuch fiir Geometer,’ published in the same year. Dr Morean speaks of Luporr’s ‘Tetragonometria,’ 1690, which gives squares up to that of 100,000, “as being the largest in existence, and very 26 rEPoRT—1873. little known.” ‘This is true; but Kuti, 1848, is of the same extent, and also gives cubes up to that of 100,000, thus giving the largest table of squares, and by far the largest table of cubes in the same work, and in a compact and convenient form: of this work also it may be said thatit is very little known. Hurron, 1781 (§ 4), gives squares to that of 25,400, and cubes to that of 10,000 ; but for most purposes Bartow (stereo. 1840), which gives squares, cubes, and square roots and cube roots (and reciprocals) of numbers to 1000, and is very accurate, is the best. We have not seen any square-root or cube- root table of greater extent. Extensive tables of quarter squares have been published, which are de- scribed in § 3, art. 3; and some tables of squares, as Fad pe Bruno, were constructed with the view of being used in applying the method of least squares. It is scarcely necessary to remark that logarithms find one of the most valuable applications in the extraction of roots. Multiplications &c. can be performed gencrally without their aid with a little more trouble; for finding square and cube roots they are extremely useful; but for the extraction of higher roots there exists no other method admitting of convenient application. Maginus, 1592. The ‘Tabula Tetragonica’ is introduced by the words “ sequitur tabula numerorum quadratorum cum suis radicibus nune primum ab auctore supputata, ac in lucem edita,” and occupies leaves 41-64. It gives the squares of all numbers from 1 to 100,100. We have seen the ‘Tabula Tetragonica’ quoted as an independent work ; and De Morgan says that it was published separately, with headings and explanations in Italian instead of Latin. In the copy before us Tavola is misprinted for Tabula on pp. 41 and 43 back (only the leaves aré numbered). The work contains sines, tangents, and secants also. Magini was, we suppose, the vernacular name of the author, and Maginus the same Latinized. We have somewhere seen Magini and Maginus spoken of as if they were different persons. Alstedius, 1649. In part 3. pp. 254-260, Alsted gives a table of squares and cubes of numbers from 1 to 1000, Alsted’s is the first Cyclopedia, in the sense that we now understand the word. [Moore, Sir Jonas, 1650?] Squares and cubes of numbers from 1 to 1000, fourth powers from 1 to 300, fifth and sixth powers from 1 to 200. In the book before us (Brit. Mus.) this tract (which has a separate pagina- tion) is bound up at the end, after Moore’s ‘Arithmetick (and Algebra), Contemplationes Geometrice, and Conical Sections.’ De Morgan says that power tables, exactly the same as these, were given in Jonas Moore’s ‘ Arith- metic’? of 1650, and reprinted in the edition of 1660; so that probably the tract noticed here usually formed part of the ‘Arithmetick.’ [Pell], 1672. Squares of numbers from 1 to 10,000 (pp. 29). This is followed by the 6 one-figure endings, the 22 two-figure endings, the 159 three-figure endings, and the 1044 four-figure endings, which square numbets admit of. 'They are given at length, and also in a synoptical form. The last page in the Roy. Soc. copy is signed John Pell. (In the Royal Society’s Li- brary Catalogue this table is entered under Fell, the signature at the end in the Society’s copy having been struck out so as to render the first letter uncertain.) In the Brit. Mus. is a copy without any name (so that perhaps Pell’s name was supplied in the Roy. Soc. copy only in manuscript). ‘ Dr. Pell’s Tables,’ however, is written in it, and no doubt can exist about its authorship. ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 27 Ludolf, 1690. Squares of all numbers from unity to 100,000, arranged in columns, so that the first three or four figures of the root are to be found at the top of the column, while the final ones are given in the left-hand column of the page. The table is well printed and clear, and, except Kuri, 1848, which is of the same extent, is the largest table of squares that has been published, and occupies about 420 pages. Some errata in it are given at the end of the introduction (150 pp. in length), in which all possible uses of the table are explained. Lampert (Introd. ad Supplementa, 1798) speaks of the numbers in the table as “satis accurati.” In chapter v. (pp. 48-86) (‘De Tabularum usu seu Praxi circa Multiplicationem et Divisionem ’) the use of the table as one of quarter squares (see $ 3, art. 3) is fully explained; as squares are given in the table, the sum and difference have to be divided by 2. Rules and examples are also added as to how to proceed when the semisum exceeds the limits of the table by any amount; and the processes &c. are explained with such fulness as to prove that all the credit of first perceiving the utility of the method and calculating the necessary table is due to Ludolf. The work is said to be very scarce; but we have seen several copies ; there is one in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, and another in the Graves Library. Heilbronner (under Herwarr AB Honensure) mentions Ludolf (Hist. Math. p. 827), and (referring doubtless to the method of quarter squares) says that he inyented a method of performing multiplications and divisions without the Pythagorean abacus, “ que prolixe ab Illustr. Wolfio in seinen Anfangs- Griinden et suis Elementis Matheseos exponitur.” Séguin, 1786. At the end of the book is given a table of the squares and cubes of numbers from unity to 10,000. The figures have heads and tails, and are very clear. De Morgan states that the table was reprinted at about the beginning of the century, and that it was this table which convinced him of the superiority of the numerals with heads and tails, and led him in the reprint of Lalande’s table, 1839, to adopt this figure—an example which has since been very frequently followed. As De Morgan does not appear to have seen it, it is possible that the ori- ginal table was not reprinted, but only published separately, as the figures in the table attached to Séguin answer De Morgan’s description very well. Barlow’s tables (the stereotyped edition of 1840). Squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots, and reciprocals to 10,000. The square roots and cube roots are to seven places, and the reciprocals to seven significant figures, viz. nine places to 1000, and above this ten. The work is a reprint of the more im- portant tables in Bartow, 1814 (described in § 4); it was suggested by De Morgan, who wrote the preface (2 pp.), and edited by Mr. Farley, of the Nautical-Almanac Office, who also examined carefully Barlow’s tables. A list of ninety errors found in the latter is given on the page following the preface. This reprint is, we believe, very nearly, if not quite, free from error; it is clearly printed and much used. We have also an edition, 1866, from the plates of 1840. Kulik, 1848. The principal table occupies pp. 1-401, and gives the squares and cubes of all numbers from 1 to 100,000. There is a compression resembling that in Crentn’s ‘ Rechentafeln ;’ viz. the last four figures of the square and cube are printed but once in each line, these figures being the same for all squares and cubes in the same line across the double page. The arrangement will be rendered clear by the description of a page—say, that corresponding to 92. There are ten columns headed 92, 192, 292... .992, 28 REPORT—1878. each containing two vertical rows of numbers, the one corresponding to N’, and the other to N*; the lines are numbered 0,1, 2....49 (and on the next double page 50....99). If, then, we wish to find the cube of 79217, we take the figures 49711306131 from column 792, line 17, and add the last four figures 1313 (which conclude the cube of 9217 in the same line); so that the cube required is 497113061311313. Certain figures, common to the whole or part of a column, are printed at the top, and the change in the column is denoted by an asterisk. This is the largest table of cubes in ex- istence, and (except Lupotr, which is of the same extent) is also the largest table of squares. The printing is clear, and the book not bulky; so that the table can be readily used. At the end are eleven subsidiary tables. T. 1 (Perioden ygerader Summenden) consists of columns marked 4, 6,8... .48 at the top, and 96,94....52 at the bottom, each containing the “complete period” of the number in question ; thus for 42 we have 42, 84, 26, 68, 10, &c. (these numbers being the last two figures of a series of terms in arith- metical progression, 42 being the common difference); and these are given till the period is completed, 7. e. till 42 occurs again. This may be at the end of 25 or 50 additions; if the former, the periods are given commencing with 1, 2, 3 (as well as 0); if the latter, with 1 or 2 only, as the case may be; the periods for « and 100—. are of course the same, only in reverse order. The use of the table as a means of verifying the table of squares is obvious. T. 2. Primes which are the sum of two squares (these being given also) up to 10,529. T. 3. Odd numbers which are the difference of two cubes (these being given also) to 12,097. T.4, Odd numbers which are the sum of two cubes (these being given also) to 18,907. T. 5-9. Four-figure additive and subtractive congruent endings for numbers ending in 3 and 7, or 1 and 9, &c.: the more detailed description of these tables belongs to the theory of numbers, which will form a part of a subse- quent Report. T. 10. The 1044 four-figure endings for squares, and the figures in which the corresponding numbers must end. T. 11. First hundred multiples of 7 and 77’ to twelve places. There is appended to the tables a very full description of their ohject and use. Bruno, Faa de, 1869. T. I. of this work (pp. 28) contains squares of numbers from 0-000 to 12-000, at intervals of -001 to four places (stereo- typed), intended for use in connexion with the method of least squares. The following are references to § 4:— Tables of Squares and Cubes, or both Squares and Cubes.—Scuvuze, 1778 [T. 1X.] and [T. X.]; Hurron, 1781 [T. II.] and [T. I1I.]; Vzea, 1797, Vol. II. T. IV.; Lampert, 1798, T. XXXV. and XXXVI.; Barrow, 1814, T. I.; Scurpr, 1821 [T. V.] (with subsidiary tables); Hanrscnr, 1827, T. VIII.; *Satomon, 1827, T. I.; Gruson, 1832, T. II. and III.; Hwtssr’s Vzea, 1840, T. IX. C.; Trorrer, 1841 [T. VI.]; Mutrrer, 1844 [T. ATs |; Minstncer, 1845 [T. II.]; Kénrrr, 1848, T. V. and VI.; Wuticu, 1853, T. XXI.; Brarpmorr, 1862, T. 35; Rankine, 1866, T. I. and II.; Wackerrsartu, 1867, T. VI.; Parxuurst, 1871, T. XXVI. and XXXII, and XXXIV. (multiples of squares); Prrers, 1871 [T. VI.]. See also Tartor, 1780 [T. IV.] (§ 3, art. 9). Tables of Square Roots and Cube Roots.—Dovson, 1747, T. XIX.; Scuurzu, 1778 [T. XI.] and [T. XII.]; Masrres, 1795 (two tables); ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 29 Veca, 1797, Vol. II. T. 1V.; Hantscnt, 1827, T. VIII. ; *Sanomon, 1827, T. I.; Gruson,i 1832, T. IV. and V.; Hiutssn’s Vues, 1840, IT. VIII.; Trorrer, 1841 [T. VI.]; Mrysinerr, 1845 (T. II.]; Kourer, 1848, T. VII. ; Wriitricu, 1853, T. XXI.; Brarpuorr, 1862, T. 85; *Scutémincu [18657] ; Ranxine, 1866, T. I. A; Wacxersartru, 1867, T. VII. See also Centyer- scuweR, 1825 ['T. II.] (§ 3, art. 3). And for Squares (for method of least squares), Mitrer, 1844 [T. IIT.]. Endings of Squares.—(Three-figure endings) Laser, 1798, T. LV. Art. 5. Tables of Powers higher than Cubes. We know of no work containing powers of numbers (except squares and cubes) only. Both Hurron, 1781, and Bartow, 1814, give the first ten powers of the first hundred numbers; but we have scen no more extensive table of this kind. Swanxs (§ 4) gives every twelfth power of 2 as far as 277; and, according to De Morgan, John Hill’s ‘Arithmetic,’ 1745, has all powers of 2upto2™*, Tables of compound interest are, in fact, merely power tables, as the amount of £M at the end of » years at 7 per cent. is M{ 1 +i50 1) increase so fast that n must be taken very large (7. e. very many terms must be included) before A, is so small that A,” can be neglected, and the de- scending series because it begins to diverge before it has yielded as many decimals as are required. For these intermediate values the former series (if there is no continued fraction available) must be used ; and then the terms begin by increasing, often so rapidly, if a be moderately large, that it may be necessary to calculate some of them to fifteen or twenty figures to obtain a correct value for the function to only seven or eight decimals. In these cases, so long as ten figures only are wanted, logarithms are employed ; but when more are required recourse must be had to simple arithmetic; and it is then that a power table is so much needed. Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher has had formed in duplicate a table giving the first twelve powers of the first thousand numbers, which, after the calculation has been made independently a third time, will be stereotyped and published, probably in the course of 1873; it is hoped that it will help to make the tabulation of mathematical functions somewhat less laborious and difficult. The following tables on the subject of this article are described in § 4:— Tables of Powers higher than Cubes.—Donvson, 1747, T. XXT. (powers of 2) and T. XXII.; Scxunzz, 1778 [T. VIII.]; Hurron, 1781 [T. IV.]; Vzea, 1797, Vol. II. T. II. (powers of 2, 3, and 5); Vuea, 1797, Vol. II. T. IV.; Lampert, 1798, T. VIT.-IX. (powers of 2, 3, and 5) and T. XL.; Bartow, 1814, T. II. and III.; Hwxssn’s Veca, 1840, T. VI. (powers of 2, 3, 5) and T. IX. A, B, D, E; Kéuter, 1848, T. II. (powers of 2, 3, and 5) and T. ITVY.; Saanxs, 1853 (powers of 2 to 2); Brarpuorz, 1862, T. 35; 30 ~ pEPortT—1873. Ranxinz, 1866, T. 2. See also Sir Jonas Moor [1650?], § 3, art, 4; Taytor, 1781 [T. IV.] (§ 3, art. 9). Tables for the solution of Cubic Equations, viz, +(a—a*).—Lambert, 1798, T, XXIX,; Barrow, 1814, T. IY. Art. 6. Tables for the expression of vulgar fractions as decimals. The only separate tables we have seen are Wucurrer and Goopwyn’s works described at length below. The Babbage Catalogue contains the title of an anonymous book, “ 'Tafeln zur Verwandlung aller Briiche yon =, bis 10004, und yon +d, bis -74%%5 in fiinf- bis siebenziffrige Decimalbriche, 4to, Oldenburg, 1842,” of which De Morgan says “it gives every fraction less than unity whose denominator does not exceed three figures, nor its nu- merator two, to seven places of decimals. It is arranged by numerators ; that is, all fractions of one numerator are upon one double page.” Recipro- cals would properly be included in this article; but from their more frequent use they have been placed in an article by themselves (§ 3, art. 7); Prcarrn’s table in that article gives multiples of reciprocals. We must especially mention the ‘Tafel zur Verwandlung gemeiner Briiche mit Nennern aus dem ersten Tausend in Decimalbriiche,”’ which occupies pp. 412-434 of vol. ii. of ‘ Carl Friedrich Gauss Werke,’ Gottingen, Ato, 1863, and which somewhat resembles Goopwyn’s tables described below. In it, among other things, the reciprocal of every prime less than 1000 is given completely (2. e. till the figures cireulate). Had we met with the table earlier we should have given a full description ; but we merely confine our- selves here to giving the reference, reserving a more detailed explanation for a future Report. Wracherer, 1796. The decimal fractions (to five places) for all vulgar fractions, whose numcrators and denominators are both less than 50 and prime to one another, arranged according to denominators; so that all haying the same denominator are given together; thus the order is... .+4 Pos Tess 448, ck, y...-, the arguments being only given in their lowest terms. After 45 the system is changed, and the decimals are given for vulgar fractions whose numerators are less than 11 only; thus we haye 2, oo Fy ++ - 49, op Fy - a8 consecutive arguments (the arguments not being necessarily in their lowest terms) ; and the dencminators proceed from 50 to 999. [T. IL.]. Sevagesimal-Briiche, viz. sexagesimal multiplication table to 60 x 60; thus, as 5 x 29” = 145” = 2’ 25”, the table gives 2.25 as the tabular result for the joint-entry 5 and 29. There are scyen other tables (IIL—VIII.) for the conyersion of money into decimals of other money, for the coins of different countries ; the English table will serve as an example. There are given as arguments 51), 927, g3y---- $32 (ae. Id., 2d., dd., &e.), and as tabular results the corresponding decimal fraction to ten places (i. e. of £1), and also the shillings and pence ; thus for 13, there are given -8041666666, and 6s. 1d, The Leichs-Geld and Pfennig table is practically the same; the denomi- nators are in all cases 240, or 960, or submultiples of the latter. Regarded ma- thematically the English table gives nearly as much as all the rest, as for denominators above 240 only a few numerators are taken. There are also tables of interest, present value, &e., to a great many places. The value of z is given on the last page to 306 places; thus, if the diameter = 10000... . (306 ciphers), then 7 = 31415 (307 figures), the ciphers and figures being written G? ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 3l at length—a curious mode of statement at the end of a book occupied with decimal fractions. Goodwyn’s Tables, 1816-1823. It is convenient to describe Good- wyn’s four works (the titles of which are given at length in § 5) together, as they all relate to the same subject. The Tabular Series of Decimal Quotients (1823) forms a handsome table of 153 pages, and gives to cight places the decimal corresponding to every vulgar fraction less than °.°,, whose numerator and denominator are both not greater than 1000. The arguments are not arranged according to their numerators or denominators, but according to their magnitude, so that the tabular results exhibit a steady increase from -001 (= >55) to 09989969 (= 9%), The author intended the table to include all fractions whose numerators and deno- minators were both less than 1000 without restriction ; and at the end of the book is printed ‘‘ End of Part I.;” but no more was ever published. The arrangement of the arguments in order of magnitude is not very good, as it requires the first two figures of the decimal to be known in order to know where to look for it in the table; the table would be more useful if it were re- quired to find a vulgar fraction (with not more than three figures in numerator or denominator) nearly equal to a given decimal*; but this is not a trans- formation that is often wanted. When the decimal circulates and its period is completed within the first eight figures, points are placed over the first and last figures of the period, if not, of course only over the first; and by means of the same author’s table of ‘ Circles’ described below, the period can be easily completed, and the whole decimal fraction found. The fractions which form the arguments are given in their lowest terms. The Table of Circles (18238) gives all the periods of the circulating decimals that can arise from the division of any integer by another integer less than 1024. Thus for 13 we find -076923 and -153846, which are the only periods in which the fraction = can circulate. The periods for denominator 2” 5” x are evidently the same as those for denominator a; and arguments of this form are therefore omitted; but a table is given at the end (pp. 110 and 111), showing whether for any denominator less than 1024 the decimal (1) terminates, and is therefore not included in the table, (2) is in the table as it stands, or (3) is in the table but has to be sought under a different argument (these last being numbers of the form 2" 5” @). A third table (p. 112) also gives the number of places after the separatrix (decimal point) at which the period commences. The principal table occupies 107 pp. Some of the numbers are very long, (¢. g., for 1021 there are 1020 figures in the period), and are printed in lines of different lengths, giving a very odd appearance to many of the pagest. A table at the end contains all numbers of the form 2* 5” that are less than * It is proper to note, however, that the table was no doubt calculated for this purpose ; the author considered his ‘Table of Circles’ as giving decimals to vulgar fractions, and in- tended this table to give vulgar fractions to decimals (see the introduction to the second part of the ‘Centenary’ 1816); the ‘ Tabular Series’ (1816) is complementary to the ‘ Cen- tenary ;’ but not so the ‘ Tabular Series’ (1823) to the ‘Table of Circles’ (1823), as the latter only gives the periods. + If the period of a decimal consists of an even number of figures, it is well known that the figures in the last half are the complements to nine of the figures in the first half; and the periods have been printed so that the complementary figures should be under one another. When the period is odd, there is always another period of com lementary figures, and the two are printed one under the other ; these facts account for what at first sight appears a capricious arrangement of the figures. 32 REPORT—1873. 1,000,000, arranged in order of magnitude, with the values of n and m, and also the values of the reciprocals of the numbers (expressed as decimals) and the total number of the proper vulgar fractions in their lowest terms which can arise for any of the arguments as denominator. An example of the use of the tables is given at the end of the book. The First Centenary fe. [1816] contains the factors of all numbers to 100, and the complete periods of their reciprocals or multiples of their reciprocals, also the first six figures of every decimal fraction equivalent to a vulgar frac- tion whose denominator is equal to the argument. The following is a spe- cimen of one of the tables: 34 2.17 *70588235 29411764 33 | -970588 1 31 | -911764 3 29 | -852941 5 27 | -794117 y 25 | -735294 9 23 | -676470 11 21 | -617647 13 19 | -558823 15 The explanation is very simple: we have 23 = -970588, and the other figures of the period are 23529411764; al = ‘911764, and the other figures are 70588235294, &e. If the numerator is in the third column we take the complement of the result (¢. ¢. subtract each figure from 9); thus J- = *029411, and the other figures of the period are 76470588235. The even numbers are omitted, as the fractions are not in their lowest terms ; thus 32 =}, and must be sought under argument 17. [This table was published separately by Goodwyn for private circulation. There is no date on the title- page*; but the address is written from Blackheath, and dated March 5, 1816.] There is added a tabular series of complete decimal quotients of fractions whose numerator is not greater than 50 and denominater not greater than 100 (the heading of the table incorrectly says, ‘‘neither numerator nor de- nominator greater than i100”), arranged as in the ‘ Tabular Series’ &c., 1823 ; it is followed by an auxiliary table for completing such quotients as consist of too many places to allow all the digits of their periods to appear in the principal table. There is an appendix on Circulates &c. The ‘ Tabular Series’ (1816 and 1823) are interesting as exhibiting in the order of magnitude all fractions whose numerators and denominators are both less than 100 up to i, and whose numerators and denominators are both less than 1000 up to t- In the preface to the latter table the author gives as a fact he has observed, that * It is by no means improbable that the titlepage has been torn out from the only copy we have seen, viz, that in the Royal Socioty’s Library, ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 33 “Tn any three consecutive vulgar fractions in the table, if the numerators of the extremes and the denominators be added together, the sum will form the numerator and denominator of a fraction equal to the mean.” That this is the case with all fractions, ranged in order, whose numerators and denomi- nators are integers less than given integers, is a theorem discovered by Cauchy and published by him in his ‘ Exercices.’ It has been thought worth while to describe Goodwyn’s works at some length, as they are almost unique of their kind, and are rarely to be met with. De Morgan states that “ Mr. Goodwyn’s manuscripts, an enormous mass of similar calculations, came into the possession of Dr. Olinthus Gregory, and were purchased by the Royal Society at the sale of his books in 1842.” There is no mention of them, however, in the Royal Society’s Catalogue of MSS. ; and nothing is known of them at the Society. They may possibly be brought to light in the rearrangement of the manuscripts consequent upon the approaching change of rooms, Art. 7, Tables of Reciprocals. The most extensive table is Oakes, 1865. Reciprocals from 1 to100,000. This table gives seven figures of the reciprocal, and is arranged as in tables of seven-figure logarithms ; viz. the first four figures are found in the column at the left-hand side of the page, the fifth figures run along the top line, and the sixth and seventh are inter- polated for by proportional parts. The reciprocal of a number of five figures is therefore taken out at once, and the process of taking out a reciprocal is exactly similar to that of taking out a logarithm. From 10,000 to 22,500 the differences and proportional parts (being numerous) are placed on the lower half of the page, the differences being also placed at the side of each line; but above 22,500 the differences and proportional parts are placed at the side of the page as in tables of logarithms. The figures have heads and tails; and the change in the third figure of the reciprocal is made evident by prefixing an asterisk to the succeeding numbers in the line. The table is the result of an original calculation, and was con- structed by means of the obvious theorem that the difference of two recipro- cals, divided by the difference of the corresponding numbers, is the reciprocal of the product of those numbers. The reciprocals of the higher numbers, however, were calculated by differences, which differences were found by logarithms. Various checks were applied; and the whole was virtually re- computed on the Arithmometer of M. Thomas de Colmar. The significant figures of the reciprocals alone are tabulated, decimal points and ciphers being omitted, for the same reason that characteristics are left out in loga- rithmic tables. In T. I. of Bartow (§ 4) reciprocals are given of numbers from 1 to 10,000 ; and this table also appears in the stereotype reprint of 1840 (see § 3, arf. 4): the latter is the most generally used table of reciprocals, and is of sufficient extent for most purposes ; it is also reputed to be very accurate, and is perhaps free from error. It must be added that Goopwyn’s ‘ Table of Circles,’ and ‘ Tabular Series,’ &e., 1823 (§ 3, art. 6), give reciprocals of numbers less than 1024 complete ; viz. the whole period is given, even where it exceeds a thousand figures. See also the reference to Gauss, vol. ii., near the beginning of the last article (§ 3, art. 6), As most nearly connected with a table of reciprocals (it gives not only 1873, D 84 REPORT—1878. the reciprocals, but also multiples of them), we here describe Prcartr’s ‘ La Division réduite 4 une Addition.’ Picarte [1861]. The principal table occupies pp. 15-104, and gives, to ten significant figures, the reciprocals of all numbers from 1000 to 10,000, and also the first nine multiples of the latter (which are therefore given to 10 or 11 sig- nificant figures). It is easy to see how this table reduces Division to Addition. The arguments run down the left-hand column of the page ; and there are nine other columns for the multiples; each page contains 100 lines; so that there are 10,300 figures to the page. Owing, however, to its size, and to the smallness and clearness of the figures, there is no confusion, the lines being well leaded. The great table is preceded by two smaller ones, the first of which (pp. 6, 7) gives the figures from the ninth to the fourteenth (inclusive) of the logarithms of the numbers from 101,000 to 100,409 at intervals of unity (downwards), with first, second, and third differences ; and the second (pp. 10, 11) gives ten-figure logarithms of numbers to 1000 ; and from 100,000 to 101,000 at in- tervals of unity (with differences), There is also some explanation &c. about the manner of calculating logarithms by interpolation, &c. The author remarks on the increasing rarity of ten-figure tables of logarithms, referring, of course, to Vuace and Veea. The whole work was submitted by its author to the French Academy, and reported on favourably by a Commit- tee consisting of MM. Mathieu, Hermite, and Bienaymé. ‘The report (made to the Academy Feb. 14, 1859) is printed at the beginning of the work. M. Ramon Picarte describes himself as Member of the University of Chili; and the Chilian Government subscribed for 300 copies of the work. There is no date; but the “ privilége” is dated Nov. 1860, and the book was re- ceived at the British Museum, April 29, 1861, so that the date we have assigned is no doubt correct. On the cover of the book are advertised the following tables by the same author, which we have not seen :— _ “Tables de multiplication, contenant les produits par 1, 2,3....9 et toutes les quantités au-dessous de 10,000, 1 vol. in-18 jésus.” “Tableau Pithagorique, étendu jusqu’é 100 par 100, sous une nouvelle forme qui a permis de supprimer la moitié des produits.” It is scarcely necessary to remark that any trigonometrical table giving sines and cosecants, cosines and secants, or tangents and cotangents, may be used (and sometimes with advantage) as a table of reciprocals. The extreme facility with which reciprocals can be found by logarithms has prevented tables of the former from being used or appreciated as much as they deserve. The following is the list of references to § 4 :— Tables of Reciprocals.—Maserrus, 1795 ; Bartow, 1814, T. I. (to 10,000) ; Trorrer, 1841 [T. VIII.]; Winrtcn, 1853, T. XXI.; Brarpmorn, 1862, T. 35; ScutoémincH [1865?]; Ranxre, 1866, T. I. and I. A; Wackrrnarra, 1867, T. [X.; Parxaurst, 1871, T. XXV.; see also Merpavt, 1832 (§ 3, art.3); Bartow (1840) (§ 3, art. 4). Art. 8. Tables of Divisors (Factor tables), and Tables of Primes. If a number is given, and it is required to determine whether it be prime, and if not what are its factors, there is no other way of effecting this ex- cept by the simple and laborious process of dividing it by every prime less than its square root, or until one is found that divides it without remainder*. The construction of a table of divisors is on the other hand very simple, as it * Wilson’s theorem (viz. that 1.2.3....(n —1) + 1 is or is not divisible by 2, according as ” is or is not prime) theoretically affords a criterion; but the labour of applying it would be far greater than the direct procedure by trial. ~ ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 35 is merely necessary to form the multiples of 2, 3, 5..up to the extent of the table, the numbers that do not occur being of course primes. The manner in which the formation of these multiples is best effected, and other practi- eal details, are explained by Burcxaarpr in his preface to the second million. The following is a list of tables of divisors and of primes, abridged from an elaborate account prefixed to Currnac :— 1657. Francis Schooten: table of primes to 9997. 1668. Pell (in Branker’s translation of Rhonius’s ‘ Algebra,’ published at London): least divisors of odd numbers not ending in 5 to 100,000. 1728. Poetius. An ‘ anatome’ of numbers to 10,000. 1746. Krier. Primes to 100,999. 1767. Anjema. All divisors (simple and compound) of numbers to 10,000. : 1770. Lamserrr. Least divisors of numbers to 102,000 (multiples of 2, 3, and 5 omitted). 1772. Marci. Extension of Lambert’s table by the addition of primes to 400,000. 1785. Neumann. Simple divisors (Pell only gave the least) of numbers to 100,100 (multiples of 2, 3, 5 omitted). 1797. Vuea. Simple factors to 102,000, and ‘primes to 400,000 (see Vuea, ‘ Tabule,’ 1797, Vol. II. T. 1.). 1804. Krause.’ Factor table to 100,000. From the above list Chernac has omitted Raun (1659), giving factors to 24,000, and Piert (1758) to 10,000, which are described below. A more important omission is that of Fxrrxer, whose table is noticed at length further on, The titles of Anjema’s, Neumann’s, and Krause’s works are given in the Babbage Catalogue as follows :—‘ Anjema (Henricus), Tabula divisorum omnium numerorum naturalium ab 1 usque ad 10000. 4to, Lugd. Bat. 1767 ;” “ Neumann (Johann), Tabellen der Prim-Zahlen- und der Factoren der Zahlen, welche unter 100100, und durch 2, 3, oder 5 nicht theilbar sind ; herausgegeben durch J. N. 4to, Dessau, 1785;” and “ Krause (Karl C. F.), Factoren- und Primzahlen-Tafel yon 1 bis 100000 neu berechnet. Fol. Leipzig, 1804,” The same catalogue also contains the title, “Snell (F. W. D.), Ueber eine neue und bequeme Art, die Faktorentafeln einzurichten, nebst einer Kup- fertafel der einfachen Faktoren yon 1 bis 30000. 4to. Giessen und Darm- stadt, 1800.” The following are accounts of tables we have seen :— Rahn, 1659. On pp. 37-48 is given a table of divisors; viz. the least divisor of every number, not divisible by 2 or 5, is tabulated from 1 to 24,000, the primes being marked with a p. Pigri, 1758. All the simple factors (so that if multiplied together they give the number) are given of all numbers from 1 to 10,000. When the number is a power, letters are used instead of numbers (a = 2,6 = 3,¢ = 5, &c., as explained on p. 11 of the book); thus, answering to 25 we have ce, to 27 bbb, to 225 bb, cc, &e. Kruger, 1746. At the end of the ‘ Algebra’ is a list of primes to 100,999, arranged consecutively in pages of six columns, and occupying 47 pp. The titlepage runs ‘ Primzahlen von 1 bis 1000000’; but the limit is as above stated; and there is no possibility that the copy before us is incomplete, as the last page is a short one, and there is no printing on the back. ; D2 36 REPORT— 1873. The primes of each hundred are separated, which for some purposes would be an advantage. : Lamsert states (Introd. ad ‘Supplementa,’ &c., 1798) that Kriicnr received this table from Peter Jeger. Felkel, 1776. Table of all simple factors of numbers to 144,000, the tabular results being obtained from three tables. Thus Table A gives primes to 20,353; these occupy one page, along the top line of which run the Greek letters a, 3.... and down the left-hand column four alphabets consecutively, viz. small italic, small German, capital italic, and capital German (there being 100 lines); and any prime given on this page is henceforth in the book denoted by its coordinates, so to speak: thus 9839 would be printed pp, &e. The principal table occupies 24 pp.; and then Table B occupies one page at the end. Suppose it required to find the factors of 138,593. The middle table is entered at 138 and Table B at 593. In the latter we find as result “ 59™ 55% at intervals of 5%, to 4 places. T. XIX. Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24", viz. log 1440 —log w from w=1 to v=1440, to 4 places (arguments expressed in hours and minutes). T. XXI. Proportional logarithms for one hour, viz, log 3600—log a from w=1 to w=3600, to 4 places (arguments expressed in mmutes and seconds). The other tables are nautical. Gregory, Woolhouse, and Hann, 1843. T. VIII. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places; same as T, 74 of Rarer, T. IX. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places. T. X. Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places. T. XI. Five-figure logarithms from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional arts. : J. XII. Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24", to 4 places, viz. log 1440—log w# from v=1 to 1440 at intervals of unity (arguments ex- pressed in hours and minutes). : The other tables are nautical. 104 é REPORT-——1873. Griffin, 1843. 1.16. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter - point, to 6 places. - T. 17. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, to 6 places, with differences. T. 18. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant (arguments expressed also in time), to 6 places, with differences for the sines and tangents; arranged semiquadrantally. T. 19. Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, without differences. T. 41. Proportional logarithms to every second to 3°, to 4 places ; same as T. 74 of Raprr. The logarithms are in all the tables printed at full length. The other tables are nautical. Gruson, 1832. T.I. Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000: no differences. The change in the line is marked by a difference of type in all the logarithms affected. In three or four parts of the book this table is stated to extend to 10,100, but the limit is as above; and there is no possibility of a page having been torn out, as the next table is printed on the back of the page ending with the number 9999. T. If. & III. Squares and cubes of all numbers from 1 to 1000. T. IV. & V. Square and cube roots of all numbers from 1 to 1000, to 7 laces. : T, VI. Circular measure of 1°, 2°, 8°... 360°, of 1’, 2’,... 60', and of 1",.2",... 60", to 7 places. T. VII. Natural and log sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants, to 7 places, with differences from 0° to 5° at intervals of 1’, and thence to 45° at intervals of 10’. The book was intended for schools. Hantschl, 1827. TT. I. Five-figure logarithms (written at full length) of numbers from 1000 to 10,000. T. II. Log sines for every 10 seconds from 0° to 90°, to 6 places. T. III. Log tangents for every 10 seconds from 0° to 90°, to 6 places. T. IV. Ten-figure logarithms of primes to 15,391. T. V. Natural sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 7 places; arranged semiquadrantally. T, VI. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 11,273, to 8 places. T. VIL. Least divisors of numbers to 18,277 (multiples of 2, 3,5, and 11 excluded). T. VIII. Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to 7 places) to 1200. n(n—1)...(n—5) 38 wie oe from n=0 to n=1-:00 at - n(n—1) a EK. = i ea intervals of :01, to 7 places. T. X. Circular measure of 1°, 2°, 3°, ... 180°, of 1’, 2’... 60’, and of 1", 2"... 60", to 15 places. T. XI. The first nine multiples o 1 Seely ae treet nie Lealiicd 1\3 /x\3 m\—-3 ind etn eee Sate ID 8 et Ne ae ae Ie (=) ; (;) bead (5) to 24 or 21 places. : T. XII. Small table to express minutes and seconds as decimals of a egree. T. XIII. Areas of segments of circles for diameter unity to 6 places; the ® ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 105 versed sines are the arguments ; and the table proceeds from ‘001 to +500 (of the diameter). The table may therefore be described as giving 3(20—sin 20) from 3(1—cos 0)=-001 to ‘500 at intervals of -001. A few constants are then given to a great many places; and the last page (T. XIV.) is for the calculation of logarithms to 20 places. The work is clearly printed. Hartig, 1829. ‘The tables are of so commercial a kind that only one or two deserve notice here. The first (T.I.) is for computing the contents of planks &c., the thickness and breadth being given in Zolle and the length in Fusse, and may be described as a sort of duodecimal table, as the Kubik-Zoll = 74, Kubik-Fuss, and the Kubik-Linie = =, Kubik-Zoll. Thus for arguments 3 Zoll, 18 Zoll, and 5 Fuss we have 1 F. 4 Z. 3 L.as result; for 3, x1$x5=195=14-4473). The arguments are :—(thickness) 1 Zoll to 9 Zoll at intervals of 3 Zoll; (breadth) 1 Zoll to 18 Zoll at intervals of 1 Zoll; (length) 1 Fuss to 60 Fuss at intervals of 1 Fuss. Another table (T. IT.) is of the same kind, only intended for blocks &e. ; so that the thickness is greater, and the result is only given in fractions of a Kubik-Fuss. T. III. contains volumes of cylinders for diameter (or circumference) of section and length as arguments ; expressed as in T. I. and II. The money- tables can have no mathematical value, as the Thaler = 30, 24, or 90 Groschen, &c. T. X. is for the calculation of interest. The simple-interest tables (T. A) are too meagre to be worth description. T. B and C may be described as giving the compound interest and present value of £1 for any number of years up to 100 at 3, 4, 5, and 6 per cent. per annum, viz. x n x —n (1+ i0) ead (1 +355) to 6 decimal places. Other tables of this kind that we met with have not been noticed; the title of one such is given under Jann, 1837. Hassler, 1830. [T.I.] Seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 10,000 to 100,000, with proportional parts. The line is broken for the change in the third figure, as in Cater. [T. I1.| Log sines and tangents for every second of the first degree, to 7 laces. 3 [T. III.] Log cosines and cotangents for every 30” of the first degree, to 7 places,. with differences, (T. IV.] Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 1° to 3°, at ‘intervals of 10’, with differences, and from 3° to 45°, at intervals of 30”, with differences for 10", to 7 places. [T. V.] Natural sines for every 30” of the quadrant, with differences for 10", to 7 places. Copies of this book were published with Latin, English, French, German, and Spanish introductions and titlepages (the titles will be found in the list at the end of the Report). The tables are the same in all; and the special titlepages for each table have the headings in the five languages. ‘lhe Royal Society’s library contains the Latin copy perfect, and the introduc- tions in the four modern languages bound together in another volume, pre- sented to the Society by the author. At the end of the latter volume is pasted-in a specimen page of the table, set up with the usual even figures ; 106 REPORT—1873. and the author has written on the back, “This sheet proves that, with the usual form of figures of the same size as those used in the tables, they would not have been distinctly legible.” The figures actually used are very thin, and have large heads and tails, resembling somewhat figures made in writing ; and a comparison of the specimen and a page of the tables shows very clearly the superiority of the latter in point of distinctness, The words in minima forma are quite justified, as we do not think it would be possible to make the tables occupy less room without serious loss of clearness, All that is usually given in a page of seven-figure logarithms is here contained in a space about 3 in. by 5in.; and yet, owing to the shape of the figures, every thing is very distinct. The author says on the titlepage, “ purgate ab erroribus precedentium tabularum ;”’ but the last figure of log 52943 is printed 6 instead of 5. There is also another last-figure error. See ‘ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.,’ March 1873. A short review of this work by Gauss appeared in the ‘ Géttingische ge- lehrte Anzeigen,’ March 31, 1831 (reprinted ‘ Werke,’ t. iii. p, 255), Henrion, 1626. [T. I.] Logarithms to 20,001, to 10 places, with interscript differences (characteristics not separated from the mantiss), copied from Briees, 1624, [T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute, to 7 places (charac- teristics unseparated from the mantissa), taken from Gunter, 1620. Hay- rion had calculated some logarithms himself when he received Brieas’s work (see Phil. Mag., Supp. No. Dec. 1872). The copy of Hrnrion we have seen is in the Brit. Mus. The full titlepage is given in § 5, Hentschen (Vlacq), 1757. [T.I.] Natural sines, tangents, and secants, and log sines and tangents to every minute, to 7 places (arranged on what De Morgan calls the Gellibrand model) (180 pp.), and ['T. II.] logarithms of numbers to 10,000, to 7 places, arranged in columns (100 pp.). A former edition of 1748 is spoken of in the preface; and it is stated that the tables were compared with the editions of Vlacq, Leyden, 1651, the Hague, 1665, and Amsterdam, 16738. The type is very bold and clear, much easier to read than in most modern tables. This is one of the numerous series of small tables known by the name of Viacq, and is described here because it is not mentioned by De Morgan ; small editions like the present are so difficult to meet with that it is desirable to notice them whenever any are found. Hiobert and Ideler, 1799. [T.I.] Natural and log sines, cosines, tan- gents, and cotangents for the quadrant, divided centesimally; viz. these func- tions are given for arguments from ‘00001 to :03000 of a right angle at in- tervals of -00001 of a right angle, and from -0300 to 5000 of a right angle at intervals of ‘0001, to 7 places, with differences, Expressed in grades (cen- tesimal degrees) &c., the arguments proceed to 3? at intervals of 10‘, and thence to 50% at intervals of 1. The manner of calculation of the table is fully explained in the introduction ; and this adds much to the yalue of the work. Several of the fundamenta were calculated to a great many places, Two or three constants are given on p. 310. B. Table of natural sines and tangents for the first hundred ten-thousandths (viz. for 0001, :0002 &e.) of a right angle, to 10 places. C. Four tables, expressing (I.) 1°, 2°, 3°,....89°, (II.) 1’, 2',....59', (HIL.) 1", 2",....59", (IV.) 1, 2"",....59"", all as decimals of 90°, to 14 places. D. Three tables to express (I.) hundredths, (II.) thousandths, (ITI.) ten- thousandths of 90°, in degrees, minutes, and seconds (sexagesimal), SS ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 107 E. Four tables to express (I,) hours, (1I.) minutes, (III.) seconds, (IY.) thirds, as decimals of a day. F, Small table to express decimals of a day, in hours, minutes, and seconds. G. Circular measure of :1, -2,..,.°9, 1:0, of a right angle, to 44 places. [T, ILI.] Logarithms of numbers to 1100, and from 999,980 to 1,000,021, to 36 places. The work concludes with two remarkable lists of errata found in the course of the calculations, yiz. 381 errors in the trigonometrical tables of Cattzr, all of which, with one exception, affect only the last figure by a unit, and 138 similar errors in Vzca’s ‘ Thesaurus,’ 1794. The errors in Callet have, we presume, been corrected in the later tirages. Hlowel, 1858. T. I. Five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,800 with the corresponding degrees, minutes and seconds, and proportional parts. The constants § and T (see § 3, art. 13) are given at the top of the page; then follows a page of small tables for the conversion of degrees, minutes, &c. T. II, Natural and log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places, with proportional parts. T. III. Gaussian logarithms. The addition and subtraction tables are sepa- rated, as in Zucu (§ 4). In the first B is given for argument A, from A=-000 to 1-650 at intervals of -001, thence to 3-00 at intervals of ‘01, and thence to 5:0 at intervals of ‘1. In the second B is given for argument C, from C=-3000 to -4800 at intervals of :0001, thence to 1-500 at intervals of -001, thence to 3:10 at intervals of -01, and to 5:0 at intervals of *1, with pro- portional parts: all to 5 places. These tables are followed by the first hun- dred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal, to 8 places. T. LY. Tables to calculate logarithms to 8 places &e. T. Y. (one page). To calculate logarithms to 20 places. T. VI. A page of four-figure logarithms to 600, and of three-figure auth logarithms. T. VII. Least factors of composite numbers (not divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 11) up to 10,841, T. VIII, A page of constants. [We have since obtained a “ nouvelle édition, revue et augmentée,” Paris, 1871, pp. 118 and introduction xlvi.] Hiilsse’s Vega, 1840. T. I. Sev en-figure logarithms to 1900, and from 10,000 to 108,000, with proportional parts ; the change in the line is denoted by a small asterisk prefixed to the fourth fig ure of all the logarithms affected. The portion from 100,000 to 108,000 is given to 8 places. One page at _ the end is devoted to a small table to convert common into hyperbolic seven- figure logarithms, and vice versa, “T. II. Log sines, tangents, and ares (all equal) to every tenth of asecond to 1'; log sines and tangents from 0° 0’ to 1° 32’ to every second ; log sines, cosines, tangents and cotangents for every ten seconds from 0° to 6°, and for every minute to 45°; all to 7 places. When the intervals are 10” or 1’, differences for.a second are added: the logarithms are written at length, The table is followed by a page anne the circular measure of ee 10°, and thence by tens to 360°, of 1’, 2',,.,,60', and of 1”, 2",, 60", to 11 places. JT. III. Natural sines and tangents to every minute of the quadrant, to 7 | places, with differences for 1”. T. IV. Chord-table to radius 500, viz. lengths of semichords of arcs (« é, sin 5) from 0° to 125° at intervals of 5', to 6 laces, for radius unity. 108 REPORT—1873. This table is followed by 2 pages of tables for the conversion of centesimals into sexagesimals &c. T. Y. All prime divisors of numbers to 102,000 (multiples of 2, 3, and 5 excluded), and primes from 102,000 to 400,313. T. VI. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 1000, and of primes from 1000 to 10,000, to 8 places. This is followed by powers of 2, 3, and 5 to the 45th, 36th, and 27th respectively. T. VII. Powers of ¢ and their logarithms, viz. e* and log ,,e”, from «=-01 to «=10 at intervals of :01, to 7 figures and "7 places respectively. T. VIII. Square and cube roots of numbers to 10,000, to 12 and 7 places ; : , 1 respectively. The table is followed by a page of coefficients, such as a4 1 a 24.6 2. = 9.4.5? &e., to 10 places, and their logarithms to 7 places. Ppl bb. Boner: tables. A, the first 11 powers of numbers from :01 to 1:00 at intervals of ‘01, to 8 places. B, the first 9 powers of numbers from 1 to 100. C, squares and cubes from 1 to 1000. D, the first hundred powers of 1:01, 1:02, 1-025, 1:0275, 1:03, 1:0325, 1:035, 10375, 1-04, 1-045, 1-05, 1-06, to 6 places. E, the first hundred powers of the reciprocals of these numbers, to 7 places. F, the sums of the powers in D: this table therefore gives w+a?+....a” for the values of 2 written down under D, and forn=1, 2,3,.... = 100. G stands in the same relation to E that F does to D. The tables from D to G were calculated for their use in computing interest &c. T. XII. An extended table of Gaussian logarithms. It gives B from A= -000 to A=2-000at intervals of -001, from A=2-00 to A=3:39 at intervals of -Ol,and thence to A =5-0 at intervals of +1, to 5 places. Therearealso given, be- sides, other quantities for the same arguments, viz. C(=A-+B), D(=B+0), E (=A+C), and F (=B—A), all to 5 places, with differences and propor- tional parts (of two kinds) for B and C. T. XIII. Interpolation table, viz. = 4) BS els Se — =) , from «='01 to e=1°00 at intervals of -01, to 7 places; then Silla a page of constants. There are, besides, mortality tables, very complete tables of mea- sures and weights of different countries, &c. The table of 12-place square roots was published here for the first time: it was calculated by Hensel in 1804. The seven-place cube roots, the chord-table, and the new columns of the Gaussian table were calculated by Dr. Michaelis, of Leipzig. The author draws attention to the fact that the last figures in T. VITI. and XII. are given correctly. Itisamatterof sufficient interest to note here that, though the work is called an edition of Vrea, it contains one error from which the other tables known by the name of Vega and published subsequently to his folio of 1794 were free. In Vrace (1628), log 52943 was printed 7238085868 instead of 7238085468, and the error was first pointed out and corrected by Vuea in his folio of 1794. All the seven-figure tables, therefore, from 1628 to 1794 (and several of the subsequent tables also), have 7238086 instead of 7238085; but Vuea’s small editions (the ‘ Manuale’ and ‘ Tabule ’) have the logarithms correctly printed. In Hitssr’s edition, however, the error is reproduced afresh, and the last figure is printed 6. It follows therefore cither that Hiilsse did not reprint Vega’s table, or that, if he did, he noticed the discrepancy, and decided in favour of the erroneous value. Theslight suspicion thus cast on these tables is unfor- ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 109 tunate, as they form a most valuable collection, and are supplemental to Cater. We have scen advertised a second edition (1849) ; and Zxcu’s tables (see Zeon, 1849, § 3, art. 19) are extracted from it. The last-figure error noticed above is the only one of the hereditary Vuace’s errors that appears in the table of the logarithms of numbers; so that but for this curious plunder the present work would have been, we believe, the first to be free from errors of this class (see ‘Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.’ March, 1873). Some remarks by Gauss on T. XII. appear in t. iil. pp. 255-257 of his ‘ Werke.’ Hutton, 1781 (products and powers of numbers). [T. I.] Products to 1000 x 100 (pp. 51). [T’. IL.] Squares and cubes of numbers from 1 to 10,000 (pp. 54-78). [T. IL1.] Squares of numbers from 10,000 to 25,400 (pp. 78-100). [T. 1V.] Table of the first ten powers of numbers from | to 100. Two errors (viz. the last three figures of 81° should be 401, not 101, and the last three of 987 should be 672, not 662) are pointed out by the reporter in the Philosophical Transactions, 1870, p. 370. The remaining three pages of the book are devoted to weights and mea- sures &c. The table is closely printed; and some of the pages contain a great many figures, as there are a hundred lines to the page. De Morgan states that the table has not the reputation of correctness; and the charge is no doubt true, as, besides the two errors noted above (both of which we found on the only page we have used), it is to be inferred from Bartow’s intro- duction to his tables that he found errors; he did not, however, publish any account of them. Hutton, 1858. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000 to 108,000, with proportional parts for all the differences. The change in the line is denoted by a bar placed over the fourth figure of all the logarithms affected. T, II. Logarithms to 1000, and thence for odd numbers to 1199, to 20 laces. T, III. Logarithms from 101,000 to 101,149, to 20 places, with first, second, and third differences, T, IV. Antilogarithms, viz. numbers to logarithms from -00000 to 00149 at intervals of -00001, to 20 places, with first, second, and third differences. T. V. Hyperbolic logarithms from 1-01 to 10-00 at intervals of -01, and for 10?.. ..10°, to seven places. T. VI. Hyperbolic logarithms to 1200, to seven places. T. VIL. Logistic logarithms, viz. log 3600" —log w, from w=1" tow= 5280" (=88') at intervals of 1”, to four places, the arguments being ex- pressed in minutes and seconds. T. VIII. Log sines and tangents to every second of the first two degrees, to seven places; no differences. _. IX. Natural and log sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines for every minute of the quadrant, with differences, to seven places, semiquadrantally arranged. The natural functions occupy the left-hand pages, and the loga- rithmic the right-hand. In both these last two tables the logarithms are all written at full length. T. XI. Circular ares, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°,....180°, of 1’, 2’ ....60', of 1....60", and of 1'" to 60'", to seven places. {. XII. Proportional parts to hundredths of 2:302...., the reciprocal of the modulus. 110 REPORT—1873. Some constants are given in T. XX.; the other tables consist of a traverse table, formule, &e. ; The edition described above | is one of those edited by Olinthus Gregory, and is the last we have met with. ‘The first edition was published in 1785, the second in 1794, the third in 1801, the fifth in 1811, and the sixth, the last published in Hutton’s lifetime (he died 1823), in 1822. We have compared the first, second, and sixth editions, and that of 1858 described above. The first two are nearly identical, so that we need only notice the differences between the tables of 1785, 1822, and 1858. -In both the two former of these editions T. I. only extends to 100,000 ; and while in that of 1785 the change of figure in the line is not marked at all, in that of 1822 the fourth figure in the first logarithm affected only is marked. T. II. is the same in the 1822 edition, but it ends at 1161 instead of 1199 in that of 1785. TT. III. in 1785 ended at 101,139, and is extended to 101,149 in both the other editions, as also did T. IV. originally end at -00139. In the edi- tions of 1785 and 1822 occur two tables that were left out by Gregory in 1830 and in succeeding editions, viz. T. 5, giving logarithms of all numbers to 100, and of primes from 100 to 1100, to 61 places, and T. 6, giving the logarithms of the numbers from 999,980 to 1,000,020, to 61 places, with first, second, third, and fourth differences. T. VI., of hyperbolic logarithms, ap- pears in the edition of 1822, but notin that of 1785. T. VII. extended only to 80' in 1785. To all the first six editions is prefixed Hutton’s introduction, containing a history of logarithms, the different ways in which they may be constructed, &e. This very valuable essay was omitted by Gregory in the seventh (1830) and subsequent editions (on account of its being rather out of place in a col- lection of tables), and with some reason. In the 1785 edition it occupied 180 pp., 55 pp. of which are the “ Description and Use of the Tables.” This portion Gregory retained; and in the 1858 edition it occupied 68 pp. The whole work was reset in the later editions, published in Hutton’s lifetime, the chief additions, as we infer from the preface, having been made in the fifth (1811) edition. On the last page of the 1822 edition are some errata found in Carrer (1783, 1795, and 1801), and also in Taytor (1792); the lists of errors in Garprnrr (London and Avignon) are also more complete than in the earlier editions. Hurron’s tables were the legitimate successors of Surrwrn’s, and bring down to the present time one of the main lines of descent from Viace (see Suerwiy, § 4). Inman, 1871. [T. I.] Logistic logarithms, viz. log 3600'—log # from w =2 to e=3600* (=60”) at intervals of 25, to 5 places. “Arguments « expressed in minutes and seconds. [T. II.] Proportional logarithms, viz. log 10800"—log # to every second to 3° (same as T. 74 of Raver, only to 5 places instead of 4), preceded by a page giving the same for every tenth of a second to 1’. [T. I1.] Log sines at intervals of 1” to 50’, to 6 places. pre rv] Log sines, tangents, and secants at intervals of 1° to 3 (argu- ments also given in arc, the intervals being 15"), to 6 places; the table is followed by a page of proportional parts for use with it. [T. V.] 4 log haversines, viz. $ log semi- versed sines = log sin oy from x=0° to 15° at intervals of 15”, thence to 60° at intervals of 30”, and thence to 180° at intervals of 1’, to 6 places (arguments also in time). Note.—In several instances in this table ' is misprinted for ". [T. VI.] Log haversines, Same as previous table, except that 2 log sin ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 111 ; 5 is the function tabulated; so that all the results are double those in [T. Y.], and that the intervals are 15" up to 135°, and then 1’ to 180°. [T. VII.] Six-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 1000 to 10,000 in de- eades, with proportional parts. [T. VILI.| Natural versed sines to every second (of time) to 36”, to 6 places. [T. IX.] Natural versed sines to every minute (of arc) to 180°, to 6 places, with complete proportional parts for every second up to 60”. The other tables are nautical. The paging of the book runs at the top of the pages to 216, and thence at the bottom to 275; it then recommences at the top at p. 217. This is no doubt caused by [T. V., VI.] having been introduced in this edition only. We have seen the original work, ‘ Nautical Tables designed for the use of British Seamen, by James Inman, D.D. London, 1830’ (400 pp. of tables), but have not compared the two together: except for the “ haversines,” how- ever, the tables seem to be nearly identical in the two editions, Inman’s ‘ Navigation and Nautical Astronomy’ (2nd edit.), Portsea, 1826, contains no tables. - Irsengarth, 1810, These are merely land tables, and the units (Ruthe, Fuss, &c.) are so special that they do not appear to possess any mathema- tical value. Jahn, 1837. Vol. I. Six-figure logarithms to 100,000; the change in the line is denoted by a dagger (f) prefixed to the fourth figure of all loga- rithms affected. There are no proportional parts on the page; but they are given in a separate table at the end. Vol. II. Logarithmic sines and tangents for every second of the first degree ; log sines and tangents for every third second of the quadrant (semi- quadrantally arranged): all to 6 places. Proportional parts are given in the extreme right and left columns of the double page for every twentieth of the three-second interval. The introductory matter is both in German and Latin. We rather like the paper on which the second volume is printed ; though not of a good quality, it is thick and stiff, and of a brownish colour, so that the book could be, we think, used for a long time at once without injury to the eye: the first volume (in the copy before us), however, is printed on paper of the soft, flaccid kind common in German books. The author was led to publish his tables by observing that nearly all those in use were either five- or seven-figure tables. We have seen, by the same author, ‘Tafeln zur Berechnung fiir Kubik- Tnhalt &c.,’ 2nd edit., Leipzig, 1847; but the tables are commercial (argu- ments expressed in Zolle, Ellen, &c.), and do not need notice here. Kerigan, 1821. TT. VIII. Log sines for every second to 2°, and thence, at intervals of 5”, to 90°, to six places; in this latter part of the table pro- portional parts for seconds are added, so that the table practically gives log sines to every second; arranged quadrantally. The logarithms are all printed at length. T. IX. Natural sines from 0° to 90° at intervals of 10", to six places ; no differences; the sines written at length. T. X. Six-figure logarithms from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional parts ; arranged as is usual in seven-figure tables; the change in the line is marked by the ciphers after the change in the third place being filled in, so as to render them black circles, - 112 REPORT—1873. T. XI. Logarithmic Rising, viz. log yersed sines from 0” to 8 at inter- _ vals of 5°, with proportional parts to seconds, to 5 places: the logarithms are written at length. T. XII. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to four places ; same as I’. 74 of Raper. T. XIII. Small table to convert arc into time: the other tables are nautical, Kohler, 1832. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to 10,000, arranged con- secutively in columns, with differences and characteristics ; the degrees, min- utes, &e. for every thirtieth number are added. (T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to five places, with differences. [T. III.] Gavss’s table (§ 3, art. 19); viz. B and C are given for argument A from -000 to 2-000 at intervals of :001, thence to 3: 40 at intervals of #01, and to 5 at intervals of -1, to five places, with differences. There are besides a few constants; the introduction is in French and German. Kohler, 1848. [T.I.] Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000 to 108,000 (this last 8000 being to 8 places), with differences and proportional parts ; the change in the line is denoted by a bar placed over the fourth figure of all the logarithms affected. The constants 8 and T (§ 3, art. 13) and the variation are given at the top of the page, asalso is the number of degrees, minutes, &c. corresponding to every tenth number. At the end are the first hundred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal to 8 places, and a small table to convert arc into time. (T. IL.] Gaussian logarithms : B and C are given to5 places (with differences) for A =:000 to 2: 000 at intervals of -001, thence to 3°40 at intervals of -01, and to 5:0 at intervals of :1 (same as Gauss’ s table 1812, § 3, art 19). [T. III.] Briggian logarithms of primes from 2 to 1811, to 11 places, fol- lowed by 2 pages of constants, some weights and measures, &e. [T. IV.] Log sines, tangents, and ares (all equal) for every second to 1'; and log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents for intervals of 10” to 10°, and thence for intervals of 1’ to 45°, to 7 places, with differences for one second. (T. V.] Circular measure of 1°, 2°....100°, 110°... .300°, 330°, 360°, of 1', 2'....60', and of 1”, 2" 60", to 11 places. Then follow some for- mule, and we come to the second part of the work, ‘ Mathematische Tafeln, die oft gebraucht werden,’ containing :— T. I. Hyperbolic logarithms (to 8 places) of numbers from 1 to 1000, and of primes from 1000 to 10,000. T. IL. The first 45, 36, and 27 powers of 2, 3, and 5 respectively. T. Ill. e from w=-01 to 10-00 at intervals of -01 to 7 figures. T. IV. The first ten powers of numbers from 1 to 100, T. V. Squares of numbers from 1 to 1000. JT. VI. Cubes of numbers from 1 to 1000. T. VIL. Square and cube roots (to 7 places) of all numbers from 1 to 1000. T. VIII. Factor tables, giving all divisors of all numbers not prime or divisible by 2, 3, or 5, from unity to 21,524. T. IX. To express minutes and seconds as decimals of a degree &e. T. X. Binomial-theorem coefficients, viz. x etext) Re, ee ; t poh ee teqs? 45 2 from v='01 to 1:00 at intervals of -01, to 6 places. ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 118 us Ie il ALC. 7 Q4 5" &e., with their logarithms, There are 40 in all; and the table T. XI. Decimal values of certain coefficients, such as 1.3 2.4.6.7 occupies one page. A reward of a louis d’or was offered for every error found in the first edition ; all the errors so found are corrected in the second, here described. Lalande, 1805. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 10,000, arranged consecutively in columns, with differences. [T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places. An explanation of 34 pp. is prefixed. Lalande, 1829. [T. I.] Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000, arranged in columns with characteristics and differences ; the number of degrees, minutes, &c. for the first number in each column (viz. for every thirtieth number) is given at the top. [T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to 7 places, with differences. : Lambert, 1798. TT. I. Divisors of all numbers up to 102,000 not diyi- sible by 2, 3, or 5. If the number is the produét of only two prime factors, then the least only is given; but if of more than two, the others are given, except the largest. The table therefore gives all the simple factors except the greatest. The letters f, g, h, &c. are used for 11, 13, 17, &c. (as explained on p. xviii of the introduction), not only because they occupy less room, but also because they can be placed in contact without risk of mistake; the least factor, however, is always written at length. T. IL. Abacus numerorum primorum, viz. first 10 multiples of all the primes up to 313. T. III. Seven products, cach of seven consecutive primes, from 7 to 173. T. IV. List of the three-figure endings that squares of odd numbers admit of. T. VI. Primes from 1 to 101,977. T. VIL.-IX. Powers of 2 to 2", of 3 to 3%, of 5 to 5”, Booting * (to, places) for'a==-1,\-2) 9.951) 2.0. Lo 10: T. XUI. & XV. Hyperbolic logarithms (to’7 places) of numbers from 1 to 100, and from 1-01 to 10-00 at intervals of -01, respectively. T. XIV. & XVI. contain log, 16, 10° ...10", to 7 places, and log, 2 oe “9 1 3...10, and log, 10? to 25 places, T. XVII. Tables of numbers of the form 2", 3", 5, 7% arranged in order up to 11,200. T. XXIII. Circular measure of 1°, 2°. . .100°, 120°, 150°, 180°. . 360°, of 1’, 2’. ..10', 20'.. .60', and of 1”, 2”... .10", 20". . .60", to 27 places. T. XXIV. ¢=10000'm; ¢, ¢°.. .6"° expressed in terms of m (in circular measure), to 16 places, and sin ¢, cos ¢ expressed in terms of m with decimal ; 1 coefficients, to 18 places. Also x, log z, Fa) ¥ x, &e, to a good many places. T. XXY. Natural sines to every degree and their first 9 multiples, to 5 places. T. XXVI. Sines, tangents, and secants, and log sines and tangents to every degree, to 7 places. T. XXIX. Table for facilitating the solution of cubic equations, viz. a= +(v—2") from w=-001 to 1-155 at intervals of 001, to 7 places, 1873. I 114 REPORT—1878. T. XXXII. Functiones hyperbolice circularibus analoge. Q q being a rectangular hyperbola, centre C, P C Q is the so-called angulus transcendens = @ say, q CQ the angulus communis = say; p gis the hyperbolic sine, C p the hyperbolic cosine, and C q Q the sector ; so that if the hyperbola be xv’ —y=1, w=sec ¢ and y=tan ¢. LE y | @ £L The argument is , and proceeds from 0° to 90° at intervals of 1°; and the table gives the sector, ¥, x, log y, log a, tan Ww, log tan W and y, all ex- cept the last to 7 places, and the last to one decimal of a second. : J. XXXV. & XXXVI. Squares and cubes of numbers from 1 to 1000. : 1 T. XXXVII. Figurate numbers (first 12 series), viz. 2, a(x+1) i232 a(e+l)\(@+2) ax(w+1)..(#+11 : oe a a 123...12 from w=1 to 30. T. XL. First 11 powers of 01, -02, -03...1:00, to 8 places. 1 1 T. XLIV. Coefficients of the first 16 termsin (14+«)* and (1+) , their accurate values being given as decimals. Besides the above, T. XIX. gives sin 8°, 6°. . .89° in radicals, and T. XLII. the first 6 or 9 convergents to f2, 73, 75...712 as vulgar fractions. The other tables contain formule &e. The work is edited by Felkel, who has prefixed a Prefatio Interpretis of Xl pp., giving a description of his (Felkel’s) tables of divisors &e.; and there is also added at the end an account of his proposed scheme of tables in rela- tion to the theory of numbers. About Felkel, see Frrxen, 1776, § 3, art. 8. The titlepage states that this is a translation from a German edition. The original was entitled ‘“ Zusitze zu den logarithmischen und trigonometrischen Tabellen,’’ and was published in 1770 ; or, at all events, De Morgan’s deserip- tion of the contents of this latter work, which we have not seen, agrees, as far as it goes, almost entirely with the ‘Supplementa’ &c., which De Morgan had heard of, but not seen. The introduction to the latter shows signs of having been amplified by Felkel. hax, 1821. JT. XIV. Proportional logarithms, viz. log 10800" —log a from w=0" to w=10800" (=8°) at intervals of 1” (the arguments being expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds), to five places. On the first page, however, which extends to 10’, only two, three, or four places are given cor- rectly, the number being filled up to five by adding ciphers; facing 0° 0' 0” there is given 4:88.. instead of —a. T, XVII. Natural versed, suversed, coversed, and sucoversed sines, viz. 1—cos w and 1+ cos w for every minute of the quadrant, to six places, with proportional parts for 1, 2",..60", so that the tabular results can be taken out very easily to seconds. It may be observed that of the double columns ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 115 headed ' and " the first refers to the argument and the second to the propor- tional parts. This table occupies pp. 57-80 of the book. T. XVIII. six-figure logarithms to 15,500, with proportional parts at the foot of the page to twentieths for the portion beyond 1000. The table is so arranged that all the logarithms are given at full length, though this is not the case with the numbers ; for example, to find the logarithm of 15184 we seek 15150 at the head of the column, and line 34 in the column: this defect might have been partially remedied by the introduction of another. column at the right-hand side of the page containing the numbers 50, 51...99. The other tables, 22 in number, are nautical. Esynn, 1827. TT. Z. (pp. 244-283). A sexagesimal proportional table, exhibiting at sight, in minutes, seconds, and tenths of a second, the fourth term in any proportion in which the first term is 60 minutes, the second term any number of minutes under 60 minutes, and the third term any number of minutes and seconds under 10 minutes. Ifthe second term is not an exact number of minutes the table can still be used, though two operations are 4 , ‘ cee Lae required. The table may be described as giving ai in minutes, seconds, &c., w (running down the column) being 1’, 2’... 60’, and y (running along the top lines) extending to 10’ at intervals of 1". T. E. (pp. 288, 289). Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24", viz. log 1440” —log w, from v=1™ to c=1860" (=31") at intervals of unity, the arguments being expressed in hours (or degrees) and minutes, to four places; the other tables are nautical. Mackay, 1810 (vol. ii.). T. XLI, Natural versed sines for every ten seconds to 180°, to six places. T. XLY. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, with differences; the logarithms written at length. T. XLVI. Log sines to every ten seconds of the quadrant, to six places. T. XLVIT. Log tangents to every ten seconds of the quadrant, to six places. T. XLVIII-L. Yo find the latitude by double altitudes of the sun or stars and the elapsed time. The first and second of these tables give log cosec # and log (2 sin v) from #=0" to v=3" 59™ 50% at intervals of 10°; and the third gives log versed sines to 7" 59™ 50° at intervals of 105, all to five places, the logarithms being written at length. These tables were copied, according to the author (see note, vol. ii. p. 31), from the second edition (1801). of this work without acknowledgment into Norre’s ‘ Epitome of Navigation.’ T. LI. Proportional logarithms to every second to 8°, to four } places ; same as T. 74 of Rarer ; the other tables are nautical. The table of natural versed sines was calculated for this work, and ap-. peared in the first edition (1793) ; it has since, the author states, been fre- quently copied (see note, vol. ii. p. 13). Hiaseres, 1795. This is a collection of reprints of tracts, and, among others, of “An Appendix to the English Translation of Rhonius’s German Treatise of Algebra, made by Mr. Thomas Brancker, M.A.,...At London, in the year 1668..... ” And on pp. 867-416 is given “Thomas Brancker’s Table of Incomposit or prime Numbers, less than 100,000,” viz. least factors of all numbers up to 100,000 not divisible by 2 or 5. On p. 366 is arather long list of errors in the table (we suppose Maseres reprinted verbatim from his copy, as some of the errata are corrected and some are not), and also some errors in Guldinus, Schooten, and Rhonius. The table is preceded (pp. 364, 365) nyt A Tarriffo, or Table, of all Incomposit or prime numbers loss than 100,000, multiplied by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.” 12 116 REPORT—1873. On pp. 591, 592, T. XIX. of Dopson’s ‘ Calculator,’ 1747 (viz. square and cube roots of numbers less than 180, to 6 places), is reprinted; and on pp. 595-604 are reciprocals (to 9 places) and square roots (to 10 places) of numbers from 1 to 1000, reprinted (as Maseres states in the preface) from vol. iv. of Hutton’s ‘ Miscellanea Mathematica’ (1775, 4 vols. 12mo). Maskelyne (Requisite Tables), 1802. T. XV. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places; same as T. 74 of Rarer. _ I. XVI. For computing the latitude of a ship at sea, &c. The arguments run from 0" to 6" at intervals of 10°; and there are three columns of tabular results headed Log 3 Elap. time, Log Mid. time, Log rising, which give respectively log cosec w, log (2 sin #), and log vers sin w, to 5 places; the log rising is also continued for arguments from 6" to 9" at the same intervals. This table, modified in form &e., is reproduced in Mackay, Douxn, &e. (see § 3, art. 15, p. 68, and Bownrrcn, 1802), and is sometimes called by Maskelyne’s name. T. XVII. Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places, T. XVIII. Five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000. T. XIX. Log sines, secants, and tangents to every minute of the qua- drant, to 5 places; the sines are given to 6 places, the last being separated from the rest by a point; the other tables are nautical. Maskelyne’s name does not appear on the titlepage to these tables; but the preface is signed by him. Appenpix To THE Tutrp Eprrion. TI. Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, with proportional parts for seconds, T. II. Natural versed sines for every minute to 120°, with proportional parts for seconds. T. III. Logarithms of numbers to 1000, arranged consecutively, and printed in groups of five; and thence to 100,000 grouped in decades, with proportional parts for each decade by its side. All the tables in the Appen- dix are to six places. Copies of the Appendix were circulated separately. Minsinger, 1845. [T. I.] Scven-figure logarithms to 100 and from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional parts at the foot of the page; the sixth place is separated by a comma from the seventh, for convenience if the table is to be used tosix places. The change in the line is denoted by an asterisk attached to all the logarithms affected. [T. II.} Squares, cubes, and square and cube roots (to 6 places) of all numbers from 1 to 100, and squares and cubes only of numbers from 100 to 1000. Then follow a few constants and [T.IV.] primes to 1000. Moore, Sir Jonas, 1681. ['T. I.] Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000 (arranged as is now usual), with differences: the proportional parts ['T. II. ] are given by themselves at the end, and occupy 22 pp. This may be regarded as a separate table, containing proportional parts (to tenths) of numbers from 44 to 4320—the interval being 2 to 900, 3 to 999, 4 to 1415, 5 to 2000, and 10 to 4320. (T. III.] Natural and log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant, to 7 places (semiquadrantally arranged), without differences, It may be remarked that many of the N’s at the top of the columns are imperfectly printed, and appear like V’s; thus N. tangent is often printed Y. tangent, [T. IV.] (pp. 262-351). Natural and log versed sines from 0° to 90° to evcry minute, to 7 places. De Morgan says that this is the first appearance of this table in England. The other tables relate to navigation, geography, &e. [Moore, Sir Jonas, 1681] (Versed sines). Natural and log versed sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 7 places, semiquadrantally arranged, ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, pk The copy of this tract before us (which is bound up in a volume with several others, and belongs to the Cambridge University Library) is clearly . either a separate reprint or merely a table torn out from some larger work. The paging runs from 262 to 351: at the beginning there is a plate, the size of the page, of a person observing with a sextant, and the words * between page 248 and 249” below in the left hand-corner, and at the end a diagram with a movable circle and pointer, headed ‘‘ The fore part of the Nocturnall or side held next the face in time of observation,” and “ between page 254 and 255” below. On examination we find the table is [T. IV.] of Sir Jonas Moorn’s ‘Systeme of the Mathematicks,’ 1681, just described. The engravings do not, however, appear to be taken from either volume of this work. It is very likely that this table was merely torn out from the work, and was never published separately ; still as, according to De Morgan, this is the first appearance of such a2 table in England, it is not improbable that copies may have been in request, and therefore issued separately. J.H. Moore, 1814. T. III. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter-point, to 5 places. T. IV. Five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000. T. V. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to © places, T. XXIII. Log 3 elapsed time, mid. time, and rising (for explanation of these terms see IT, XVI. of Masxetynen, § 4) for every 10° to 6", except the last, which is to 9", to 5 places. The tables are separated as in Mackay. T. XXIV. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places. T. XXY. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places ; same as.T. 74 of Rapmr. We have seen the 18th edition (1810), which is identical with that above described, an edition of 1793, and the 9th edition (1791) (the last two not edited by Dessiou). All contain the tables described in this account (though the order is different), except that the tables in T. XXIII. are not separated; the log rising is only given to 6°, and the intervals also 30%, in the two earlier editions. Three out of the four editions contain different portraits of the author. Muller, 1844. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 1500, and four-figure logarithms from 100 to 1000. [T. II.] Table of Gaussian logarithms in a somewhat modified form, viz. S and U to 4 places, from A=-0000 to -0300 at intervals of -0001, thence to 230 at intervals of 001, and from -20 to 2-00 at intervals of -01, and thence to 4-0 at intervals of -1, with differences ; where pe 2 [T. III.] Squares of numbers from 0 to 1 at intervals of -0001, to 4 places, and quarter squares of numbers from 0 to 2 at the same intervals, also to 4 places (intended for use in the method of least squares). [T. IV.] Four-place log sines and tangents for every second to 10’, thence at intervals of 10’ to 1°, thence at intervals of 1' to 4°, and to 90° at intervals of 10’. There are given also:—the circular measure (to 12 places) of 1°, 2°... 10°, 1’... 10’ and 1”... 10"; 12 constants involving x; natural sines and tangents to every half degree ; and a few three-figure logarithms, A=loegew, S= log (1 + ‘) and U = log ve 118 REPORT—18708. John Newton, 1658. [T. I.] Logarithms to 1000, to 8 places, and logarithms from 10,000 to 100,000, also to 8 places. A column is added to _ each page containing the logarithms of the differences, to 5 places. [T.I1.] Log sines and tangents (semiquadrantally arranged) for every centesimal minute (viz. nine-thousandth part of aright angle), to 8 places, with differences. [T. I1T.] Log sines and tangents for the first three degrees of the quadrant, to 5 places, the interval being the one thousandth part of a degree. Loga~- rithms of the differences to 8 places are added. _ The trigonometrical tables are thus of the kind introduced by Brrees, and are partly centesimal (see § 3, art. 15, p. 64), This is the only extensive eight-figure table that has been published; and it is also remarkable on account of the logarithms of the differences, instead of the differences, being given. It seems worth consideration whether, in the event of a republication of Vuace, 1628, it would not be advantageous to replace the differences by their logarithms. It is usually most convenient, if many logarithms are to be taken out at one time, to interpolate for the last five figures in a ten- figure table by means of an ordinary seven-figure table; but in other cases recourse is generally had to simple division, and the natural differences are best. The table would occupy too much space if both the differences and their logarithms were added; and there is not much chance of two publi- cations ever being made, one with natural, and the other with logarithmic, differences. If the choice had to be made, the decision would probably be in favour of the simple differences as they are, though a good deal might be urged on the other side. A few errata are given at the end of the address to the reader, and a great many more on the last page; the tables, however, reproduce nearly all. - Vxaca’s errors, which affect the first 8 places (see ‘Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.’ March 1873). This was the first table in which the arrange- ment, now universal in seven-figure tables (viz. with the fifth figures run- ning horizontally along the top line of the page), was used. The change of the third figure in the line is not noted. The title of this work being the ‘Trigonometria Britannica’ (printed ‘ Britanica’ on the titlepage), it is often confounded with Briaas’s work of this name, Gouda, 1633 (§ 3, art. 15), from which it is derived. Also, as Gellibrand’s name appears on the titlepage it is sometimes attributed to him in catalogues. In the Cambridge University Library is a copy of this book, in which the titlepage and introduction are absent, the first page being the titlepage to the tables, so that the work is anonymous. Whether some copies of the tables ee were published, or whether the copy in question is imperfect, we do not now. Worie, 1836. T. XXIII. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quar- ter-point, to 7 places, T. XXIV. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000, with differences. T. XXYV. Log sines and tangents to every ten seconds to 2°, and log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with differences, | T. XXVI. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places. T. XXVIT=XXIX. 7% Jind the latitude by double altitudes and the elapsed time. Log 3 elap. time, middle time, and rising (for explanation of these terms see I’. XVI. of Maskrzyns, § 4) are given at intervals of 5%, the two former to 6",.and the last to 9", to 5 places, with proportional ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 119 -parts. The three tables are separated, as is now usual (see Mackay, § 4, T, XLVIITI.). T. XXXI. Logarithms for finding the apparent time or horary angle, viz. log 1— 5" = = 2 log sin 5) from v = 0" tow = 9" at intervals of 58, to 5 places, with proportional parts for seconds. T. XXXIV. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°; same as T. 74 of Rarer. T. XXXVI. Natural versed sines to every minute of the quadrant, with proportional parts for every second of the minute-interval, to 6 places. The other tables are nautical. These tables also appear in Norre’s ‘ Epi- tome of Navigation.’ Worie (Epitome), 1844. The tables are the same as in Norte’s Nautical ‘Tables just described; they: are added after the explanatory portion, which occupies 328 pp, On the different editions, see Nortn’s Epitome in § 5. NWorwoed, 1631. Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000, and log sines and tangents to every minute, to 7 places, semiquadrantally arranged: of the latter we have seen separate copies under the title, “A triangular canon logarithmicall” (the title it has also in the work). The editions we have seen are :—first, 1631; second, 1641; third, 1656; seventh, 1678. This was one of the first small tables in which the trigonometrical canon was derived from Vuace, 1628, and not Gunter, 1620, Oppolzer, 1866. Four-figure logarithms, with proportional parts to 1000, A page of Gaussian logarithms, after Fimrrowsk1, and a page of pro- portional parts. Log sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents to 10° at intervals of 1’, with differences, and from 10° to 45° at intervals of 10’, with differ- ‘ences and proportional parts, all to 4 places. Oughtred, 1657. [(T.1.] Sines, tangents, and secants (to 7 places) and log sines and tangents (to 6 places) for every centesimal minute (= 5,55 of a ‘right angle) of the quadrant. Sines, tangents, and secants on the left-hand page of the opening, and cosines, cotangents, and cosecants, &c, (though not 80 called or denoted) on the right-hand page. _ [T. IL.] Seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 10,000, followed by a ‘ Tabula differentiarum ’ for the sines and tangents, Tn an appendix at the end of the book it is explained that the logarithmic sines and tangents were intended by the author to consist of seven figures after the index, but that “the seventh figure was unhappily left out.” This is also referred to in the dedication. Ozanam, 1685. Natural sines, tangents, and secants, and log sines and tangents, and logarithms of numbers to 10,000, all to 7 places. There are 120 pp. of trigonometry &c. De Morgan points out that the tables are really Viacq’s, though his name is not mentioned, and takes occasion very truly to remark how many authors have considered that the merit of their books con- sisted in the trigonometry, and that the tables (which usually form by far the greater part of the work) were accessories of which no notice need be taken. . Parkhurst, 1871, This little book contains forty-two tables, with the last two of which this Report is not concerned. In describing briefly their contents, it will be convenient to mention first the tables which contain results most common in other works, such as logarithms &e., viz.:— T. IL., II1., and IX. Logarithms from 1 to 109, to 102 places. _T. V. Multiples of the modulus -43429...from 10 to 96, to 35 places. T. XII, Logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 2199 at intervals of unity, 120 REPORT—1878. from 2200 to 2998 at intervals of 2, from 3000 to 4995 at intervals of 5; all to 10 places (from Vuiace). T. XIII. Logarithms of numbers from 200 to 1199, to 20 places (from CALurt). T. XIV. (continuation of T. XIII.). Logarithms of numbers from 1200 to 1399 at intervals of unity, from 1400 to 2998 at intervals of 2, from 3005 to 4995 at intervals of 10; all to 20 places. T. XVIII. Logarithms of primes from 113 to 1129, to 61 places (from CaLier). T. XX., XXI., XXII. A table of least divisors of numbers to 10,190, and, for certain divisors, to 100,000. Multiples of 2, 3, 5, 7, aud 11 are excluded; it is very inconveniently arranged, and is moreover imperfect. T. XXIII. Primes to 12,239. T. XXV. Reciprocals from 300 to 3299, to 7: places, arranged like an ordi- nary table of seven-figure logarithms. T. XXVI. Products of the numbers from 200 to 399 by the digits 1,2...9, and squares from 200? to 3997, T. XXVII., XXVIII. A few logarithms and antilogarithms, to 3 places, and a similar small table to 4 places. T. XXX., XXXI. Natural and log sines and tangents &e., to 4 places. T. XXXII. Binomial-theorem coefficients (the first six for indices from unity to 40), and squares from 1? to 200%, y : T. XXXII, XXXIV. Multiplication table from 16 x 13 to 99 x 98, and multiplication table of squares from 16? x 13 to 99? x 98. T. XXXYV., XXXVII., XXXVIII. Antilogarithms, logarithms to 8 places, and log sines. : The other tables are :— T. IV. Logarithms of factors, 102 decimals. T. VI. Secondary multi- ples. T. VII. Factors to 3 decimals. T. VIII. Logarithms of factors, 31 decimals. ‘I. X. Factors to 61 decimals. T. XI. Log F, for logarithms to 10 decimals. T. XV., XVI., XVII. Logarithms to 20 decimals of factors. T. XTX. Constants derived from the modulus. T. XXIV. Log p, for addition and subtraction. T. XXIX. Subtraction logarithms. T. XXXVI. Factors. T. XXXIX., XL. Interpolations, Bessel’s coefficients. Most of these tables are tabulated for their use in the calculation of logarithms by well-known methods. The arrangement of the work is most confused; and it would be very difficult to understand from the author’s description the objects of his tables. The paging of the book runs from 1 to 176; and this portion includes all the tables. Then Part 2 commences, and the pages are numbered afresh from 1 to 88. In Part 3 the pages pro- ceed from 1 to 27. Parts 2 and 3 are occupied with a description of the tables ; and the reader who wishes to understand the meaning of the nota- tion (which is often needlessly complex and confusing, to save the space of a few figures), &c., is recommended to begin at Part 3, p. 5. It would take too much room, even if it were worth while, to explain the tables in detail; but it may be stated that the tables (for the construction of logarithms of factors) give the yalues of log (1+ sp.)ona log ¢ —i9 for different values of m and n ‘to a great many places, as required in Weddle’s and similar methods. It will save the reader some trouble to mention that by 2m in the ) Generally book is meant log (1 +i) and by — ny in, — log oe ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 121 the m is left out, where it is thought the context prevents risk of mistake ; and instead of —n Sm there is sometimes written ns m, and the heading *“cologarithm.” The last page of the book, headed (wrongly) Table XXXIIT., contains a very imperfect list of the abbreviations used. It is to be inferred from the Preface &c., that the book was set up and electrotyped by the author himself, who states that ‘it is probable that there is not now a single error in the whole table.” The reward of a copy of the book is also offered to the first finder of any important error under certain condi- tions. Parts of the book, in the copy before us, are very badly printed, so badly in fact that one or two pages are wholly illegible ; and the tables are so crowded that we should think no one would use them who could procure any others that could be made todo as well. In fact the author’s object seems to have been to crowd the greatest possible amount of tabular matter into the smallest space, without any regard to clearness. It is stated in the work that in the course of the printing, incomplete copies (some containing proofs almost illegible) were distributed to the author’s friends ; and an advertisement on the cover states that copies containing proofs rejected in the printing may be had at different prices according to their completeness and the order of the tables. The book is printed phonetically ; and this adds to the awkwardness of the most confused, badly printed, and ill-explained series of tables we have met with in the preparation of this Report. By issuing his tables in the form and manner he has adopted, the author has not done justice to himself, as several are the results of original calculation and are not to be met with elsewhere. Pasquich, 1817. T. I. Five-figure logarithms to 10,000 (arranged consecutively im columns), without differences. _ T. IL. Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 0’ to 56’ at in- tervals of 10”, thence to 1° at intervals of 20”, and thence to 45° at intervals of 1',.with differences for 1". Also squares of natural sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents from 1° to 45° at intervals of 1’, all to 5 places. De Morgan says, ‘This trigonometrical canon in squares is, we suppose, almost unique.” T. III. Gaussian logarithms. B and C (same notation as in Gauss), to 5 places, with differences, for argument A, from A=-000 to A=2-000 at intervals of -001, from A=2-00 to A=3-40 at intervals of ‘01, and from A=3-4 to A=5 at intervals of -1. This table is the same as that originally given by Gauss, 1812 (§ 3, art. 19). A few constants &c. are added in an Appendix. A lengthy review of this work by Gauss appeared in the ‘ Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen’ for Oct. 4, 1817. It is reprinted on pp. 246-250 of t. iii. of his ‘ Werke.’ Pearson, 1824. Vol. I. contains 296 large quarto pages of tables; but only three pages come within the range of this Report, viz.:—[T.I.], p. 109, a one-page table to convert space into time, and vice versd. [T. II.], p. 261, which expresses 1°, 2°, 3°... .360°, and 1’, 2’... .60' as decimals of the cir- cumference of the circle to 4 and 5 places respectively ; and [T. III.], p. 262, which gives the circular measure of 1°, 2°.,..180°, of 1’, 2'....60! and of 1", 2"... .60", to 8 places. The other tables are nautical, astronomical &e. Peters, 1871. [T. I.] pp. 16, 17. Hundredths, thousandths, ten-thou- sandths, hundred-thousandths and millionths of a day expressed in minutes and seconds. [(T. II.] pp. 18, 19. For the conversion of are into time, and vice versd. 122 REPORT—1873. [T. III.] pp. 20, 21. Lengths of circular arcs, viz, 1°, 2°, 3°..,.96°, thence to 115° at intervals of 5°, and to 360° at intervals of 10°, 1', 2’... .60', and 1”, 2",,..60", expressed in circular measure, to 7 places. wa — 1) [T. IV.]. Interpolation tables. Table I. (p. 103) gives ary Gan ae dh: ange ee? ie 2) from v=00 to v=1-00 at 45 intervals of -01—the first function to 5 places (with differences), and the second and third to 4 places (without differences). It will be noticed that on writing 1 — w for w, the first and third functions are unaltered, while only a change of sign is produced in the second. It is thus sufficient to tabulate them only from 0 to -50, and to write the arguments down the column from 0:00 to ‘50, and upwards from ‘50 to 1:00, attending to the sign of the second fune- tion ; and this is accordingly the arrangement in the table. Table II. (pp. 104, , and rate — 1) oa? — 1) x(a? — 1)\(2? — 4) 2 Be, Aa). tah Ba OMNES E adr 105) contains ie 2 = 0:00 tov = 1:00 at intervals of -01, the first to 5 and the others to 4 places, The first two have differences added. [T. V.] (pp. 106-150). Natural sines, tangents, and secants throughout the quadrant to every minute, to 5 places, without differetices. [T. VI.] (pp. 151-169). Table of squares to 10,000, arranged as in a table of logarithms, the last figures of the squares (which must be 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9) being printed once for all at the bottom of the columns. The other tables are either astronomical or meteorological. There are 13 pp. of formule. Rankine, 1866. TT. I. Squares, cubes, reciprocals (to 9 places) and five- figure logarithms of numbers from 100 to 1000. T. 14. Square and cube roots (to 7 places), and reciprocals (to 9 places) of primes from 2 to 97. T, 2. Squares and fifth powers of numbers from 10 to 99. T, 2 a. Prime factors of numbers up to 256. T. 38. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 100, to 5 places. T. 3 a. Ten multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal. T. 4. Multipliers for the conversion of circular lengths and areas, viz. a few multiples of z and its reciprocal, square roots, &c. 2 T. 5. Circumferences and areas of circles, viz. rd (to 2 places), and ps (to the nearest integer), from d=101 to d= 1000. T. 6. Ares, sines, and tangents for every degree, to 5 places. Raper, 1846. TT. I. Six-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100 and ~ from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional parts at the foot of the page. T. I. Log sines for every second from 0° to 1° 30!, to five places. T. III. Log sines for every ten seconds from 1° 30’ to 4°31’, to 6 places, with proportional parts. T. IV. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every half minute of the qua- drant, to 6 places, with proportional parts. . ~ ; T. V. A page of constants. r Raper, 1857. T. 21.4. Logarithms for reducing daily variations, viz. log 1440" = log w, from « = 1™ to w = 1440™ (= 24") at intervals of a minute, to 4 places, the arguments being expressed in hours and minutes. T. 64. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, arranged as is usual in seven-figure tables, except that the logarithms are ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 123 ‘printed at full length; the proportional parts are given at the foot of the age. 3 T. 65. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter point, to six places. T. 66, Log sines of small arcs, viz. for each second to 1° 30’, thence (T. 67) for every ten seconds to 4°31', to 6 places, the logarithms being printed at length; T’. 67 has proportional parts. T. 68. Log sines, tangents, and secants (printed at full length) for every half minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with differences and proportional parts for 1”, 2”....30" (= half a minute) beyond 38°, semiquadrantally arranged; arguments also expressed in time. T. 69, Log sin? = from # = 0 to a = 180° at intervals of 15” (arguments expressed also in time), to 6 places; all the logarithms printed at fulllength ; no differences, T. 74. Proportional logarithms, viz. log 10800" — log w from # = 1 to a@ = 10800" ( = 3° or 3") to every second, the arguments being expressed in degrees (or hours), minutes, and seconds, to 4 places ; the other tables are nautical &c. Reynaud, 1818: The trigonometry occupies 182 pages; and after the diagrams are inserted Lananpr’s logarithms, which are quite disconnected from the work. r [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to 10,000, arranged in columns, with cha- racteristics and differences ; the number of degrees, minutes, &c. for the first number in each column (viz. for every thirtieth number) is given at the top. [T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places, with | differences. Riddle, 1824. T.IV. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every point and quarter point of the compass, to 6 places. T. V. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, with differences, arranged as usual, T. VI. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with differences, semiquadrantally arranged. [The heading of this table in the book is inaccurate. | ' T. XXVIII. Natural versed and suversed sines, viz. 1—cos v and 1+-cos w, for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with proportional parts for 1”, 2"... 60", so that the tabular results can be taken out very easily to seconds. The extreme left- and right-hand columns serve both for minutes im the arguments and for multiples in the proportional parts. The first figure of the versed sine and the first two of the suversed sine are generally omitted throughout. T. XXIX. ‘Proportional logarithms, viz. log 10800” — log w from a = 0 to x = 10800" (= 3° or 3°), the arguments expressed i in degrees or hours, minutes, and seconds at intervals of 1”, to 4 places. The book contains 34 tables, the rest of which are nautical. The navi- gation &c. occupies 299 pages. Rios, 1809. The first edition was published in 1806; and this is the second. The tables are identical with those in the Spanish reprint of 1850 described below, so that the description of the latter will suffice. The numbers both of the tables and the pages are the same in both; and the only difference is that the headings of the tables &c. in the 1809 edition are in English. A list of errors in this edition is given in the reprint of 1850. Although the title of the Spanish reprint is given in the listin § 5, we have : 124 REPORT—1873. thought it would be more conyenient to give the work the date of 1809, as this more properly represents the time of appearance than does 1850. | T. XIV. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 5 places. This table only differs from T. 74 of Raprr in there being 5 instead of 4 places given. T. XV. Five-figure logarithms of numbers from 10 to 10,200, with the corresponding degrees, minutes, and seconds. T. XVI. (pp. 382-472). Log sines, cosines, secants, cosecants, versed, co- versed, suversed, and sucoversed from 0° to 45° at intervals of 15” (with arguments also in time), to 5 places. The term “ versed” (versos) is used for semiversed sine for brévity, and so for the others; the table thus gives log 3 (1 + cosa) and log3(1 + sinw). The log sines, cosines, &e. are on the left-hand pages, and the log versed &c. on the right-hand pages. - The table, altered in arrangement so as to make it quadrantal, is reproduced in Sranspury, 1822. There are also given some small tables to convert are into time, and vice versd, on p. 472. These tables are all included under the heading ‘ Tablas logaritmicas y tablas para conyertir partes de circulo en tiempo y viceversa.’ A list of errata in the London edition of 1809 is given at the beginning of the edition of 1850. Roe. TT. I. Seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100,000, with characteristics unseparated from the mantissee. All the figures of the number are given at the heads of the columns, except the last two, which run down the extreme columns; 1... 50 on the left hand, and 50...100 on the right-hand side. The first four figures (counting the characteristics) are printed at the top of the columns. There is thus an advance halfway to- wards the modern arrangement, and the final step was made by Joun Newton (1658). This is the first complete seven-figure table that was published. It is formed from Vrace by leaving out the last three figures, without increasing the seventh when they are greater than 500. T. II. Logarithmic sines and tangents for every hundredth part of a degree (viz. ggg part) of the quadrant, semiquadrantally arranged, to 10 places, with characteristics, which, however, are separated by a comma. The work is very rare: the copy we have seen belongs to the Royal Society. Rumker, 1844. T. I. Six-figure logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 10,000, arranged consecutively in columns and divided into decades, with the proportional parts for each decade by the side of it. JY. IL. Log sines and tangents for every ten seconds to 2°, and log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute from 0° to 45°, with differences, to 6 places ; the logarithms written at length. T. III. Natural versed sines to every minute to 180°, with proportional parts for the seconds, to 6 places. T. IV. Logarithmen-Steigezcit, viz. log versed sines for every minute to 12", to 6 places, with differences for one second (corresponding to 0" 0™: the table gives 0 instead of — o). T. XXIV. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places; same as T. 74 of Rapzr. In all cases the logarithms are written at length. The other tables are nautical. *Salomon, 1827. This work we have not seen; but as Rogg has given a description of several of the tables, and we see no likelihood of meeting with the book, we here give his account. There are 13 tables, of which the most noteworthy are the following :— ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 125 T. I. Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to how many places is not stated) of all numbers from 1 to 10,000 conveniently arranged. T. Il, Factors (except 2, 3, 5,and 11) of numbers from 1 to 102,011. T. VII. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,800 (the last 800 to 7 places). T. VIII. Briggian and hyperbolie logarithms of all numbers from 1 to 1000, and of primes from 1009 to 10,333, to 10 places. _'D. IX. Logarithmic canon for every second of the first two degrees, and then for every ten seconds of the rest of the quadrant (to 6 or 7 places, we suppose). T. XII. Natural sines and tangents for every minute, with differences. Rogg adds that the printing and paper are good for Germany, but that he has made no comparison to determine the correctness of the table; the two pages of errata, however, show (he remarks) that there was not so much care taken as with Suerwin, Garviner, Carter, Hurroy, Taytor, or Veca. Rogg’s account is to be found on pp. 254 and 399 of his ‘ Bibliotheca.’ See also Gernerth’s tract. - *Schlomilch [1865?)]. Five-figure logarithms to 10,909; table for the conversion of Briggian into hyperbolic logarithms ; logarithms of constants ; circular measure of degrees, minutes, and seconds ; natural functions for every ten minutes of the quadrant; log functions for every minute; reciprocals, square and cube roots, and hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 100; elliptic quadrants ; physical and chemical constants. The above description is taken from an advertisement. Schmidt, 1821. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional parts. [T. Il.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant (semi- quadrantally arranged), to 5 places, with differences, [T. III.] Natural sines (to 5 places) and tangents (to 5 places when less than unity, above that to 6 figures) for every minute of the quadrant. [T. IV.] Cireular arcs, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°... 90°, 120°... 300°, 360°, of 1’, 2’... 60!, and of 1", 2"... 60", to 12 places. [T. V.] Squares and cubes of all numbers from unity to 1000, with two subsidiary tables to extend the table to 10,000; the latter are of double entry, and contain :—(i) (2 a+ ¢) ¢ for c=1, 2... 9 anda=10, 11... 99, and 6c and 2 be for the same values of ¢ and forb =1, 2... 9; and (ii) (3 @+ 3ac+c)cfore=1,2...9,anda=10,11...99. There are a few other small tables for the solution of triangles, refrac- tions, &c. : Schron, 1860. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000 to 108,000 (the last 8000 being to 8 places), with proportional parts to one place of decimals, so that they are in fact multiples. The change in the line is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to the fourth figure of all the logarithms affected. ‘The degrees, minutes, &c. corresponding to every number (regarded as that number of seconds) in the left-hand column, and also corresponding to these numbers divided by 10, are given. At the bottom of the page also S and T (and also the log sine and tangent) are added for every 10" ($3, art. 13, p. 54), When the last figure has been increased there is a bar subscript, which, being more obtrusive, is not so good as BapBaGr’s point. The table is followed by the first 100 multiples of the modulus and its reci- procal, to 10 places. T. II. Log sines and tangents for every ten seconds of the quadrant, to 7 places, with very complete proportional-part tables (or more properly mul- tiples of the differences), The increase of the last figure is noted as in T. I. T. IL. Interpolation table, viz. the first 100 multiples of all numbers 126 ‘REPORT—1878. from 40 to 410. The table occupies 75 pages; and on-each double page are given the proportional parts to hundredths of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (viz. the first. 100 multiples divided by 100 and contracted to one decimal place), The last page of the book is devoted to a table for the calculation of logarithms, and contains common and hyperbolic logarithms of n, 1:0n, 1:00n, &e., 7, being any single digit (or in other words, of 1 + a from « =lto“z#=9 and n = 1 ton = 10), to 16 places. The figures are beautifully clear, and the paper very good. The tables are of their kind very complete indeed. We have seen errata in this work advertised in different numbers of Grunert’s ‘ Archiv der Mathematik und Physik.’ See Scuréy, 1865, below. Schron (London edition), 1865. De Morgan remarked that in England, though there existed minute- and second-tables of trigonometrical functions, there was no good ten-second table; and on learning from the publishers that an English edition of Scurén was contemplated, he offered to write a short preface, as, accuracy being taken for granted, these appeared to him to be the most powerful and best ten-second tables he had seen : his offer, how- ever, Was accompanied by the condition that a careful examination should be made by Mr. Farley, sufficient to judge of the accuracy of the work, and that the result should be satisfactory. Mr. Farley accordingly examined 24 pages selected at hazard, wholly by differences and partly by comparison with ~ Cater; and the pages were found to be totally free from error; so that the general accuracy of the tables was assured. They are printed from the same plates as in the German edition described above ; and the tabular matter in the two seems identical in all respects. ; Schulze, 1778. |[T. I.| Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000 to 101,000, with differences and proportional parts. The proportional parts at the beginning of the table, which are very numerous, are printed on a folding sheet. . A page at the end of this table contains the first nine multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal, to 48 places; also ¢ to 27 places, and its square, cube....to its 25th power, also its 30th and 60th powers, the number of decimals decreasing as the integral portion increases. Log x (hyperbolic and Briggian) is also given. [T. IL. ] Wolfram’s hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 48 places. The numbers run from unity to 2200 at intervals of unity, and thence to 10,009, only not for all numbers; “von 2200 bis 10,000 ist sie hingegen nur fiir die Prim- und etwas stark componirte Zahlen berechnet, weil das Uebrige durch leichtes Addiren kann gefunden werden” (Preface). De Morgan says “ for all numbers not divisible by a single digit ;” but this is incorrect, as 2219, 2225, &e. are divisible by single digits, while 9809 (least factor 17), 9847 (least factor 47) do not occur. In fact, at first a great many composite numbers are tabulated, and near the end very few, if any. All the primes, however, seem to be given; and by the aid of Wolfram’s tables we may regard all hyperbolic logarithms of numbers below 10,060 as known. Space is left for six logarithms, which Wolfram had been prevented from computing by a serious illness. These were supplied in the ¢ Berliner Jahrbuch,’ 1783, p- 191. Mr. Gray points out an error in Wolfram’s table; viz. in log 1409, ....1666....should be....1696....(* Tables for the formation &c.,’ 1865, p- 38). On Wolfram, see § 8, art. 16. [T. I11.| Log sines and tangents for every second from 0° to 2°, to seven places: the sines are on the left-hand pages, the tangents on the right-hand; no differences, : ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 127 [T. IV.] Logistic logarithms to every second to one degree, to four places, The pages in [T. III.] and [T. IV.] are not numbered. [T. V.] is the first table in the second volume. It contains :—natural sincs, tangents, and secants to seven places, with differences ; log sines and tangents to seven places, with differences (from 0° to 4° the simple difference, and from 4° to 45° one sixth part of the difference, is given); and Napicrian (see § 3, art. 17) log sines and tangents to eight places, without differences ; all for every ten seconds for the first four degrees, and thence for every minute to 45°. The Napierian logarithms (see first page of Preface to the second yolume) are taken from the ‘Canon Mirificus’ of Narrer, augmented by Ursrnus. The arrangement of the table is not very convenient, but perhaps the best possible. [f. VI.] (pp. 262, 263). First nine multiples of the sines of 1°, 2°, 3° ....90°. One or two constants are given on p. 264. [T. VII.] Circular measure of all angles from 1° to 360° at intervals of 1°. This is followed by similar tables for minutes from 1' to 60’ at intervals of 1’, and for seconds from 1” to 60" at intervals of 1”, all to 27 places. [T. VIII.] Powers, as far as the eleventh, of decimal fractions from ‘0 to 1-00 at intervals of 01, to eight places. [T. IX.] Squares of numbers to 1000. [T. X.] Cubes of numbers to 1000. [T. XI.] Square roots of numbers to 1000, to seven places. [T. XII.] Cube roots of numbers to 1600, to seven places. [T. XII.) The first six binomial-theorem coefficients, viz. «, - At Si taal i viele ae zat oi i a for «= :01 to e=1-00, at intervals of -01, to seven places. The other tables connect the height and velocity of falling bodies, and contain specific gravities &e. A table on the last page is for the conversion of minutes and seconds of arc into decimals of an hour. A table headed Rationale Trigonometrie occupies pp. 308— 311, and is very interesting. It gives right-angled triangles whose sides are rational and such that tan me (w being one of the acute angles of the triangle) is greater than ,. Such triangles (though not so called here) are often known as Pythagorean. Those with sides 3, 4, and 5; and 5, 12, and 13 are the best-known cases; and 8,15, and 17, 9, 40, and 41, 20, 21, and 29, &c. are among the next in point of simplicity. This table contains 100 such tri- angles; but some occur twice. It gives in fact a table of integer values of a, b, ¢, satisfying a°+b°=c*, subject to the condition mentioned above: tan 4w, expressed both as a vulgar fraction and as a decimal, is given, as also are » and 90°—w. For a larger table of the same kind, see Sang, ‘Edinburgh Transactions,’ t. xxiii. p. 757, 1864. On the whole, this collection of tables is very useful and valuable. {[Schumacher, 1822?]. T. V. Five-figure logarithms of numbers for every second to 10,890” (3°), arguments expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds. - T’. VI. Log sines for every second to 3°, to five places. There is no name at all on the table; but it is assigned (and no doubt correctly) to Schumacher in the Royal Society’s Library ; and De Morgan, speaking of Warnstorrr’s Scmumacner (1845), says that the original publication was Altona, 1822 ; but there was an earlier edition, we believe, at Copenhagen, in 1820. Shanks, 1853. The bulk of this work ({T. I.] pp. 2-85) consists of the . values of the terms in Mr, Shanks’s calculation of the value of x by Machin’s 12 REPORT—1873. formula, 7=16 tan~! 1—4 tan -1,1,. The terms in the expansion both of BY 5 239° tan ~! 1} and tan “1515 are given separately to 530 places. The former occupy 60 pp. and extend to and the latter occupy 24 pp. and ex- 747-5" , 1 : : tend to 919-3957 * While the work was passing through the press Mr. Shanks extended his value of z to 607 decimals; and to this number of places it is given on pp. 86 and 87 of the book. [T. II.] (pp. 90-95) gives every twelfth power of 2 (viz. 2", 2°, &c.) as far as 2”! (which contains 212 figures). e _ On p. 89 are given the values of ¢, log, 2, log, 3, log. 5, and log, 10, to 137 places, and the modulus to 136. Values of these quantities were given also by Mr. Shanks to 205 places (Proc. Roy. Soe. vol. vi. p. 397). The value of ¢ was verified by the reporter to 137 places by calculation from a continued fraction (see Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871, pp. 16-18, sectional proceedings). The same writer also showed in vol. xix. p. 521 of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ that Mr. Shanks’s values of log 2, 3, 5, and 10 were inaccurate after the 59th place (all owing to one error ina series on which they depended), and deduced the correct values to 100 places. These results were verified by Mr. Shanks, who has recalculated the values of these logarithms, as well as that of the modulus, to 205 places: they are published in vol. xx. p. 27 of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ (1871). Mr. Shanks’s 607-place value is given in Knight’s ‘ English Cyclopzedia,’ (Art. «Quadrature of the Circle”) copied from the work under notice ; and it has been verified by a subsequent calculation of Richter to 500 places. A list of the calculators of +, the number of places, &c. to which they have extended their calculations, with references to the places where they are to be found, is given by Bierens de Haan on a page at the beginning of his “Tables dIntégrales Définies” in t. iv. of the Amsterdam Transactions. This page, however, does not appear in the separate copies of the tables (the ‘ Nouvelles Tables,’ Leyden, 1867). Foran extended and corrected copy of this list, see ‘ Messenger of Mathematics,’ December 1872, and some addi- tional corrections in the same Journal for July 1873 (t. iii. pp. 45, 46). Some years ago Mr. Shanks calculated the reciprocal of the prime number 17389 so as to exhibit the complete circulating period, consisting of 17388 figures, and placed a copy of it in the Archives of the Royal Society. Quite recently he has extended his calculation of + to 707 decimal places (Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xxi. p.318). Mr. Shanks has sent us three corrections to this paper: viz. the 459th, 460th, and 461st decimals in x should be 962 instead of 834, and the 513th, 514th, and 515th decimals should be 065 instead of 193; also the 75th decimal of tan-'1 should be 8 instead of 7. The two corrections in 7 apply also to the work under notice. Sharp, 1717. ['T.I.](p.40). The first hundred multiples of 37, to 21 places. [T. II.| Areas of segments of circles. The area of the whole circle is taken as unity; and the argument is the versed sine (or height of the segment), the diameter being taken as unity. The table then gives areas to 17 places for arguments ‘0001 to -5000 at intervals of -0001, with differences. Thus, strictly, the argument is the ratio of the height of the segment to the diameter, and the tabular result the ratio of the area of the segment to that of the whole circle. The table occupies 50 pp., and is the largest of the kind we have seen. [T. III.] Zable for computing the solidity of the upright hyperbolic section of « cone, viz. for facilitating the calculation of the yolumes of segments of ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 129 right circular cones, the segment being contained by the base of the cone (a segment of a circle), a hyperbolic section perpendicular to the base, and the curved surface. The use of the table (which contains 500 values of the argument and occupies 5 pp.) is explained on pp. 24—26 of the work. _ {T. IV.) Briggian logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100, and of primes from 100 to 1100, to 61 places; also of numbers from 999,990 to 1,000,010, to 63 places, these last having first, second. ...tenth differences added. The logarithms in this table were copied into the later editions of Saerwry and other works. The portion of the work which contains the tables is followed by a * Concise treatise of Polyedra, or solid bodies of many bases” (pp. 32). The work is universally attributed to Abraham Sharp, and no doubt exists as to his haying been the author. [Sheepshanks, 1844.] [T. I.] Four-figure logarithms from 100 to 1000, arranged as in seven-figure tables, with proportional parts. [T. I1.] Log sines and cosines (the arguments being expressed in time) to 24" at intervals of 1™, to four places, with proportional parts for multiples of 10* (to 60°). Also log sines to 1” for every 10°, with differences for 1°. [T. III.]| Log sines, cosines, tangents, and secants from 0° to 6° at intervals of 1’, thence to 84° at intervals of 10’, and then at intervals of 1' to 90°, to four places. In the parts of the table where the interyals are 10’, differences for 1' are given. [T. IV.] Natural secants and tangents from 0° to 80° at intervals of 10’, with differences for 1', and then to 86° at intervals of 1’, with differences for 10", to four. places. (T. Y.] Modified Gaussian logarithms. There are two tables. The first gives log (1 + 3 as tabular result for argument log w, the range of log « being from -000 to -909 at intervals of 001, from -90 to 2°00 at intervals of “01, and thence to 4:0 at intervals of -1.. The second table gives log (1 — =) as tabular result, corresponding to the argument log wv, the range being from ‘000 to 1-000 at intervals of -001, from 16 00. to 3-00 at intervals of Ol, and from 3-0 to 6-0 at intervals of ‘1: both tables to four places, with propor- tional parts. [T. VI.] Log sin? (4 hour angle) from 0" to 9® at intervals of 1", to four places, with proportional parts for multiples of 10° (from Rapmr). . (T. VIL.] Antilogarithms, for logarithms from -000 to 1:000 at intervals of 001, to four places, with proportional parts. There are also two or three astronomical tables. De Morgan states that the work was issued under the title given in $5 in 1846, and two years previously without name or titlepage. It is from one of these earlier copies that the above description has been written; we have seen no copy bearing either author’s name or date. Sherwin, 1741. [T. I.] (which follows p. 35 of the introduction) gives Briggian logarithms to 61 places of all numbers to 99, and the logarithms of primes from 100 to 1097, calculated by Abraham Sharp (see Smarr, 1717, 7. LY .]). , (T. iP Briggian logarithms of thirty-five other numbers (viz. 999,981 —1,000,015), to 61 places, with first, second, third, and fourth differences, to 30 places (Suarp [T. IY.]). . ai III.| Seyen-figure logarithms of numbers to 1000, and from 10,000 73, K 130 REPORT—1878. to 101,000, with proportional parts. The proportional parts near the begin- ning of the table, being too voluminous for insertion on the page, are printed on a fly-sheet, and bound up facing the introductory page of the table. [T. IV.] Natural and log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute, to seven places. Differences for the logarithmic functions are added, but not for the natural ones. ; [T. V.] Natural and log versed sines from 0° to 90° at intervals of a minute, to seven places. Part of a page at the end of [T. V.] is occupied by a small table to convert sexagesimals into decimals, &c., and vice versd. The remaining table (of difference of latitude and departure) is not in- cluded in this Report (see § 2, art. 12). Sherwin went through five editions; but as none were stereotyped, some of the later are less accurate than the earlier. De Morgan remarks, “Second edition, 1717; third revised by Gardiner, and the best, 1742; fifth and last, 1771, very erroneous—the most inaccurate table Hutton ever met with.” In speaking of the third edition we at first thought that De Morgan should probably have written 1741 instead of 1742, as the edition we have described bears the former date, but we have since seen a copy of 1742. We possess an edition (1726) which contains a list of “ Errata for the second edition of Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables” by Gardiner. In this edi. tion, in place of [T. I.] and ['T. IT.] there are given two pages (pp. 28 and 29) headed “ M. Brigg’s (sic) Logarithms for all Numbers, from 1 to 100, and for all Prime Numbers from 100 to 200, calculated by that Ingenious Gentleman and Indefatigable Mathematician, Mr. Abr. Sharp, at Little Horton, near Bradford in Yorkshire.” The logarithms are given to from 50 to 60 places (not all to the same extent). We have also before us an edition of 1706; and the dedication, which is the same in all the editions we have seen, is dated July 12,1705. ‘The table on pp. 27 and 28 is the same as in the edition of 1726; but at the end of the introduction is a table of errata, which are corrected in this latter edition. The titlepage of the editions of 1705, 1706, and 1726, and perhaps other dates, runs, “ Mathematical Tables....with their Construction and Use by Mr. Briggs, Mr. Wallis, Mr. Halley, Savilian Professors of Geometry in the University of Oxford, Mr. Abr. Sharp” (the names of the authors being placed one under the other); and in the edition of 1706 is added, The whole being more correct and complete than any Tables extant.” Sherwin’s name does not, therefore, occur on the titlepage at all; but the preface is signed and the tables were prepared by him, so that the work is universally known as “Sherwin’s Tables.” In library catalogues, however, it will gene- rally be found entered under the name of Briggs, Wallis, Halley, or Sharp. In the edition of 1741, the names of Briggs, Wallis, Halley, and Sharp do not appear on the titlepage, but we have “The third edition, carefully revised and corrected by William Gardiner ” instead. It will be seen that there is some confusion in the editions, as, if De Morgan is correct in saying that the second edition was published in 1717, the edition of 1726 would be the third, and that of 1741 the fourth. The Royal Society’s Library contains a copy with “1705” on the title- page, while the edition of 1706 (which is in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge) has the date printed in Roman characters, MDCCVI. We have seen (in the Graves Library) the fourth edition, 1761; and the British Museum contains, besides the editions of 1717 and 1742, the fifth edition, “revised and improved by S. Clark” (1772), while the Cambridge University Library has the same edition with the date 1771. ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 131 _ The editions we have seen are 1705 and 1706, 1717, 1726; the third edition 1741 and 1742, the fourth 1761, and the fifth 1771 and 1772. It thus appears that it was not at all an uncommon thing (probably as the impression was being made up from time to time) to advance the date by one year. The first four dates we may distribute among the first two editions as -we please ; most likely 1705, 1706, and 1717 for the first, and 1726 for the second. Rogg (p. 401) gives the editions as 1706, 1742, 1763, and 1771; but else- where (p. 262) he speaks of the fifth as of 1785, which must be incorrect. De Haan (‘ Iets over Logarithmentafels, p.57) gives the dates of the editions as 1706, 1717, 1726, second 1742, 1751, 1763, fifth 1771. The subject of the dates of the editions of Sherwin is discussed at some length in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ for March and May 1873 (vol. xxxili. pp. 344, 454, 455, 457). Mr. Lewis, in bis letter to the reporter, printed in the second of these papers, mentions 1717, 1742, 1761, and 1771 as the dates of the editions he had seen, agreeing perfectly with those mentioned by De Morgan, Lalande (‘ Bibliog. Astron.’), and the results of our own observation. He remarks that Barlow gives 1704 and Callet 1724 as dates of editions, of which the former may bo dismissed at once as an obyious blunder. The editions therefore that we have not seen, but which may exist, are those of 1724, 1751, and 1763. About any of these or any others we should be glad to receive information. Rogg mentions that Sumrwiy has often been confounded with Garpixmr, even by Kistner and Bugge. With regard to the accuracy of the tables, Hurron writes (we quote from p- 40 of the Introduction to his tables, 3rd edit. 1801) :—*“ The first edition was in 1706; but the third edition, in 1742, which was revised by Gardiner, is esteemed the most correct of any, though containing many thousands of errors in the final figures: as to the last or fifth edition, in 1771, it is so erro- neously printed that no dependence can be placed in it, being the most in- accurate book of tables I ever knew; I have a list of several thousand errors which I have corrected in it, as well as in Gardiner’s octavo edition.” De Haan (‘Iets’ &c., p. 26), speaking of the 1742 edition, says that it contains the logarithms of the numbers from 999,980 to 1,000,020 to 61 places ; but on examination we find that the above description of ['T. II.] is correct. The advertisement to the book itself is no doubt the source of the error; for it is there said to contain the logarithms of the 41 numbers from 999,980 to 1,000,020, whereas it really contains the logarithms of the 35 numbers from 999,981 to 1,000,015. _ Sherwin’s tables are of historical interest as forming part of the main line of descent from Briees; and the different editions cover the greater part of the last century. The chief succession (considering only logarithms cf num- bers) is Brices, Vuaca, Ror, Jonn Newton, Suerwin, Garprver; and ther there are two branches, viz. Hurron founded on Suerwin, and Catrer on Garprner, the editions of Vuea forming an offshoot. . Shortrede (Compendious logarithmic tables), 1844. Small tables of common logarithms with sexagesimal arguments, logarithms to 12,600, anti-+ logarithms from 0 to ‘999, log sines and tangents to 5’, also from 0° to 3°, and from 8° to 5° for every two minutes; all to five or six places. The tract only contains 10 pp. Shortrede (Tables), 1844. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 10,800 with characteristics, but without differences, and from 10,800 to 120,000, with differences, and their first nine multiples at thé bottom of the page: the num- K2 132 REPORT—1873. ber of degrees, minutes, and seconds corresponding to the numbers in the number-column multiplied by 10 is given throughout ; and at the top of every page are printed, to seven places, the logarithms of certain constants, viz. of 360°, 180°, 90°, 1°, 24", 12", 3°, 15, and radius (all expressed in seconds) of are 1", 7 and M the modulus. The change of figure in the line is denoted by a “nokta,” the same as that employed subsequently by Mr. Sang (see Sane, § 3, art. 13); and its use is open to the same objections here as ‘there. T. II. Antilogarithms, viz. numbers to logarithms from :00000 to 1-00000 at intervals of -00001, to 7 places, with differences and multiples at the bottom of the page. The same logarithms of constants are given on the top of the page as in T, I.; and the change in the line is denoted in the same way. At the end of this table (p. 195), under the head “ Useful Numbers,” the logarithms of some constants are given. T. ILI. (pp. 598). Log sines and tangents to every second of the circum- ference, to 7 places (semiquadrantally arranged), the arguments throughout being also given in time. The use of the word circumference instead of quadrant in this description is justified by the fact that the signs are given for the different quadrants at the top and bottom of the page: thus we have on the first page, at the top, 0° Sin +, 90° Cos—, 180° Sin —, 270° Cos +, and at the bottom 89° Cos +, 179° Sin +, 269° Cos —, 359° Cos —, and the same for the tangent and cotangent, the arguments being also expressed in time. Complete proportional parts are given throughout for tenths of a second of space, and for the first six hundredths of a second of time, both for the sine and tangent; but near the beginning of the tables coefficients of correction for first and (sometimes) second differences are added instead. The arguments, as before stated, are given also in time; so that corresponding to 1", 2", 3", &. we have -06%, 13°, -208, &c. This table is the most complete of the kind we know of, and is unique; the figures are clear; and the objection to the ‘‘nokta” does not apply here; in one column (p. 142) there are two changes on the page. T. VY. Seven-place log sines, tangents, and secants to every point and quarter point of the compass. T. XXXVIII. Lengths of circular ares, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°, 3° s. 1 180°, of 1, 2, 022601) of 1”, 2”,....60"; andof 1!" 2 2 GOT aiieun laces. T. XXXIX. Proportional parts to hundredths of the reciprocal of the modulus, viz. 2°302 ..., to 8 places. There are thirty-nine tables in the book (T. XLI. is the last; but XXXYV. and XXXVI. are accidentally omitted), the others being astronomical or me- teorological &e. The paging recommences with T. III. and proceeds to p.634, See Sorr REDE, 1849 (next below). Shortrede, 1849. This is a second edition of the work of 1844, and is in 2 vols. There is a preface of xxv pages to vol. i. T. I. and II. are the same as T. I. and II. in the 1844 edition; T. III. is a small ten- place table of the lengths of circular arcs. T. IV. and V. are for finding logarithms and antilogarithms to many places; viz. colog (1 + ‘01n) +. -colog (1 + 01° n), &e. are given for n = 1, 2,...100, to 16 places, and colog (1 + ‘01n)...colog (1 + -01"n) for n = 1, 2,...10, to 25 places (initial ciphers being omitted). There are added small auxiliary tables for facilitating the resolution of numbers into convenient factors. ‘T. VI. The first hundred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal to 32 ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 133 places. T. VII. (which occupies six closely printed pages). Modified Gaus- a za+1 g ment A (=log x), to 5 places, from A=5 to 3 at intervals of ‘1; from A=3 to 2-7 at intervals of -01; from A=2-7 to 1:3 at intervals of 001; and from A=1:3 to 3-0 at intervals of 01, and thence to A=5 at intervals of -1. T. VII. Log (1.2.3..x) from c=1 to ~=1000, to 5 and (for the argu- ments ending in 0) to 8 places. Then follow 2 or 8 pp. of barometric &c. tables, and a page of constants (including a small table of log ie The second volume contains T. III. of the 1844 edition, followed by some spherical-trigonometry formule, and the same page of constants as in vol. 1. In the advertisement to the second (1849) edition, Shortrede says “a small edition of this work was published in 1844, before I had an opportu- nity of seeing it complete, which in several respects was such as I did not like. In the present edition many alterations have been made to conform it more to my views; and for the convenience of purchasers it is now published in two separate volumes.” The prices of the two volumes are, Vol. I. 12s., and Vol. IL. 30s. ; it is worth noting this, as we have seen it stated that the price of Shortrede’s logarithms (by which some might understand the whole work) is 12s. De Morgan says, “ They [Shortrede’s tables] first appeared in 1844; but some defects and errors having been found, the edition of 184+ was cancelled; and a new edition from corrected plates issued in 1849.” This may be true; but although we have seen four copies of ‘the 1844 edi- tion in different libraries, we were not able to obtain a sight of the 1849 edition anywhere till we bought it. Our copy of Vol. i. is dated 1849; and of Vol. ii. 1858. There are few tables in which, relatively to the number of figures, the pages are so clear, and the logarithmic canon to seconds is much the most complete we have seen. Every one must agree with De Morgan that the work shows extraordinary energy and public spirit. This is the most complete second canon in existence, and is the most accessible. Only two others have been published :—Micnart Taytor, 1792, which has several defects attending its use; and Bacay, 1829, which is scarce. A list of twenty-six errors (nearly all in the antilogarithms) is given by Shortrede himself in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ for January 1864; and a supplemental list is added in the same publication for May 1867, where he says that “the unauthorized issue in 1844 contains several others.” One erratum is also given in the ‘Monthly Notice’ for April 1867. Shortrede adds that the great majority of the errata were communicated to him by Mr. Peter Gray. In the ‘Insurance Record’ Mr. Firirowsxt charged Shortrede with having corrected his table by the aid of his (Filipowski’s). That the charge was utterly unfounded is proved by the letter of Mr. Peter Gray (‘ Insurance Record,’ June 9, 1871), who states that the errata in Dopson were given te Shortrede by himself (Mr. Gray) ; and we have seen reason to impute un- fairness to Mr. Filipowski in another matter witli regard to Dodson (sw Firrrowskr, 1849, § 4). Mr. Gray has kindly placed at our disposal his copious list of errors in Donson, of which we hope to make use in a sub- sequent Report. Shortrede did not pay sufficient attention to the examination of the errata- lists of previous works ; and, in consequence, his tables contain a much greater number of the hereditary errors that had descended from Vurace than do the sian logarithms. B (=log 1+.) and C (=be are tabulated for argu- and the same for the tangent). 134 REPORT—1873. best contemporary works. These errors are insignificant in themselves, ex- cept in so far as they show the acquaintance of the author of a table with the works of his predecessors. Shortrede was absent in India during the publication of the 1844 edition (which contains seven of these errors) ; but that of 1849 was published under his own superintendence, and still it con~ tains six, while BasBacr, Hitssr’s Yua@a, and other works of earlier date have but one. See ‘Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.,’? March 1873, t, xxxiii. p. 335; and Gernerth’s tract ($3, art. 15, p. 55). Stansbury, 1822. [T.I.] Small table to convert arc into time. [T. I1.] Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places. Same as T. 74 of Rapnr. T. D. Log semitangents, viz. log aes of 15’, to 3 places. This table occupies one page. T. G. Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24", viz. log 1440 —log v, the arguments being expressed in hours and minutes (and also in are), to 4 places. T. H. (pp. 215-304). Log sines and secants, also log versed and sucoversed, - from 0° to 90° at intervals of 15" (arguments also expressed intime),to 5 places, By “versed” and “sucoyersed”’ are meant “ semiversed sine ’and “ semisu- coversed sine” (the terms introduced by De Mendoza y Rios being used for , ; 1 1+si brevity, see Rros, 1809); so that the table gives log aos i? oe and log-— This table was copied from T. XVI. of Rros; but there is a difference of arrangement, as the original table gave log sines, cosines, &c., the arrange- ment being semiquadrantal, while in the present work it is quadrantal. T, X. Five-figure logarithms from 1000 to 10,000; no differences. T. Y. Halves of natural sines, viz. 3 sin 2 from «=0° to x=90° at in- tervals of a minute, to 5 places, with proportional parts for seconds. | The other tables are nautical. Stegmann, 1855. T.I. Six-figure logarithms to 119, and fiye-figure logarithms, with differences, from 1000 to 10,000, T. I. Antilogarithms from -0000 to :9999, to 5 places. A few tables of atomic weights &c. are added. As in Frurpowskx1’s tables, the terminal 5 is replaced by the Roman V when it has been increased. The preface to these tables is signed by Stegmann, but his name does not appear on the titlepage. *Stegmann. This work we have not seen. . Three errata in it are given by Prof. Wackerbarth in.the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ for April 1867: and this is the only place in which we have seen the table referred to. It is very possibly a five-figure hyperbolic logarithmic table, similar to the same author’s table of common logarithms just de- scribed. Janet Taylor, 1833. T. XVII. Log sines, tangents, and secants to eyery quarter point, to 6 places. T. XVIII. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000. T. XL. Log sines and tangents for every 10" to 2°, and log sines, tan- gents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with dif- ferences. T. XX. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, . T. XXT. Log versed sines to 8" at intervals of 5%, to 5 places. T, XXXVI. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places; same as T, 74-0f Raper, ~~... -.. ( Je & from e=0 to z=180° at intervals ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 135 At the end of the preface Mrs. Taylor makes the following curious re- mark :—‘ Some errors have crept into the calculations from the multiplicity of entries &c.; these, I trust, will claim the indulgence of the public; for the system on which I have worked being mathematically correct, and founded on sound principles, any slight oversight in the figures can be of but little moment, and very easily rectified.” It is to be presumed that this does not refer to the tables included in this Report, as they would not have been calculated afresh. Mrs. Taylor was also-the author of a work on navigation, the tables in which are described below. Janet Taylor, 1843. T. 3. Log sines, tangents, aud secants to every quarter point, to 6 places. T. 4, Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000. T, 5. Log sines and tangents for every 10" to 2°; and log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with differences. T. 30. Log versed sines for every 5° to 8", to 5 places. T. 32. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places. T. 35. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places; samo as T, 74 of Raper. Mrs. Taylor, as we learn from an advertisement, kept a nautical academy in the Minories. Michael Taylor, 1792. [T. I.] Logarithms of numbers to 1260, to 7 places. [T. IL.] Logarithms of numbers from 10,000 to 101,000, to 7 places, with differences and proportional parts. The change in the third figure, in the middle of the line is not marked. [T. I1I.] Table of log sines and tangents to every second of the quadrant, to 7 places (semiquadrantally arranged). The change in the leading figures, when it occurs in the middle of the column, is not marked at all; and it requires very great care in using the table to prevent errors from this cause. If any one is likely to have to make much use of the table, it will be worth his while to go through the whole of it, and fill in with ink the first 0 after the change (making it a black circle such as is used to denote full moon in almanacs), and also to make some mark that will catch the cye at _ the top of every column containing a change. This will be a work of con- siderable labour, but is absolutely necessary to ensure accuracy. It is no doubt chiefly on account of the absence of any mark at a change that Bacay has so completely superseded this table, though difference of size &c. are also in favour of the former. [T. I.] and ['T. I1.] present no novelty ; but [T. III.] is an enormous table, containing about 450 pages, with an average number of about 7750 figures to a page, so that it contains nearly three millions and a half of figures. The left-hand pages contain sines and cosines, the right-hand tangents and cotangents. This is unfortunate, as the sines and cosines (which are used _ far more frequently than the tangents and cotangents) are thus separated at least a foot from the computer’s paper as he works with the table on his left; and it is well known that the number of errors of transcription is * proportional to the distance the eye has to carry the numbers. [T. IIT.] was calculated by interpolation from Vraco’s ‘ Trigonometria Artificialis,’ to 10 places, and then contracted to 7; so that the last figure should always be correct. Taylor was a computer in the Nautical Almanac Office ; he unfor- tunately died almost at the moment of the completion of his work, only five pages remaining unfinished in the press at the time of his death. These 136 REPORT—1873. were examined, and the introduction &c, written, by Maskelyne. Some errata, found among Taylor’s papers, are given on p. 64 of the work; anda list of nineteen errata signed by Pond is published in the ‘ Nautical Almanac’ for 1833. To this list is appended the remark :—‘ The above errata were detected by collating Taylor’s Logarithms with the French manuscript tables, now the property of C. Babbage, Esq. The arrangement for this examina- tion was made by the late lamented Dr. Young; a few days only before his death he gave directions for its completion.—J. Ponp.” _ We do not know any thing further with regard to this examination, though the fact that certain errors were found in Taylor by comparison with the French tables is well known; but there must be some mistake, as the French tables could not have been even temporarily the property of Babbage. In the preface to his tables Bassace states that while on a visit to Paris he availed himself of the opportunity of consulting the great manuscript tables preserved at the Observatory, and that he “‘ enjoyed every facility for making the comparisons which were requisite for this purpose [the preparation of his seven-figure table], as well as making extracts necessary to me for other calculations.” Bagay intimates in his preface that he had found 76 errors in Taylor. Taylor was also the author of the Sexagesimal Table (§ 3, art. 9); and we cannot but admire the undaunted perseverance that could enable him to com- plete such monuments of industry in addition to his routine work as computer in a laborious office. Thomson, 1852. T. I. One-page table to convert are into time. T. X. Logarithms for finding the correction of the sun's declination &e., viz. log 1440 —log w, from «=1 to v=1440, to 4 places. T. XI. Logarithms of the latitude and polar distance, viz. log secants to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places, without differences; quadrantally arranged. T. XII. Logarithms of the half sum and difference, viz. log sines and cosines to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places, without differences ; qua- drantally arranged. T. XIII. Logarithms of the apparent time or horary angle, viz. 2 log sin 5 from #=0" to v=9" at intervals of 10, with proportional parts for seconds, to 5 places. T. XV. Logarithins of the apparent altitudes, viz. log cosec x — ‘5400, from w=0° to v=89°, at intervals of a minute, to 4 places. T. XVI. Logarithms of the apparent distance, viz. log sines and tangents for every minute, from 18° to 90°, to 4 nlaces. T. XLX. Four-place proportional logarithms for every sccond to 3°; same as T. 74 of Rarer. - i ; ' Met T. XXIII. Logarithms of the sum and difference, viz. log sin 3 from x=0° to v=180°, at intervals of a minute, to 6 places. T. XXIV. Six-figure logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 10,000, with differences and tables for interpolating at the foot of the page. In this book it is only required to find numbers corresponding to logarithms; and the tables are constructed with this view. There are given, therefore, the usual differences (called first differences), and the approximate results of the divi- sion of 1, 2,3,....10, and ten or more higher numbers by them. By the second difference is meant the difference between the given logarithm and the logarithm next below it in the table. . ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 137 T. XXV. Natural versed sines for every minute to 120°, to 6 places, with proportional parts for seconds. The other tables are nautical &e. Trotter, 1841. [T. I.] Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000, with differences. This is followed by a small table to convert Briggian into hyperbolic logarithms &c. “iD. II.] Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter point, to 6 places. . [@. TIL] Log sines and tangents for every fifth minute of the quadrant, to 6 places. [T. 1V.] Natural sines and tangents for every fifth minute of the quadrant, to 6 places. [T. V.] Areas of circular segments, to 6 places; same as Py SLL OG HAntscHu. [T. VI.] Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to 6 places) for numbers from 1 to 1000. (T. VII.] Circular measure of TO, De icin eer w Oe os.) sla Otuly aid mathe. and of 1'",... .60'”, to 7 places. [T. VIII.| Reciprocals of numbers from 1 to 500, to 9 places. [T. IX.] Logarithms of numbers from 1000 to-1100, to 7 places, [T. X.] Lengths of sides of inscribed and circumscribed polygons (up to a 20-sided figure), the diameter of the circle being unity, to 7 places. [T. XI.] Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100, to 8 places. [T. XII.] For finding the areas of oblong and oblate spheroids. A few constants are given. ‘The other tables are astronomical, meteorological, &e. Some trigonometry &c. is prefixed at the beginning (pp. 102). _ Turkish Logarithms &c. [1834]. The book commences on the last page; and the first table gives seven-figure logarithms of numbers from unity to 10,080, arranged consecutively in columns, there being three columns of arguments and tabular results to the page. The tables begin at the last page, as before remarked, the extreme right-hand column being the first column of arguments; to the left of it is the corresponding column of tabular results, then to the left of that the second column of arguments, and so on. The table occupies 84 pp. (up to p. 85). Then “ follows” a table of log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant (semiquadrantally arranged), the sines and cosines being side by side, and separated by some “ white” from the tangents and cotangents. This table occupies 90 pp., and is followed by a similar table of natural sines and tangents (to 7 places), which also occupies 90 pp. Except that the table runs in the wrong direction, it only differs from an ordinary table in the ten digits being denoted by different marks from those to which we are accustomed. A few minutes’ practice, however, is quite sufficient to get used to the new numerals; and then the table could be used as well as any other. ‘There is no introductory or explanatory matter. The book is in the British Museum ; and the place and date in § 5 are taken from the Catalogue of the Library. Ursinus, 1827. [T.1.] Six-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000 to 100,000, without differences ; the values of § and T for finding log sines and tangents of angles below 2° 46’ 40" (see § 3, art. 13) are given at the top of the page. [T. I1.] Log sines and tangents for every 10 seconds throughout the uadrant, with differences, to 6 places. [T. IIL.] Longitudes of circular ares, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°,3°,.... 360°, of 1’, 2',....60', andof 1”, 2”,....60", to7 places. These are followed 138 REPORT—1873. by a page giving the sines of 3°, 6°, 9°,....87° accurately (7. ¢. expressed as radicals). [T. IV.] Longitudes of chords, viz. lengths of chords subtending given angles (the arguments) at the centre. The arguments proceed from 0° to 108°, at intervals of ten minutes, and thence to 180° at intervals of 1°; and the tabular results are given to 3 places. [T. V.] Abacus trigonometricus, viz. natural sines, tangents, and secants, and log sines and tangents from 0° to 90° (quadrantally arranged), to every ten minutes, to 6 places. Then follow a few formule and con- stants. Vega (Thesaurus, fol. 1794). T. I. (Magnus Canon logarithmorum vulgarium). Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1000, without differences, and from 10,000 to 100,999, with differences, to 10 places, arranged like an ordinary seven-figure table. Proportional parts are also given, but only for the first two or three figures of the difference. The table can thus be used as an ordinary seven-figure table. A change in the fourth figure in the middle of the line is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to all the logarithms affected. T.I. occupies pp. 1-310. The last page and a half are devoted to multiples of the modulus, a few constants, and a table to convert degrees (1° to 360°) and minutes (1' to 60’) into seconds. T, II. (Magnus Canon logarithmorum vulgarium trigonometricus). Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 0° to 2° at intervals of one second, to 10 places, without differences, and for the rest of the quadrant at intervals of ten seconds, also to 10 places, with differences. All this occupies pp. 311-629, and is followed by 3 pp. containing natural sines for angles less than twelve minutes, to every second, to 12 places. The appendix occupies pp. 633-685 : p. 633 contains formule ; and pp. 634 and 635 are occupied with tables of the longitudes of circular arcs &e. Of these the first gives the circular measure of 1°, 2°, 3°,.. . .360°, the second of 1’, 2’, 3’,....60', the third of 1”, 2", 3”,....60", all to 11 places; the fourth is a small table to express minutes and seconds as fractions of a degree. Pp. 636- 640 are occupied with formule for the solution of triangles ; and on pp. 641— 684 [T. III.] we have Wolfram’s great table of hyperbolic logarithms (see Scuutze, § 4). The six omitte#in Scnvumze are given ; andit is stated in the preface that several errors have been corrected. The error pointed out by Mr, Gray (see Scuutzz ['T. II.]) is reproduced. An error in log, 1099 is pointed out by Prof. Wackerbarth in the ‘ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ for April 1867. Some of the errata found in Vuaca are indicated in the preface. These are, ag a rule, corrected in the book; others, given in a list at the end of the in- troduction, were found after the printing, and must be corrected in manu- script before use. ‘There is a third list at the end of the work (p. 685); but it is identical with that at the end of the introduction. In some copies the list at the end of the introduction is much more com- plete than in others, the errors in Viace being marked by an asterisk, and the errata being also given in Latin and German. It is probable that additional errata were found before the edition was all made up, and that the original list was suppressed and the new one substituted. In all copies the titlepage is the same. See ‘Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.,’ June 1872, and May 1878 (p. 454). There is a great difference in the appearance of different copies of the work, In some the tables are beautifully printed on thick white paper, with wide margin, so that the book forms one of the handsomest collections of tables we ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 139 have seen; while in others the paper is thin and discoloured; all are printed from the same type. The arrangement of T. I. (though about half the space that would be required if the logarithms and differences were written at length is thereby saved) is not nearly so convenient as in Vuace; 1628, for there is danger of taking out a wrong difference. Vega took great pains to free his tables of logarithms of num- bers from error; and he detected all the hereditary errors that had descended from Vuace which affected the first seven figures of the logarithms. But as several of these errors were corrected in his errata-list and not in the text, his successors, who failed to study these lists sufficiently, were really less accurate than he was. ‘The last thousand logarithms that appear for the first time in this work were calculated by Lieut. Dorfmund at. Vega’s instigation. T. II. is not reprinted entirely from Vuace’s ‘ Trigonometria Artificialis,’ as the logarithms for every second of the first two degrees were calculated for the work by Lieut. Dorfmund. Vega seems not to have bestowed on the tri- gonometrical canon any thing approaching to the care he devoted to the loga- rithms of numbers, as Gauss estimates the number of last-figure errors at from 31,983 to 47,746 (most of them only amounting to a unit, but some to as much as 3 or even 4). Vega offered a reward of a ducat for every error found in his table; and it is to be inferred from his preface that he intended to regard inaccuracies of a unit as such, so that it was fortunate that no contemporary of his made an examination similar to Gauss’s. The paper of Gauss’s in which this estimate occurs is entitled “‘Einige Bemerkungen zu Vega’s Thesaurus Logarithmo- rum,” and appeared in the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’ No. 756, for May 2, 1851 (reprinted ‘ Werke,’ t. iii. pp. 257-264). It contains an examination of the relative numbers and magnitudes of the last-figure errors that occur in the sine, cosine, and tangent columns. It is easily shown that the tan- gents were formed by mere subtraction from the sine and cosine columns ; but Gauss was unable to explain the fact that the cosines were more accu- rate than the sines, which appeared as one of the results of the examination. This question is further discussed in the ‘ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.’ for May 1873; and it is there shown by the reporter that this result is -a direct consequence of the formula by means of which Vlacq calculated the table. So long as all these errors remain uncorrected, the logarithmic trigo- nometrical canon cannot be considered to be in a satisfactory state, as it is certainly desirable that a reliable ten-place table should exist. ef We believe no perfect list of errors in Vega has been given: a number of errors in T. I. are given by Lefort (‘Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris,’ t. iv.); but this list could not, from the manner in which it was formed, in- clude any errors that did not also occur in Viaca. A long list of errors in the trigonometrical tables of Vega is given by Gronau, ‘ Tafeln fiir die hyperbolischen Sectoren’ &c. Dantzig, 1862, p. vi. Copies of Vega are still procurable (but with difficulty and delay) from Germany, through a foreign bookseller, for about £1 10s. or £1 15s. Vega (Manuale), 1800. TT. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000 to 101,000, with proportional parts. The change in the line is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to the fourth figure of all the logarithms affected. A few constants are given on p. 188. T. II. Log sines, tangents, and ares for the first minute to every tenth of asecond. Although there is a triple heading, there is but asingle column of tabular results, as for such small angles the sines, tangents, and arcs are equal to one another, ' 140 REPORT—1873. _ Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 0° to 6° 3’ at intervals of 10”, and thence to 45° at intervals of 1’, to 7 places, with differences for 1” throughout. An Appendix contains some spherical trigonometry. One page (p. 297) contains longitudes of ares, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°,....90°, and by intervals of 10° to 180°; also of 360°, of 1', 2',....60', and of 1", 2”,.. 60", to 8 places. At the end some errata are given, and also some in CALLET and other works. The description of this work, according to order of date, should follow the next; but as it is referred to in the latter it is convenient to place it first. Vega (Tabule), 1797. Vol. i—T. I. is identical, page for page, with T. I. of Veea’s ‘Manuale’ just described, and was most likely printed from the same type. The constants &c. on p. 188 are also identical. T. IL. is also identical with T. II. of the ‘ Manuale,’ only with the addition of 40 more pages, containing log sines and tangents from 0° for every second to 1° 30' 0", to 7 places, without differences. Thus the ‘Tabule’ and the ‘ Manuale’ agree to p. 193; then the 40 pp. are inserted in the ‘ Tabule,’ and pp. 233-330 of the ‘Tabule’ are identical with pp. 193-290 of the ‘ Manuale,’ the coincident portions of the two works being doubtless printed from the same type. T. III. Natural sines and tangents to every minute of the quadrant, to 7 places, with differences for one second throughout. The Appendix contains a table of circular ares, viz. the circular measure of 1°, 2°, 3°,... .360°, of 1’, 2’,....60', and of 1”, 2”,. ...60” (with the cor- responding number of seconds in these angles), to 8 places, and small tables for the conversion of arc into time, and hours &c. into decimals of a day. On pp. 407-409 are given one or two constants connected with the calcula- tion of 7, the values of a few radicals, and the expression for the sine of every third degree in radicals. Some errata are given at the end of the introduction. Vol. u.—T. I. Table of all the simple divisors of numbers below 102,000 (2, 3, and 5 excluded); a,b,c, d are printed for 11, 13,17, 19, to save room. This is followed by primes from 102,000 to 400,000. Cumrnac (§ 3, art. 8) found 39 errors in this table: see his preface. T. II. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 1000, and of primes from 1000 to 10,000, to 8 places. This table is followed by the first 45, 36, and 27 powers of 2, 3, and 5 respectively. T. III. gives e* and Briggian log ¢* (the former to 7 figures, the latter to 7 places), from w=0-:00 to v=10-00 at intervals of -01. T. LV. The first nine powers of numbers from 1 to 100, squares from 1 to 1000, cubes from 1 to 1000, and square and cube roots of numbers from 1 to 100, to 7 places. T. V. Logistic logarithms, viz. log 3600—log (number of seconds in argue ment), for every second to 1° (=3600"), to 4 places. [T. VI.] The first six binomial-theorem coefficients, viz. x, v= : De " v(vw—1)....(w—5) 129 6 , from v=-01 to v=1-00 at intervals of -01, to 7 places. This is followed by a page of tables, giving ae et vet 8 see ld --+.9—q &e., to 10 places, with their logarithms to 7 places. ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 141 The rest of the book is devoted to astronomical tables and formule, except two remarkable tables at the end (pp. 364-371). The first of these ['T. VII. ] is most simply described by stating that it gives the number of shot in a py- ramidal pile on a square base, the number » of shot in the side of the base being the argument; the table extends from n=2 ton=40, There is also given the number of shot in a pyramidal pile on a rectangular base, the ar- guments being n the number of shot in the breadth of the base, and m the number of shot in the top row (so that m-++-n—1 is the number in the length of the base). The ranges are, for n, 2 to 40, and for m, 2 to 44, the table being of double entry. [T. VIII.] gives the number of shot in a pyramidal pile on a triangular base, the number of shot in a side of the base being the argument, which extends from 2 to 40. The other portion of the table is headed “ Tabula pro acervis globorum oblongis, ab utraque extremitate ad pyramides quadri- lateras appositis;’’ and the explanation is as follows:—Suppose we have two pyramidal piles of shot on square bases (n shot on each side) placed facing one another, at adistance equal to the sum of the diameters of m shot apart ; and suppose it is required to fill this interval up, so as to make a pyra- midal pile on a rectangular base, then this table gives the number for x (latus) to n=40, and for m (longitudo baseos) to m=44, the table being of double entry. Soins errata are given after the introduction. We have seen the third edition (Leipzig, 1812); and though we have not compared it side by side with the second (here described), we feel no doubt the contents are identical; at all events the number of pages in each volume s the same, and the preface is dated 1797 in both. Viacq (Arithmetica Logarithmica), Gouda, 1628, and London, 1631. |T. I.] Ten-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100,000, with differ- ences. This table occupies 667 pages. _ [T. IL] Log sines, tangents, and seeants for every minute of the quadrant, to 10 places, with interscript differences; semiquadrantally arranged. This table occupies 90 pp. In the English copies, by George Miller, there is an English introduction of 54 pp., and then follows a table of latitudes (8 pp.). The original edition of 1628 has 79 pp. of introduction; and a list of errata is given, which does not occur in Miller’s copies (but see ‘ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.’ §. xxxili. pp. 452, 456, May, 1873). There were also copies with a French titlepage; and in these there is an Introduction in the same language of 84 pp. We suspect that a Dutch edition was contemplated, but that the copies of the table intended for this purpose afterwards formed Miller’s English edition: no Dutch edition is known to exist (see Phil. Mag., May 1873). The titles of the three editions are given in full in § 5; in all, the tabular portion is from the same type. The bibli- ography of this work forms an essential part of the history of logarithms ; and a good many of the references occurring in the introductory remarks to § 3, art. 13, have reference to it. The table of logarithms of numbers contains about 300 errors, exclusive of those affecting the last figure by a unit; but a good many of these have reference to the portion below 10,000, which need never be used. This is still the most convenient ten-figure table there is (Vuaa, fol. 1794, is the only other); but before use the known errata should be corrected. References to all the places where the requisite errata-lists are to be found are given in the ‘ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.’ for May and June, 1872. We intend, 142 REPORT—18783. however, in the next Report to give a complete list of errors in the portion of the table from 10,000 to 100,000. We succeeded in obtaining a copy of this work after some difficulty ; Mr. Merrifield informs us that copies have always been procurable from abroad for about £2. Viacq (Trigonometria Artificialis), 1633. [T.I.] Log sines and tan- gents to every ten seconds of the quadrant, to 10 places, with characteristics and differences (not interscript); semiquadrantally arranged. The table occupies 270 pp. [T. II.] Ten-figure logarithms of numbers to 20,000, with differences, printed from the same type as that used in the ‘ Arithmetica ’(1628 and 1631) (except the last 500). A list of errata is given on the last page. The trigo- nometry &c, at the beginning occupies 52 pp. See $3, art. 15 (introductory remarks), and also Vuea (fol.), 1794. Wlacg, 1681. This is one of the numerous small editions called after Vlacq, on the Gellibrand model. The contents, shape of type, &c. are exactly the same as in Huntscunn (Vlacq), 1757, § 4, except that in the latter the “whites” are rather wider. The printed portion of the page of tables is 33 in. by 5fin. There are 48 pp. of trigonometry &c. in Latin. No namo except Vlacq’s appears in connexion with the work. [T. I.] Natural sines, tangents, and secants, and log sines and tangents for every minute, to 7 places. [T. I1.] Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 10,000, arranged consecutively in columns, to 7 places ; no differences, In one of the copies we have seen there are several errors corrected in manuscript. This edition must be rather common in England, as we have seen several copies. Wackerbarth, 1867. T. I. Five-figure logarithms (arranged as in seven-figure tables) to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional parts to tenths (7. e. multiples of the differences). The degrees, minutes, &c. corresponding to eight numbers on the page are given at the bottom of each. At the end of this table there are added seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 10 to 100, and also from 10,000 to 11,000, the latter with proportional parts to tenths. T. IL: Log... 2:.35.+.%) for gs], 2,. 5.1005, lag’ (Ll. 2) 5a), ee PEAS. a 65; log (2.4.6....«) for v=2,4,6,...66: all to 5 places. T. III. Log sines and tangents for every second from 0' to 10' ; log sines and tangents for every ten seconds from 0° to 5°; log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant: all to 5 places. Differences aro added throughout, and also proportional parts to tenths (¢. e. multiples of the differences) for every second to 5°, and for every 10 seconds in the other portion of the table. T, IV. Circular measure of 1°, 2°,....180°, of 1’, 2',....60', and of 1”, 2",....60", to 5 places. Some constants, such as the unit arc, its logarithm Bes +, are cailted: T. V. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1010, to 5 places, with proportional parts to tenths, arranged as in seven-figure tables of Briggian logarithms ; followed by the first hundred multiples ‘of the modulus and its reciprocal, to 5 places. A few constants, 7, e, &c., are given, to 30 places. T. VI. Squares of numbers from 1 to 1000. T. VI. Square roots (to 7 places) of numbers from 1 to 1000. T, VIII. Natural sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents for every 10’. ia 5°, thence for every 20' to 15°, and thence to 45° at intervals of 30', to 3 places, ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 143 T. IX. Reciprocals (to 7 places) of numbers from 1 to 1010. T. XVIL. List of primes to 1063. T. XXI. gives some constants. The other tables are chemical &c, This is one of the most complete five-figure tables we have scen. The change in the leading figures, where it occurs in the middle of a line, is throughout denoted by an asterisk prefixed to the third figure of all the logarithms affected. It may be remarked that though the introduction &e. is in Swedish, the headings of the tables are in Latin. . A list of four errata in the tables is given by Prof. Wackerbarth himself in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,’ t. xxxi. No. 9 (Supplementary Number, 1871). Wallace, 1815. [T. I.] Six-figure logarithms to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, with differences. [T. I.] Log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with differences. [T. IfI.] Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places. This is followed by a traverse table. _ The tables are preceded by 148 pp. of trigonometry &c. . Warnstorff’s Schumacher, 1845. Out of 221 pages, only 21 . (pp. 116-120 and 206-221) come within the scope of this Report. T. I.] For the conversion of arc into time, and vice versé. (Peti.}, The circular méasure of 1°, 2°. .’, .90°, 95°... ..1120°, 180° 2... 360°, of 1’, 2’....60’, and of 1”, 2”,....60", to 7 places. [T. III.] Four-figure logarithms to 1009. [T. LV.| Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents at intervals of 4’ to 10°, and thence to 45° at intervals of 10', to 4 places. [T. V.] Gaussian logarithms; B and C are given for argument A from A= ‘00 to 1°80 at intervals of ‘01, and thence to 4:0 at intervals of +1, to 4 places, with differences. _ The other tables are astronomical. Willich, 1853. T, XX. Seven-figure logarithms to 1200, followed by a few constants, &e, . T. XXI. Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to 7 places), and reci- procals (to 9 places) of numbers to 343, followed by some constants. T. A. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1200, to 7 places. T. B. Natural and log sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines, for every half degree, to 7 places. T. C, Circumferences and areas of circles for a given diameter, viz. ad (to 5 places) and = (to 2 places) ford=1, 2,....9, and from d=1 to 100 at intervals of +25. T. D. Circular measure of 1°, 2°,....180°, to 7 places. The other tables in the work are of a very varied character. _ We have also scen the second edition (1852), which does not contain the tables A to D ; and we nave seen a review of the seventh edition, edited by M. Marriott, 1871. §5. List of works containing Tables that are described in this Report, with refer= ences to the section and article in which the description of their contents is to be found. [Those works to which an asterisk is prefixed have not come under the inspection of the reporter; and the description of their contents is therefore 144 REPORT—1873. derived from some secondhand source. The author’s name is enclosed within square brackets when it docs not occur on the titlepage of the work. For other explanations see § 2, arts. 4-14, and § 6 (Postscript), arts. 2-4, 8, 10-12.] Acapémre RoyaLe... pr Prussz, Publié sous la direction de l’, Recueil de Tables Astronomiques. Berlin, 1776. 3 vols. 8vo. § 4. Apams, Joun. The Mathematician’s Companion, or a Table of Logarithms from 1 to 10,860... London, 1796. 8yo. § 4. Arry, G. B., Computed under the direction of; Appendix to the Greenwich Observations, 1837. London, 1838. 4to. § 3, art. 15. Atsrepivus, J. H. Scientiarum omnium encyclopsdie tomus primus... Lugduni, 1649 (2 vols. fol.). § 3, art. 4. Anprew, James. Astronomical and Nautical Tables, with Precepts... London, 1805. 8vo (pp. 263). § 4. Anonymous. Multiplicationstabelle, enthaltend die Producte aller ganzen Factoren yon 1 bis 1000, mit 1 bis 100, Kopenhagen, 1793, 4to (pp. 247 ; and introduction, pp. 8). § 3, art. 1. Anonymovs. Tables de Multiplication... Paris, 1812. § 3, ari. 1. —. Anonymous. Tafel logistischer Logarithmen. Zugabe zu den Vega-Hiils- se’schen und anderen Logarithmen-Tafeln. Aus Callet’s “Tables de Loga- rithmes.” Niirnberg. Verlag von Riegel & Wiessner. 1843 (table, 7 pp.). § 3, art. 18. Awnonrmovs (1844). See SmrersHanks. . Anonymous. Logarithmen. Antilogarithmen. Berlin. [Ona card, 1860?] § 4. ; Avxrttary Tables. See [Scrumacuer.] Bassage, Cuartus. Table of the Logarithms of the Natural Numbers from 1to 108000... Stereotyped. Fourthimpression. London, 1841] (202 pp. and explanations &c. xx). § 3, art. 13. [The 1888 edition (or rather tirage) has the following notice of errata contained in it, on the back of the titlepage: “In the logarithms of 10354, 60676 to 9, 70634 to 9, and 106611 to 9, the fourth figures ought to be small instead of large. In the list of constants the last figure of the value of e should be 8 instead of 9.” The tables were stereotyped from their first publication in 1827. Mr. W. Barrett Davis has called our attention to the number of last-figure unit errors in the portion of the table beyond 100,000 ; thus on p. 192 there are no less than fifteen such errors which are corrected in more recent works, such as Scurén and Kouter. This portion of the table Babbage copied from Cazex. ] Bazssace Cararocun. Mathematical and Scientific Library of the late Charles Babbage of No. 1 Dorset Street, Manchester Square. To be sold by Private Contract.... Printed by C. F. Hodgson and Son, Gough Square, Fleet Street [London], 1872. [The catalogue was drawn up by Mr. Robert Tucker, M.A., Honorary Secretary of the London Mathematical Society; and the library was purchased by Lord Lindsay. | Bacay, V. Nouvelles Tables Astronomiques et Hydrographiques.... Edition stéréotype... Paris, Firmin Didot, 1829. Small 4to. § 4. Bartow, Perrr. New Mathematical Tables containing the factors, squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots, reciprocals, and hyperbolic logarithms of all numbers from 1 to 10,000,... London, 1814. 8vo (pp. 336, and intro- duction Ixi). § 4, Bartow’s Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square roots, Cube roots, Reciprocals of all integer numbers up to 10,000. \ Stereotype edition, examined and cor- rected. (Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Usefu ” ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 145 Knowledge.) London, 1851, from the stereotyped plates of 1840. 8vo (pp. 200). § 3, arts. 4 and 7. Bares, Davip. Logarithmic Tables, containing the logarithms of all num- bers from 1 to 10 000, together with... Dublin, 1781. (63 pp. of tables, introduction cexi pp., and appendix 60 pp.) § 4. Bearpmore, Naraaniet. Manual of Hydrology: containing... London, 1862. 8vo (pp. 384). § 4. Bernoviu, Jonn. A Sexcentenary Table... Published by order of the Commissioners of Longitude. London, 1779. 4to (pp. 165; and intro- duction, viii). § 3, art. 9. Bertrnoup, F. Les Longitudes par la mesure du temps... Paris, 1775. Small 4to (34 pp. of tables). § 3, art. 15. Besset. Sce (Scuumacuer. | Bevertey, Taomas. The Mariner’s Latitude and Longitude Ready-com- puter .. . Cirencester(no date ; but Appendix dated1833). 4dto(pp. 290). §4. Brancwarp. Sce Garvrner (Avignon edition, 1770). Bonnycastiz, Joun. An Introduction to Mensuration.... The fifteenth edition... London, 1831. Small 8vo. §3, art. 22. Borva, Cx. Tables trigonométriques décimales ou Tables des logarithmes ... Tevues, augmentées et publices, par J. B. J. Detampre. Paris, An ix. [1800 or 1801]. Small 4to. § 4. Bowoircu, N. The improved Practical Navigator; ... to which is added a number of new Tables.... Revised, recalculated and newly arranged by Tomas Kirsy. London, 1802. 8yvo. § 4. Bremixer, C. Tafel der Proportionaltheile zum Gebrauche bei logarith- mischen Rechnungen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Logarithmentafeln yon Callet und Vega... Berlin, 1843. 8vo (pp. 127). §3, art. 2. Bremixer, C. Logarithmorum VI decimalium nova tabula Berolinensis.. . Berolini, 1852. 8yo. § 4. Bremrker’s Vega. See Veca (1857). Bremixer. See Crertz (1864). Brerscunemer, C. A. Produktentafel enthaltend die 2,3....9 fachen aller Zahlen von 1 bis 100 000. Hamburg und Gotha, 1841. 8vo (pp. 110). § 3, art. 1. Bricer, H. Tables des Logarithmes ... 1626. See under pz Decker, 1626, § 4. [Brtees, Heyry.] Logarithmorum Chilias Prima. [London,1617.] Small 8yvo (pp. 16). § 3, art. 13. Briecs, Henry. Arithmetica logarithmica sive logarithmorum chiliades triginta, pro numeris naturali serie crescentibus ab unitate ad 20,000: et a 90,000 ad 100,000. Quorum ope multa perficiuntur Arithmetica problemata et Geometrica. Hos numeros primus inyenit clarissimus vir Iohannes Nepe- rus Baro Merchistonij; eos autem ex elusdem sententia mutavit, eorumque ortum et usum illustravit Henricus Briggius, in celeberrima Academia Oxoniensi Geometrie professor Savilianus. Deus nobis usuram vite dedit et ingenil, tanquam pecunie, nulla prestituta die. [Royal arms, I. R.] Londini, Ex- cudebat Gulielmus Tones, 1624. folio (preface &c. 6pp., trigonometry 88 pp. ; tables unpaged). § 3, art. 13. (Some copies of this work were also published in 1631, with the same title- page as Vuace’s Logarithmicall Arithmetike. See § 3, art. 13.) Briees, Henry. Trigonometria Britannica: sive de doctrina triangulorum libri duo. Quorum prior continet Constructionem Canonis Sinuum Tangen- tium & Secantium, uni cum Logarithmis Sinuum & Tangentium ad Gradus ¥ L 146 REPORT—1878. & Graduum Centesimas & ad Minuta & Secunda Centesimis respondentia: A Clarissimo Doctissimo Integerrimoque Viro Domino Henrico Briggio Geome- trie in Celeberrima Academia Oxoniensi Professore Saviliano Dignissimo, paulo ante inopinatam Ipsius e terris emigrationem compositus. Posterior verd usum sive Applicationem Canonis in Resolutione Triangulorum tam Planorum quam Sphericorum e Geometricis fundamentis petit, calculo facil- limo, eximiisque compendiis exhibet: Ab Henrico Gellibrand Astronomie in Collegio Greshamensi apud Londinenses Professore constructus. [Then follow a quotation of three lines from Vieta and a diagram showing the trigonome- trical functions.) Goude, Excudebat Petrus Rammasenius. M.D¢.xXxImI. Cum Privilegio. folio. (Dedication to the Electors to the Savilian Chairs; Gellibrand’s preface, and 110 pp. of trigonometry &c., followed by one page containing errata to the page signature f. 3 of the tables; the tables are unpaged.) § 3, art. 15. - Brices. See Saerwiy. Brown. See WatzAce. Brownr, Rozerr. A new improvement of the Theory of the Moon.... London, 1731. Small 4to (pp. 14). § 8, art. 25. Brouuns, Dr. A new Manual of Logarithms to seven places of Decimals... . Stereotype edition. Bernhard Tauchnitz. Leipzig, 1870. Svo(pp. 610, and introduction xxiii), § 4. Bruno, Fad vz. Traité élémentaire du Caleul des Erreurs avee des Tables stéréotypées... Paris, 1869. 8vo (41 pp. of tables). § 3, art. 4. Borcxnarovr, J.Cu. Tables des Diviseurs pour tous les nombres du deuxiéme million... Paris, 1814. 4to (pp. 112 and viii). § 3, art. 8. Bourexwanrnr,J.Cu. Table des Diviseurs pour tous les nombres du troisiéme million... Paris, 1816. 4to (pp. 112). § 3, art. 8. Burexnarpt, J.Cu. Table des Diviseurs pour tous les nombres du premier million... Paris, 1817. 4to (pp. 114, and preface &c. 4 pp.). § 3, art. 8. *Birerr, J. A.P. Tafel zur Erleichterung in Rechnungen &c, 1817. See under CentnerscuweER, 1825, $ 3, art. 3. Byrne, Ortver. Practical, short, and direct Method of calculating the Logarithm of any given Number, and the Number corresponding to any given Logarithm, discovered by Oliver Byrne... London, 1849. 8vo (pp. 82, and introduction xxiii), § 4. Byrye, Ortver. Tables of Dual Logarithms, Dual Numbers, and corre- sponding Natural Numbers; with proportional parts of differences for,single digits and eight places of decimals... London, 1867. Large 8vo (pp. 202, and introduction pp. 40). § 3, art. 23. Byrnz, Orrver. Other works. See § 3, art. 23. Cartet, Francois. Tables portatives de Logarithmes, contenant.... Edition stéréotype, gravée, fondue et imprimée par Firmin Didot. Paris: Firmin Didot, 1795 (Tirage, 1853). 8vo (pp. 680, and introduction pp. 118). § 4. Cattet, F. Table of the logarithms of sines and tangents.... Paris, ee (Tirage, 1827). Stereotyped and printed by Firmin Didot.... 8vo. , art. 15. Catter (1843). See Anonymous. Ceyrxerscnwer, J.J. Neu erfundene Multiplikations- und Quadrat-Tafeln -+. mit einer Vorrede yon... J. P. Griison und L. Ideler. Berlin, 1825. 8yvo (45 pp. of tables, and introduction lv). § 3, art. 3. ; Cuzrnac, Laprstavs. Cribrum Arithmeticum ; sive tabula continens nu- meros primos... Daventrie, 1811. 4to (pp. 1020). - § 3, art, 8, ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 147 *Crourn, F. M. Tables pour le Calcul des Coordonnées goniométriques, Mayen (chez l’auteur). 8vo. § 3, art. 10. Coreman, Guorcx. Lunar and Nautical Tables.... Stereotype edition. London, 1846. 8vo (317 pp. of tables). § 4. Cretir, A.L. Erleichterungs-Tafel fiir jeden, der zu rechnen hat; enthal- tend die 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, und 9 fachen aller Zahlen von 1 bis 10 Millionen ... Berlin, 1836. (pp. 1000 and explanation xvi.) § 3, art. 1. Cretiz, A. L. Rechentafeln welche alles Multipliciren und Dividiren mit Zahlen unter Tausend ganz ersparen... Zweite Stereotyp-Ausgabe ... von Dr. C. Bremrxrr. Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1864. Folio (pp. 450). [There is also a French titlepage.] Also edition of 1820, in two vols. 8vo. § 3, art. 1. Croswett, Wiri1am. Tables for readily computing the Longitude.... Boston, 1791. 8vo. § 4. Dasr, Zacnarras. ‘Tafel der natiirlichen Logarithmen der Zahlen. In der Form und Ausdehnung wie die der gewéhnlichen oder Brigg’schen Logarithmen... Wien, 1850, 4to (pp. 195). § 3, art. 16. . Das, Zacuartas. Factoren Tafeln fiir alle Zahlen der Siebenten Million Hamburg, 1862. 4to (pp. 112). § 3, art. 8. Dasn, Zacuartas. Factoren Tafeln fiir alle Zahlen der Achten Million... Hamburg, 1863. 4to (pp. 112). § 3, art. 8. Dasz, Zacwartas... Factoren-tafeln fiir: Zahlen der Neunten Million.. ergiinzt von Dr. H. Rosenserc. Hamburg, 1865, 4to (pp. 110). - § 3, art. 8 Decuatrs (Cursus Mathematicus). § 2, art.3. . Dr Decxzr. Nieuwe Telkonst, inhoudende de Logarithmi voor de Ghetallen - beginnende van 1 tot 10000... Door Ezzcuret pz Ducrmr, Rekenmeester, ende Lantmeter residerente ter Goude... Ter Goude. By Pieter Rammaseyn ... 1626. 8vo (260 pp. of tables, and introduction pp. 50+, (copy imper- fect)). [De Haan gives 51 as the number of pp. in the introduction, ‘ Phil. Mag.’ May, 1873}. § 4. Drern, C. F. Tabularum ad faciliorem et breviorem Probabilitatis com- putationem utilium Enneas.... Havniew, 1824. 8vo (pp. 44, and intro- duction xxii). § 4. Dz Haan (Iets over Logarithmentafels). § 3, art. 13 (p. 55). Dr Joncourr. See Joncourr. De ta Lanpr. See Lananvs. Detampre. Sec Borpa. De Menvoza. See Rros. Ds Montrerrier. See MontrerRier. [Dz Morean, A.]. Tables of Logarithms (Under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge). London, 1854. From the stereotyped plates of 1839. Small 8vo (pp. 215). § 4. Dz Morean, A. Encyclopedia Metropolitana. Pure Sciences, vol. ii. (Theory of Probabilities), London, 1843. § 3, art. 25. Dr Morean (Article on tables in the Penny and English Cyclopedias and ‘ Arithmetical Books’). § 2, art. 3. Dr Morean. Seo Scurdn (1865). De Prassz. Tables logarithmiques, pour les nombres, les sinus et les tangentes, disposées dans un nouvel ordre... Accompagnée de notes et dun avertissement par M. Harms. Paris, 1814. 12mo (pp. 80). § 4. Dusstov. See J. H. Moors. Ditine, J. M. Probeschrift eines leichtfasslichen logarithmischen Sys- tems... .fiir Birger und Landschulen.... Leipzig, 1826, 12mo (pp. 53), § 3, art. 1, : L2 148 ; REPORT—1873. _ Donson, James. The Antilogarithmic Canon... London, 1742. folio. § 3, art. 14. Dopson, Jauns. The Calculator: being correct and necessary tables for computation. Adapted to Science, Business, and Pleasure.... London, 1747. Large 8vo (pp. 174). § 4. Donne, F. Nautische astronomische und logarithmische Tafeln. . .fiir die Kéniglich Preussischen N avigations-Schulen. . . Berlin, 1852. 8yo (353 pp. of tables). § 4. Donn, Bunsamin. Mathematical Tables, or Tables of Logarithms... Third edition, ‘with large additions. London, 1789. 8vo (pp. 351). § 4. Dovetas, Guorcz. Mathematical Tables, containing the Logarithms of Numbers ; "Tables of Sines, Tangents, and Secants .... and Supplementary Tables. Edinburgh, 1809. 8v0. (pp. 166). §4. Dovuwers. See under Bownrrcn, § 4. Ducom, P. Cours d’Observations nautiques, contenant. ..suivi d’une col- lection des meilleures Tables... Bordeaux, 1820. 8yo (296 pp. of tables). § 4. Dumas. See Garpiner (Avignon edition, 1770). Dunn, Samvet. Tables of correct and concise logarithms for numbers, sines, tangents, secants.., London, 1784, 8vo (pp. 144). § 4. Durvis, J. Tables de Logarithmes a sept décimales ees Bremiker, Callet, Véga, ete. par J. Dupuis. Edition stéréotype.... troisiéme tirage. Paris, 1868. 8vo (pp. 578). § 4. Durvis. See under Canter, 1853. § 4. _ [Encxe J. F.] Logarithmen von vier Decimal-Stellen. Berlin, 1828. Small 8yo (pp. 22). § 4. Erscu (Litteratur der Mathematik). § 2, art. 3. Everett, J. D. Universal Proportional Table.... William Mackenzie. London [no date, 1866]. § 4. Fartey, Ricnarp. Tables of six-figure logarithms... Stereotyped edition. London, 1840, 8vo. §4. [Fartry, R.] Natural versed sines from 0° to 125°, and Logarithmic versed sines from 0° to 135°, or 0" to 9", used in computing Lunar Distances for the Nautical Almanac, London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1856. folio (pp. 90). § 4. ‘ Faviuaner, Jonann. Ingenieurs-Schul, Erster Theyl: Darinnen durch den Canonem Logarithmicum alle Planische Triangel zur fortification... .zu solviren... Auss Adriano Vlacq, Henrico Briggio, Nepero, Pitisco, Berneck- hero. ..gezogen... Gedruckt zu Franckfurt am Mayn. ..1630. Small 8vo (pp. 170) (with an Appendix of 14 pp.).. Followed by an engraved titlepage. § 4. [Fauruaner, J.| Zehentausend Logarithmi der Absolut oder ledigen Zahlen, von 1. biss auff 10000, nach Herrn Johannis Neperi Baronis Merchistenii Arth und Inuention, welche Heinricus Briggius illustriert, und Adrianus Vlacq augiert, gerichtet. Gedruckt zu Augspurg, durch Andream Aperger, auff unser lieben Frawen Thor. Anno m.pc.xxxi. Small 8vo (pp. 104). § 4. [Favraser, J.J. Canon Triangulorum logarithmicus, das ist: Kiinstliche Logarithmische Tafeln der Sinuum, Tangentium und Secantium, nach Adriani Vlacqs Calculation Rechnung und Manier gestelt. Gedruckt zu Augspurg, durch Andream Aperger, auff unser lieben Frawen Thor. Anno M.D¢.XXXI. Small 8yo (pp. 190). §4. Frrxer, Anroy. Tafel aller Einfachen Factoren der durch 2, 3, 5 nicht theilbaren Zahlen von 1 bis 10 000 000. I. Theil. Enthaltend die Factoren von 1 bis 144000. Wien, mit von Ehelenschen Schriften gedruckt, 1776. Large folio (pp. 26, and preface, &e. 4 pp.). § 3, art. 8. ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 149 Frrxrt. Sce Lampert. Finirowsk1, Herscurett E. ee 1 Swatzerland yh: PSP AMY 2 Higypt . 2H. Oa Ae 1 eer IS eM OT i Belgium supplying none. These figures afford no comparison between Great Britain and other countries; but they give a fair idea of the relative table- publication of foreign countries, or, at all events, of the relative proportions in which their tabular works are to be found in English libraries. The numbers of tables published in some of the chief towns are as follows :—London 94, Paris 23, Berlin 18, Leipzig 17, Edinburgh 11, Vienna 5, Copenhagen 4, New York 3. Of the 109 works published in Great Britain and Ireland the following is the distribution:—England 96 (London 94, Boston 1, Ci- rencester 1), Scotland 12 (Edinburgh 11, Glasgow 1), Ireland 1 (Dublin), showing the paramount position of London in the publishing trade in this country. Art. 13. Contents oF THE REPORT THAT WAS INTENDED TO BE PRESENTED TO THE Braprorp Mrerrine, 1873.—Owing to the great amount of space already occupied in the present volume by the foregoing Report, it seemed desirable to postpone for a year the Report which it was till recently intended should be presented to the Bradford Meeting, and only to give here a brief description of the work performed in 1872-1873. This latter Report (which is not lengthy) consists of three parts—(1) Tables of the Legendrian Func- tions; (2) List of errors in Vuace’s ‘ Arithmetica Logarithmica,’ 1628 or 1631; (3) Account of the tabulation of the Elliptic Functions. Art. 14. The Tables of the Legendrian Functions (Laplace’s Coefficients).— These give P(#) to n=7 from «=0 to v=1 at intervals of -01, viz. the functions are :— P= Rea 9 PP? =3(32°—1), P§ = 4(5a°—32), Pt = 3(35v* —3027+3), P* = 3(63a° —70a° 4 152), P* = 1. (2312° —315a*+4 1052? —5), P= g(4292" — 693v° + 315a°— 352) ; and as only powers of 2 appear in the denominators, all the decimals ter- minate, and their accurate values are therefore given. The work was per- formed in duplicate—one calculation having been made by Mr. W. Barrett Davis, and the other under the direction of the reporter, by whom the two were compared, the errors corrected, and the whole differenced. As the accurate values of the functions were tabulated, the verification by differ- ences was absolute. A short introduction on the use of the tables in inter- polation was written by Prof. Cayley, who has also made drawings of the curves y=P"(x) over the portion calculated. Art. 15. The List of Errors in Vlacq’s ‘Arithmetica Logarithmica’ (1628 or 1631).—It seemed very desirable that a complete list of the errata in Vuacq, 1628 or 1631, should be formed for the convenience of those who have occasion to employ ten-figure logarithms. No less than five copies of this work have been continually in use in the calculation of the Elliptic ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 171 Functions (see next article) during the last year; and it is the ten-figure table chiefly used. Besides this, the errata in Vrace are known with more certainty than are those in Vzea, 1794. This list had only been partially formed when it was determined to post- pone the Report; and it is believed that the year’s delay may possibly result in its being made more complete. It is proposed to add a list of errata also in Dopson’s ‘ Antilogarithmic Canon,’ 1742 (§ 3, art. 14), and perhaps to consider the subject of errors in tables generally. Art. 16. The account of the Tabulation of the Elliptic Functions.—In Sep- tember 1872 it was resolved to undertake the systematic tabulation of the Elliptic Functions (inverse to the Elliptic Integrals), or, more strictly, of the Jacobian Theta Functions which form their numerators and denomi- nators. The formule are :— 2Ku a= 1— 2q cos 2 + 2q* cos 4v—2q° cos 6a+..., 9 2k _1 2K 7 Hertha it te oe 25h = - (24° sin #—2q4 sin3xe+2q4 sinda—.. ); 2Ka _ k' 2K T 6, z ra ae H—( «+ 5) k! ee 9 BS =(z) (297 cos w+ 294 cos 3u+2q 4cos5a+...), 0.2K te (242) Tv =k? (1+ 29 cos 2x + 2q* cos 4a+4 29° cos 64+...) 5 so that sin am 2K © =60, = > — vie vis Tv cos am 2Kx =6, — + ai Tv Tv a am SE og Me. Ke Tv T qv mK! q being, as always, e *; and the tables, when completed, will give 9, O,, 9,, O, and their logarithms to eight decimals for w= 1°, 2°,...90°, k=sin 1°, sin 2°, ...sin 90°. The tables are thus of double entry, and contain “eight tabular results for each of 8100 arguments, viz. 64,800 tabular results. The arrangement will be so that over each page k shall be constant ; and at the top of each page certain constants (7. ¢. quantities independent of x), such as K, K’, J, J, K, i, (@)' Pi (p)* q &e., 172 REPORT—1878. and their logarithms, which are likely to be wanted in connexion with the tables, will be added. K and K’ (complete elliptic integrals) were, as is well known, tabulated by Legendre, and published by him in 1826. For the performance of the calculation of © and ©, (©, being deduced from ©) 8500 forms were printed and bound up into 15 books (550 in each, with a few over). Each book, therefore, contains forms for the calculation of six nineties, viz. from /=sin a? (say), v =0°, to k=sin (a°+5°), 7=90°. Similar forms for the calculation of ©, and ©, were printed and bound up into 15 other books. The work has been in active progress since the beginning of October 1872; and eight computers have been engaged from that time to the present, under the superintendence of Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S., and the Reporter. About three quarters of the work is now performed—60 having been calculated com- pletely, and its accuracy verified by differences, and ©, being nearly finished also, while very considerable progress has been made with ©, and @,,. It is intended that the tables, which will be completed, it is hoped, by February 1874, shall form a separate work, and that they shall be preceded by an introduction, in which all the members of the Committee will take part, —an account of the application of the functions in mathematics generally being undertaken by Professor Cayley, of their application in the theory of numbers by Professor H. J. 8. Smith, and of their use in physics by Sir W. Thomson and Professor Stokes, while the account of the method of calcula- tion &e. will be written by the Reporter. The magnitude of the numerical work performed has not often been ex- ceeded since the original calculation of logarithms by Briggs and Vlacq, 1617-1628 ; and it is believed that the value of the tables will be great. After the circular and logarithmic functions there are no transcendants more widely used in analysis than the Elliptic Functions ; and the tables will not only render the subjects in which they occur more complete, but will also, to a great extent, render available for practical purposes a vast and fertile region of ‘analysis. Apart from their interest and utility in a mathematical point of view, one of the most valuable uses of numerical tables is that they connect mathematics and physics, and enable the extension of the former to bear fruit practically in aiding the advance of the latter. Art. 17. Norm on rue Centrestmat Division or tHE Drcree.—In the note on p. 64 we have expressed an opinion that Briggs and his followers, by dividing centesimally the old nonagesimal degree, showed a truer appreciation of how far improvement was practicable, or indeed desirable, than did the French mathematicians who divided the quadrant centesimally. On reading Stevinus’s ‘ La Disme,’ the celebrated tract in which the invention of decimal fractions was first announced, we found that the centesimal division of the degree was there suggested. The following extract from ‘La Disme’ is taken from pp. 156 and 157 of ‘ La Pratique d’Arithmetique de Simon Stevin de Bruges’ (Leyden, 1585), near the end of which ‘La Disme’ appears in French. The first publication of the tract, as far as we can find, was in Dutch, under the title “ De Thiende....Beschreven door Simon Stevin van Brugghe ” (Leyden, 1585). « Article V. Des Computations Astronomiques.— say £5000 Pipes, receiver, fixing and sundry weed 1250 | EL EO a 1K This outlay would provide all necessary power and plant for the regular working of eight machines, with two in reserve; and estimating that each machine will cut 60 yards per day, the product in a 4-feet seam would be 85 tons per day, or per week say 500 tons per machine; and 8 by 500 is 4000 tons. Now at this rate of expenditure and work done, an allowance of 2d. per ton would in three years liquidate the entire outlay. But there is no reason why the machines should be restricted to a single shift daily ; indeed it is far more economical to work double shifts: there is no additional outlay of capital; and so far as depends upon the machinery, the output might be easily increased to 8000 tons per week. We now come to the relative costs of cutting the coal by hand and by ON COAL-CUTTING MACHINERY. 183 machine ; and the following figures may be taken as representing a somewhat fayourable state of things for the latter. The seam is the “ Middleton Main” or “Silkstone bed.” The depth of the mine is 160 yards, and the coal 4 feet thick ; there are two bands of shale, with a thin layer of coal between them. The bottom portion is not always wholly merchantable ; but when it is so, it yields one ton and a third of a ton per running yard. For the purpose, however, of this comparison, I take 60 tons only per day (which would come out of 45 yards of machine working). ( Tuer Cost py Hanp. 30 men cutting, filling, timbering, drilling, road- laying, blasting, and all other needful wor ready in the corves for the “ hurrier” at 4s.53d. £ s. d. Per LOM ares meet ies Yc pene oeen scree 13 8 9 By Macuine. ised: d°machine man at Sai Ga Oe SPio 1 youth at 5s. 6d. 0 5 6 Atteat | 1 boy at 38. 6d. } Ceara be mstie ahenoe = 3 men cleaning and packing at 8s.4d... 1 5 O ** 6 men filling 10 tons each man, at 8jd. } Seat a DCL (OMe a iro ited acts Ss sare Bnd 3 men timbering at 6s. 10d. ...-...... 1 0 6 e ene. | 3 men drilling and blowing down at 106 OBOE) le Wes a CE OV a 3 portion of cost of steam and air 55} (ith ob POMRe ada, eta ee eso ae ee 1 Maintenance at ld. perton .......... 0 5 0 Redemption of capital at 2d. per ton.... 0 10 0 —— 813 9 Difference, in money, in favour of the machine, or TS, eh eeBOr COM ce as ths Cae 2 OR se oye eee 415 0 £13 8 9 L Ti eee The two boys, it will be noticed, are taken as equal to one man; and for the purpose of another comparison, I will assume that by hand labour thirty men will produce 60 tons per day, or two tons each, and that by machine seventeen men will produce the same tonnage. The saving in number, therefore, would be twelve men to every 60 tons, or upon a colliery getting 4000 tons per week, the saving would be 132 men. I do not wish to press this point further than to say that the cost of dwellings properly to domicile one half of this number would exceed the first outlay of capital in furnishing a first-class colliery with first-class machinery for cutting the coal; and it must not be forgotten that the equipment of the hand-cutters in tools forms a considerable item in the first cost of fitting up a colliery. It has been generally supposed that our machines are not adapted for “ pillar and stall work.” That their locomotion “ is not so easy as that of men,” must of course be 184. REPORT—1873. admitted ; but they are removed from place to place with little more trouble than a full corve; and we have recently made some careful experiments, which prove that there is in “ pillar and stall” about equal advantage as in “long wall;” and we can confidently assert that the opinions upon the difficulty of moving them which have been recently enunciated from high quarters are quite erroneous. The items of cost in working contained in the previous account, are con- fined to the actual working of the two systems, up to the coal being put into the corves, and ready for being sent out of the pit, all the other work, whether for hand or machine, being exactly alike. But there are some advantages in the machine over the hand-working, which pertain to the general mine account, viz. the larger size of the coal brought out, and an increased average price, on sale, with a saving in timber and other stores. I may say in conclusion, that, putting aside entirely all reduction in the cost of getting out the coal, there are other and collateral considera- tions which are, in my opinion, sufficiently important and worthy of your attention. IT now recapitulate the most prominent points upon which I rely, viz. :— 1. Greater safety for the workmen from falls of coal and roof. 2. Less danger of explosion, and greater security against the effect of choke damp. 3. Less strain upon the physical powers of the labourers, and great amelioration in the hard conditions of their employment, conse- quently adding to the comfort and length of their lives. . Saving from destruction much of the most valuable of all our com- modities. . Saving of timber and other materials employed in mining. . Increased control over production, enabling sudden demands to be suddenly met. . Preparing for other important improvements in mining, without any addition to the first outlay, such as drilling, hauling, and pumping. . The peculiar adaptability of the means set forth for working the very deep seams of coal, without which it is very doubtful whether they can ever be profitably worked. 9. Greater saving of time in opening new pits, and quickening the means of such becoming remunerative. oOo Fs Oo Considering the vast extent of the trade in coal and the stupendous con- sequences of a short and insufficient supply, and believing that the speediest adoption of coal-getting machinery is desirable, I have myself made some efforts to stimulate that object by an offer of a premium of £500 for the best machine that could be produced; but those efforts have failed, and I now submit that the question, being of national importance, is one specially entitled to the support and encouragement of the Government, and that the British Association is preeminently the channel through which that object could be obtained in the best manner. ON MALTESE FOSSIL ELEPHANTS. 185 Concluding Report on the Maltese Fossil Elephants. By A. Leirn Avams, M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ir is with much pleasure I have to announce to the members of the Asso- ciation that my labours in connexion with the fossil elephants of Malta have been completed. It is now thirteen years since these researches were begun ; and although frequently interrupted by other engagements, the importance of the subject has all along stimulated me to make every sacrifice within my power in order to accomplish a work of so much scientific interest. The monograph descriptive of the elephantine remains discovered by me was read at the con- cluding meeting of the Zoological Society of London in June last, and will appear in due course in the Transactions of the Society. It is illustrated by a mapand 21 Quarto plates. In my Second Reportin 1866, drawn up immediately after the termination of my explorations, I was dis- posed towards an opinion that the exuvie I had brought together represented only one form of Elephant, distinct from any known member of the genus, and somewhat under the ordinary dimensions of the living species. Subse- quent examinations, however, showed, in addition, that there were good indications of the presence of the two dwarf elephants previously determined by Dr. Falconer and Mr. Busk, from the collection made by Capt. Spratt in the Zebbug Cave in Malta in the year 1859. 1st. With reference to the largest species. This is represented in my col- lections by nearly the entire dentition and many bones of an elephant which varied in height between 64 and 7 feet. The last figure, however, represents the maximum proportions as far as I have been enabled to determine from my own specimens and from all other remains hitherto discovered in the island. It is apparent, therefore, that the largest Maltese fossil elephant was, comparatively speaking, a small animal. The dental specimens I have assigned to this species are very numerous, and for the most part perfect. They represent every stage of growth, from the first to the last, showing what appears to me an unbroken series of molars which display the progressive succession of ridges characteristic of the subgenus Zowodon, and are therefore allied to the existing African elephant, from which, however, they differ not only in relative dimensions, but also in well-marked specific characters. The ridge-formule of the deciduous and true molars of this species seem to me to stand thus * :— Milk-Molars. True Molars. ox |x Gx + x 8—9 x3: x 8-9 x:x10x:x12-13 x. From these figures it will be apparent that the nearest alliance as regards the ridge-formula would be to the gigantic Lowodon meridionalis, whilst the ’ erown sculpturing of the molars resemble the same in Elephas antiquus ; but they do not agree in further particulars with other species excepting the Elephas melitensis, to which I will refer presently. With reference to the skeleton generally, the majority of the characters of the long bones are more in keeping with the African than the Asiatic elephant. The presence of this larger species of elephant, in conjunction with the dwarf forms, was pointed out by Dr. Falconer, and subsequently by Mr. Busk; but their specimens were much too fragmentary to allow of specific determination, a want, however, which is amply supplied by the materials collected by me. * x stands for talons. 186 REPORT—1873. In the choice of a name for this proboscidian I have been prompted by considerations purely incidental, inasmuch as the gap or rock-fissure from which I obtained the most perfect specimens of its teeth and bones is situ- ated in the immediate vicinity of a remarkable megalithic structure supposed to have been built during the Phoenician occupation of the Maltese Islands. I have accordingly named this new species the Elephas mnaidriensis. 2nd. The dwarf species named Llephas melitensis by Falconer and Busk is well shown in my collection by many important bones, besides what appears to me to be the entire dental series. This species seems to have varied con- siderably in size ; indeed it would appear to link the two extremes represented by the Llephas mnaidriensis and the smallest form, Hlephas Falconert. The majority of the bones indicate, however, that its average height may have been nearly 5 feet, as previously estimated by Dr. Falconer and Mr. Busk, from the Zebbug collection. The dentition of Hlephas melitensis, as determined by Falconer, receives ample confirmation from the data furnished by my collections, the ridge formula being :— Milk Molars. True Molars. RIO RAD TR. ERS OX. x 8-9:x ) x 9=10 x: x 12 x, The only discrepancy between our estimates is an additional ridge in the penultimate true molar of my specimens, which it may be observed is not a rare occurrence in the equivalent tooth of the African elephant. It is clear therefore that, like the larger form, the above belonged to the Loxodon group, with a ridge-formula almost identical to that of Z. mnaidriensis, ex- cepting in the penultimate milk-molar, which in the former holds 5 instead of 6 plates, besides talons—a distinction maintained in various specimens in my collection. The crown-patterns of worn molars in the two elephants are also very much alike; but the relative dimensions of teeth of equivalent stages of growth differ a great deal, indeed more so than perhaps in large and small indivi- duals of any known species. Again, we find thick- and thin-plated varieties among the last true molars of both forms, just as obtains in other species ; so that, taken in conjunction with the bones, it seems to me that they cannot be reconciled with sexual or individual peculiarities of one species of elephant. 3rd. The smallest adult bones in my collection represent a very diminu- tive elephant. In some instances, as compared with other species, there are evidences of individuals even under 3 feet in height. With reference to dental materials, there is some variety in dimensions of molars ascribable to the Elephas melitensis ; but, allowing a fair margin in this respect, and taking into consideration their absolute similarity in every other particular, it seems to me impossible to make out a third species from the teeth alone. There are, however, vertebree and other bones which fairly establish the pigmy proportions of the Elephas Falconeri of Busk ; at the same time there is no difficulty in arranging a graduated series of specimens, from the smallest up to the largest bones ascribable to the Hlephas melitensis. But whilst the differences in size between the two dwarf forms are not so great as usually obtains between large and small individuals of living species, there is aremarkable dissimilarity in this respect between the largest specimens representing the Hlephas mnaidriensis and the smallest of Hlephas Falconer: ; indeed the estimated height of the former shows an elephant nearly three times as tall as the latter, thus displaying a range much exceeding any known instances of individual variation among recent and extinct species. ON MALTESE FOSSIL ELEPHANTS. 187 I am thus particular to record these facts in order to show what appears to me evidence that the dwarf forms were not females or small individuals of Hlephas mnaidriensis, although the latter was, comparatively speaking, a small species, and agreed, at all events, with Zlephas melitensis in many important particulars. Unless, therefore, a far greater variability of species existed in those times than at present, after making every allowance for size and other characters, I see no avoiding the inference the materials force on us, viz. that there lived in the Maltese area two, if not three, distinct species of elephants different from any known forms. It is necessary to say a few words with reference to their associated fossil fauna. In the first place, all the elephantine forms have been found in the same deposits, and usually in- termingled. Along with them we find bones and teeth referable to the Hip- popotamus Pentland: and H. minutus. ‘The former has been met with in great abundance in the island, whilst only a few teeth and other portions of the skeleton of the latter have turned up. Here again we observe a great varia- bility in dimensions ; indeed in this respect these two riverhorses resemble the large and pigmy forms of the elephants; and although the former have been found in a fossil state in Sicily and Crete in conjunction with other mammals, this is not the case with the giant dormice and large extinct swan, which have hitherto turned up nowhere out of Malta. I may state that the Reptilian remains found by Admiral Spratt and myself in union with these quadrupeds and birds have not, as a whole, been critically examined ; but, in consideration of the importance of the subject, 1 am in hopes of seeing this accomplished soon. The mollusca found in connexion with foregoing represent several recent species, which have been already noticed in my first Report for 1865. It must be apparent, therefore, that this (for the most part) unique fossil fauna, restricted to a small mid-ocean island, presents several interesting contrasts with reference to the Mammalia in general, and elephants in par- ticular, which frequented Europe during late geological epochs. For example, between Rome and Sicily we find remains of the Hlephas primigenius, Elephas antiquus, and Elephas meridionalis. In the caves of Sicily traces of the African elephant have been discovered, and also molars, barely distinguish- able from those of the Asiatic species, and which, under the name of Hlephas armeniacus, are traceable eastward into Asia Minor, in the direction of the present habitat of the living species. It looks, indeed, as if the eastern basin of the Mediterranean had been at one time a common ground where all these extinct and living elephants met, and whence, with other animals, they have disappeared or been repelled to distant regions. In fine the importance of late discoveries in this area, and the circumstance that the explorations have been hitherto restricted to isolated points along the shores and islands of the great inland sea, promise well for future re- searches ; indeed I might be permitted to say that if one quarter of the super- fluous zeal and energy of the rising generation of English geologists were directed towards the ossiferous deposits of Southern Europe and Northern Africa, we should not have long to wait for novelties equally interesting with any yet produced. In conclusion, I beg once more to express my deep obligations to the British Association for the valued assistance extended to me not only during the prosecution of the explorations, but also with reference to the illustration of the various and interesting materials I have described at length in my memoir, of which this is but a brief abstract. 188 REPORT—1873. Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ramsay, Professor Guixiz, Professor J. Youne, Professor Nicot, Dr. Bryce, Dr. Artuur Mircue.t, Professor Hutt, Sir R. Grirritu, Bart., Dr. Kine, Professor Harkness, Mr. Prestwicu, Mr. Hueuss, Rey. H. W. Crossxey, Mr. W. Jotty, Mr. D. Mitnz-Hotmeg, and Mr. PENGELLY, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining the existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or Boulders, of indicating on Maps their position and height above the sea, as also of ascertaining the nature of the rocks composing these blocks, their size, shape, and other particulars of interest, and of endeavouring to prevent the destruction of such blocks as in the opi- nion of the Committee are worthy of being preserved. Drawn up by the Rev. H. W. Crosskezy, Secretary. Tue Royal Society of Edinburgh has appointed a Committee for the special examination and description of Boulder or Erratic Blocks in Scotland ; and it will therefore not be necessary for this Committee to include Scotland in its inyestigations. Throughout England and Wales boulders and groups of boulders are scattered, among which the work of destruction is constantly going on. Groups of boulders are removed from the fields and built into walls; large boulders are frequently blasted ; and during these operations the signs of ice- action are either rendered obscure or entirely removed. The geological importance, however, of obtaining the exact facts respecting the distribution of travelled boulders is increasing with an extended knowledge of the very complicated character of the phenomena of the glacial epoch. The dispersion of boulders cannot be traced to one single period of that great epoch. Prof. Ramsay has pointed out that transported blocks have travelled in some instances over land higher than the parent beds from which they have been derived, thus affording support to the theory that oscillations of the land took place during the one great glacial period, which would neces- sarily be accompanied by a series of dispersions of boulders*. The distances of the boulders from the rocks from which they were de- rived, the heights over which they have passed and at which they are found, the matrix (if any) in which they are imbedded, whether of loose sand, gravel, or clay, will form elements in determining at what period in the gla- cial epoch their distribution took place. As the dispersion of boulders cannot be traced to one single period, neither can it be referred to one single cause. The agency of land-ice, the direction in which icebergs would float during the depression of the land, the power of rivers in flood to bring down masses of floating ice, must be taken into account. It will not be the office of this Committee to offer theoretical explanations, but to collect facts, although the bearing of these facts upon debatable geo- logical problems may from time to time be not unjustly indicated. While the dispersion of boulders can neither be traced to one single period nor referred to one single cause, in some cases boulders distributed at different periods.and by different causes may have become intermixed. This possibility, of course, largely adds to the complexity of the problems in- volved, and to the difficulty of assigning to various isolated boulders and groups of boulders their definite place in a great series of phenomena. The following circular has been distributed by the Boulder Committee of the Royal Society of Edinburgh :— * Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc. yol. xxix. p. 360. ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OR BOULDERS. 189 f If there are in your Parish any Erraric Buocks or Bounpers,—i. 0. Masses of Rock evidently transported from some remote locality, and of a remarkable size, say containing above 10 cubie yards—i. e. about 20 tons,—please to answer the following Queries :— QUERIES. ANSWERS. 1. What is name of the Parish, Estate, and Farm on which Boulder is situated, adding name of oes 3 of Estate, and Tenant of Farm? to . What are dimensions of Boulder, in length, breadth, and height, above ground ? 3. Is the Boulder, in shape, rounded or angular ? 4. If the Boulder is long-shaped, what is direction by compass of its longest axis ? ; 5. If there are any natural ruts, groovings, or striations on Boulder, state— (1) Their length, depth, and number (2) Their direction by compass ...... (3) The part of Boulder striated, viz. whether top or sides ............ 6. If the Boulder is of a species of rock differing from any rocks adjoining it, state locality where rock of the same nature as the Boulder occurs, the dis- tance of that locality, and its bearings by compass from the Boulder ? 7. What is the nature of the rock com- posing Boulder, giving its proper Geo- logical or Mineralogical name, or other description ? | t | | Bf Boulder is known by any popular 1 } } | name, or has any legend connected with it, mention it. 9. What is the height of Boulder above the sea ? 10. If Boulder is indicated on any map, state what map. 11. If Boulder is now, or has been, used to mark the boundary of a County, Parish, or Estate, explain what boundary. 12. If there is any photograph or sketch of the Boulder, please to say how Com- mittee can obtain it. 13. Though there may be no one Boulder in your Parish so remarkable as to deserve description, there may be groups of Boulders oddly assorted ; if so, state where they are situated, and how grouped. Sometimes they form lines more or less continuous,—some- times piled up on one another. 14. Ifthere are in your Parish any ‘‘ Kames,” or long ridges of gravel or sand, state their length, height, and situation. , 190 REPORT—1875. It is proposed by the Committee to issue a similar circular, with some modifications, to Secretaries of Field-clubs and local Geological Societies in England and Wales, and others who may be willing to assist in their work. The Committee would especially invite the cooperation of the various field-clubs of England and Wales, whose members, in their various excur- sions, enjoy singular opportunities of becoming acquainted with the boulders of the country. Cuarnwoop-Forrst BovLDErs. The railway-cutting at Hugglescote, approaching Bardon Hill, passes through an immense number of striated and polished boulders. Mr. Plant, of Leicester (who has imvestigated the boulders of this district, and furnished us with considerable information), describes this cutting at Hugglescote as 30 feet deep. The drift-gravel is a hard cemented mass, with hundreds of erratics, at all heights, sticking not on their longer faces, but sometimes on end, distinctly proving that the ice melted in situ, and left the materials to find their own bearings. One, of which he saw the fragments, had to be blasted to get it out, and was estimated by the engineer to weigh 10 tons. All the boulders (except one, a peculiar millstone-grit) were derived from the Charnwood-Forest range, the most travelled from a distance of 30 miles, the nearest about 2 miles. Some of the boulders were upwards of 5 tons in weight, and were striated and polished frequently on more than one side. Many were angular and subangular. ‘They were very irregularly dispersed through an unstratified matrix of sand and clay. The whole distance from the vast accumulation in the cutting to Bardon Hill, the nearest point of Charnwood, a distance of about 2 miles, is covered with trails of boulders. The jagged edges of the Bardon-Hill rock, 854 feet above the sea-level, indicate the way in which boulders would be broken off, supposing the hill itself covered with ice. During some part of the glacial epoch Charnwood Forest was evidently a centre from which highly glaciated boulders were distributed. Mr. Plant reports that a great south front of igneous rock has been broken down and distributed, east, south, and south-west, 10, 15, and 20 miles, in direct lines. An area of 10 miles N.N.W. and 20 miles §.8.E. and 8.W., is covered with boulders derived from Charnwood Forest, from 2 cwt. up to 10 tons. Centuries of cultivation (he adds) have been occupied more or less in clear- ing the surface of these boulders. They are still found in great numbers, 2 to 3 feet deep ; but the surface-boulders are found in the walls of village houses, churches, farm-houses, and other old structures, all over the county. Four large blocks from the railway-cutting at Hugglescote have been removed, and placed in the grounds of the Leicester Museum. One of these is a fine example of a polished rock, and is full of ice-grooves. Its dimen- sions are :—6 ft. high, 3 ft. 2 in. broad (or thick), 3 ft. wide ; weight nearly 4tons. It consists of “porphyritic greenstone” from Charnwood Forest, grey felspathic base (dolerite), with crystals (; to $ on face) of quartz. Through long chemical action in the drift the felspar has been decomposed, and left the crystals standing out all over the surface, except on the polished side. The other three blocks are nearly of the same size and composition. It is intended to remove other blocks to the museum-grounds for preser- vation. ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OR BOULDERS. 191 Charnwood Forest and other Boulders, beneath marine sands and gravels, 357 feet above the sea. At the base of Ketley grayel-pit, near Wellington (Shropshire), is a bed of very fine sand, containing a remarkable group of large angular and sub- angular boulders. The sands and gravels extend to heights of from 25 to 30 feet, and yielded 13 species of mollusca, chiefly in fragments. Cardium edule, Linn. Dentalium ? (very worn). echinatum, Linn. Turritella terebra, Linn. Cyprina islandica, Linz. Natica greenlandica, Bech. Astarte borealis, Chemnitz. : Buccinum undatum, Linn. sulcata, Da Costa. Trophon truncatus, Strom. Tellina balthica, Zinn. Nassa reticulata, Linn. Mactra solida, Linn. It will be observed that only one of these species is extinct in British __-waters, viz. Astarte borealis. Throughout the sands and gravels waterworn pebbles are found, with oceasional masses of larger size, composed of the same material as the larger boulders beneath. Beneath the marine sands and gravels some of the boulders are 8 feet by 5 feet, and their sides are planed very smoothly, and they have a subangular shape. Out of 100 specimens, 80 per cent. consist of Permian sandstones from the immediate neighbourhood. From the immediate neighbourhood also there are boulders of Mountain Limestone. Silurian Limestone. Old Red Sandstone. Greenstone, The travelled boulders consist of Various granites, both red and grey (very numerous), probably from Cumberland or Scotland. Rocks of Charnwood Forest, from a distance of 50 miles. ” ee? eee One remarkable feature of this group of boulders is the intermixture of boulders from the neighbourhood with those that have travelled from different points of the compass, the whole group being buried beneath marine sands and gravels, at the elevation of about 300 feet above the sea, The elevation of Ketley village is 357-319 feet above the sea. For the boulders of the neighbouring drift of the Severn valleys reference may be made to an exhaustive paper by Mr. G. Maw (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xx. p. 1380). The Geological Section of the Birmingham Natural-History Society has commenced a systematic examination of the boulders of the Midland district, and has favoured the Committee with the following preliminary Report :— « The Ordnance Map of the neighbourhood of Birmingham has in the first place been divided by ruled lines into squares of one inch side, each square enclosing a representation of one square mile of country. Enlarged maps, on the scale of six inches to the mile, were prepared from this; and on these enlarged maps the boulders were to be marked by circles, the number of concentric circles representing the diameter of the boulder in feet. For col- lecting specimens of the rocks of which the boulders are composed, bags were made, and numbered corresponding to each square on the map; at the same time notes were to be made of any specimen that was of unusual interest. For - at Crrnton Cor cee é fot wnenaee ow bbe pore “. Whe. fe (FG 2 4.289. . 192 REPORT—1873. Finally, it was proposed to represent, on a duplicate map, the number, of boulders and character of the rocks by disks of colour, so that a graphic re- presentation of the boulders, as to position, numbers, and kind of rock, would be given, and the source of any class of boulders (as granite e. g.) could be readily traced. It was further proposed to number a rough relief-map of the district, so as to judge in what way the configuration of the country had affected the distribution of the boulders. Z *‘ Considerable information has been already obtained, of which the follow- ing is a summary :— ‘A difficulty was experienced in defining the term boulder ; and, after much discussion, it was thought that for the district the following definition would serve :—‘ A boulder is a mass of rock which has been transported by natural agencies from its native bed.’ Respecting the size at which a rock may be called a boulder, it is thought better not to assign any very definite limit. Some specimens, measuring not more than a foot in some one direc- tion, are both transported from great distances and glaciated, and fairly fall into the category of boulders. “ Distribution of the Boulders.—The district has not as yet been sufficiently examined to report fully on this question. There are unquestionably some places where great accumulations have taken place, separated by country with only a few boulders per square mile. The places where large accumu- lations (a thousand or so) occur, as far as has yet been ascertained, are :— 1, Tettenhall. 2. Bushbury. 3. Cannock. Places where moderate accumulations (60 to 100 or 200 per square mile) occur :— Penkridge. Stone. Shareshill. Shifnall. Brewood. Harborne, near Birmingham. Codsall. Bridgenorth. “The south@rnmost point where boulders have been observed is on the left . of the lane leading from Bromsgrove Station to the town, the most eastern at Rugeley, where only two or three occur. “Tt has been suggested that the cause of accumulations of boulders is due to the stranding of an iceberg at the place in question ; but at present there is not sufficient evidence to form any satisfactory opinion as to the cause of the accumulation. . “The boulders of the Midland district seem originally to have been im- bedded either in clay or drift-sand ; but it is quite the exception to find them in situ. They seem commonly to be disturbed by farmers in the district, who meet with them when ploughing. If the boulder be of manageable size, it is at once dug up and turned into the nearest ditch, or sometimes is buried, or, it may be, carried to the road-side, and broken up for road-purposes, Farmers find some of the boulders useful as horse-blocks, or for protecting gate-posts or the corners of walls and buildings; and it is thus that many are preserved. If the boulder be a very large one, it is generally left in the ground, and the plough carried on each side of it. Since a plough may pass over a boulder several times before the men will take the trouble to remove the obstruction, there is every chance for the boulder to become marked by striations ; and hence much care is required in forming a judgment as to the origin of strie which may be found upon it. It should be mentioned here that. boulders gradually ‘ work up’ to the surface. This is due no doubt to ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OR BOULDERS. 193 the denudation which is taking place. In a field near Red-Hill Farm, be- tween Stafford and Stone, is one of the largest boulders of the district. This boulder was not noticed until some twenty years ago, when it was found to obstruct the plough, although still some depth underground. The obstruc- tion became more and more serious each year, until a few years ago, when, because of this impediment, the field was turned from an arable to a grazing one. At this time the boulder rises about one foot above the level of the field. The part exposed measures 6 feet by about 5, and evidently extends under the turf for a much greater distance. This boulder is composed of the grey granite of which so many other boulders in the neighbourhood consist. “The boulders consist mainly of white granite and of felstone; but many other rocks occur, as may be seen by inspecting the specimens collected. In the neighbourhood of Tettenhall there is a large percentage of granite boul- ders ; but south of here there are very few indeed, the boulders being mainly of felstone. In the Harborne district only one granite boulder has been observed, while there are a hundred or so boulders of other rocks. The contrast between the immense accumulation of granite boulders in the Wolverhampton district and their comparatively small size and rarity around Birmingham is most remarkable.” Granite Boulder on the shore of Barnstaple Bay, North Devon. Mr. Pengelly reports the following particulars respecting this boulder, upon which the raised beach on the northern side of Barnstaple Bay rests. So far as it is visible, it measures 75x 6x3 ft., and therefore, containing upwards of 135 cubic feet, cannot weigh less than 10 tons. It appears to have been first described by the late Rev. D. Williams, in 1837, as “ flesh-coloured, like much of the Grampian granite” and, in his opinion, “neither Lundy, Dartmoor, nor Cornish granite.” In 1866 Mr. Spence Bate, believing that very similar granite existed in Cornwall, expressed the opinion that it was not necessary to go so far as Aberdeen, but that some transporting power must have been required to bring it even from the nearest granite district, and that it without doubt occupied its present position before the deposition of the beach resting upon it. Recently Mr. Pengelly has been informed that red granite occurs on Dartmoor, and therefore has no disinclination to say, with Mr. Bate, that we need not go as far as Aberdeen to find the source of the boulder, although it nevertheless may have come from the Grampians. Assuming that the block may have come from Lundy, twenty miles towards the west, or down the valley of the Torridge from the nearest point of Dart- moor, thirty miles off as the crow flies, its transport in either case must have been due to more powerful agencies than any now in operation in the same district. Between Barnstaple Bay and Lundy there are upwards of 20 fathoms of water, a depth at which no wave that ever entered the Bristol Channel would probably ever move the finest sand. Again, as the highest part of Dartmoor is but 2050 ft. above mean tide, a straight line from it to where the boulder now lies would have a fall of 1 in 77 only, down which the Dartmoor floods would certainly not transport a rock upwards of 10 tons in weight. The foregoing considerations apply, of course, with at least equal force to the hypothesis of any more distant derivation. That such a block might haye been brought from Dartmoor down the Tor- 1873. 0 194 REPORT—1873. ridge to the place it now occupies, had the actual heights been the same as now and the climate as cold as that of Canada at present, will be ob- vious to every one conversant with that country. It is only necessary to suppose that the block fell from a cliff into a stream where the water was at least sometimes of sufficient depth that when frozen round the mass the latter would be lifted by the buoyancy of the ice. On the breaking up of the ice the floods would transport the rock so long and so far as its ice-buoy was capable of supporting it; and though the distance accomplished in a single journey might, and probably would, be inconsiderable, by a repetition of the process season after season it would become equal to any assigned amount. Blocks of great size have been in this way transported in Canadian rivers ‘for 100 miles or more. Again, were Lundy Island capable of generating a glacier and launching it into the sea as an iceberg, there would be no diffi- culty in supposing that any number of boulders might be transported thence to the mainland of Devon. In short, whether the boulder came from Dartmoor or Lundy or any more distant source, it must have been transported by ice-action; and hence its presence where it now lies is good evidence of a climate in this country much colder than that which at present obtains. From the foregoing considerations it will be seen that, if the mass were ice-borne, the land could not have been higher above the sea during the era of the boulder than it is at present. There is nothing, however, to preveut its being lower. The boulder may have been dropped by an iceberg on or near the spot it now occupies when that spot was covered with deep water. The only stipulation to be made on this point is, that the land which furnished the mass was capable of supplying it with an ice-body. For example, if the boulder was derived from Dartmoor, Devonshire as a whole could not have been any thing like 2050 ft. lower than at present; for that would have been to submerge the entire country, whereas there must have been subaérial land sufficient to form the ice-raft whose buoyancy floated the boulder. It is hoped that the steps proposed to be taken by the Committee will enable the boulders of one or two districts at least to be systematically mapped, and the existence of other such remarkable boulders as the granite boulder on the shore of Barnstaple Bay to be recorded. Any attempt at systematic classification, however, must necessarily be deferred until the facts are more largely accumulated. Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, drawn up by Dr. Bryce, -F.G.S. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycr, F.G.S., Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Gro. Forses, F.R.S.E., and Mr. J. Broven. THe conjecture hazarded in last Report, that “the state of quiescence” therein referred to was “not likely to continue,” received a speedy fulfil- ment. In a postscript to the Report, which was not, however, forwarded in time to be read at the Meeting, it was noticed that “ while the Associ- ation was in Session at Brighton an earthquake of considerable severity ” had ‘occurred in the Comrie district ;” and in April of the present year another ON-EATHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND. 195 took place in the south of Scotland. Of these an account has now to be given.—A few days after the occurrence of the earthquake, the Member of Committee resident at Comrie communicated with me; and having seen in the newspapers notices of other places where the earthquake had been felt, I entered into correspondence with gentlemen in the various districts. In the end of September I visited several of these districts, and made inquiries in person. From the facts thus made known to me the following account has been drawn up; but before proceeding with it, I have to express my obligations to the following gentlemen for the kind manner in which they complied with my request, and communicated at once all the observa- tions made by themselves, and facts collected from others on whom they could depend :—Dr. Campbell and Rev. James Muir, Bridge of Allan; Rev, William Blair, Dunblane; Mr. J. Stirling Home-Drummond, of Ardoch, Braco; Dr. William Bryce and Mr. David Cousin, both from Edinburgh, the former happening to be at Crieff at the time, and the latter at Bridge of Allan; Mr. P. Macfarlane and Mr. J. Brough, Comrie; Sir David Dundas, of Dunira, Comrie; and Rev. J. E. H. Thomson, B.D., Blair Logie. Dr. Campbell’s evidence is especially valuable, as he resided for some time in Upper Strathearn, where earthquakes are of frequent occurrence and were often experienced by him, and as he is in the constant practice of accurate every-day observations of meteorological instruments for a register kept by him at the usual hours. Mr. Macfarlane and Mr. Brough at Comrie possess, of course, like advantages. Mr. Cousin also had the advantage of previous experience in observations of this kind, an earthquake having occurred while he was resident in Algeria. A similar advantage was enjoyed by the Rev. J. KE. H. Thomson; at the instant when the shock occurred he was in con- versation in his own house with two ladies, one of whom had resided for some years in Valparaiso, where earthquakes are of very common occurrence, as is well known. The earthquake took place on the 8th of August, 1872, at from 8™ to 10™ past 4 o’clock in the afternoon. The day was warm and perfectly still. In the early part of the day there had been alternations of a cloudy and clear sky ; but at the hour mentioned only the western part of the horizon showed cloudy masses, the sky overhead and eastwards was free from cloud of any kind. The barometer rose slightly during the day, from 29-800 at 10 a.m. to 29-975 at 10 p.m. The maximum temperature of the day, in the shade, was 64°-3 F.; the minimum temperature of the night preceding was 53°°8 F., of the night following 51° F. No perceptible change in the temperature or character of the atmosphere as to wind and cloud took place after the shock. The successive phases, according to almost all the observers, were :—a noise or sound, loud, heavy and rumbling; a shock with a shaking and rattling of objects; and a wave-like motion of the ground. The noise or sound is compared to the sound of thunder, to that made by 4 heavy waggon on a stony street, to the emptying of a cart of small stones or rubbish, to the noise one hears when under a bridge over which a heavy train is pass- ing. Many who were within doors supposed that a heavy piece of furniture had fallen on the floor of an adjoining room. A clergyman was standing on the hearthrug in his study, and, hearing a sudden noise or crash, imagined a chimney-stack was falling, and rushed instantly into a position of safety. Finding this surmise incorrect, he referred the noise to the fall of a ward- robe in the next room. This surmise also proving incorrect, he went imme- diately down stairs and found his servants panic-stricken. In the nursery the nurse had rushed to the window and screamed in alarm to her mistress, 02 196 REPORT—1873. who was in the garden. So strong, indeed, and concurrent is the evidence on this point that no doubt can remain about it, in regard to almost all the localities from which communications have been received ; the slight discre- pancy among the witnesses to the fact may be accounted for by some of them being resident on a soil composed of soft alluvium, and others upon a rocky surface. Some of the witnesses notice that the sound was instanta- neously repeated with even greater violence. The shock instantly followed the noise or sound; and its occurrence was marked in many ways: houses were shaken, doors and windows made to rattle, suspended objects to oscillate; in one house bells were set a-ringing with violence, in another they were strongly agitated; jugs, basins, and water-glasses in bedrooms, apothecaries’ bottles, phials, and pots, the glasses in the pump-room at Bridge of Allan Spa were heard to knock against one another and seen to move; a chimney-mirror, loosely fastened, was thrown down ; and chimney ornaments were dashed upon the floor. Next succeeded that most appalling of all the attendant circumstances of an earthquake, the sensation as of a heaving impulse or wave, giving the idea of a crest and declivity, instantly followed by a double vibration, the whole duration being from three to four seconds. The statements of the ob- servers (as made known in the various reports) on whom one feels that most reliance is to be placed from their previous experience, habits of close ob- servation, and the circumstances in which they were placed at the time, all go to show that the undulation came from a direction W. or N.W., some observers making the direction exactly opposite by not distinguishing the first impulse from the recoil or restoration of the wave-surface. One ob- server, on whom the utmost reliance can be placed, had the most distinct feeling of vertigo or dizziness arising from the undulation, a sensation so strong that a few moments’ continuance of it would have produced nausea— a strong testimony to the reality of the wave-motion. The extent of country throughout which this earthquake was felt is greater than that of any which has occurred since this inquiry was under- taken. The limits are marked by Stirling and Blair Logie on the 8.E., and St. Fillans on Loch Earn and Glen Lednock on the N.W. The shock was feebler at these limits than in the parts intermediate, as Bridge of Allan, Dunblane, Greenloaning, Ardoch, and Crieff. In regard to the breadth of country agitated, I have been unable to determine that it extended more than two or three miles from the valley of the Allan Water, the concussions recorded being greater to the east of that valley than in the opposite direc- tion, while in the village of Doune, four miles west, they do not seem to have been noticed. The want of self-recording instruments, the extreme difficulty of determining the exact instant of the occurrence of an event so sudden and startling, render it impossible to attempt any definite statement as to the progress of the wave, which, so far as instrumental indication can serve us, seems to have emanated from near Comrie. All the observers who have attempted to specify an exact time have, to all appearance quite inde- pendently, agreed that it was, as above stated, at 10™ past 4" p.m. Persons trained to observe, or self-recording instruments, alone can furnish reliable data in such a case for indicating the time occupied in the undulation pass- ing from point to point. The intensity upon the Comrie scale, which ranges from 1 to 10, was of a medium force, about 4. The geological formation of the tract of country embraced within the above limits varies greatly. The lower part of the village of Bridge of Allan is situated upon the alluvium of the Forth valley, in which, as far up from ON EARTHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND. 197 the present channel of the river as the streets of the lower part of the village, skeletons of whales have been found. The upper or northern part of the village stands upon a high terrace of Old Red Sandstone, traversed by whin dykes, alongside one of which its famous Spa is discharged. The front of this terrace runs east and west, and forms the former sea-margin, hewed out by the waves of the old estuary, against which the alluvium rests to an unknown depth. The town of Stirling stands upon the south side of the Forth valley, partly on alluvium and partly on a trap ridge erupted through Old Red Sandstone. Eastwards from Bridge of Allan by Blair Logie and Dollar, the Ochill Hills, of which the terrace at Bridge of Allan is the first ridge or step, are composed of the same Old Sandstone, broken through and overlain by a vast body of trap rocks, clay-stones, and porphyries, and pre- sent a wall-like front to the Forth valley on the south. They completely cut off the Coal-measures, tilting up the strata at a high angle, altering the coal to the state of coke, shale to Lydian stone, and sandstone to quartzite. Dunblane, Greenloaning and Ardoch, and the wild moorlands N.W. to Crieff are composed of Old Red Sandstone pervaded by traps; and Crieff and Comrie are close upon the junction of the sandstone and old slates of the mountain-region. Glen Lednock and a large area E. of it towards Crieff are occupied by an eruptive granite which sends veins into the slate, and whose outer edge approaches close to the boundary of the slate and sandstone. Whatever the cause of this earthquake may have been—masses of rock fall- ing from the roof of a vast cavern, or a sudden impact of high-pressure steam emanating from the nether depths—all the strata were affected by it, and sent the awful tremor, yet with varying intensity, alike along beds of rock and alluvial strata. The particulars in regard to the.earthquake in the south of Scotland have been kindly supplied by Dr. Grierson and Mr. Henrison, Thornhill, Dum- fries, and Mr. J. Shaw, Tyrnon parish. The earthquake took place on the 16th of April, 1873, at 9" 55" p.m. A smart concussion, producing a con- siderable sound, noise, or crash, as it is variously described, and causing a perceptible movement in fixed objects, and an oscillation of those suspended, was experienced in the parishes of Tyrnon, Glen Cairn, Keir, Penpont, Mor- ton, Closeburn, and Balmaclelland. Doors and windows were made ta rattle ; there was a sensible vibration of walls and floors in many places; and objects near one another (as glasses and china on shelves) were knocked together. In some cases alarm was shown by the lower animals. But the wave or undulation was not observed with any thing like precision, except in one case, in which a floor was distinctly seen to have such a movement, The late hour, however, was unfavourable for observation on the part of many persons. One only of the observers whose accounts have been fur- nished to me had any previous experience of earthquakes. This gentleman had resided for some time in the East. Another witness, in every way com- petent, experienced a repetition of the sbock at Thornhill at 2" 46™ a.m. on the following morning; but no information regarding this second shock has reached me from any other part of the district. 198 REPORT—1873. Ninth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent's Cavern, Devon- shire, the Committee consisting of Sir Cuarues Lyr.y, Bart., F.R.S., Professor Puituies, F.R.S., Sir Jonn Lussock, Bart., F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Guorce Buss, F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., Witiiam AysH- FORD SANFORD, F.G.S., and WittiaM Pence ty, F.R.S. (Reporter.) Tur Committee, in opening this their Ninth Report, have to state that, since reporting at Brighton in 1872, the work has been continued without inter- mission, in the manner observed at the commencement. They have to add that whilst it is still conducted, under the Superintendents, by the same foreman (George Smerdon), the second workman (John Farr), believing that the Cavern work was prejudicial to his health, has obtained other employ- ment. Though reluctant to part with so satisfactory a workman, who had faithfully served them for upwards of five years, the Superintendents felt un- able to press him to remain under the circumstances ; and they had the satis- faction of engaging in his stead a man (John Clinnick) who has proved most efficient and trustworthy. As in former years, the cavern has been visited by a large number of persons, none of whom, when conducted by the guide only, has been allowed to be taken to the excavations then in progress. The Superintendents have had the pleasure of accompanying the following gentlemen during their visits :—Major-General R. C. Schenck, Minister for the United States of America to England; Lord Clifford, of Chudleigh ; Sir R. Anstruther, Bart., M.P.; Rev. Lord Charles Hervey, Rey. G. Butterworth, Rev. Dr. Hanna, Rey. C. N. Kelly, Rev. R. Locker, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing ; Major-General Huyshe, Captain Lovett, Professor W. K. Clifford, Dr. B. Collenette, Professor W. King, Dr. R. Martin, Dr. W. Sharpey, Dr. Topham, Dr. C. Williams, of Burmah; Mons. Wyvekens, of Brussels; and Messrs. A. T. Atchison, W. Babington, N. Bell, of Queensland, C. A. Bentinck, L. B. Bowring, W. Buller, E. L. Corring, of U. 8. America, J. A. Curtis, R. D. Darbishire, J. M. Dowie, B. J. M. Donne, E. A. Field, 8. Gurney, C. W. Hamilton, H. W. Haynes, of Boston, U.8., C. Sabapathi Jyah, of Madras, J. H. van Lennep, of Holland, C. Lister, P. C. Lovett, C. Meenacshaya, of Madras, P. H. Mills, A.G. Nathorst, of Lund, Sweden, P. Nind, A. Nesbit, A. Pengelly, of N.W.P. India, H. C. M. Phillips, C. H. Poingdestre, F. P. Purvis, T. Rathbone, Dr. Richardson, R. B. Shaw, British Commissioner, Ladak, J. H. Taunton, P. Watts, and J. E. Wolfe. A. R. Hunt, Esq., M.A., F.G.8., being about to assist in exploring a small cave on the coast of Kirkcudbright, visited the cavern in August 1873, for the purpose of studying the mode of working. As in former years, live rats have been observed from time to time in various parts of the cavern. As soon as they are seen, the workmen, having frequently suffered from such visits, set gins for them, and sometimes succeed in taking three or four in a week. On one occasion four (two old and two young ones) were found in the gin together. The adults were the extremes of the series, and, being caught by the neck, were dead ; whilst the others were held near the middle, and still alive. Though most prevalent near the entrances of the cavern, they have been frequently observed far in the interior ; and very recently they carried off a candle from a spot fully 300 feet from the nearest entrance. The Long Arcade.—The Committee stated in their last Report, bringing the work up to the end of July 1872, that they were then exploring the branch ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 199: of the cavern termed by Mr. MacEnery “The Long Arcade,” and sometimes «“ The Corridor” *, and that they had expended about ten weeks’ work on it T. The exploration of this great thoroughfare has been the work of the entire period since that date, and itis still in progress. The Arcade commences in the south-west corner of the ‘‘ Sloping Chamber,” and, after alength of about 252 feet, in a west-south-westerly direction, and almost in a straight line, terminates in the “ Cave of Inscriptions,” or ‘‘ Cul-de- sac.” Its height is variable—being in one place not quite 10, and in others upwards of 20 feet, the measurements being taken from the bottom of the excavation made by the Committee. The roof and walls are much fretted and honeycombed, except at one part not far within the entrance, where the fall of a very large block of limestone in comparatively recent times has left edges tolerably sharp and angular. Omitting blocks of limestone here and there, the surface of the deposit in the Arcade when the Committee commenced its exploration presented but few inequalities ; and when they had completed their excavation to the uniform depth of 4 feet below the under surface of the Stalagmitic Floor, and up to the distance of 134 feet from the entrance, the bottom of their section was no more than 40 inches above that at the commencement—a mean rise of no more than 1in40. At the point just specified, however, the passage was almost entirely closed with a vast mass of limestone in situ, covered in places by thick accu- mulations of stalagmitic matter, and rising to the roof apparently from the limestone bottom of the Arcade. The only opening in it was a narrow aperture adjacent to the right or northerly wall; and to gain this it was necessary to climb to the height of 8 or 9 feet. It proved to be about 6 feet high, to have a floor of limestone, with occasional stalagmitic incrustations, extending for a length of fully 20 feet ; whilst very near the entrance, on the left or southerly side, was the elliptical mouth of a smoothly eroded tunnel, measuring 30 inches in horizontal and 27 in vertical diameter, and having the aspect of a watercourse. Beyond this tunnel, and also on the left side, lay in wild confusion several very large masses of limestone, which had fallen from the roof obviously in remote times; and beyond these the deposit of Cave-earth again presented itself, but at a higher level than before. Assuming the tunnel just mentioned to have been a watercourse, the stream issuing from it must have had a sudden fall of several feet ; and it may not, perhaps, be without interest to state that on excavating the deposits in the Arcade, deep pot-holes were found in the right wall of the cavern, having the position and character such a fall would have produced. The tunnel, fully 60 feet long, terminates in a branch of the cavern known as “The Laby- rinth,” and in one part of its course is so small as to render it somewhat difficult for even a small man to force his way. It has long been known as “The Little Oven;” and when the cavern was visited by merely the idly curious, it was regarded as an achievement to have made its passage. One of the results of the work during the last twelve months has been to show that the great mass of limestone, which, as already stated, almost com- pletely closed the Arcade, extended downwards, not to the limestone floor, but merely to the level of the earthy deposits which choked up the passage beneath. The‘loose and confusedly grouped blocks of limestone already spoken of have been blasted and taken out of the cavern; the blocked-up passage has been reopened and is now the common thoroughfare; the mass of rock overhead has been dignified with the name of “The Bridge,” and the excavation has been completed far beyond it. * See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 285 (1869). tf Brit. Assoc. Report, 1872, p. 44, 200 REPORT—1873. The Arcade is very narrow in proportion to its length. From 17 feet wide at the entrance, it narrows to 5 feet at about 27 yards within, then expand- ing to 11 or 12 feet, and again contracting until, at 42 yards, it is no more than 6 feet wide, it once more enlarges to an average width of 9 feet, and beyond the Bridge it becomes an irregular chamber, upwards of 30 feet long and about 15 wide. The exploration has been completed to the inner end of this chamber ; but the Arcade, again much contracted, has a further prolonga- tion of about 50 feet before reaching the Cave of Inscriptions. In the left or southerly wall of the chamber just mentioned is the entrance to the Labyrinth, and of another and smaller branch. Towards these the work- men are now directing their labours. As the earlier explorers had made some excavations here and there throughout the greater part of the Arcade, and thus deprived the Committee of the opportunity of studying it before disturbed by man, the following description, compiled from Mr. MacEnery’s manuscripts, may be of interest :— The floor was in great disorder, strewn with rocks having between them in certain places natural reservoirs of water, and in others loose heaps of red marl overspreading the stalagmite and containing fossil bones. The first rhinoceros-tooth found in the cavern was met with in one of those heaps, A peculiarity of this passage was a profusion of a white crumbling substance not unlike half-slacked lime. Rock after rock, on being turned over, presented patches of it on its surface; the loose mud also contained it ; and wherever stalagmite had formed between the rocks, it, when ripped up, exhibited large deposits of the same matter. In the crevices of the rock and near the surface of the marl it occurred in balls partly crushed ; several balls were found in some instances pressed together, in others uninjured, adhering, and exhi- biting the tapering point they had when dropped by the animal; and they were occasionally found singly. There was no doubt that they were copro- lites, and no difference between these feecal deposits and those of the hyena in Exeter Change, except in the far greater size of the fossil balls. The osseous substance was the same in both; undigested particles of bone and enamel were detected in some of them ; and the explorers were led to the con- clusion that the Arcade was the chosen resort of the Cavern-hyznas for purposes of cleanliness. In this they were subsequently confirmed by a letter from Captain Sykes to Dr. Buckland, published in the Edin. Phil. Journal*, descriptive of a recent hyzna-cave in India, where, from the almost exclu- sive accumulation of faeces in particular spots, the writer inferred that certain chambers were dedicated to cleanliness. In these retreats few or no bones occurred, “This description,” says Mr. MacEnery, “is in its details quite applicable to Kent’s Hole. It appears to have been preserved to us in its actual state as when occupied by the extinct hywna,...... Whilst reading his letter, I imagined myself reading the history of another, sealed one—the duplicate of Kent’s Cave, and not the account of a living hysna’s den.” Wherever this substance was found accompanying remains, the latter were invariably broken, and always in the same uniform manner; and none of it was found where they occurred entire. Dr. Buckland, to whom the material was pointed out, gave the Arcade the name of the ‘* Hyzene Cloaca Maxima.” About halfway in the length of the Arcade, and near the left or southerly wall, three circular hollows were observed in the floor, about 3 feet in dia- meter, lined down the sides with a thin waving crust. The greasiness of the earth, and the presence of single teeth of bear in different states of preserya- * Vol. xvi. pp. 878-9 (1827). ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 201 tion, at first suggested the idea that they were the beds of that animal, whose habit itis to crouch in particular spots; but the occurrence of charcoal, and other indications of the presence of man, in the vicinity of the hollows were thought rather to lead to the opinion that they were rude hearths or ovens scooped out by savages, around which they collected to cook and enjoy the spoils of the chase *. Before returning from this digression it may be well to offer a few remarks on two or three points in the foregoing description, on which the exploration now in progress is calculated to throw some light :— 1st. ‘‘ The loose heaps of red marl” in all probability consisted of material deposited in the era of the Cave-earth, and over which no stalagmite had in those particular spots ever been formed. If, however, they were actually observed, and not merely inferred, to “ overspread the stalagmite,” the latter, there can be little doubt, was the “ Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor,” older than the Cave-earth, of which the Committee have found numerous portions in the Arcade during the present year, as well as in other branches of the cavern in previous years, some of them zm situ and others not. 2nd. The Committee have also found a considerable quantity of coprolitic matter in the Arcade, never, however, more than 12, and rarely more than 6 inches below the surface. This material has been met with in all parts of the cavern wherever the Cave-earth has presented itself, but in no instance in any older or more modern deposit, whether of mechanical or chemical origin. The ‘“ Lecture Hall” may perhaps be equally entitled to the name of the Hyene Cloaca Maxima t. 3rd. There seems no reason to doubt that the “three circular hollows,” instead of being the “ beds of bears” or “ hearths or ovens scooped out by savages,” were natural basins in the stalagmite, such as were described in the Committee’s Eighth Report +; for, to say nothing of the fact that several such basins, even when not more than a very few inches in diameter, have con- tained charred wood, possibly washed into them in rainy seasons (when such basins are full to overflowing), or perhaps dropped into them accidentally by recent visitors, it is difficult to understand why a savage should have selected for his hearth a spot having nothing to recommend it but its darkness and inconvenience, whilst so many others, in every respect more eligible, were equally at his command. It is noteworthy that, in another part of his memoir, Mr. MacEnery, replying to Dr. Buckland’s suggestion that “ the ancient Britons had scooped out ovens in the stalagmite,” says, “ Without stopping to dwell on the difficulty of ripping up a solid floor, which, notwith- standing the advantage of undermining and the exposure of its edges, still defies all our efforts, though commanding the apparatus of the quarry, I am bold to say that in no instance have I discovered evidence of breaches or ovens in the floor” §. But waiving all this, the Committee, on March 31, 1873, in the course of their work reached a hollow precisely similar to those Mr. MacEnery de- scribes. It was of oval form, 4 feet long, 2 broad, and 9 inches deep, and contained nearly ten gallons of beautifully pure water, but, instead of having been formed by a bear or a human being, it was an example of Nature’s handiwork, and in such a position as to render it certain that the foreman of the exploration now in progress was the first human being who ever saw it. It was in the stalagmite covering the deposit, which, as already stated, com- * See Trans. Devon, Assoc. vol. iii. io pe: 235-7, 253-4, 270, 290, and 302-5 (1869). t See Report Brit. Assoc. 1868, p } Ibid. 1872, p. 45. § See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. Ri oe , 334 (1869). 202 REPORT—1873. pletely filled up the space beneath the Bridge, and was neither discovered nor discoverable until the workmen had advanced 11 feet in the difficult work of reopening this passage. At the entrance of the Arcade, the Granular Stalagmitic Floor was con- tinuous in every direction for considerable distances. At the right or northerly wall its thickness exceeded that hitherto found in any other part of the cavern, measuring fully 5 feet for a length of about 8 yards; but at the opposite wall it was very rarely more than 2 feet thick. Beyond the point just specified it became gradually thinner, disappearing entirely at 37 feet from it on the right wall, but extending somewhat further on the left. Still further in, such floor as ever existed appears to have been but thin and occa- sional only, until reaching the Bridge, where it appeared again in considerable volume*. Almost immediately beyond this, there rose from the Stalagmitic Floor a large boss of the same material, in the form of a paraboloid, 2 feet high and 6 feet in basal circumference. As it*bore no inscription, and was in the direct line of the work, it was dislodged and broken up, when it was found to consist of pure stalagmite without any extraneous substance. In the earthy deposit adhering to its base were one tooth of bear, a fragment of bone, a ball of coprolite, and a few bits of charcoal. Not far beyond it, but near the right wall of the Arcade, a much larger boss presented itself, having near its summit the inscription “ R. L. (or E.) 1604.” The mass has been so mutilated by early visitors as to render it uncertain whether the remaining part of the second letter is the lower portion of Lor E. The date, however, which is quite distinct, and appears not to have been noticed prior to June 6, 1873, is the oldest at present known in the cavern, though there are several others of the seventeenth century. In excavating, care was taken to leave the mass, as well as the deposit on which it was formed, intact and undis- turbed. The only objects found in the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, in the Arcade, since the Eighth Report was sent in, were a tooth of Hyzna, a few bones and bone chips, a “charcoal streak” about 3 inches above the base of the floor, where its total thickness was 42 inches at one end and 10 at the other, a few pieces of charcoal, and a flint tool. The tool (No. 5990) is of very white flint, having, as shown by an accidental fracture, a very chalk-like texture. It may be described as a hammer-like “core,” broad at one end, round-pointed at the other, and formed by several flakes having been struck from the original nodule. Its pointed end shows that it has been used as a hammer. It is 3:2 inches long, 2 inches in greatest breadth, 1-7 inch in greatest thickness, and was found August 19, 1872. As already stated, remnants of the old (the Crystalline) Stalagmitic Floor occurred in situ in various parts of the Arcade, all attached to the right or northerly wall, and above the level of the Granular Floor. The first of them, about 60 feet within the entrance and 6 inches thick, had between it and the Granular Floor an unoccupied space of 15 inches in height. The second, 20 feet further up the Arcade, was a very large mass displaying strikingly the characteristic prismatic crystalline structure ; it has suffered much at the hands of visitors ; and on one of its fractured surfaces is the date 1836. The * Tt is worthy of remark that at the entrance of the Arcade, where the Stalagmitic Floor is so very thick, the drip of water from the roof is at present very copious in rainy seasons, and commences within a few hours of a great rainfall; whilst those parts of the same branch of the cavern where there does not seem to have ever been any stalagmite are perfectly dry at all times and seasons. ON KEN'T’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 203 third and most important, about 30 feet long, lined the entire lower surface of the mass of limestone forming the Bridge, and extended into the chamber beyond. The less ancient, or Granular Floor, was in some places in contact with it, and in others as much as 8 inches below. Numerous stones and a few fragments of bone (representing the Breccia on which the Old Floor was formed) were found firmly cemented to this, as well as to the first remnant. The progress of the work has not rendered it necessary to remove or diminish either of them. The deposit below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor was typical Cave-earth to the depth of at least 4 feet *, from the entrance of the Long Arcade to about 24 feet within it, and contained a considerable number of blocks of limestone, several of them requiring blasting in order to be removed... Beyond the point just specified the deposit was everywhere “ Breccia” (the oldest deposit the cavern is known to contain), except at most the uppermost foot, which consisted of Cave-earth. The two deposits lay one on the other with- out, as in the South-west Chamber ft, any stalagmite between ; and though they are so very dissimilar in composition—the Cave-earth, or less ancient, being made up of small angular fragments of limestone mixed with light-red clay, whilst the Breccia, or older deposit, consists of rounded and subangular fragments of dark-red grit imbedded in a sandy paste of the same colour— it was not always, or, indeed, frequently, easy to detect a well-defined line of separation. Each, however, was, as elsewhere in the cavern, characterized by its distinct fauna—the Breccia containing remains of Bears only without any indication of other genera, whilst the Cave-earth yielded bones and teeth of Hyznas, with their teeth-marks and coprolites, as well as the osseous remnants of the animals usually associated with them. At the entrance of the Arcade Mr. MacEnery’s diggings were carried to a depth of 3 feet below the bottom of the Granular Stalagmite ; they gradually became less and less deep until at a distance of 15 feet they ceased. They © were resumed at 52 feet, and continued at intervals throughout the entire length of the Arcade so far as the Committee have at present explored. They were, however, on a very limited scale, never exceeding 18 inches, and com- monly not more than a foot in depth, did not always extend from wall to wall, and were not continuous. In short, he seems to have contented himself with occasionally digging a small shallow trial pit, and, meeting with no speci- mens, to have proceeded elsewhere ; and this is borne out by his own state- ment. ‘ As we advanced in the direction of the Long Corridor,” he says, “the bones became less and less numerous until they nearly disappeared, rendering it not worth our while to prosecute our researches further in that line” t+. He must, however, in some instances have broken up portions of the Breccia as well as of the thin layer of Cave-earth lying on it ; for, as was his wont, the materials he dislodged were not taken out of the cavern, but merely cast aside; and these, on being carefully examined by the Committee, were found to contain undoubted fragments of the older deposit, with bones and teeth of Bear firmly imbedded in them. The specimens recovered from this broken ground, and which had been neglected or overlooked, belonged mainly to the Cave-earth. They were 72 teeth, 4 astragali, 5 ossa calcis, 15 phalanges, 1 claw, 3 portions of jaws, 2 ver- tebrx, 1 portion of skull and 1 of antler, several fragments of bone, and 8 * The excavation is not carried to a depth exceeding 4 feet below the bottom of the granular stalagmite. + See Brit. Assoc. Report, 1868, pp. 50-52. ¢ See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 290. 204 REPORT—1873. flint flakes and chips. With them was a portion of an iron hammer, which, on becoming useless, MacEnery or his workmen had no doubt thrown away. Omitting those of Bear, at least some of which belonged to the era of the Breccia as already stated, the teeth may be distributed as in the following Table :— Taste I.—Showing how many per cent. of the Teeth found in the dis- turbed material in the Long Arcade belonged to the different kinds of Cave Mammals. Eiyeonay) foot. en 70 percent) MOx raleigh Pa ee 3 per cent. iorsethis 226). 682 sf 10 3 Elephant ........ 15 ie Rhinoceros ........ 10 55 Boxtey, pat hee 1:5 ps Meer cheese 3 i. The flint flakes mentioned above were of little value when compared with many found in the Cave-earth. Up to the end of August 1873, the Cave-earth which the Committee found intact in the Long Arcade had yielded, when the few mentioned in the Eighth Report (1872) are included, about 280 teeth, which may be apportioned as in the following Table :— Taste II].—Showing how many per cent. of the Teeth found in Cave-earth in the Long Arcade belonged to the different kinds of Cave Mammals. Biya |e. Siew dia 40 per cent. | Deer ............ 2:5 per cent. UHOTSeNy. eckltie is wialelave < 24 as Megaceros........ 1:5 5 Rhinoceros ........ 11 3 Elephant ........ 15 - IREan cs: Ais ose 9 3 DO Has, LMBOTE 1°5 be HOKE SNe eR 5 a Hion seins, SRE Feens 1-0 as iP Hie. Yan tla ange 3 Z Machairodus ...... only 1 incisor. On comparing the foregoing Tables with those in previous Reports, the following facts present themselves :— Ist. That Hyzna is everywhere the most prevalent animal of the Cave- earth era, and is followed by the Horse and Rhinoceros without any consider- able variation in their ratios. 2nd. That the Bear is relatively more prevalent in the Long Arcade than in any other part of the cavern explored by the Committee. 3rd. That teeth of Wolf, Badger, Rabbit, Reindeer, and Sheep *—all of which presented themselves in the various branches of the Eastern Division of the cayern—have not hitherto been met with in the Long Arcade. None of the animal remains found in the Cave-earth during the last twelve months require detailed description or special remark. Many of the bones had been gnawed by the Hyena; some were much decayed; a few small fragments had been burnt; and one (a phalanx) exhibited marks of disease. The few remains of the Mammoth were those of immature animals; one canine of Lion (No. 6020) was worn almost to the fang; and a right lower jaw of Pig (No. 6098), found March 26, 1873, without any other specimen near it, contained eight teeth, some of which had not risen quite above the Jaw. Including the two (Nos. 5819 and 5829) mentioned in the Eighth Report (1872), the Cave-earth in the Long Arcade has, up to the end of August * The remains of Sheep are probably such as had been recently introduced by foxes and other animals frequenting the cavern. t This specimen has a very fresh aspect. ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 205 1873, yielded 25 flint implements and flakes, without counting those found in Mr. MacEnery’s dislodged materials. Though many of them would have attracted a large share of attention a few years ago, a description of a very few will suffice at present :— No. 6082 is a light-grey flint having a sharp edge all round its perimeter. It is nearly flat on one side, and slightly convex on the other, from which four principal longitudinal flakes have been dislodged. It belongs to the lan- ceolate variety of implements, is about 3-5 inches long, 1:2 inch in greatest breadth, and -25 inch in thickness. It was found February 22nd, 1873, without any animal remains near it; and no stalagmite had ever covered the deposit in which it lay. No. 6086 may be said to belong to the same type; but it is more massive, and is abruptly truncated at each end. It is 3°5 inches long, 1:6 inch in greatest breadth, -6 inch thick, very concave on the inner face, on which the “bulb of percussion ” is well displayed near what may be termed the point ; and the outer very convex face has been rudely fashioned. It does not appear to have been used; its edges are quite sharp and not serrated or chipped. It was found March 4, 1873, with a tooth and a gnawed scapula (No. 6086). As in all other parts of the cavern in which it has occurred, the Breccia in the Long Arcade differs from the Cave-earth not only in the mineral and mechanical characters of its materials, as already pointed out, but also in the absence of those films of stalagmite which so frequently invested bones and stones at all levels in the less-ancient accumulation. The deposits resembled each other in being entirely destitute of any ap- proach to a stratified arrangement ; and the incorporated fragments of stone lay with their longest axes in every possible direction. Up to the end of August 1873 there had been found in the Breccia in the Long Arcade upwards of fifty teeth, together with a considerable number of bones, of Bear. As they were much more brittle than those found in the Cave-earth, probably from their highly mineralized condition, and almost invariably occurred where the materials were firmly cemented together, it was impossible to prevent their being injured in the process of extraction. Not unfrequently bones or teeth were found broken but having the parts in contact and juxtaposition in the concrete, showing that they had been broken where they lay and where they were found. Beyond a few teeth still occupying portions of jaws, the remains did not lie in their natural ana- tomical order; and isolated teeth frequently presented themselves com- pletely encased with Breccia. In no instance was there any thing like an approach to the elements of a complete skeleton, or distinct portion of one, lying together. The only noteworthy specimens are a left lower jaw (No. 6127) containing two teeth, found June 18, 1873, and a palate (No. 6133) with the greater part of the upper jaw, in which were four molars and the two canines. This fine specimen was found June 25, 1873, and with it two other canines anda few fragments of bone. It is perhaps worthy of remark that as no trace of Machairodus has been found in either of the deposits since the Eighth Report (1872) was presented, the Committee can only repeat that, so far as the evidence goes at present, that great Carnivore was a member of the fauna of the Cave-earth era, but not of that of the Breccia. In their Eighth Report (1872) the Committee stated that they had 206 REPORT—18783. found two flint implements (Nos. 5900 and 5903) in the Breccia in the ‘Southern Branch” of the “Charcoal Cave;” and they pointed out the important bearing of the fact on the question of Human Antiquity *. They have now the pleasure of reporting the discovery, during the last twelve months, of seventeen additional implements, flakes, and chips in the same deposit in the Long Arcade; and they now propose to describe the most striking specimens. No. 6022 is a fine kite-shaped flint tool, 5-1 inches long, 2-6 inches in greatest breadth, and 2 inches in greatest thickness. On one side, especially at the butt-end, it is very convex ; on the other it may be said to have a ten- dency to flatness ; but as this inner face consists of two principal planes or facets sloping in opposite directions from a transverse ridge about midway in its length, the flatness is not strongly pronounced. At the butt-end, on the convex face, it retains much of the original surface of the nodule, and shows that it was made from a well-rolled pebble. The rest of the surface has a somewhat orange-coloured ferruginous tint, derived, no doubt, from the matrix in which it was found. On one or two small facets near the point, how- ever, this tint does not appear, but the true whitish colour is displayed. A small chip has been unfortunately struck from it by the tool of the workman and thus displays the interior, which is of the same colour as the facets just named, but differs from them in being somewhat granular, whilst they are quite smooth. Within the substance of the implement and near the point there is a small irregular quartz pebble, apparently the nucleus around which the siliceous matter accumulated. This specimen was found on November 27, 1872, at a depth of 16 inches in the undisturbed Breccia under a block of limestone measuring 24 x 14 x 14 inches, adjacent to the left wall of the Arcade, and 73 feet from its entrance. No animal remains or other objects of interest were found near it. No. 6025 may be described as a fine implement, rudely foot-shaped, 5:4 inches long, 2-5 inches in greatest breadth, and 1:7 inch in greatest thick- ness. It has undergone a considerable amount of chipping, is very convex on one face, has a tendency to flatness on the other; and no portion of the original surface of the nodule remains on it. It is of a yellowish drab colour, and has a patina on the greater part of its surface. It was found on December 9, 1872, not quite a foot deep in the Breccia, very near the left wall of the Arcade, about 86 feet from its entrance, and without any animal remains accompanying it. No. 6081 is an orange-coloured flint implement, rudely elliptical in out- line, very massive, about 6 inches long, 3-7 inches in greatest breadth, 2 inches in greatest thickness, very convex on one face, with a tendency to flatness on the other, has a great number of facets on each face, but with portions of the original crust of the nodule here and there. On the flatter face there is a rugged elliptical hole, nearly central, ‘9 inch long, -65 inch broad, and 7 inch deep; but instead of being artificial is structural, as the original crust of the flint extends into it from a neighbouring patch on the face of the tool. This specimen was found in the third-foot level of Breccia, without any organic remains near it, on February 14, 18738, at about 122 feet from the entrance of the Arcade. No. 6103 is a coarse chert tool about 4 inches long, 2-3 inches in greatest breadth, 1:6 inch in greatest thickness, very convex on both faces, and worked to an edge allround. A large amount of labour has been bestowed in fashioning it; and no part of the original surface of the nodule remains. It was found, without any animal remains near it, May 7, 1873, in the * Report Brit. Assoc. 1872, pp. 43-44. ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 207 fourth- or lowest-foot level of the Breccia, a small portion of which ad- heres to it. No. 6110, apparently of the same variety of chert, is rudely semilunar in form, 2°9 inches long, 1:8 inch in greatest breadth, and 1-2 inch in greatest thickness. It has a thin edge on its rectilineal margin, but attains its greatest thickness at its curvilineal margin, and seems to have been used as a seraper. It was found May 28th, 1873, at about 166 feet from the entrance of the Arcade, without any organic remains near it, in the second-foot level of the Breccia, traces of which still remain on it. No. 6128 may be said to be at once a rude parallelogram and an oval. It is 2-9 inches long, 1-9 inch in greatest breadth, ‘8 inch in greatest thickness, slightly and irregularly concave on one face, and convex on the other. Its greatest thickness is very near one margin, whence it slopes to a compara- tively thin edge on the other, Its internal structure is somewhat chalk- like ; and it has probably been somewhat rolled. It was found about 172 feet from the entrance of the Arcade in the first-foot level of the Breccia, without any noteworthy objects near it, on June 18, 1873. No. 6129 is a fine implement of the same form as No. 6022. It is 55 inches long, 2:8 inches in greatest breadth, 1°6 inch in greatest thickness, approximates flatness on one face, and is very protuberant on the other, which retains a portion of the original surface of the nodule. It is of a somewhat coarse cherty structure and a dull pinkish colour. It was found on June 20, 1873, in the fourth-foot level of the Breccia, almost immediately under No. 6128, but 3 feet deeper in the deposit, and without any bones or teeth near it. No. 6139 is a faint pink unshapen lump of flint, the surface of which has nevertheless been artificially produced. It may be a “core,” or an imple- ment spoiled in the ‘attempt to make it. It was found about 128 feet from the entranee of the Arcade, without any objects of interest near it, in the third-foot level of the Breccia, on July 2, 1873. No. 6174, like Nos. 6110 and 6128, is thickest at.one margin, and slopes thence to an edge at the other, and, like them, has probably been used as a scraper. It is 2°6 inches long, 1:6 inch in greatest breadth, and 1:1 inch in greatest thickness. It was found, with a tooth of Bear anda few bones, on August 19, 1873, in the second-foot level of the Breecia, at about 128 feet from the entrance of the Arcade. The facts disclosed since the Committee sent in their Eighth Report, and which have been described above, point to certain conclusions and sug- gest a few speculations to which it may not be out of place to call attention. The remnants of Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor in the Long Arcade, with stones still cemented to their under surfaces, like those in the Gallery opening out of the Great Chamber* and in the branches of the Charcoal Cavey, are capable of but one explanation. They point to a time when the Breccia was introduced ; and they mark or define the height it reached ; they show a sub- sequent period when this accumulation was sealed up with a calcareous sheet of which they are the remnants; and they make known the facts that a por- tion of the Breccia was dislodged, and vast masses of the Floor which covered it were broken up. This was followed by the introduction of the Cave-earth, and that by the formation of another Floor of Stalagmite, differing from the former in being granular instead of crystalline. That the Breccia was derived from without the cavern is certain from the * See Report Brit. Assoc. 1867, pp. 4-5. T Ibid. 1872, pp. 41-42. 208 REPORT—1873. fact that the Cavern-hill contains no rock capable of furnishing the mate- rials composing it. Such materials, however, are derivable from loftier adja- cent eminences. That these materials were introduced with comparative rapidity is pro- bably indicated by the paucity, to say the least, of angular fragments of limestone, as well as of films of stalagmite on the stones or bones, both of which the walls and roof of the cavern would in all probability have sup- plied during a protracted period. That the conditions of the surface of the district adjacent to the cavern must have changed between the period of the Breccia and that of the Cave- earth, is manifest from the fact that such materials as formed the staple of the earlier deposit did not find access during the later. The scantiness of the Cave-earth in the Arcade, and its immense volume in the eastern division of the cavern, especially in the branches of it into which the external entrances open, as well as those immediately adjacent, indicates that this deposit was derived largely, if not entirely, from external sources, and not from the wasting of the walls and roof of the cavern, since there is no reason to suppose that the rate of disintegration or decomposition would differ so very greatly in the different Chambers and Galleries. It may be worthy of remark, moreover, that, all other things being the same, the thickness or depth of a deposit derived from the waste of the walls and roof of a chamber must be greatest in the narrowest chamber, whilst the re- verse obtains in the present case. A glance at the implements from the two deposits shows that they are very dissimilar. Those from the Breccia are much more rudely formed, more massive, have less symmetry of outline, and were made by operating, not on flakes purposely struck off from nodules of flint or chert, as in the case of those from the Caye-earth, but directly on the nodules themselves, all of which appear to have been obtained from accumulations of supracretaceous flint-gravel, such as occur about four miles from the cavern. There seems no doubt, then, that the Breccia men were ruder than those of the Cave- earth ; and this is borne out by the fact that whilst the men represented by the later deposit made bone tools and ornaments—harpoons for spearing fish, eyed needles or bodkins for stitching skins together, awls perhaps to facilitate the passage of the slender needle or bodkin through the tough thick hides, pins for fastening the skins they wore, and perforated Badger’s teeth for necklaces or bracelets—nothing of the kind has been found in the Breccia. In short, the stone tools, though both sets were unpolished and coeval with extinct mammals, represent two distinct civilizations. It is equally clear that the ruder men were the more ancient; for their tools were lodged in a deposit which, when the two occurred in the same ver- tical section, was invariably the undermost. In fact the Breccia in which each of the implements was deposited actually had Cave-earth lying on it. That the chronological interval separating the two deposits, tools, men, and eras was a great one is indicated by the several facts which have been enumerated. The altered condition of the surface of the adjacent district manifested by the dissimilar mineral and physical characters of the deposits, the sheet of Crystalline Stalagmite which usually separated them and some- times attained a thickness little short of 12 feet, the destruction of great masses of this sheet, the dislodgment of a considerable portion of the Breccia on which it was formed, and the distinctness of the two Cavern-faunz are phenomena very significant of an amount of time incapable of compression within narrow limits. ON FLINT AND CHERT IMPLEMENTS PROM KENT’S CAVERN. 209 When the cavern-hauntmg habits of the Hyena are remembered, it can scarcely be unsafe to conclude from the absence of any trace of him in the Breccia that he was not an inhabitant of Britain during the era of that de- posit. The same argument can by no means be applied with equal force to the Horse, Ox, Deer, &c., whose absence is equally pronounced ; for it may be presumed that their bones occur in caverns at least mainly because their dead bodies were dragged there piecemeal by the Hyzena; and this could not have occurred before his arrival. The Ursine remains met with in the Breccia present no difficulty, as the Bear, like the Hyzena, is a cave-dweller*. The fact that though he was not a member of the British fauna during the era of the Breccia, he had become very prevalent during that of the Cave-earth, may probably be taken as indicating that after, but not during, the period of the Breccia, Britain was a part of continental Europe, and thus rendered his arrival possible. If this be admitted, it follows that the early men of Devon- shire saw this country pass from an insular to a continental state, and again become an island. The Superintendents of the work, struck with the great development of the Breccia in the innermost parts of the cavern, as well as with the numerous remains of Bear which it contains, are strongly inclined to the opinion that there must be an external entrance hitherto unsuspected, and at present choked up, in the direction in which the work is progressing. It must be admitted that this would solve several problems of interest; but the complete exploration of the cavern can alone show whether or not such an entrance exists, The Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, Devonshire. By W. Preneutty, F.R.S., F.G.S. [A Communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] THoueu there are said to be persons capable of believing that the so- called flint and chert implements, found in Kent’s Hole and other caverns, are merely natural products, it is not my intention in this brief paper to say one word on that question. It has been treated so fully and so ably by various writers as to deprive me of any pretence for attempting to add any thing to the literature of the subject, and also of any hope that such additions as I might be able to make would convince those still remaining in a sceptical * Dr. A. Leith Adams, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., so well known as a naturalist and cavern- explorer, has been so good as to favour me with the following note on the habits of the Brown Bear of the Himalayas :—‘ The Brown Bear of the Western Himalayas hybernates, choosing chiefly caverns and rock-crevices, which it abandons in spring to wander about ; but old individuals, when no longer equal to the same amount cf exertion, take to a secluded life, and usually select a cavern ona rocky mountain-side, at the base of which there is abundant verdure and shade, with a pool or spring, where they bathe frequently or recline during the heat of the day to escape annoyance from insects. Such retreats are easily discovered by the animal’s footprints on the soil and turf. They are seen like steps of stairs leading from the pool in the direction of the den, being brought about by the individual always treading in the same track. Thus these patriarchs or hermit bears spend their latter years in one situation, pursuing the even tenor of their ways to the little stream or pond below, and grassy slopes to feed on the rank vegetation, returning regularly to the cayerns where they end their days.”—See Wanderings of a Naturalist in India, Western Himalayas, and Cashmere, pp. 232-241 &e. 1873. P 210 REPORT—1873. state. My present object is to call attention to the fact that whilst all the noteworthy flint and chert implements which Kent’s Hole has yielded are unpolished, and all found with the remains of the extinct Cave mammals, they belong to two distinct classes, eras, and states of civilization. It may be well at the outset to describe briefly the successive deposits and their contents met with during the exploration of the cavern by the Committee appointed by the British Association in 1864, whose labours have extended without interruption from March 1865 to the present time, and are still in progress. They are as follow :— 1st, or uppermost, Blocks of limestone, from a few pounds to upwards of one hundred tons each, which had fallen from the roof, from time to. time, and were occasionally cemented together with stalagmite. 2nd. Beneath and between the blocks just mentioned lay a dark-coloured mud, from 3 to 12 inches thick, and known as the Black Mould. 3rd, A Stalagmitic Floor of granular texture, varying from an inch to upwards of 5 feet in thickness, and frequently containing large blocks of limestone similar to those mentioned above. This was known as the Granular Stalagmite. 4th. An almost black layer, composed mainly of small fragments of charred wood, and about 4 inches thick. This, termed the Black Band, was a local deposit oceupying an area of about 100 square feet, and, at its nearest approach to it, about 32 feet from one of the entrances to the cavern. oth. An accumulation of light-red clay, containing :—on the average, about 50 per cent. of small angular fragments of limestone, with occasional blocks of the same substance as large as those lying on the surface as already stated ; large isolated masses of stalagmite having a very crystalline texture ; suban- gular and rounded fragments of quartz and red grit, derivable not from the Cavern hill, but from the adjacent and greater heights ; and a very few granitic pebbles. This, known as the Cave-carth, was usually of unknown depth, but it certainly, and perhaps greatly, exceeded 4 feet in most cases. 6th. Wherever the bottom of the Cave-earth was reached, however, there was found beneath it a Floor of Stalagmite, having a crystalline texture identical with that of the detached isolated masses incorporated in the Cave- earth as just stated. This, designated the Crystalline Stalagmite, was in some instances little short of 12 feet thick. 7th. Below the whole there lay, so far as is at present known, the lowest and oldest of the Cavern deposits, consisting of subangular and rounded pieces of dark-red grit, imbedded in a sandy paste of the same colour. This, the thickness of which is unknown, is denominated the Breccia. The lumps of stalagmite and fragments of grit found imbedded in the Cave-carth were undoubtedly portions of the two older deposits (the Crystal- line Stalagmite and the Breccia), and show that these accumulations had been broken up by natural agency before the introduction of the Cave-earth, and that they were formerly of greater volume than at present. Excepting the overlying blocks of limestone, No. 1, all the deposits just described contained remains of animals. In the Black Mould, or most modern, they were those of species still existing, and almost all of them now occupying the district. They were man, dog, fox, badger, brown bear, Bos longifrons, roe-deer, sheep, goat, pig, hare, rabbit, water-rat, andseal. In the Granular Stalagmite, Black Band, and Cave-earth, and especially the last, extinct as well as recent animals presented themselves, the Cave-hyzna being the most prevalent, but followed very closely by the horse and rhinoceros. Remains of the so-called Irish elk, wild bull, bison, red deer, mammoth, badger, the cave-, ON FLINT AND CHERT IMPLEMENTS FROM KENT’S CAVERN. 211 grizzly, and brown bears, were by no means rare ; those of the caye-lion, wolf, fox, and reindeer were less numerous; and those of beaver, glutton, and Machairodus latidens were very scarce. The presence of the hyzna was also indicated by his coprolites, by bones broken after a manner still followed by existing members of the same genus, and by the marks of his teeth found on a very large proportion of the osseous remains in the cavern. In the lower deposits (the Crystalline Stalagmite and the Breccia) remains of animals were less uniformly distributed. In some places there were none throughout considerable spaces, whilst in others they were so crowded as to form 50 per cent. of the entire deposit. So far as is at present known, they were ex- clusively those of bear. Not only were there no bones of hyzna, there were none of his feces, none of his teeth-marks, and no bones fractured after his well-known fashion. Remembering his cavern-haunting habits, it may in all probability be safely concluded that the era of the Crystalline Stalagmite and of the Breccia it covered, was prior to the advent of the hyzena in this country. The same inference cannot with certainty be drawn with respect to the horse, ox, deer, &c., whose absence is equally pro- nounced ; for it may be presumed that their bones occur in caverns simply because their dead bodies were dragged there piecemeal ; and this would not have occurred, even though they had occupied the country, before the arrival of the great bone-eating scavenger which we call the cave-hyena. The bear, being a cave-dweller, presents no difficulty. The bones found in the uppermost deposit, the Black Mould, were of much less specific gravity than those in the lower accumulations, and were generally so light as to float in water. Those in the Cave-earth and Breccia had lost their animal matter, and adhered to the tongue when applied to it, so as frequently to support their own weight; but those from the Breccia (the lowest or oldest deposit) were much more mineralized and brittle than those found in the Cave-earth, and usually emitted a metallic ring when struck. The following general statements may be of service here, by way of reca- pitulation, before proceeding further :— 1st. Omitting the overlying blocks of limestone and the local Black Band, the cavern contained three distinct mechanical accumulations :—the Black Mould, or uppermost, or most modern; the Cave-earth; and the Breccia, or lowermost, or most ancient. Their mode of succession was never transgressed ; and the materials of which they consisted were so very dissimilar as to cha- racterize them with great distinctness. 2nd. These three accumulations were separated by two distinct floors of Stalagmite having strongly contrasted characters. That between the Breccia below and the Cave-earth above it was eminently crystalline, whilst that dividing the Cave-earth from the Black Mould was granular. 3rd. Animal remains occurred in all, but were much more abundant in the mechanical deposits than in the Stalagmites. 4th. The period represented by the Breccia and Crystalline Stalagmite (the most ancient period) may, as a matter of convenience, and so far as the cavern is concerned, be termed the Ursine period, these deposits having yielded remains of bears only. It must be understood, however, that bears are re- presented in all the deposits. 5th. The period of the Cave-earth and Granular Stalagmite may be deno- minated the Hycnine period, the remains of hyzna being restricted to these deposits and being more prevalent than those of any other genus. 6th. The period of the Black Mould (the most modern period) may be P2 212 REPORT—18783. called the Ovine period, remains of the sheep being restricted to this accu- mulation. 7th. The bones of each period were distinguishable by their physical con- dition—those from the Black Mould being lighter, and those in the Breccia more mineralized, than the products of the Cave-earth. Flint and chert implements presented themselves in each of the mecha- nical deposits; and, as in the case of the bones, those belonging to any one were easily distinguishable from those of the other two. The implements of the Black Mould, the uppermost deposit, were of the ordinary colour of common flints. They were mere flakes and “ strike- lights,”’ the latter probably used and cast aside or lost by those who during a long period, and before the invention of lucifer-matches, acted as guides to the cavern. All further notice of them may be omitted as not being note- worthy. Omitting mere flakes, of which there were great numbers, the principal flint implements found in the Cave-earth were ovoid, lanceolate, and tongue- shaped, produced by fashioning, not flint nodules, but ales ele off them. They were of comparatively somewhat delicate proportions, usually of a white colour and poreellaneous aspect, and had, through metamor- phosis, a granular chalk-like internal texture. Flint implements were not the only human industrial remains found in the Cave-earth, as it had yielded a bone needle with a well-formed eye, three bone harpoons (one of them barbed on both sides, and the others on one only), a bone pin, a bone awl, and a badger’s tooth having its fang artificially perforated for the purpose apparently of being strung “with other objects to form a necklace or bracelet, thus indicating that the Cave-dwellers of the hycenine period occupied themselves in making ornaments as well as objects of mere utility. The implements from the Breccia are much more rudely formed, more massive, less symmetrical in outline, and have been made by operating, not on flakes, but directly on nodules derived from supracretaceous accumula- tions, and generally retain some traces of the original surface. One of the specimens, however, is a mass of flint which may have been a “ core” from which flakes were struck, or, what seems not less probable, the useless result of an abortive attempt to make a tool. No such implements have been found in the Cave-earth, nor have any of the comparatively slender, symmetrical, and well-finished tools of the more modern deposit been met with in the more ancient. They are by no means so abundant as those of the Cave-earth ; that is to say, a given volume of Breccia does not yield so many implements as an equal volume of the more modern accumulation. Whether equal periods of time are represented by equal volumes of deposit in the two cases, or whether equal periods of time represent equal numbers of human cave-dwellers or tool-makers in the two eras, are questions into which it is not possible to enter at present. Omitting rude flakes and mere chips, as well as the “core” just mentioned, the Breccia up to this time has yielded no more than eleven specimens. It must be remembered, however, that the time during which the Committee have been excavating Breccia is comparatively very short. That the implements from the Breccia belong to a ruder age than those from the Cave-earth may probably be safely concluded from their much ruder form and finish, and also, if negative evidence be trustworthy, from the entire absence of bone tools of any kind. That they belong to an earlier period is obvious from the position they occupied: they were lodged in a ON FLINT AND CHERT IMPLEMENTS FROM KENT’S CAVERN. 213 deposit which, when the two were found in the same vertical section, in- variably underlay the Cave-earth. In fact, the Breccia in which every one of the tools was found actually had Cave-earth vertically above it. That the chronological interval which separated the era of the older ruder tools from that of the others was a great one is indicated by several facts : Ist. The conditions under which the two accumulations were deposited on the same area were so dissimilar, that the older mass consisted of sub- angular and rounded pieces of grit imbedded in a sandy paste produced by the attrition and disintegration of the same materials, whilst the less ancient deposit was formed of angular fragments of limestone oe in fine clay. Qnd. The two deposits were separated by a sheet of crystalline Stalagmite, in some places almost 12 feet thick. 3rd. After the Breccia had been sealed up with the Stalagmite just men- tioned, the latter was, in extensive parts of the cavern, broken up by some natural agency, and much of the Breccia was dislodged, before the first instal- ment of Cave-earth was introduced. 4th. The faunze of the two periods were also dissimilar: that of the Breccia did not include the hyena, which played so important a part in the cavern-history during the Cave-earth period, and whose agency, next to that of man, has made cavern-searching an important branch of science. His absence in the one fauna and his presence in the other, may probably be safely taken as indicating that after, but not during, the period of the Breccia, Britain was connected with the continent, and thus rendered it possible for him to reach this country. In other words, the earliest human Devonians at present known to us saw this country an island as at present ; but it had become part of continental Europe before the arrival of the Cavern- hyena amongst their descendants. Without attempting to estimate the amount of time represented by the less ancient Cavern deposits (the Black Mould, the Granular Stalagmite, and the Cave-earth), it seems impossible to doubt that the period indicated by the formation of the Breccia and the Crystalline Stalagmite, and the destruction and dislodgment of much of them, must be at least as great. In other words, and speaking only for myself, however far back in time the fabricators of the Cave-earth tools take their stand, I cannot hesitate to place those of the implements of the Breccia as much further back. Most of us remember, and perhaps few of us can be surprised at, the alarm occa- sioned by the antiquity of man made known by the researches in Brixham Cavern in 1858; and now I cannot doubt that cavern-researches growing out of those just mentioned make a reasonable and irresistible demand to have that antiquity at least doubled. What may be the relation of the Cave-men oake eleven tools are now before us to preglacial times, I will not presume to say; but I cannot divest myself of the idea that a complete exploration of Kent’s Hole is calculated to give a definite reply to that question. Meanwhile it may not be without interest to remark that, up to the pre- sent time, as the Cavern exhibits to us more and more ancient men, it shows us that they were ruder and ruder as we proceed into antiquity. The men of the Black Mould had a great variety of bone instruments; they used spindle-whorls, and made pottery, and smelted and compounded metals. The older men of the Cave-earth made a few bone tools ; they used needles, and probably stitched skins together; but they had neither spindle-whorls, nor pottery, nor metals; their most powerful weapons were made of flint 214 REPORT— 1873. and chert, many of them symmetrically formed and carefully chipped; but it seems never to have occurred to them to increase their efficiency by polish- ing them. The still more ancient men of the Breccia have left behind them not even a single bone tool; their flint implements are rude and massive, show but little attempt at regularity of outline, and are but rudely chipped. Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Guapstonn, Dr. C. R. A. Wraicut, and W. CuanviER Ropers, appointed for the purpose of investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils. Drawn up by Dr. Wricut. Since the last Meeting of the Association, a number of points connected with the experiments then made have been fully worked out, and some interesting information gained on the subject of isomerism among bodies of the terpene class and their derivatives. The action of nitric acid on the terpene of turpentine-oil has been shown by Schwanert to give rise to a non-crystalline acid (camphresic acid), which is tribasic, and is expressed by the formula C,,H,,0_; the terpene of nutmeg- oil has been found to give rise by similar treatment to oxalic acid, and an acid resembling honey when freshly prepared, but solidifying to a crystalline mass on standing for some months. This has been termed Myristisie acid ; its analysis agrees with the formula C,,H,,0,,, 2H,O, the 2H,O being lost at 100° C., and 6 of the 26 proportions of hydrogen being replaceable by calcium. Simultaneously, toluic and terephthalic acids are produced by the oxidation of the cymene naturally admixed with the terpene. Hesperidene, the terpene of orange-oil, when treated in the same way, gives neither toluic nor terephthalic acid; oxalic acid, and an acid much resem- bling myristisic acid but containing more oxygen, are formed; this acid, which has been termed Hesperisic acid, is expressed by the formula C,,H.,,0,,, 2H,0, the 2H,0 being lost at 100°, and 6 proportions of hydrogen being replaceable by calcium. From the character of the oxidation products, it thus seems that the ter- penes of turpentine, nutmeg-oil, and orange-oil are not identical, but only isomeric—a conclusion already drawn from their different physical proper- ties (e.g. their boiling-points, 160°, 163°-164°, and 178° respectively) ; turpentine-oil when oxidized also gives rise to small quantities of terephthalic acid ; this, however, without doubt arises from the presence of cymene in ordinary turpentine (vide infra). Although hesperidene contains no cymene ready formed (as proved by the non-formation of toluic and terephthalic acids from it by oxidation, and the failure in extracting cymene by a method which readily yields that hydro- carbon when applied to oil of turpentine or to the mixed hydrocarbons of nutmeg-oil) it is nevertheless closely related to that substance ; by cautiously adding two equivalents of bromine to one of hesperidene, a dibromide is formed (with evolution of heat): on attempting to distil this product it breaks up into hydrobromic acid and cymene, thus, C,,H, Br, =C,,H,,Br+HBr=C,,H,,-+ 2HBr. An intermediate unstable body, C,,H,,Br, appears to be formed ; but three or four distillations suffice to break up the dibromide almost wholly into cymene ON THE CONSTITUTION ETC. OF ESSENTIAL OILS. 215 and hydrobromic acid: a small quantity of non-volatile resinous matter is formed ; otherwise the yield of cymene approaches the theoretical quantity. Precisely the same result takes place on adding two equivalents of bromine to the lowest-boiling fraction of nutmeg hydrocarbons (boiling at 163°-164°, and containing 10 to 12 per cent. of cymene ready formed), with these dif- ferences—that the yield of cymene is much less in this case, half the terpene present being converted into non-volatile black resinous substances, and, secondly, that much more heat is generated by the union of a given quantity of bromine with the nutmeg-terpene than is with the same amount of hes- peridene. The higher the boiling-point of the original terpene, the more readily does its dibromide break up into cymene and hydrobromic acid: thus hesperidene dibromide gives not far from the theoretical yield; nutmeg-ter- pene dibromide about 50 per cent. only; whilst turpentine dibromide is but little affected by heat alone (Oppenheim), although it does yield some cymene by this treatment (Greville Williams; Barbier),—the boiling-points of the three terpenes being respectively 178°, 163°-164°, and 160°. The same difference between hesperidene and the nutmeg-terpenc is notice- able when equal quantities of the two are shaken up with their own bulks of strong sulphuric acid : the terpenes are polymerized, much heat being evolved, this evolution being much greater in the case of the nutmeg-terpene. Attempts to estimate quantitatively the difference in heat-development did not lead to any trustworthy results, beyond indicating the bare fact that there is a great difference. Taking into consideration these circumstances, together with the researches of Fabre and Silbermann on the heats of combustion of acids of the acetic series and compound ethers isomeric with them, and on the hydrocarbons of the olefine family, it appears extremely probable that the higher the boiling- point of any member of a series of isomerides, the greater is the “ affinity ” between its constituent elements (7. ¢. the greater is the work performed in their union), and consequently the less is what may be termed the intrinsic chemical energy of the compound (i. ¢. the less work can be obtained by the conversion of a given weight of the compound into other constant products) ; or in other words, the heat of combustion of an isomeride of higher boiling- point is less than that of one of lower boiling-point. It has not yet been found practicable to test this point in the case of the isomeric terpenes, first, on account of the difficulty of obtaining perfect combustion, and other experi- mental errors, and, secondly, on account of the difficulty in getting terpenes free from cymene to operate on. It is, however, hoped that some satisfac- tory evidence on this head may be obtained whenever the experiments on various oils &e. have disclosed the existence of a terpene which, like hesperi- dene, appears to be one single homogeneous body of formula C,,H,,; in the mean time the author cordially invites all chemists who are interested in this point, so vitally connected with the subject of isomerism, to submit it to the test of experiment in any cases that may seem to them promising. In order to make sure that the cymenes thus obtained from hesperidene and nutmeg-terpene are identical with the ordinary cymene from cummin-oil, a careful examination was made of specimens of cymene derived from every available source. Fittig, Kébrich, and Jilke have shown that the cymene ob- tained from camphor by the action of zine chloride is mixed with a large number of other substances ; this circumstance appears to have misled Kekulé and others into the belief that there are two distinct isomerides, a conclusion entirely negatived by the experiments described below. The cymenes from the dibromides obtained as above were purified by frac- 216 REPORT—-1873. tional distillation, and their optical properties were determined by Dr. Gladstone; their corrected boiling-points were accurately determined; com- bustions were made of them; and the products of their oxidation by chromic acid were carefully studied. Other cymenes from the undermentioned sources were also submitted to the same treatment. A. Cymene from Myristicol by the action of Zine Chloride.—When myristicol is treated with solid zine chloride in a small retort, a powerful action takes place before the boiling-point is reached, water and cymene distil over, and a non-volatile resinous mass is left in the retort. This resinous mass appears to be formed by the reaction 2n(C,,H,,0)=nH,0 + (C,,H,,0),. After purification by shaking up with sulphuric acid and distillation over sodium, the distillate yields tolerably pure cymene. B. From Myristicol by the action of Phosphorus Pentachloride.—As stated in last year’s Report, myristicol, when treated with phosphorus pentachloride, undergoes the reaction PCI, +C,,H,,0=POCI,+HCI1+C,,H,,Cl; 10°15 the resulting body, C,,H,,Cl, breaks up on heating into hydrochloric acid and tolerably pure cymene. C. From Camphor by Phosphorus Pentachloride.—Louguinine and Lippmann have shown that the chlorinated body, C,,H,,Cl, obtained by Gerhardt and by Pfaundler by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on camphor, breaks up readily on continued distillation, forming hydrochloric acid and apparently pure cymene ; their experiments were repeated, and their results confirmed in every respect. D. Cymene from Hydrocarbons of Nutmeg-oil (preexisting).—As stated in last year’s Report (Appendix), by treating the lowest-boiling fraction (163°— 164°) of nutmeg hydrocarbon with strong sulphuric acid, the terpene is poly- merized ; the resulting mass, when diluted with water and distilled, furnished a crude cymene, which may be purified by repetition of the process and frac- tional distillation over sodium. E. Cymene preeaisting in Turpentine-—Turpentine-oil was distilled over sodium, and found to boil at 156°-159°; on treatment with sulphuric acid &e., about 3 per cent. of cymene was isolated. Recently Riban has published some experiments almost identical in their result with the foregoing observations (made in September and October 1872); he, however, concludes that the cymene is derived from the terpene through the oxidation of H, by the sulphuric acid. The author dissents from this con- clusion for various reasons, the two chief ones of which are that hesperidene yields no cymene whatever by this treatment (although it does by bromine and heat), and that cymene may be obtained from nutmeg hydrocarbons or from oil of turpentine without evolution of sulphur dioxide, if very great care be taken. Kekulé, also, has recently obtained cymene from oil of turpentine by con- tinued distillation along with iodine; he considers that a diiodide is formed and split up into hydriodic acid and cymene by the heat employed: this is by no means improbable; but it is not impossible that the iodine simply poly- merizes the terpene present, leaving the cymene originally present unaltered. F. Cymene from Cummin-oil—Cummin-oil was distilled, a non-volatile resin of empirical formula C,,H,,O being left in the retort; the distillate was shaken with sodium bisulphite and the uncombined cymene purified by treat- ment with sulphuric acid and distillation over sodium. ON THE CONSTITUTION ETC. OF ESSENTIAL OILS. 217 G. Cymene from Hesperidene Dibromide. H. Cymene from Nutmeg-terpene Dibromide.—This cymene, of course, also contained the cymene which preexisted in the hydrocarbon used; the pre- existing cymene was about 10-12 per cent, whilst the total cymene obtained was 55 per cent. of the hydrocarbon used. The following were the physical characteristics of these specimens :— Corrected Boiling-point (corrected). Specific gravity Specific refractive Specific (at about 15°). | energy (line A). dispersion. 173-177 0-842 0-5586 0-0374 176 -178 0-862 0°5596 0:0404 175 -178 0°862 0-5628 0-0424 173 -177 0-863 0:5561 0:0401 174 -177 0-855 0-5581 0:0393 175:5-177°5 0°857 0:5623 0-0414 175°5-177°5 0-862 0:5607 0-0414 176 -178 Each of these eight specimens gave analytical numbers agreeing with the formula C,,H,,. On oxidation with dichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid the same result was obtained in each case; viz. pure terephthalic acid was obtained in quantity varying from 30 to 60 per cent. of hydrocarbon used, no isophthalic acid being formed, and acetic acid perfectly free from higher homologues was obtained, the results being verified by analysis of the products. It is hence inferred that only one kind of cymene exists, and that that boils at very close upon 176°5, having a specific gravity of 0-860, a specific dispersion of 0:0405, and a refraction-equivalent of 75:0. The production of this cymene from fowr isomeric terpenes, viz. turpentine-oil (Williams, Barbier, Oppenheim), citrene (Oppenheim), hesperidene (Wright), and nut- meg-terpene (Wright), gives rise to many speculations as to the mutual relations of these substances. It may be noticed as regards their formulariza- tion in accordance with modern conventions, that Kekulé’s formula for benzene permits of the ascription of three formule only for bodies that are dihydrides of cymene if this hydrocarbon be viewed as a 1-4 benzene derivative, but of siw if it be considered a 1:2 derivative or a 1°3 derivative. If, there- fore, it be assumed, as seems most probable, that cymene belongs to that series to which 1:4 formule are ascribed, it must be supposed that at any rate one of these four terpenes is either a 1-2 or a 1-3 derivative. Now, whatever may be the actual nature of the process symbolically indicated by a transference of a group of symbols from one part of a “structural” formula to another, it is pretty evident that it must correspond to the performance of work of some kind, and hence is intimately connected with the subject touched upon above, viz. the relations between “ Intrinsic Chemical Energy ” and Isomerism. Were it possible to estimate the amounts of heat involved in the reactions C,H. + Br,=C,,H,,Br, C,,H,,.Br, =2HBr+C,,H,, 218 REPORT—1873. in various cases, some light might be thrown on this question; but unfortu- nately this appears to be impracticable. With a view to obtaining another variety of cymene for comparison with the above, some experiments were made with citronella-oil, which was found by Gladstone to contain a substance boiling at 199°-205°, and agreeing in composition with the formula C,,H,,0; it was expected that this body would behave like myristicol on treatment with zine chloride or phosphorus penta- chloride. On examining about 600 grams of pure oil of citronella obtained from Messrs. Piesse and Lubin, however, no quantity of this constituent could be isolated; the great majority of the oil is made up of a substance which agrees tolerably accurately with the formula C,,H,,O, and boils at near 210°; the action of heat on this substance, however, alters it, converting it into substances of higher boiling-point, and finally into a resin not volatile at the limits of the mercurial thermometer : this resin appears to be a polymeride of C,,H,,O minus the elements of a portion of water. The examination of the citronella products is not yet complete, and the account of them is therefore deferred until next year; the following points, however, appear to be made out. By the action of zine chloride the body C,,H,,0 splits up partially into water and a hydrocarbon, or mixture of hydrocarbons, boiling between 170° .and 180°, and approximating to the formula C,,H,,; so that apparently the action is mainly C,,H,,0 =H,0 ai C,H. A large quantity of a resinous body which approximates to the composition (C,,H,,,)n 18 simultaneously formed. By the addition of two equivalents of bromine to the body C,,H,,0 heat is developed ; on distillation of the resulting brominated liquid (which does not crystallize on standing) it breaks up into water, hydrobromic acid, and a hydrocarbon which appears to be cymene, formed thus— C,,H,,0+ Br, =C,,H,.Br,O, C,H, ,Br,O=H,0+2HBr+C,.H.,. It is proposed to continue these researches in whatever direction may seem most promising for the fulfilment of the object in view, viz. the obtaining of additional knowledge on the subject of isomerism in the terpene series and their derivatives. The strong tendency of most of these substances to poly- merize and alter, forming resinous non-volatile masses, renders working on this subject somewhat difficult, large quantities of raw material being requisite in order to obtain sufficient of any given derivative to submit it to careful study. From what has been already done, together with the results obtained by Baeyer, Oppenheim, Kekulé, Barbier, &c., it appears that the constituents of the “ Essential Oils” (which are most frequently either terpenes or deriva- tives from terpenes) are intimately connected with the benzene series of hydrocarbons; it is proposed to study these connexions more minutely wherever practicable. APPENDIX. Further experiments, made since the above Report was written, have con- firmed the formula C,,H,,O as that of the main constituent of the sample of citronella-oil examined; phosphorus sulphide acts on this substance just as zinc chloride, producing a terpene boiling at 160°-165°, and polymerides of higher boiling-point. The cymene obtained by the action of bromine appears . ON THE METHOD OF MAKING GOLD-ASSAYS. 219 to be identical with that obtained from the cight sources described in the above Report. The main constituent of oil of wormwood (termed by Gladstone Absinthol, and indicated by the formula C,,H,,0), when treated with zine chloride or phosphorus sulphide, splits up in exactly the same way as its isomerides myristicol and camphor, water and cymene being formed, thus, C,,H,,0 =H,0 +C,,H, ; the cymene thus formed is identical with that obtained from the other sources examined. The action of phosphorus sulphide also gives rise to the produc- tion of a sulphuretted compound apparently identical with the thiocymene, C,,H,,.SH, recently obtained by Flesch from the products of the action of phosphorus sulphide on camphor. Further details are postponed until next year’s Report. From the circumstance that different observers have frequently obtained different results in the examination of certain kinds of essential oils (e. g. the different properties and compositions of myristicol and the oxidized consti- tuent of citronella-oil found by Gladstone and by the writer), it would seem that the composition of such oils is subject to variation, probably with the age of the plant, the season, climate, &c. Report of the Committee, consisting of W. CuanniER Roserrs, Dr. Mitts, Dr. Boycort, and A. W. Gavespun, appointed for the pur- pose of inquiring into the Method of making Gold-assays, and of stating the Results thereof. Drawn up by W.Cuannir Rozerts, Secretary. Tux attention of the Committee was first directed to a series of experiments instituted with a view to ascertain to what extent the weights of pieces of pure gold would be affected by submitting them to the process of assaying, and consequently how far the results of assay operations are trustworthy. These results showed* that the maximum error in no case exceeded one hundredth per cent. of the original weight of the assay piece, and conse- quently that the results obtained by assaying gold represent the composition of the portions of metal under examination to the a part—a fact which will doubtless appear remarkable to all who are accustomed to the ordinary methods of quantitative analysis. The Committee are not unmindful that, although it is possible to attain this high degree of accuracy, it is nevertheless well known that a comparison of the assay reports of different assayers as to the composition of the same ingot often discloses discrepancies of 1 parts. Thus portions of metal from nineteen gold ingots were assayed by the Mint Assayert, and were then sent to five assayers, each of whom furnished an independent report. Two assayers alone agreed as to the value of fifteen of these ingots; in the case of three ingots, three assayers were in accordance, while in one instance all the assay reports differed; and viewing the reports generally, e : e 2 10 Sark: 6 » 41 Ee = 2 ao a the discrepancies varied from to jpop OF an average deviation of F755 ' 10,000 parts. * Appendix I. + Appendix IT. 220 REPORT—1873. These small variations assume serious proportions when they affect the value of large quantities of bullion ; for instance, the value of gold coined at the Mint during the past year was £15,200,000, and a persistent error in the assay reports of only ings part would have been attended with a gain or loss to the Department of no less than £1500. The Committee hope that their labours will ultimately result in a clear definition of the conditions under which errors arise. The method of gold-assaying, as practised in the Mint, is given in the Appendix*; and this method, known as the parting assay, has been de- liberately adopted by all assayers, with slight variations of manipulation, which have not as yet been minutely examined, as the Committee considered that when widely divergent results are obtained the gold employed by one or other of the assayers as “ check pieces” is impure, and that either the amount of impurity has not been ascertained with accuracy, or it altogether escapes detection. It follows, therefore, that the weight of the check “ cornets,” when compared with the initial weight of the portion of metal operated upon, ap- pears to indicate the presence of an amount of gold which is in excess of the true amount of precious metal present in the alloy. The Committee obtained specimens of gold from different sources*, and tested them side by side with gold prepared, in accordance with the direc- tions of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, by the Chemist of the Mint for use as trial-plate for testing the coinage. Great care was taken in the preparation of this gold, 80 ounces of which were precipitated from 100 gallons of chloride of gold; and as experiments have already shown that it is very pure, the Committee propose to adopt it as the basis for a new series of comparisons, and, further, to invite assayers to submit samples of the gold used by them in order that they may be tested side by side with this standard plate. APPENDIX. No. I. Experiments to determine the effect produced on the weight of assay pieces of fine gold (each weighing 1000) by submitting them to the process of assay. Weight of each portion Experiment. | of fine gold =0°5 grm., Final weight of gold or 1000-0 assay units. obtained. I. 1000-0 999-98 ie 1000-0 1000-08 III. 1000-0 1000-06 IN’, 1000:0 1000-10 We 1000-0 1000-04 VI. 1000:0 1000-09 VIL. 1000-0 1000-09 VIII. 1000:0 999-92 IX. 1000-0 1000-04 X. 1000:0 1000-05 Mean......... 1000-045 | * Appendix III. ON THE METHOD OF MAKING GOLD-ASSAYS. 221 No. II. Maximum Mint . Assayers, difference Assays. ars. in pg A B C. D E Milliéme. No 997-4) 15. | 997-3) 997-1] 996-9} 997-4] 997-4 997-6} 16. | 997:8| 997-8) 997-6} 998:5] 998 997°6| 17." | 997°8| 997-9} 997:5| 997-2} 997-9 997°7| 18. | 997-4) 997-5| 997:7| 997-5] 997-6 9967} 19. | 997 | 997 | 997 | 997-4] 997-2 996°3| 20. | 9963} 996-4] 996-4| 997 996-1 997-4| 21. | 997-6) 997:8| 997-2| 997:8| 997°8 998-1] 22. | 998 | 997-4) 997:6| 997-4] 998 { 997-4] 23. | 997-5! 997-5| 998 | 998 9078 { 986°6| 24. | 987 | 987-1} 987-4| 987-4] 987-2 990-4) 25. | 9898; 989-1} 989-4! 989-8] 989:3 9848} 26. | 985 | 9848} 985-4) 985°6| 985 986°1| 27. | 986:2) 986:°3} 986-1) 986-8} 986-3 989 28. | 989 | 989°3| 989-4| 989-8] 989-4 988°3] 29. | 988°6 | 988°5} 988-8} 989-1} 988-7 984-9} 30. | 9853) 985 | 985-4) 985°3} 985-1 980°2} 31. | 9806) 980-6} 980°8| 980-6} 981 978:1| 32. | 978:83| 978 | 9781) 9786] 978-1 979-2| 33. | 979°8| 979-5| 979-9} 980 979'5 977°9| 34. | 9788) 977-9} 978-9} 978-8} 978:3 ——s —- Dl SCHORR ADADGUA cd AS ASAdTWS A | soto 10 coro! bobo bo bo hot ty bobo Go tO Oo DO ho OO | Agreements. ae) No. III. Gold-assaying. The process of gold-assaying comprises six distinct operations :— 1st process.—The portion of metal to be assayed is adjusted to an exact weight by cutting and filing. 2nd process.—The accurately weighed portions of alloy are added to molten admixtures of lead and silver contained in porous cups or ‘ cupels”’ of bone ash, which are arranged in rows in a muffle or small oven. The pro- portions of the latter metals are calculated so as to bear a definite relation to the supposed amount of gold and base metals present in the alloy. Result.—The lead oxidizes and is absorbed by the porous “ cupel,”’ together with the copper and other oxidizable metals, and the silver and gold remain in the form of a button, which may also contain platinum, iridium, or metals possessing similar properties. 3rd process.—The button is reduced by rolling to a thin strip, which is annealed and bent into a loose coil or ‘‘ cornet.” 4th process.—The “cornet” is placed in nitric acid of the specific gravity of 1:25, and the acid is maintained at incipient ebullition for 15 minutes ; the coil is then treated in a similar manner with nitric acid of specific gravity 1:4, 222 REPORT—1878. Result.—The silver is removed by the action of the acid; and the gold remains in a spongy state. ‘ 5th process.—The sponge of gold retains the original form of the coil; but it is necessary to impart a certain degree of coherence to the metal by annealing it at a dull red heat. It may be observed that a small quantity of silver is invariably retained by the gold. It is necessary therefore to make check assays on pure gold or on standards of known composition, upon which the accuracy of the result will in a great measure depend. 6th process.—This, the concluding process, consists in weighing the gold “cornet.” The weights implied bear a decimal relation to the original weight of the assay piece operated upon; and therefore the amount of gold present in the alloy is at once indicated without further calculation. Table showing the Relative Purity of Samples of Gold prepared by different Methods. > Sample. ee From a dilute solution of chloride of gold } 1000-00 by sulphurous acid gas ............-- e at B. | From chloride of gold by oxalic acid ....| 999-98 The trial-plate, prepared by same process } 999-95 EAS DISHEN Calo] (ed Wah Wesel BRCUPL OD cackeWons: OlseSicab.- or eae BP repamed. Bye wesc so cha vache ids tenes 999-93 i 2) SPrepaweay Dye. sices 2 atce ple e+ eee 999-80 Hein Prepared by yy so oc%. bo. Cate. ohalevt tee 999-70 | PROpATed DY: Oop npein clay orks eps seeeecs 999-60 First Report of the Committee for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units, the Committee consisting of Sir W. Tuomson, Professor G. C. Foster, Professor J. C. MaxweE tt, Mr. G. J. Stonry, Professor Firemine Jenkin, Dr. Sremens, Mr. F. J. BramMwe.., and Professor Everrrt (Reporter). We consider that the most urgent portion of the task intrusted to us is that. which concerns the selection and nomenclature of units of force and energy ; and under this head we are prepared to offer a definite recommendation. A more extensive and difficult part of our duty is the selection and nomen- clature of electrical and magnetic units. Under this head we are prepared with a definite recommendation as regards selection, but with only an interim recommendation as regards nomenclature. ON DYNAMICAL AND ELECTRICAL UNITS. 223 Up to the present time it has been necessary for every person who wishes to specify a magnitude in what is called “ absolute” measure, to mention the three fundamental units of mass, length, and time which he has chosen as the basis of his system. This necessity will be obviated if one definite selec- tion of three fundamental units be made once for all, and accepted by the general consent of scientific men. We are strongly of opinion that such a selection ought at once to be made, and to be so made that there will be no subsequent necessity for amending it. We think that, in the selection of each kind of derived unit, all arbitrary multiplications and divisions by powers of ten, or other factors, must be rigorously avoided, and the whole system of fundamental units of force, work, electrostatic, and electromagnetic elements must be fixed at one common level—that level, namely, which is determined by direct derivation from the three fundamentrl units once for all selected. The carrying out of this resolution involves the adoption of some units which are excessively large or excessively small in comparison with the magnitudes which oceur in practice ; but a remedy for this inconvenience is provided by a method of denoting decimal multiples and submultiples, which has already been extensively adopted, and which we desire to recommend for general use. On the initial question of the particular units of mass, length, and time to be recommended as the basis of the whole system, a protracted discussion has been carried on, the principal point discussed being the claims of the gramme, the metre, and the second, as against the gramme, the centimetre, and the second,—the former combination having an advantage as regards the simpli- city of the name metre, while the latter combination has the advantage of making the unit of mass practically identical with the mass of unit-volume of water—in other words, of making the value of the density of water prac- tically equal to unity. We are now all but unanimous in regarding this latter element of simplicity as the more important of the two; and in support of this view we desire to quote the authority of Sir W. Thomson, who has for a long time insisted very strongly upon the necessity of employing units which conform to this condition. We accordingly recommend the general adoption of the Centimetre, the Gramme, and the Second as the three fundamental units ; and until such time as special names shall be appropriated to the units of electrical and magnetic magnitude hence derived, we recommend that they be distinguished from “‘ absolute” units otherwise derived,. by the letters ““C.G.S.” prefixed, these being the initial letters of the names of the three fundamental units. Special names, if short and suitable, would, in the opinion of a majority of us, be better than the provisional designations ‘* C. G. 8S. unit of . .. .” Several lists of names have already been suggested ; and attentive considera- tion will be given to any further suggestions which we may receive from persons interested in electrical nomenclature. The ‘‘ ohm,” as represented by the original standard coil, is approximately 10° C. G. S. units of resistance; the “ volt”? is approximately 10° C.G.S. units of clectromotive force; and the “ farad” is approximately a of the C.G.8. unit of capacity. ' For the expression of high decimal multiples and submultiples, we recom- -mend the system introduced by Mr. Stoney, a system which has already been extensively employed for electrical purposes. It consists in denoting the exponent of the power of 10, which serves as multiplier, by an appended 224, REPORT—18783. cardinal number, if the exponent be positive, and by a prefixed ordinal number if the exponent be negative. Thus 10° grammes constitute a gramme-nine ; a of a gramme constitutes a ninth-gramme ; the approximate length of a quadrant of one of the earth’s meridians is a metre-seven, or a centimetre-nine. For multiplication or division by a million, the prefixes mega * and micro may conveniently be employed, according to the present custom of electricians. Thus the megohm is a million ohms, and the microfarad is the millionth part of a farad. The prefix mega is equivalent to the affix siv. The prefix mero is equivalent to the prefix sith. ; The prefixes kilo, hecto, deca, deci, centi, milli can also be employed in their usual senses before all new names of units. As regards the name to be given to the C. G. 8. unit of force, we recom- mend that it be a derivative of the Greek dvrapis. The form dynamy appears: to be the most satisfactory to etymologists. Dynam is equally intelligible, but awkward in sound to English ears, ‘The shorter form, dyne, though not fashioned according to strict rules of etymology, will probably be generally preferred in this country. Bearing in mind that it is desirable to construct. a system with a view to its becoming international, we think that the termi- nation of the word should for the present be left an open question. But we would earnestly request that, whichever form of the word be employed, its. meaning be strictly limited to the unit of force of the C. G. 8. system—that is to say, the force which, acting wpon a gramme of matter for a second, gene- rates a velocity of a centimetre per second. The C. G. 8. unit of work is the work done by this force working through a centimetre ; and we propose to denote it by some derivative of the Greek épyov. The forms ergon, ergal, and erg have been suggested ; but the second of these has been used in a different sense by Clausius. In this case also we propose, for the present, to leave the termination unsettled; and we request that the word ergon, or erg, be strictly limited to the C. G.S. unit of work, or what is, for purposes of measurement, equivalent to this, the C. G.S. unit of energy, energy being measured by the amount of work which it represents. The C. G. 8. unit of power is the power of doing work at the rate of one erg per second; and the power of an engine, under given conditions of working, can be specified in ergs per second. For rough comparison with the vulgar (and variable) units based on ter- restrial gravitation, the following statement will be useful :— The weight of a gramme, at any part of the earth’s surface, is about 980 dynes, or rather less than a kilodyne. The weight of a kilogramme is rather less than a megadyne, being about 980,000 dynes. Conversely, the dyne is about 1:02 times the weight of a milligramme at any part of the earth’s surface; and the megadyne is about 1-02 times the weight of a kilogramme. The kilogrammetre is rather less than the ergon-eight, being about 98 million ergs. The gramme-centimetre is rather less than the kilerg, being about 980 ergs. For exact comparison, the value of g (the acceleration of a body falling in vacuo) at the station considered must of course be known. In the above ~ comparisons it is taken as 980 C. G.S. units of acceleration. * Before a yowel, either mey or megal, as euphony may suggest, may be employed instead of mega. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 225 One horse-power is about three quarters of an erg-ten per second. More nearly, it is 7-46 erg-nines per second; and one force-de-cheval is 7°36 erg-nines per second. The mechanical equivalent of one gramme-degree (Centigrade) of heat is 41-6 megalergs, or 41,600,000 ergs. APPENDIX. Mr. Stoney has requested the insertion of the following extract from one of his letters, written subsequently to the presentation of the foregoing Report :—- * Would you oblige me very much by putting on record, either in the Report or as a footnote to it, that the centimetre was recommended as the unit of length against my earnest remonstrance, and that I am in no degree responsible for this decision. I would be glad to have the objections I urged against it stated also. They were, ‘that it is far too small, and that its mul- tiples and submultiples cannot be briefly designated. From its being too small, it, in conjunction with the gramme and second, lands us in quite out-of-the-way mechanical units—the unit of force which results being but little more than the pressure of a milligramme, and the unit of work being but little more than the hundredthousandth part of a grammetre. This I deem a very serious objection.’ “T still think that these awkward consequences, and the footing which the metre has already gained in science, will prove fatal to the recommenda- tion of the Committee, and that experience will show that the metre must in the end be accepted as the standard unit of length.” Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Purturrs, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor Harkness, F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., Jamus Tomson, Joun Brice, and L. C. Mratn, on the Labyrin- thodonts of the Coal-measures. Drawn up by Li. C. Miaux, Secretary to the Committee. [Puates I, II., I1T.] Tur Committee have to report that some of their number have personally examined all the more important examples of Labyrinthodonts in European collections, including at least one example of every species recorded from the British Isles. They desire to thank many private collectors and officers of public museums for facilities afforded. The preparation of a memoir on the classification of the Carboniferous species is in progress; meanwhile the Committee offer a preliminary sketch of the structure of the Labyrinthodonts. The Skull (general).—The general figure of the skull varies greatly in this order. It is usually triangular, with a rounded anterior end, and a concave posterior border, but may be oval, parabolic, pyriform, or hexagonal. In one species of Archegosaurus (A. Decheni) it is greatly produced, so that the length exceeds twice the breadth. More commonly the greatest breadth is nearly equal to the length. In Brachyops the greatest breadth is rather more than the length. The upper and lower surfaces of the cranium are usually crushed flat. Rarely, as in the single skull of Zygosawrus and in one example of Loaomma, is the original contour preserved. 1873. Q 226 REPORT—1873. The following bones have been identified in the skulls of Labyrin- thodonts :— Premaxillaries (one or two), Supratemporals (two). Maxillaries (two). Quadrato-jugals (two). Nasals (two). Supraoccipitals (one or two). Lachrymals (two). Exoccipitals (two). Frontals (two). Parasphenoid. Prefrontals (two). Pterygoids (two). Postfrontals (two). Palatals (two). Postorbitals (two). Vomers (two). Jugals (two). Quadrates (two). Parietals (two). Mandible (each ramus consisting Squamosals (two). normally of three pieces, viz. Epioties (two). articular, angular, and dentary). There may thus be forty-seven distinct elements present; and this is appa- rently the number in Lowvomma (Pl. I.). In Trematosaurus the premaxillaries are united. According to Cope* there is no quadrato-jugal in Pariostegus, but the maxillaries have a free termination behind. Pteroplax appears, from at least three well-preserved specimens, to have no maxillaries, resembling in this respect the recent Siren ; it wants also the postero-lateral ossifications external to the level of the orbitst. In Batrachiderpeton the maxillaries are undoubtedly absent, and the premaxillaries have a free posterior termination ¢. All the well- preserved mandibles hitherto examined have consisted of three pieces only in each ramus. Burmeister has described six elements as present in a shattered mandible of Zrematosaurus § ; and Mr. Hancock records a splenial piece in the mandible of Anthracosaurus ||. The jaw upon which this latter determination is founded is fragmentary, and the internal plate in question may prove to be part of the articular bone. At the time of the publication of the ‘ Paliontologie Wiirtembergs,’ Von Meyer seems to have attributed six man- dibular elements to Mastodonsaurus (pp. 18, 25) ; but this is certainly erroneous, Prof. Huxley speaks of a splenial in Pachygonia and Gonioglyptus. The general disposition of these bones is similar to that of the Crocodilian skull. The resemblance is closer as regards the bones of the upper surface than with respect to those which compose the palate, and it does not hold good at all of the axial elements of the skull. The occipital and sphenoidal ossifications differ essentially from those of the Crocodile or any other reptile. The superior surface of the skull is interrupted by five openings, viz. two nasal apertures or external nares, two orbits, and a parietal foramen. The apertures of the ears are situate at the junction of the superior and posterior surfaces, adjacent to the epiotics. There are no lateral-temporal { or supra- temporal fossee, as in Crocodilia, nor any of the spaces unoccupied by bone which, in addition to the nasal apertures and orbits, break up the roof of the cranium in most existing Amphibia. (Dasyceps has a “ facial fontanelle”**.) * Trans. American Philosophical Society, vol. xiv. N.S. pt. 1, p. 10 (1870). t Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv. pt. 1, p. 216 (1871). ¢ Ibid. p. 216. § Die Labyrinthodonten aus dem bunten Sandstein, pt. 1, pp. 38-41 (1849). || Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv. pt. 2, p. 388 (1872). §| Lateral-temporal fossee haye been supposed to occur in Zygosawrus. See p. 235 (footnote). ** See appendix by Prof. Huxley to Howell’s “Memoir on the Geology of the Warwick Coal-field,” Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 54. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 227 The posterior or occipital surface is more or less vertical. It may present an occipital foramen, a pair of occipital condyles, the apertures of the ears, which are directed backwards, and the large openings of the palato-temporal or pterygoid fosse. On each side of the occipital bones there may project horizontally backwards the postero-internal or epiotic cornua. The articular surface for the lower jaw forms the external and inferior angle, when it is well preserved. It appears to have been often in great part cartilaginous. The inferior or palatal surface of the cranium is rarely exposed. A para- sphenoid, as in Teleostean and Ganoid fishes and recent Amphibia, extends forwards from the occipital region, and passes into a rostrum or processus cultriformis in front. The posterior part of the parasphenoid is usually ex- panded, and presents lateral wings which are continuous with the pterygo- palatine processes. The palatine foramina, which are oval and usually of large size, are separated from each other by the processus cultriformis, or by this and the vomers together. A transverse bridge of bone, consisting of a pterygoid, or of a pterygoid and a palatal, divides the palatine foramen from the palato-temporal fossa. A narrow slip, furnished by the maxilla, and containing a row of teeth, lies along the outer edge of the mouth, and has the elongated palatal on its inner side as far forwards as the posterior nares. There are a pair of vomers, as in recent Amphibia. Like the palatals, they bear teeth. The posterior nares are oval or rounded apertures, varying a good deal in position. In Yrematosaurus* they lie between the palatal, vomer, and maxilla, towards the fore part of the snout. In Anthracosaurus they are placed much further back, though probably bounded by the same bones. The longitudinal distance between the external and posterior nares may be considerable, as in Labyrinthodont, or very short, as in Dasycepst. The latter genus must have had nearly vertical nasal passages, like recent Batra- chia. In no Labyrinthodont is the prolongation backwards of the nasal passages at all comparable to that which obtains in Crocodilia. A pair of cavities lying in or adjacent to the premaxillaries may represent pits for the reception of mandibular tusks, or spaces occupied by membrane. The first explanation was proposed by Burmeister in his remarks on Trematosaurus ; but Von Meyer observes that the apertures do not in all species of Labyrin- thodonta correspond with the position of the large teeth of the mandible. If this supposition be rejected, we must regard the apertures as anterior palatine foramina. The subcutaneous surface of the cranial bones is ordinarily sculptured. This sculpture may take the form of pits arranged in each bone round the centre of ossification. The pits sometimes pass into grooves towards the margin of the bone, and are then placed radially, all the grooves pointing towards one centre, which does not, however, in the adult necessarily, or indeed usually, occupy the middle point of the bone. The skull of Zovomma has a honeycomb surface ; and in Hylonomus§ the cranial bones are smooth. Besides these local systems of pits or grooves, a series of more continuous “mucous canals” is seen in some genera, taking the form of semicylindrical grooves which pass from before to behind along the face. These canals vary much as to their extent and prominence. They may be confined to the muzzle, or may be found in the temporal and maxillary regions also. They are usually visible between and in front of the orbits, approaching each other * Burmeister, ‘Die Labyrinthodonten aus dem bunten Sandstein. I. Trematosaurus (1849). + Owen, ‘ Trans. Geol, Soc.’ vol. vi. 2nd series, p. 531 (1842). {| Huxley, loc. cit. p. 56. § Dawson, ‘ Acadian Geology,’ 2nd ed. p. 371 (1868). a2 228 REPORT—1873. in the interorbital space, and receding from each other over the parietal tract. Sometimes they are seen to converge once more towards the anterior or external nares, completing thus the figure of a lyre, which they have been thought to resemble. They become deeper and more defined with age. In Trematosaurus, Burmeister* distinguishes frontal, malar, and maxillary canals (“‘Stirn-, Backen-, und Mundrand-Furchen”). The frontal canals are first conspicuous between the anterior nasal apertures, running parallel to each other at this point. They pass in diverging curves backwards across the snout, are approximated towards the orbits, immediately behind which they diverge again, and then terminate. The malar canals are somewhat broader. They pass forwards from the aperture of the ear to the centre of the postorbital, curve downwards to near the angle of the-mouth, where they touch the maxillary canals, and then take a nearly straight course across the jugal and supratemporal to the posterior margin of the skull. The maxillary canals are faintly marked at their origin near the tip of the snout, but become gradually broader and deeper. ‘They rise a little upon the side of the skull halfway between the nasal apertures and the orbits, but are contiguous to the edge of the mouth throughout the rest of their course. They disappear gradually near the angle of the mouth. The mucous canals of Mastodonsaurus are very similar, but the lyra is more dilated and more regularly oval. In Gonioglyptust the facial canals are strongly angu- lated, curving outwards and forwards from the interorbital space, and then suddenly becoming parallel. In Archegosawrus the mucous canals are visible only in the large skulls. They are distinct along the inner border of the orbit, passing thence for- wards upon the prefrontal, and backwards upon the postfrontal and supra- temporal. Burmeister’s restorationt seems to exhibit the canals too pro- minently upon the preorbital part of the face. In Lovomma the canals pass in simple curves from the inner borders of the orbits to the posterior external angles of the premaxillaries, and are united in front by a slightly curved canal which runs along the free border of the premaxillaries above the alveolus. A short maxillary canal is pre- sent in this genus. The skulls of Crocodilia agree with those of the Labyrinthodonts in haying a pitted sculpture, though in the former order the pits and grooves are not usually radiate. Mucous canals are not found in Crocodilia. Both kinds of sculpture are, in all probability, related to the nutrition of the cutis. The cranial bones (with the exception of the quadrate and parts of the occipital segment in many Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts) are fully ossified, and this from the time that the animal leaves the shell. As a rule, no inter- spaces or fontanelles are visible at any age§, though examples of Archego- saurus of embryonic size, in which the skull was not more than one twentieth of the length of the adult state, have been examined with reference to this point. This mode of development of the skull is not confined to Labyrinthodonts. In Crocodilia the same thing is observed. A recently hatched Crocodile pre- sents no cranial interspaces or fontanelles. Not only are the sutures of the Crocodilian skull closed before the end of embryonic life, but the frontals and * Trematosaurus, p. 6. t Huxley, “Vertebrate Fossils from the Panchet Rocks,” Palsontologica Indica, p. 5, t. vi. f. | (1865). } Archegosaurus, p. 8. t. iv. fig. 1. § A membranous interspace, or “ facial fontanelle,” exists in Dasyceps. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 229 parictals, originally paired bones, are respectively united at that early period. This rapid formation of a solid and compactly articulated skull does not pre- clude the further growth of every separate bone. In both Crocodilia and Labyrinthodonts the skull ultimately becomes many times as large as it was at birth, retaining all the time its accurately closed sutures, and increasing by additions to all the borders of each ossification. The growth of the Cro- codilian skull appears to be quite indefinite, ending only with the life of the individual ; and the same may have been true of the Labyrinthodont. This mode of enlargement is compatible with great progressive changes in the proportions of the skull. In Crocodilia and Labyrinthodonts alike, the face increases more rapidly than the brain-case ; so that the orbits may recede from near the centre to the junction of the posterior and middle thirds of the skull. This is the case, for example, with Archeyosuurus Decheni. All these peculiarities of the skull—the early ossification and junction by suture of the cranial bones, their indefinite or, at least, protracted growth, the generally persistent sutures which are implied thereby, the ever-increasing ratio of the entire skull to the chamber in which the brain is lodged, and, lastly, the pitted sculpture of the subcutaneous surfaces—are interesting points of physiological resemblance between the Labyrinthodonts and Cro- codilia ; but they are too directly associated with mode of life and external conditions to support any argument as to zoological affinity. The orbits vary much as to size, position, and form. In Loxomma they are 36 of the length of the skull along the middle line; in Dasyceps not more than -1. In Metopias they lie in the anterior half of the skull; in Mastodonsaurus they are nearly central; in Capitosaurus they lie in the posterior half. As to form, they may be round, oval, elliptical, or irregular. In Pteroplax and Batrachiderpeton the outer bony wall (at least) of the orbit seems to be deficient. The interorbital space and the external nasal apertures are equally variable. The Occipital Seyment.—It is to be regretted that the occipital region of the Labyrinthodonts, especially of the Carboniferous genera, is so imperfectly known. No part of the skull would yield characters of greater zoological significance were its structure fully revealed. In most of the Carboniferous examples examined nothing is shown of the occipital segment, except one or two supraoccipital plates. The deficiency of occipital condyles in Archego- saurus, of which many singularly perfect specimens have occurred, seems to show that, like the vertebral centra of that genus, they were never ossified, but remained cartilaginous throughout life. Lowomma, on the contrary, which has well-ossified centra, has also ossified condyles; they are small, very convex, and closely approximated. In the Triassic Labyrinthodonts the occipital region was fully ossified; and these are our best guides to the structure of the occipital segment in the whole order. Even in the Triassic species the basioccipital is concealed by a parasphenoid, and the form of the occiput, with its numerous cavities and processes, is not favourable to the complete preservation of details. 2 The boundaries of the component parts of the occipital segment have in no case been traced. It is probable that in the Mastodonsauria (e. g. T'remato- Saurus) a pair of exoccipitals surrounded the foramen magnum*, and sup- ported the occipital condyles, that a cartilaginous supraoccipital, ultimately replaced by a pair of membrane-bones, surmounted the segment, and that in the basioccipital tract the cartilaginous primordial skull was never ossified, but was underlain and finally absorbed by the parasphenoid plate. In * Burmeister, Trematosaurus, p. 24. 230 REPORT—1878. Archegosaurus the elements of the occipital segment proper may have been persistently cartilaginous, except so far as they were encroached upon by the supraoccipital and parasphenoid ossifications. The condyles were most probably entirely cartilaginous. Professor Owen* supposes that “the head was connected by ligament, as in Protopteri, to the vertebral column of the trunk, and chiefly by the basioccipital part.” The existence of two lateral occipital condyles in this order is a feature of great morphological importance and zoological value. If, as Von Meyer and many other writers have supposed, the Labyrinthodonts are true Reptilia, they constitute the one exception to the rule that in each of the four higher classes of Vertebrata the number of occipital condyles is constant. The Parasphenoid (sphenoideum of Yon Meyer+ and Burmeistert).—In Trematosaurus a large undivided bone underlies the base of the cranium, giving off on either side a postero-lateral process which joins the suspensorial peduncle. In front it passes into a rostrum or processus cultriformis, which separates the palatine foramina, and articulates in front with the vomers. Between the postero-lateral and the cultriform processes there is on each side a broad outstanding extension of the parasphenoid, which joins the pterygoid, and, together with that bone, separates the palatine foramen from the palato- temporal fossa§. Burmeister describes lateral ascending processes of the bone as passing upwards to join the margins of the parietals on the under- side of the cranial roof and extending forwards to about the level of the parietal foramen ||. The parasphenoid of Mastodonsaurus has in general the same form and relations. In Archegosaurus a similar bone is found, but so displaced that its con- nexions cannot be accurately made out. It is of spatulate form—the posterior end being dilated and of rounded triangular or polygonal outline, while the anterior end is extended into a long slender processus cultriformis. The ex- panded end is often displaced backwards so as to project beyond the base of the skull. The connexions of this bone with the pterygoid are shown in one of the examples figured by Von Meyer§. Its position with respect to the palatine foramen and the palato-temporal fossa appears to have been much the same as in Z’rematosaurus; but there is no trace of any postero-lateral process given off to join the quadrate. That bone has not, indeed, been identified in any specimen of Archegosaurus; nor is the mandibular articula- tion known in this genus**, The fore part of the parasphenoid of Anthraco- saurusisknowntt. It agrees in all essential points with that of Archegosaurus. Prof. Owen has figured a detached parasphenoid of Dendrerpeton associated with other bones; but no mention is made of it in the texttt. In Loxomma the upper surface of the parasphenoid has been examined. About an inch in advance of the spheno-occipital suture are two broken processes 3 of an inch apart, which are directed towards the parietal bones. Again in advance is a strong median ridge, extending as far as the anterior third of the palatine foramen, which may have supported an interorbital septum, . There is no ground for doubting that this element of the Labyrinthodont * Comp. Anat. of Vertebrates, vol. i. p. 85. t Reptilien aus der Steinkohlenformation, p. 19. t Trematosaurus, p. 29. § Burmeister, Zrematosaurus, § 14. || Loe. ett. p. 30. | Reptilien aus der Steinkohlenformation, t. v. fig. 7. ** The parasphenoid of Archegosaurus is described by Von Meyer, ‘Reptilien’ &e., p. 19. tt Husley, “Description of Anthracosaurus Russelli,” Quart. Journ, Geol, Soe. vol. xix. p. 56 (1863). tt Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. ix. p. 58 (1853); see also pl. ii. fig. 2. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTs. 231 skull is homologous with the parasphenoid of recent Teleostean Fishes, Ganoids, and Amphibia*, The Pterygoid.—A pterygoid element may be recognized in a bone which is found to lie contiguous to the parasphenoid of Archegosaurus in several examples}. The two bones are shown but little disturbed in plate v. fig. 7 of Von Meyer’s great work. In Z'rematosawrus the boundaries of the bone haye not been traced, though its position is not doubtfult. The pterygoids of Mastodonsaurus, Metopias, and others, are known in the same way. In Archegosaurus, as probably in all Labyrinthodonts, the Amphibian plan of structure prevails in the pterygoidregion. There are two pterygoids; and these are nowhere in contact, but are separated by the parasphenoid. Each pterygoid has a broad surface which divides the palatine foramen in front from the palato-temporal fossa behind, passing transversely, but somewhat obliquely, from the parasphenoid internally to the palatal on the outer side. In addition to this transverse plate there is in Archegosaurus, Batrachiderpeton, and Loxvomma, at least, a long slender process, which is continued forwards along the outer margin of the palatine foramen; its anterior termination is unknown. The Palatal.—The lower surface of the palatal presents the form of a long and narrow slip interposed between the maxilla and the produced anterior part of the pterygoid. Its boundaries have not been accurately traced in any Labyrinthodont ; but it appears to reach the vomer in front, and to form part of the boundary of the posterior nasal aperture, while behind it may help to bound the palato-temporal fossa. The palatal usually bears a series of teeth, which increase in size from the ordinary size of maxillary teeth behind to large tusks in front§. In recent Batrachia the palatal is transverse, dividing the palatine from the posterior nasal foramina; but in Gymnophiona it closes the posterior nares behind, and then extends backwards along the inner side of the maxilla, as in Labyrinthodonts ||. The Vomer.—In Labyrinthodonts (as in Crocodilia, Lacertilia, Ophidia, and all recent Amphibia, excepting a few Batrachia{]), the vomer is double. It is usually bounded by the premaxillaries in front, by the maxilla, posterior nasal aperture, and end of the palatal externally, and along the middle line by its fellow of the opposite side. The posterior margin appears to be usually connected with the processus cultriformis mesially, and with the palatal on the outer side; while between these points it forms part of the anterior boundary of the palatal foramen. The vomer in Labyrinthodonts is of great proportionate breadth, forming an unusually large part of the bony palate. A row of vomerine teeth of varying number, some of which are of large size, is disposed longitudinally along the bone in Trematosaurus, Archego- * “One thing [in the skull of the Bullfrog, Rana pipiens, L.] appears to be quite unique, although it will perhaps turn up in some other type and, perchance, in the extinct ‘Labyrinthodont.’ This is the presence of an anterior ‘parasphenoid,’ the fore part of the ‘rostrum’ being separately ossified.””—W. K. Parker “‘ On the Structure and Development of the Skull of the Common Frog,” Phil. Trans. vol. elxi. pt. i. p. 193 (1871). This an- ticipation still waits for fulfilment. t+ Von Meyer, ‘ Reptilien’ &c., t. ii. fig. 4, t. v. f. 1, t. vi. f. 7, 8. t{ Burmeister, § The fragment (of Labyrinthodon?) figured by Professor Owen (Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. vi. 2 ser. t. xliii. fig. 4) appears to include a portion of the palatal; and there are traces upon it of a row of palatal teeth. || Huxley, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,’ p. 179; Dugés, ‘Recherches sur l’ost. ct la myol. des Batraciens,’ t. xiv. fig. 93. {| Pipa, Dactylethra, Pelobates. 232 REPORT—1873. saurus, and Anthracosaurus. In Labyrinthodon this longitudinal row terminates in front with a large tusk, which is at the same time the outermost of a short transverse series*. In the remarkable genus Batrachiderpetont+ a very different type of palatal structure is presented. Here the vomers form a pair of large, somewhat triangular plates, which support the premaxillaries in front, and pass to the pterygoids on either side behind. A large central tract of the vomerine surface is thickly covered with minute conical teeth, while the outer margin of what is apparently the same bone bears a series of ten or more stronger compressed teeth+. The structure here described is most nearly paralleled by the Perennibranchiate Amphibia and by certain fishes, the Carboniferous Megalichthys among the rest. The Premaxillary—The premaxillary is usually double in Labyrin- thodonts, but single in Zvrematosaurus§. Its proportions vary greatly according to age and species. On the superior surface of the skull the premaxillary articulates with the nasal and maxillary of the same side, and bounds in part the external nasal aperture. On the palatal surface it is supported behind by the vomer and ordinarily by the maxillary also. The row of maxillary teeth is continued along the premaxillary border, in most cases without interruption or marked difference in size. There may be eleven or more premaxillary teeth on each side; the number is not constant beyond the limits of the species. Elliptical cavities have been observed upon the under surface of the premaxillary ; and these have been compared to the dental pits of Alligator by Burmeister, who supposes that they received the large mandibular teeth |]. This view harmonizes well with the structure of 7rematosaurus, in which there are large tusks internal to the serial mandibular teeth. In Archego- saurus, however, there are no tusks in the mandible, yet the cavities in the palatal plate of the praeemaxilla are plainly visible. It is possible that these apertures, as well as the similar one in Anthracosaurus, may have been yacuities occupied in the living animal by membrane4]. The premaxillary of Batrachiderpeton appears to differ essentially from the bone as it exists in other Labyrinthodonts. It is produced outwards for a short distance beyond the end of the series of teeth, and appears to have terminated in a free point unconnected with a maxilla, as in Menobranchus, Siren, and Proteus. The Maxilla—The maxilla in Labyrinthodonts takes the form of a long narrow slip of bone, comprising nearly all the marginal alveoli of the teeth * Owen, ‘ Trans. Geol. Soe.’ vol. vi. part 2. + Hancock and Atthey, ‘ Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iy. p. 208. { This outer slip, reaching to the pterygoid, is possibly a palatal. § Burmeister, doc. cit. p. 8. “Two premaxillary bones are usually ascribed to the Batrachia ; but in many Salamanders they are confluent. Thus, while they are double in Salamandra, they are single in Hemisalamandra, Triton, and Diemyetylus. In Ambly- stomide they are double. Among Plethodontide they vary. Of Plethodontine genera, Batrachoseps and Stereochila have them single and Plethodon double. Of Spelerpine forms, Manculus, Gidipus, and Spelerpes have but one, and Geotriton and Gyrinophilus have two premaxillaries. Desmognathus and Amphiuma have single premaxillaries.”— ree ae Cope, ‘Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia, and Aves of North America,’ p. 4 ootnote ). f \| Loc. cit. p. 9. See also Prof. Huxley, ‘Anat. of Vert. Animals,’ p.183. “In many of the Labyrinthodonts, again, two of the anterior mandibular teeth take on the form of long tusks, which are received into fossee, or foramina, of the upper jaw, as in most existing Crocodilia.” q In the description of Anthracosaurus, Prof. Huxley refers to this cavity as the anterior palatine foramen, ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 233 and but little else. It usually extends on either side from the premaxillary to the angle of the mouth, and is in contact with the quadrato-jugal behind. In front, and upon the upper surface of the skull, the maxilla may be some- what expanded so as to occupy an obtuse angle bounded by the nasal and lachrymal. It generally adjoins the external nasal aperture for a greater or less distance ; and its internal facial border is successively contiguous to the nasal, lachrymal, and jugal. Upon the inferior or palatal surface it may reach forwards to the posterior nasal foramen, or be exeluded therefrom by the junction of the palatal and vomer. No palatine plate of appreciable breadth is developed; and the maxilla of opposite sides are nowhere in contact. Batrachiderpeton and Pteroplax have no maxille ; and Pariostegus may have had imperfect maxille ending behind in a free point, as in Salamandra &e. The maxillary teeth are usually of small size, and form a regular series, diminishing slightly towards the angle of the mouth. The number in Archegosaurus is upwards of thirty; and the gaps represent about as many more. In Baphetes and Labyrinthodon there are anterior maxillary tusks, while in Anthracosaurus both the premaxillary and two or more of the anterior maxillary teeth are of unusual size and strength, almost equalling the vomerine and palatine tusks. The Nasal.—The nasal bones are double in this order. They bound the external nasal apertures behind, and extend backwards to join the frontals. In front, where they are contiguous to the maxilla or are inter- posed between the maxilla and the premaxillary, they are broadest, while they gradually contract backwards in proportion to the increasing breadth of the lachrymal. Like all the bones of the face, not only in Labyrinthodonts but in Vertebrata generally, the nasals become longer and longer relatively to the brain-case as age advances. This is notably the case with long-snouted animals, such as the Crocodilia, and is most apparent in those species of Labyrinthodonts which have elongated skulls (e.g. Archegosaurus Decheni). The facial bones of Labyrinthodonts, and particularly the nasals, are as a rule unsymmetrical and variable in form. This is another peculiarity of much-pro- duced skulls; it is exemplified by Ichthyosauria and by Crocodilia, especially | old individuals of Crocodilus intermedius and Rhynchosuchus Schlegelit. The Lachrymal.<-When present, the lachrymal lies anterior to the jugal ; it is bounded by the maxilla on the outer side, and by the nasal and prefrontal internally. In Trematosaurus Burmeister represents it as reach- ing the orbit ; but in reality it is excluded therefrom by the junction of the prefrontal and jugal, as in most other Labyrinthodonts. The Frontal, Prefrontal, and Postfrontal.—Three sets of frontal ossifica- tions are normally present, viz. a pair of frontals proper, which lie between the nasals and the parietals in the median or coronal series, and on each side of the head a prefrontal and a postfrontal, which bound respectively the anterior and posterior part of the inner margins of the orbits. The prefrontal _ and postfrontal generally unite to exclude the frontal proper from the orbit. Externally the prefrontal is, as usual, adjacent to the lachrymal when that bone is present. The froutals increase more rapidly in length than in breadth as age advances ; but the relative change is not so marked as in the case of the nasals. It is most apparent in those species which have, when adult, a much- roduced snout. The frontals are always more or less unsymmetrical. The following diagram, intended to illustrate the general disposition of the 234 REPORT-—1873. bony plates which roof in the cranium of the Labyrinthodonts, is also applicable in great part to the lower Vertebrates generally. The Crocodilia and the Ganoid fishes agree well with the typical arrangement; but in the latter order other ossifications are intercalated, especially around the orbit. In Crocodilia the postorbital and supratemporal are wanting, the lateral temporal fossa occupying their place, and the epiotic is not externally visible. The postorbitals and supratemporals are not found in any existing Amphibian. Lasyrintnopont Tyre. La PFr Mr... | yr Fa Pto PLES Pa QU ST Sy ee ieee : Qu SO The Parictal—tIn all Labyrinthodonts the parietals are paired bones, occupying the normal position between the supraoccipitals and the frontals. The most striking peculiarity which they present is perhaps the parietal foramen, an oval or circular cavity of small size, lying in the interparietal suture. A parietal foramen is known to exist in all the genera in which the parietal bones are sufficiently well preserved to determine the point. As the parietals lengthen with age, the foramen is placed further and further back in the interparietal suture. This is well exemplified by Central India...... s Beara mater eeeeeretetarane South Africa deen enle etter eenaeetarenseeeearens Australia,.......... (|Amphibainus, Cope. Baphetes, Ow. Brachydectes, Cope. Colosteus, Cope. Dendrerpeton, Ow.? Eosaurus, Marsh? Hylerpeton, Ow.? Hylonomus, Daws. ? Molgophis, Cope. Cistocephalus, Cope | (Urocordylus). Raniceps, Wyman? Sauropleura, Cope. North America . { | Ichthyocampsa, Cope. Permian. Triassic. Dasyceps, Hua, |Labyrinthodon, Ow, Lepidotosaurus, |Diadetognathus, Han, Miall. Mastodonsaurus, Jaeg. ——— | Capitosaurus, Miinst. Mastodonsaurus, Jaeq. Metopias, Meyer. Trematosaurus, Braun. Xestorrhytias, Meyer. Zygosaurus, Hichw. Melosaurus, Meyer. [Brachyops, Ow. | Gonioglyptus, Hua, Pachygonia, Hux. Micropholis, Hux. Dictyocephalus, Leidy. Eupelor, Cope. Pariostegus, Cope, Unde- Chalcosaurus, Meyer. [Bothriceps, Haw. ] Rhztie. Jurassic. scribed specimens. Rhinosau- rus, Waldh. *,* No opinion is for the present expressed as to the validity of these genera. The systematic position of those marked ?, and the stratigraphical position of those included in brackets, haye been questioned. 4372 Report Brit: Assoc: 1873. Plate T. Brit: Asso c:-Report on/ Labyrinthodonts. ee, Skull of Loxommnea (restored } Engra ved by (hat Tneranv. Ly pe : Be aore Brit:Assoc-1873. Plate 2. B 116.4880: Rep ori or Lab rVVln thodorts. Arhiacatlar end of manathle LOLONUNA. = Diadetognathus. 7 $ as , Shull of Locomma/) side -view ie a at Enagraved by that Ingram, VN At Se NASI iy } ty ‘ey rh oo hey ed i 1873. . Plate 3. Brit: Assoc: Report on Labyrinthodonts. | fy Dorsal vertebra i i of Pleroplax Vee, | : okies c& SS A) Y) = Y 4 i BN “Ae * Enanaved by thatTnoram Labyvrinthodont Vertebre. ON CATALOGUES OF SPECTRAL RAYS, 249 Note.—Since the preceding Report was presented, additional information has been obtained from various sources, particularly by means of a detailed examination of the Labyrinthodont fossils in the Museum at Warwick. The nature of the mandibular articulation of Mastodonsaurus, for example, is more clearly revealed by undescribed specimens in the Warwick collection than by any of the Wiirtemberg fossils. A special paper, containing an account of the results arrived at, will shortly be published. Some notice of the structure of the osseous ear-chamber, as exhibited by the large skull of Capitosaurus from the Keuper sandstone of Wiirtemberg, should have been included in the Report. The essential facts are given by Quenstedt (Die Mastodonsaurier im griinen Keupersandsteine Wiirtemberg’s sind Batrachier, p. 14, t. ii. fig. 1, and t. iii. figs. 16, 18). On a future occasion the Com- mittee hope to give the results of a microscopic examination, now in progress, of the teeth of various Labyrinthodont genera. January 1874, EXPLANATION OF PLATES I.-II1. Prater I. Skull of Loxomma (restored). The contours are chiefly taken from a fine uncompressed specimen in the possession of Mr, George Maw, F.L.S. Puate IT. Fig. 1. Side view of skull of Loxomma. 2. Posterior extremity of mandible of Loxomma, showing the absence of a post- articular process (Report, p. 237). 3. Posterior extremity of mandible of. Diadetognathus, showing a well-developed post-articular process. Puate III. Fig. 1. Atlas of Mastodonsaurus, front view (Paliontologie Wiirtembergs, t. v. fig. 4). 2. Restored cervico-dorsal vertebra of Mastodonsaurus, seen from before, showing the articular facet upon the centrum (Report, p. 239). 3. Dorsal vertebra of Pzteroplax (?), seen from behind (Hancock and Atthey, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iii. t. ii. fig. 2), The vertebra is slightly restored, and shows the two facets upon the transverse process (Re- port, p. 239). For comparison of vertebra of Anthracosaurus (?), see Huxley, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xix. p. 63. 4, Antero-posterior section of vertebral centra. (a. Mastodonsaurus. b. Pteroplag. ec. Pholiderpeton.) Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a scale of Wave-numbers, the Committee consisting of Dr. Huaeins, J. N. Lockxyrr, Professor Reynoups, Professor Swan, and G. JounstonE Stoney (Reporter). ‘Tur Committee, appointed to construct and print catalogues of spectral lines arranged upon a scale of wave-numbers, had hoped to present the catalogue of solar lines, and of a large number of metallic lines, at the present Meeting of the Association ; but a delay having arisen about the engraving of the maps which should accompany the catalogues, they have not been able to go to press in sufficient time. The whole of the solar spectrum is now ready for the printer; and the reduction of those positions of metallic lines which Thalen determined by the (250 ' - REPORT—1873. method of direct superposition upon the solar spectrum is in a forward state. The solar lines have been thrown into the groups which catch the eye in ob- serving the spectrum ; and the position of each line has been corrected for the dispersion of the air. Both Kirchhoff’s arbitrary number and Angstrém’s determination of wave-length will be given along with the wave-number for each line ; so that it is hoped that, when these catalogues are printed, ob- servers will find in them, ina collected form, the best materials which yet exist for the identification of lines, and for reducing fresh determinations, either to wave-lengths in air or wave- -numbers in vacuo. The Committee had taken Angstrom’ s determinations of the wave-lengths of about a thousand solar lines, published in his ¢ Recherches sur le Spectre Solaire,’ as the foundation of their catalogues. They are therefore glad to ‘be able to state, on the authority of the Astronomer R oyal, that his criticism of Angstrém’s labours in the Philosophical Transactions for 1872, pp. 90 & 109, refers to preliminary measures made by Angstrom i in 1863 with im- perfect apparatus, and does not affect the determinations which have been relied on by the Committee. The small final corrections mentioned by Angstrém at p. 29 of his memoir have been applied throughout to the numbers of his catalogue. The correc- tion for each line was ‘ascertained by a diagram constructed by plotting down the corrections corresponding to the lines of the select list which he gives on pp. 31 & 32, The Association Catalogue may therefore be regarded as representing Angstrém’s work in its finished state. The corrections to be applied for the dispersion of the air have been deduced from Ketteler’s determinations of the refractive indices of air cor- responding to the positions of the lithium, sodium, and thallium lines. These give only three points on the curve; but as they lie nearly in a straight line when referred to a scale of wave-numbers, the extension to the limits of the ‘visible spectrum is tolerably safe. Nevertheless it would be very desirable that a determination of this important correction should be made, extending over the whole spectrum. One of the members of the Committee hoped to execute this work, and planned the apparatus which seemed necessary; but -he could not command sufficient time to carry out his intention. Since your Committee have not finished the task intrusted to them, they recommend that they be reappointed ; they would request that Messrs. 'Spot- tiswoode and De La Rue be invited to serve along with them. Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Lupzock, Bart., Pro- fessor Puriutps, Professor Hucuers, and W. Boyp Dawkins, Secre- tary, appointed for the purpose of exploring the Settle Caves. Drawn up by Mr. Bory Dawx1ns. Tux Committee appointed by the British Association at the last Mecting, at Brighton, to cooperate with the Settle-Caye Committee in carrying on the exploration of the Victoria Cave, has expended the grant intrusted to them, with but negative results. Since the last Report was published, in which the discovery of the Pleistocene caye-earth underneath the grey clay at the entrance was recorded, their attention was directed to the examination of the OE pe eee i ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 251 Pleistocene stratum and its relation to the deposits above and below. A pas- sage was cut through the talus of angular detritus fallen from the cliff at the same level as the cave-earth, which proved that the detritus graduated in its lower part into a clay containing stones, among which glaciated Silurian grit-stones were recognized on 3rd November, 1872. These were close to a large mass of fallen rock which formed the left-hand side of the passage that had been cut at the entrance, the right-hand consisting of the solid lime- stone wall of the cave. They rested at about the same level as the stratum containing the caye-mammals, and apparently were deposited on the edges of that stratum. Some of them were embedded in clay, while others, which were to be seen in the section exposed May 21 last, were free, the clay that once covered them being washed away. _ At the end of the passage, and just within the entrance of the cave, a shaft was sunk, which proved that the cave-earth was only from 3 to 4 feet thick, and that it rested on a confused stratum of large limestone blocks embedded in clay both amorphous and laminated, and in some cases in sand, 7 feet thick. Below this the workmen broke into a passage, of which one side was composed of the wall of the cave. This section revealed the fact that the laminated clay occurred at various levels, not merely above but below the Pleistocene stratum; and there seems to the Secretary (Mr. Dawkins) to be no reason why it should not be depo- sited now in some of the interstices between the blocks of stone dclow the Pleistocene stratum by the heavy rains. The evidence as to the precise relation of the older deposits in the cave to the glacial phenomenon of the district is not so clear as might have been ex- pected. The boulders may be the deposit in situ of a lateral moraine ; or they may have dropped subsequently from a higher level. It is, however, obvious that the hyenas, bears, mammoths, and other creatures found in the Pleisto- cene stratum could not have occupied the district where it was covered by ice. And had they lived here after the retreat of the ice-sheet, their remains would occur in the river-gravels from which they are absent throughout a large area to the north of a line drawn between Chester and York, since they occur abundantly in the postglacial river-deposits south of that line. On the other hand, they belong to a fauna that overran Europe, and must have occupied this very region, before the Glacial period. It may therefore reason- ably be concluded that they occupied the cave in preglacial times, and that the stratum in which their remains lie buried was protected from the grind- ing of the ice-sheet* which destroyed nearly all the surface-accumulations in the river-valleys, by the walls and roof of rock which has since been to a great extent weathered away. The exploration of the Victoria Cave, which has hitherto yielded such in- teresting evidence of three distinct occupations (first by the hyenas, then by Neolithic men, and lastly by the Britwelsh), is by no means complete. The cave itself is of unknown depth and extent; and the mere removal of so much earth and clay as it is at present known to contain will be a labour of years. The results of the exploration up to the present time are of almost equal value to the archeologist, to the historian, and the geologist, and prove how close is the intimate bond of union between three branches of human thought which at first sight appear remote from each other, * On this point see:—Pop. Sec. Rev. Oct. 1871, “ Pleistocene Climate and Mammalia ; ” and “ Classification of Pleistocene Strata,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe, 1872, pp. 411 e¢ seg. 252 REPORT—1878. Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Evrrert, Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Sir Coarues Lyett, Bart., F.R.S., Prof. J. Chrrk Maxwe 1, F.R.S., Prof. Puruuirs, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, FLILS., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. A. Gurxiz, .R.S., James GLAIsHEer, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, Grorce Maw, F.G.S., W. Prenertty, F.R.S., 8. J. Mackin, F.G.S8., Prof. Hurt, F.R.S., Prof. Ansrrp, F.R.S., and J. Prestwicu, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Prof. Evernrr, D.C.L., Secretary. In last year’s Report a very interesting series of observations was recorded, taken in the great well of La Chapelle at Paris, by Messrs. Mauget and Lippmann. The temperature recorded showed a tolerably regular increase, at the average rate of 1° Fahr. for every 94 feet, down to the depth of 600 metres. In comparing the temperature at this depth with that at the bottom of the well, 60 metres lower, an increase about four times as rapid was found. The Secretary has since visited the well, and witnessed, with the advan- tage of Mons. Mauget’s explanations, the very interesting operation of boring. From subsequent calculation, based on the data thus obtained, he has been led to concur in the explanation originally given by Messrs. Mauget and Lippmann of the abnormal increase in the last 60 metres. The well has in its lower portion an internal diameter of 1:35 metre, and consequently a sectional area of 1:43 square metre. The boring is executed by means of a kind of chisel, whose edge is a convex arc of a circle. This chisel, with its frame, weighs 3000 kilogrammes. It is lifted and dropped by means of a series of iron rods screwed together, so as to form one rod 660 metres long. The arrangements are such that, when the chisel has been lifted -4 of a metre from the bottom, it becomes automatically released, and falls back through this distance. The rod is then lowered after it through an equal or slightly greater distance; and, by another self-acting arrangement, the tool becomes again attached ready for a new lift. The rods are hung from one end of the beam of an engine, which takes two seconds to rise, and the same time to descend. The tool is therefore dropped fifteen times in a minute. When this work has been going on uninterruptedly for several hours, the tool is raised above ground, and a cylindrical vessel, with a number of valves in its bottom, is lowered for extracting the mud and chips which haye been produced by the operation above described. As three hours are required either for raising or lowering, a considerable portion of the twenty-four hours in each day is occupied by these subsidiary operations; and for some time previous to the observations detailed in last year’s Report, the time actually spent in using the chisel was about 100 hours per week. Hence we have the following calculation for the heat developed by the action of the tool. The weight of the tool in air is 3000 kilogrammes. Its weight in water may be assumed to be 4 of this. Hence the work done in raising it through ‘4 of a metre is 1050 kilogrammetres. Heat equivalent to this is generated in its fall; and as 424 kilogrammetres of work are equiva- lent to one kilogramme degree Centigrade, we have 2°48 kilogramme degrees Centigrade, or 4:46 kilogramme degrees Fahr. as the product of each fall of the tool; that is to say, one kilogramme of water would be raised in temperature 4°46 Fahr. by the heat produced in one fall. The number of ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 253 falls in a week was 15x60x100=90,000, representing 401,000 kilo- gramme degrees Fahr. Now, the sectional area of the well being 1°43 square metres, and a cubic metre of water being 1000 kilogrammes, the weight of water in each vertical foot is 1430 kilogrammes. The heat generated in one week’s work would therefore heat, by 1° Fahr., as much water as occupies a height of +9190°0—280 metres, and the heat generated in one day would heat a column of the height of 40 metres to the same extent. A large portion of this heat is removed by the extraction of the mud, which, on coming to the surface after its three hours’ passage through the water, is found (as stated in last Report) to have a temperature of from 118° Fahr. to 194° Fahr.; but the quantity of heat remaining must assuredly be sufficient to keep the bottom of the well higher by some degrees than its natural temperature. The temperature actually observed on June 15, three days after the cessation of the boring operations, was about 24° greater than the natural temperature as computed from the observations at other depths in the well; and the temperature observed on June 18 was exactly the same as on the 15th; whereas the temperature at a point 60 metres higher had fallen by -4 of a degree. These circumstances were mentioned in last year’s Report as difficult of interpretation, since one would have expected to find the greatest change at the bottom, where the artificial disturbance of the temperature had been greatest. It must, however, be borne in mind that the operations of boring, including the raising to the surface and relowering of the boring tool and the extracting cylinder, both of which are nearly as large in section as the well itself, have a tendency to mix together the waters at different levels, and to prevent a sudden increase of temperature in approaching the bottom. Judging from the temperature of the mud, as above stated, it is probable that, during the boring operations, the. solid rock surrounding the mud had, to the thick- ness of a few inches, a temperature not less than 100° Fahr. The temperature observed at the bottom on June 15, was 83}° Fahr., which, though exceeding by 73° the temperature of the water 60 metres higher, must have been lower than the temperature of the rock immediately surrounding the bottom. It is therefore quite possible that after three more days of stagnation, the water at the bottom, situated between these two opposing influences, may have retained its temperature unchanged, while the water 60 metres higher showed a fall of temperature, from the discontinuance of the stirring processes which had previously enabled it to borrow heat from below. It would appear, then, that, in computing the mean rate of increase down- wards, the temperature (75°-4) observed at the depth of 600 metres (June 18), is to be preferred to the temperature observed at the bottom. Employing as the other term of comparison, the temperature 58° observed at 100 metres from the surface, the rate of increase obtained is 1° Fahr. in 28-7 metres, or in 94:3 feet. If, however, instead of the temperature at 100 metres, we employ the permanent temperature of the caves under the Paris Observatory, which is 11°-7 Cent. or 53°'1 Fahr., with a depth of 28 metres, we obtain a rate of 1° Fahr. in 25-6 metres, or 84 feet. A few months after the observations above discussed, the boring was again interrupted by caving in, and has not yet been resumed; but preparations are being made for tubing the well through its whole depth, the previous tubing having been carried only to the depth of 139 metres. In the mean time M. Mauget has promised to take another set of observations before the water is disturbed. [This promise has been redeemed, since the reading of the Report, by the 254 taking of a complete set of observations on the 15th, 16th, and 17th of October, REPORT—1878, as shown in the last of the subjoined columns :— 1872. Depth, - “a —~ 1873. in metres. June 14, 15, June 17, 18. Oct. 15, 16, 17. GO” Gee My Seca. 58:0 58-0 59-5 00 Serene eee 61-1 61:0 61:8 See te acces 65:0 65:0 65°5 ei) ieee Aratenteee sya 69-0 69:0 69-0 110) eo pividh thes ene eee 72:6 72-6 72:6 GLU he ao ane eb 758 ip 75:0 ‘C1o) Udi econ take 83°25 83°25 76:0 It thus appears that the abnormal elevation of temperature at the bottom due to boring, was 77° Fahr. With reference to the temperatures in the first 300 metres, Messrs. Mauget and Lippmann remark :—“ When last year’s observations were made, the well had been tubed to the depth of 139°15 metres, but had not been cemented. Consequently the springs which were met with in the tertiary strata, com- municated, at the base of the tubes, with the water in the well. Cement has this year been poured in between all the tubes, some days before taking the temperature of the water. This operation has excluded the tertiary springs, and permitted the water of the well to resume its normal temperature.” At Kentish-Town well, the new thermometer described in last Report was lowered by Mr. Symons to the depth of 1000 feet, on October 29th, 1872. - It has been raised and read three times, with the following results :— 11872.) December: 23rd ee vo. be od. 67°71 Lvs. UAprilsSth-Aes See es 68 67°66 pO SAN TH SE NS 67°58 4” “Beptember Sthry ep. ve 67:50 These exhibit a steady decrease, which can scarcely be attributable to errors of observation, as such errors, whether arising from change of length in the copper wire by which the thermometer is sustained, or from change in the thermometer itself, would probably have been in the opposite direction. Mr, Symons writes :—‘“ The scale-error of the thermometer might have changed ; but thermometers read higher by age, not lower, except when in yacuum- jackets, which this is not. Moreover, on roughly comparing it with my Kew Standard, I find it certainly not lower, perhaps higher; but the comparison of maximum-thermometers in shields with naked standards requires more time than I have yet been able to give.” As it will be instructive to trace these variations to their source, the ther- mometer has been removed for retesting, and the depth-measuring apparatus for cleaning. Mr. Symons proposes to substitute steel for copper wire, so as to reduce the amount of stretching, to substitute monthly for quarterly obser- vations, and to attack the problem with all possible delicacy next year. Mr. Lebour writes, with reference to the observations contained on page 133 of last year’s Report, that Mr. Atkinson has “ repeated the observations for temperature in the South-Hetton bore-hole, the result being that the abnor- mal temperature at 644 feet from the top of the boring (viz. 75°, that at 600 feet being 762°, and that at 670 feet being 773°) was found to have been quite accidental, being caused in all probability by insufficient time ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE, 255 having been allowed to the thermometer. The reading in these repeated experiments at 644 fect, with ample time, was a normal one between tho readings above and below.” It having been ascertained that the slipping-down of the mercurial index, which has often occurred in the Phillips thermometers supplied to the Com- mittee by Casella, was owing to their bore being less fine than in the original instrument as designed and constructed by Professor Phillips, two thermo- meters of finer bore were ordered from Casella; and they have been found to exhibit as much stiffness in the index as is desirable—so much so that diffi- culty is sometimes experienced in shaking the index down to its place when the instrument is to be set. The thermometers thus constructed have the advantage of great quickness of action, as compared with the large-bore Negrettis which are in use by the Committee; but the excessive fineness of the bore sometimes occasions difficulty in reading. The instrument, in fact, could scarcely be put into the hands of any one but a skilled observer. Two thermometers were supplied to Mr. Willett, the Honorary Secretary for the Sub-Wealden bore which was commenced last year at Netherfield. One of them was a Negretti, the other one of the new fine-bore Phillips thermometers above described: the former alone was used. The first observation was taken in April of the present year by Mr. Bosworth, the engineer of the boring, and showed a temperature of 684° Fahr. at the depth of 168 feet, the temperature of surface-springs as tested by the same instru- ment being 51° F. The Report states that the thermometer “ appears to do its work well, and to give reliable results.” In a second observation, taken in Mr. Bosworth’s absence, the instrument was broken in hauling up. Another thermometer of the same kind was then procured from the makers ; and an observation taken with it on the 2nd of August showed a temperature of 62° F. at the depth of 263 feet. No observations were taken except at the bottom, on either occasion; and the above numbers show that the heat generated by the boring-tool was sufficient to produce disturbances of tem- perature amounting to several degrees. Thermometers have also been supplied for observations in two deep wells in Essex—namely, one at Witham, 660 feet deep, and another at Harwich, originally about 900 feet deep. The commencement of the observations however, has been hitherto delayed. There is a well at Comb’s tannery, near Stowmarket, which was sunk some years ago to the depth of 895 feet, the first 57 feet being clay and sand, and the remainder chalk and marl, except about 20 feet of gault and green- sand at the bottom. The proprietor, Lankester Webb, Esq., on being applied to, near the close of last year, at once, in the most obliging manner, undertook to make observations of temperature in it; and a Negretti thermometer was supplied for the purpose. On proceeding to take the observations, it was found that only the first 283 feet were available, the remaining portion of more than 600 feet being choked with chalky mud. Three sets of observations were taken, with the following results :— ? Temperatures in degrees Fahr. 2 - OoO—v'. Ist set. 2Qndset. 3rd set. 3 fect from surface of water ........5. 54 100 om ad Sraund,s ly gp webs 524 523 53 150 “ % Nia aie en aH ss 53 200 is . Bt nec SS 54 54 53 283 = a a Fie aie a a 521 54 54. 256 neport—1873. The well is full of water to within 24 feet of the surface of the pround, and is tubed with a 9-inch iron tube for about 90 feet, the top of this tube being about 22 feet below the surface of the ground. The upper portion of the pipe is surrounded by a bricked well, into which there is a drain coming from under two Cornish boilers close to the well; and the water in this bricked well occasionally rises so high as to overflow into the pipe. This is probably the cause of the high temperature recorded at 3 feet below the water-surface. There would appear to be some error in the first observation at 283 feet; and if this be rejected, an increase of about 14 degree is shown in descending from the depth of 100 feet to that of 283 feet. The source of the water-supply, which is extremely abundant, is unknown, the only strong spring known to exist in the unchoked portion of the well being in the sand at the depth of only 30 feet. The circumstances are clearly not favourable for deducing any certain inferences regarding the increase of temperature downwards in the neighbouring soil. The arrangements for further observations of temperature in the Mont- Cenis tunnel are now in the hands of Father Denza, of Moncalieri, near Turin, who wrote to the following effect in April of the present year :— «« Every thing was ready for undertaking the work in the course of last year, when unexpected circumstances over which we had no control obliged us to suspend it. It is now our intention to commence work in the summer on which we are now entering, when I shall determine the temperature, for which observations the instruments are all in order. The thermometrical observations will be made in the interior of the tunnel at various depths, and accompanied by others in the open air on the slope of the mountain accord- ing to a fixed plan.” Another Alpine tunnel has been commenced (in the neighbourhood of the St.-Gothard pass), which will be both longer and deeper than that of Mont Cenis. It has been pierced for a distance of about 300 metres at each end— namely, at Geschenen, about 6 miles from Andermatt on the Swiss side, and at Airolo on the Italian side. The engineers at the Geschenen end (which was recently visited by the Secretary) keep a record of the air-temperature in the workings. This is found to be higher by 3° Cent. at the distance now reached than it was in the earlier portion of the tunnel; but no observations of rock- temperature have as yet been made. ’ Application has recently been made for observations in some of the deepest mines on the continent of Europe ; and in three instances a favourable answer has been received. Observations may accordingly be expected from the mines of the Société Cockerill at Seraing, near Liége, from the mines at Anzin in the Département du Nord, and from some of the deepest mines in Bohemia. The Secretary desires to acknowledge his obligations to M. Delesse of the School of Mines at Paris, M. Sadoine of Seraing, M. de Marsilly of Anzin, and Prof. Zenger of Prague. It is understood that numerous observations have been madeduring the past year with the thermometers sent to Australia. The official report, however, has not been as yet received. The Committee have learned with pleasure that a series of experiments have been commenced, by Professor Alexander Herschel and Mr. Lebour, on the conductivity of different species of rock—a subject intimately connected with the inquiry in which the Committee are engaged, and one respecting which additional information is greatly needed. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 257 Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles for the years 1872-73, by a Committee, consisting of C. Brooks, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. GuAIsHeEr, F.R.S., Prof. J. Puiutes, F.R.S., J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., RB. W. Myint, C.£., F.R.S., T. Hawkstzy, C.E., Prof. J. C. Apams, F.R.S., Prof. J. J. Sytvestrr, F.R.S., C. Tomutnson, F.R.S., R. Fienp, C.E., Dr. Potz, C.E., F.R.S., Prof. D. T. Anstep, F.RS., A. Bucuan, F.R.S.E., G. J. Symons, Secretary. Drawn up by G. J. Symons. Your Committee are glad to be able to report steady progress in the various branches of rainfall work under their supervision. The new stations started in Scotland, as explained in our last Report, have, with few exceptions, been carefully attended to. Your Committee desire to record their thanks to the Directors and Secretary of the Highland and Dingwall and Skye Railways for the very great assistance already afforded, and which your Committee hope to render still more valuable by the personal inspection of the stations by their Secretary at an early date. Gauges have been established at the following stations on these lines, and continuous records have been received from all but those marked with an x. Dunkeld, Perth. Nairn, Nairn. Aberfeldy, + Fort George x, Inverness, E, Pitlochrie, 3 Inverness, z es Struan, a Beauley x, Bs f Dalnaspidal, _,, Dingwall, Ross, E. Dalwhinnie, Inverness, E. Invergordon, Aney aR Kingussie, 5 ep Tain, asp ioe Aviemore, * Bonar Bridge, ,, 4, Grantown, Elgin. Lairg, Sutherland. Daya, Inverness, E. Golspie, . Forres, Elgin. Helmsdale, a Burghead, = Garve *, Ross, E. Mulben, Banff, Achanault, Saha Waa Keith, rs Achnasheen, Theta Strome Ferry, Ross, W. Your Committee regret that the vicinity of the Caledonian Canal and the West of Ireland are still very destitute of observers, and that several Welsh counties, e.g. Cardigan and Carmarthen, must be added to the list of districts in which observers are especially needed. Your Committee do not, however, enlarge upon this subject on the present occasion, because they hope at an early date to present a revised edition of the list of stations published in the Report of this Association for 1865, and such remarks will be more appro- priate then than now. The list published in 1865 has, mainly in consequence of the development of the work under the auspices of the Committee, become obsolete, as it does not contain more than two thirds of the data now col- lected. The new list will contain all records known at the date of publica- tion, and will be invaluable to future inquirers. _ The whole of the forms of inquiry respecting the positions &e. of the rain- gauges in the country were issued last October. Of the 1700 issued, more than half were not returned; and therefore, at their meeting in June of the present year, the Committee instructed their Secretary to send a second application to each of these persons. By this means many more have been Pie The total number received up to the present time is as follows :— 1873, s 258 REPORT—1873. Diy. 1. Middlesex ...ccisssecsssstecnes 16 Scotland (continued). Brought up 657 ;, I. South-eastern Counties...,.. go | Div. XIII. South-eastern Counties... 12 », II. South Midland Counties... 60 Fs XIV. South-western Counties.. 17 » LV. Eastern Counties ............ 45 + XV. West Midland Counties.. 10 % V. South-western Counties ... 103 y XVI. East Midland Counties... 15 » VI. West Midland Counties ... 59 » XVII. North-eastern Counties.. 23 3° VIL. North Midland Counties... 44 » XVIII. North-western Counties. 14 », VIII. North-western Counties ... 59 “O XIX. Northern Counties ...... a ber, ks, S OSKABIND,, «tec ncasscyecstess > 60 , XX. Ireland, Munster ......... 5 bs X. Northern Counties............ 60 7 XXI , Leinster ......... 15 3» XI. Monmouth, Wales, and the sj) RL » Connaught...... 4 LICE FRESE chee eee ee ae 45 y XXIII, Ulster io, it sae 18 », XII. Scotland,Southern Counties 16 = — otal ss AS tie ese 798 657 = The returns have been sorted, the angular elevations of surrounding objects computed, blank forms prepared ; and the tabulation has been commenced on the plan shown by the following specimen (p. 259). When this tabulation is completed, the information afforded will be of the very highest value; but the labour of discussing the returns (without which they are practically useless) will be very heavy, as may be judged by the fact that the specimen sheet contains only four returns out of the 800 already received. Although the mass of information thus produced is so large, the Com- mittee cannot but regret that a considerable number of the forms have not been returned, and that it seems probable that those who have neglected to send them back are the persons respecting the positions of whose gauges information may be most desirable. Your Committee therefore feel that there is no alternative but to press forward the personal examination of all these stations as rapidly as possible. It is satisfactory to them to find that the views which they have steadily held of the paramount importance of personal inspection of the stations have not only been recognized and acted upon by the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society, but have met with great support upon the Continent. At the Meeting of the French Association for the Advancement of Science at Bordeaux, September 1872, the following resolution was passed :—‘‘ We think that rules universally applicable can be laid down for the verification of instruments, and the inspection of meteorological stations, and we believe that it would be one of the greatest advantages which can possibly be real- ized in meteorology.” The same subject was discussed at the Meteorological Conference held at Leipzig in August last, and the following resolution was adopted :—* It is desirable to make a periodical inspection of the stations of each system as frequently as possible.” In consequence of the issue of the position-forms previously mentioned, our Secretary has been obliged, both by considerations of time and money, rather to curtail these personal ex- aminations ; the number, however, described in the Appendix to the present Report is 54, bringing the total up to 479, to which should be added those tested by Mr. Buchan with the apparatus presented to the Scottish Meteorological Society last year, of which, owing to Mr. Buchan’s absence at Vienna, the details have not yet been received. It will be remembered that the gauges erected in certain parts of Wales, and those erected in East Cumberland and Westmoreland by Mr. Symons in 1865, were transferred to this Committee some years back. As some of the observers haye died, and some of the gauges have been disabled, your Com- mittee have directed their Secretary to go over the district, and rearrange them as may seem most expedient. 259 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. "yooa}g yaaTH UI GOTFO ot} JO,do4 orp} Wo svar osnvs oy} 19ZI eAojog| s"**| VY *qOoT]G Yoo ut oops ay} JO doy oy} uo sv oSnvs 049 19g 07 Ajsnomotg *IQgT Ur DYO FO JUoIZ UT uapaes 10 yanooo10F 04 pavd ypeq wo ydooxe ‘apuut useq sey uoisod euy ut wolyereyTe ON “avUTy guasaad ayy 0} ponuTjUOD ole SUOBAIOSqO Of} O10 ‘suopaey Ssutadg ut oO 91]} 0} Paaouler o10M SosnVS OY} I9gI UT ‘alenby oYoY Yooyg yoory ut eyo oy ye park ony ut “FYS1}-IOYEA [[1]S St oo PTO aT} su ‘Ksnoourymuns posn Suroq yyoq ‘Ayroudvo jenbo AJostwoaad jo “yey we pure «ved geet oy} «OF S8U[5-SULIMSvoM Mou B nq ‘noysnorq} pesn ued, sey osnes oures ony, ‘urea Luv 4dooxoyut youuno | ‘SHUVNAY $UTAUTsSIO ‘gigi UL opeUr 4say atom T[EJUTeI Jo SUOYBATaSgO OT || Og Kou} pue ‘soyse Surdoom ore sox} ysatvau O44 ory, sete nenwesee o 6¢ 99 wv o 62 It Sg “AT Ae o 62 “* TaAorT MIs © gz oro "OL “Sy ‘TIX ove 1840'T kq pouur -19j9p SV ‘[OAoTT ~eagaaoqe| ‘PUNO.T) punomy | JO 1014 ~eurpouy “punory aaoqe osney jo doy, *sauunqoar woiwso.7 fo | ‘HO “bsg ‘aqqosyezeg "AAP ‘eoTyO JO | ‘Surpsoerg |‘suopavy suridg $ syoejs Loum "“A\ljoorjodoyug| ‘wy 6 ‘19]SULUTYSO AA *gSer wc me) “bsay an ‘oposyezeg “AA f/ ‘eayjo Jo | ‘Burpooaag'|'suopaeg surtdg} ~ S$ yous LooumiyQ “Mljoorjodoyug! ‘n'y 6 ‘19}SULUYSO AA ““oceqmOIg GOI) *“AA'NT Sx ***'+sdoqs 48 Q0VII0} JOTTRAA “MA OL ooRdte} JO TRAM “M'S fo) ae be “ g . 8 ¢ 8 I ° eae “ be “1S y 69 1'O “bso fo) oe “ ec “i hq “y LY ‘eo ‘aqjosezeg, “M pf o '* Suyied uoIy "WN|-Jo Jo yuoaz | ‘Surpooorg |-suapavy sutadg £9 ‘esvyuoryooyQ “Niar uopaes uy] ‘wy 6 ‘1O}SULULYSO AA Sx teen ne eenee sooL], . “N eee aN ¢ seeeee TPM. "M'S Sr net nnetnneee CERA A “g *99g1 or saree enseee OOLT, “a's “bso Sa0UL g spy “so10e -ysovgq °C Sz oetterrres OsnoTT “M' Neary, qnoqe | ‘Surpeoerg | ‘asnoyy taK0H OS “eerreesnene NOOTT ‘N|jouepaes v uy] wy 6 ‘uoysuIppay, 9° *ATQUAT *TOTJBAIOSY QC) Jo opoyy | Jo avad qsanq *sjoalqo Surpunosans jo uoywaeyy| ‘wontsog P aypnsay pue qyNWIZy “u0T} Poe, -BAIOSO jo amoqzy . “UOTIRIg 260 REPORT—1873. The experimental gauges erected some years since at Calne, at the ex- pense of Col. Ward, and subsequently removed to Strathfield Turgiss and Hawsker (and of which the results were reduced, presented to this Com- mittee, and by them inserted in their 1869 and 1870 Reports), have been finally dismounted and preserved for future use if required, it being consi- dered that the doubtful points which they were constructed to test have been thoroughly settled. During the decennial period, extending from 9 a.m. January Ist, 1860, to the same hour on January Ist, 1870, there were 317 records of rainfall kept in the British Isles, without the omission of a single shower. These records therefore give 38,040 monthly values, or 3170 values for each month of the year, and afford by far the most reliable basis for investigation into the seasonal distribution of rainfall ever yet available. Accordingly your Com- mittee have had them all converted into percentages of the yearly totals at the several stations, and tabulated in the same manner as those for previous decades given in our Report for 1868. We give on the present occasion in Table I. the percentages for each individual station, because it has been remarked that we have not given monthly averages, and these percentages afford the means of readily obtaining such averages. It is merely necessary to shift the decimal point two places to the left to convert the percentage into a factor for deducing the monthly amount from the mean annual amount given in the column preceding the monthly percentages. For example, the first station is Shrewsbury, of which the mean annual amount was 19-499, and the January percentage 8-6, which by shifting the decimal point is converted into the factor :086, and 19-499 x -086=1°677 in., the computed January fall. The true January mean at Shrewsbury is 1°675 in.; and although the mean, computed by the above method, would not in all cases be in such remarkably close agreement with the true mean, the difference would never be of any consequence. In Table II. we give the means for each group, and, for comparison, the corresponding values for the previous decade 1850-59, and also the depar- tures of each group from the mean of each district. These values strengthen the evidence which we adduced in our 1868 Report of the greater relative wetness of winter months at western stations, and especially at those of large rainfall. But though they corroborate the fact of the oscillation, they rather reduce its amount. For instance, at western stations in England we ‘have the following monthly percentages for stations at which the average is 20 to 25 in. :— 1850-59. 1860-69. JAMWATY. pe as ws ss 79 January ........ 78 DUG ten. 0 ss 2s 10°6 July Sac chee ae 8:3 Difference .. 2°7 Difference .. 0°5 60 to 65 in. :— SATUATY. Le ie sis-aid 13:9 JANUATY.. «<1. «eee 11-2 July "RABE wise’ 7-4. July ee eee 5:4. Difference .. 65 Difference.. 5:8 It is satisfactory to find that the general inferences drawn by Mr. Gaster, and quoted in our 1868 Report, are so far corroborated by the fuller in- formation now obtained—that, except as hereinafter noted, we may refer to that Report as giving a fair résumé of the facts in the present, always re- ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 261° membering that the 1860-69 decade has shown the various features in a less marked degree than the decade 1850-59. In order to facilitate an accurate determination of the months in which the maximum and minimum rainfall usually occur we have compiled Table III., which gives the months of maximum and minimum respectively for two complete decades (for England, Scotland, and Ireland), adopting the same subdivision into districts, and grouping according to amount of annual fall, as in the previous Tables, An abstract of the results of Table III. is given as Table IV. These two Tables are very instructive, and afford information respecting the distribution of the epochs of maximum and minimum previously unat- tainable. The general features will be better understood by an examination of the Tables than by any description ; and we therefore confine ourselves to re- marking that the essential difference between the two decades is that in 1860-69 July, as a month of maximum rainfall, has disappeared altogether, and April has become more frequently that of the minimum. In fact during the last ten years April has been the driest month at most stations in the British Isles, while in the previous decade this distinction was pretty equally shared by February and May. _ The gradual retardation of the epochs of maximum and minimum as the annual amount of rainfall increases, is also clearly shown by the upper por- tion of Table II.; while in the lower or departure portion of Table II. it is very instructive to observe the change of sign as the average total rainfall increases. ; With a view to determining whether the same relative monthly values are found at the same station in all decennial periods, we have selected seventeen registers, each extending over at least forty successive years, while four extend over fifty, and one over sixty successive years, and reduced them in the same manner as the 1860-69 values. These are given in Table V.; and the result can hardly be called satisfactory. They show the same general features as the two decades which have been discussed in detail, such as the larger percentages in winter months in wet districts, and in the summer and early autumn in dry districts; but the months of maximum and minimum shift about to an extent which would not be expected, con- sidering that each value represents the average of ten years. An examina- tion of these records, all embracing more than one third of a century, proves that, however steady the ten-yearly average amount of rain may be, its dis- tribution over the months is not so by any means; so that, as far as our present investigations go, it is impossible to lay down any general law as to the precise month of maximum and minimum fall. It has been the custom of this Committee to follow the practice inaugu- rated by Mr. Symons before their appointment, and give biennially details of the monthly fall of rain over the British Isles. As this practice has several advantages, your Committee are unwilling to depart from it, and therefore leave the detailed discussion of the rainfall of 1872 until next year ; at the same time, as the total was in many districts excessive, and in several localities unprecedented, they have instructed their Secretary to pre- pare for the Bradford Meeting a map showing the more remarkable general features, and briefly to explain it. But as the subject will be discussed at length next year, they do not make either the map or remarks a part of the present Report, A REPORT—1878. 262 L.6 z.L v.01 | b.o1 S.11 | ¥.6 Sarr (9.6 1.8 LL Ge 0.01 6. L.L gor | 6.6 £.6 8-9 8-8 9.11 oor | VL g.6 7.11 1.6 LL o.1t | $.6 £.6 g.L g.6 6.01 1.6 o£ 0.01 | O.II 3.6 8-9 g.or | 6.01 1.01 | 1.6 g-01 | 1.01 9.6 1.8 1.01 | v.04 L.L o.L 8-8 £.01 3-6 g.Z £.6 O.1I z.or | +.6 €.z1 | g.or 8.8 g.L ¥.o1 | 7.01 9.6 £.g 0.01 | 1.0% 1.8 $.g 6.5 3.6 B.Z1 ‘aoqy | “Aon | “990 | dog ~ co ANDAMAN ADAMO DD t.00 & 60 GO GOO Co E660 V.01 $11 v.11 0.01 V.O1 1.01 4.6 6.01 ‘any a SCOSROKCS KOO +H] 0 CAH AMAA MO SOO Apap f.11 | +9 gv 4.8 | £.g | LS | 6.2 9-9 0.01 6.8 6.4 £5 0.8 8-9 8.01 1.9 EL 8.4 7.6 tL f.11 z.or | L.g gS LL 9-9 S.o1 $.6 ‘Bh v.S Z.8 Z.9 L.or 0.6 t.o1 | £.9 0.2 2.9 6.£ 0.8 6.4 Coa 0.8 1.9 9.11 LL 0.8 o.L 0.8 9.L 5.6 Tio Lal teow cal S Ze i tap S| of ane $.8 $.g gS LL £.9 1.01 £6 fee (2S I €.L0>)..9¢.4 9.8 1.2 9-8 3.5 0.8 6.5 0.8 1.8 1.8 g.5 £.2 0.9 g.L 3.6 £.6 ree LL €.5 9:8 ZQ 1.8 0.9 v.L Z.9 zl ¢.L g.L 6.5 +.9 T.5 1.2 2.8 0.8 £.S (Sali 3-5 Lt, g.Z $.g 4.9 (SUA 9-9 9-9 o.L 1.2 AS gL o£ 6.6 ‘oune | Avy | Tady Lowey ‘qoq | “ue ‘T[Rq [enuuy jo osvyucored ATyyUOTL | so lee ER ae See SS gg OS Sa eh eles as" Sar cals oS SR Se eo ee ee ie a “SHTV AA CNV GNVTON 16.Ze |"""*** =suoNryg [TT Jo weep 612.672 eee ee teeter eeseresene “Tag TIO $79.87 "+ Aeusepry 268.9% "* TOPUIMS HLS.9@ nas’ peo pegs: see-2s == OTN suoryT ofS.gz Pee ce eesscceeeese senses Amqaouyy T17.gz Penh RS S804 651.97 “"" preareyg 1z7v.lLz saree seevapehweneecessanes Korea pam Sor.Lz eee ee eee Pree Tee eer eee! Ta]SULULOa'T yrL.gz eere Peer er ee rere) tte ewee proyangy “UdplBM eG 1g6.€% = |***""** SUOTIRIG g JO UeOTT olg.vz pema--hee-es eae ry wow SNe 6Lb.bz senipe sjanclnae poms oppncnnnaqeene me 90) oft.bz eap-f-sovy” 066. |" TTP OUT, rgz.ce- rer teaeerseee TIRTT OdIOTJUIART £S9.cz Ame eew ere e ewe weee eens taee yooq|oH 667.61y neers eee seen emarereseee Amaqsaoryg U1 “2IUUISUT ULIJSAA *pored Es aaa “LOTJRIG JO OUR AT uvey *69-O9ST opvoop oy} Sutmp uoryeIg Yovo yu oSvjusoIag oSvteay ATYJWOPY[—'] TIAVy, “"O8-G6 OT oT “Ur ‘UL “squnouly Suygreny 263 & ro Ls oo ANAADO ADD Sam) Se co - Py Nn hH00 00 DO CO MOOD ADWOO AEr00000 00 0 HOMW AMWW OV »o Q 00 moma now oo AM oOo | a ° Lal sa avoo no ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. —- es oof 6 _ ~PODOD OK DAM+tH H HHO MOO HOO £.01 3.01 O.II g.11 S.o1 I.1IL L.6 v.01 O.1T Z.11 7.1L 0.01 I,OL 0.1L 6.6 9.01 L.or g.or SehE pe oo SN et so tO MON MRO Moo 0 O00 & OO B10 0100 HHO KOO DAO MAM MOO HH o + co esis mATOMAN MO OOOO LL a 00 FRHOWO —MO 00 00 GO INS Rico MO OO NK 00 © oo B60 in in G0 00 B00 MMO HHO MO HOR MAYO sa) w nN ~ wy ON as . : m 00 AMAT HT NO 2AM HO sett ON SH ao mo Oo sFYo WOH MMAMO MEMH ANOS SOO wsonha WAN HO OO BOO DO NRO NnRNRRO NN DBO HERO WHO OH EO DO NOMnHOO NN OH MO OH ANOOHNCOMD OH DHOAOARAAMNMNANDIOMOUAMATTO tFAtFMOMNONND WKOKHKHROHHRVOVOUMU KDHROWHO HRW WHOWOO WOOO sro Me a CORO AKRDWDAUWOO NHRD NN OO NE D0OO COO Hm ROO NN ONS _ oo 4.6 PAO eae i er Beers ro LQ DOH MININM ING MAMO oC AON HHO 2 _ Lal Leal -_ - DADNH NAH NH HN NOOO ARROW NO BOO _ soo no - [ tof yxodaxy Of} UI WOAIS SvAL TOAOT-vos PUY PUNOAT oAoqe osnes Tove Jo FYSIOY ONT, x 669.2 666.b€ o1g.vé LzL.ve zoS bE gtS.vt Sgo.bt goo.bt 6L6.££ ZIL.eé 165.£¢ €1£.£¢ +66.z£ VL6.2£ $S6.c£ 679.28 $69.28 Z19.7 L6S.zE ghz.zt IZ1.zE Ebo.z£ LSL.1E ££9.18 gLz.1€ Sor.rf yoo.1£ 609.0€ oLS.0€ 6bS.0€ Lvz.o£ “"'" STORIG QE Jo ULoTT Benen eee eee ete reese etenees proyuy eetereerscssensenonnanby: o[daeyy SPE on onauen gy plo veces * LAmquoyproag sees enT TT -O “TAL ‘ppaysopov yy Bebe 211 IESE nig) sTrerereeees TIOATOSOIT POOMSUOTT emma SMITE Soypoxy *eaenienieneesevet~ TQ ATOBONT O44) : ““spuepypooy * Pee TPA stteteseeererereeeeesees grougy YINOG tirteeeeeeenes groAmasoRy WO}TOCT tieseeereseereees “QmmanasUTy [OISWG, PP eee www wweenenes SUIT, Aopsog . eens uopATT ys4TO “' Toyeg Joqyan iy ene eeneennee yoImapry ‘JosoyoUR YL eee eee eee cert errr ers qaodprig, titeetenaeneesseneresees yoTaastay seeseeseeesesssses TIO ATOSOY AgTsog. sreseeseeseeees GOLNIYSUT JOJONGL freee t0ee MOTMONT * yaeg peyuoorg steteeerarseresernsarsensraseetes Query teeteseraeereseeseeeees OUDNPURIT sew et eeeeereereeesre eaky Jo qulog seeeeeeeesereeereeeeneesee QTIOISTUO trreerereree og TTeUIG ‘[OySTag seeeee "* Yooqstoavg —_— 1873. REPORT 264 0,01 3.6 0,01 8.01 0.01 oo AHO ~~ oe AnNOD Lan iia! IN HLS DOC MOO HASSE DOnDADH 09 0.6 Lal onMO AA ATMA MO CO [00 60 00 00 00 AH 00 08 *AON L.ot I.II v.01 Q.1I 0.Z1 L.6 v.01 9.01 g.O1 9.01 Z.01 6.01 g.O1 6.6 $.or I,II L.6 1.01 Z11 ‘PO zor | 7.6 0. v.L o0.L $$ | g.Z o.L £.6 gS E.LE | | t.or | +.6 2.9 £.2 £.9 +S v.L 8-9 g.or | $06.6 1.6 8-8 $.9 0.8 oL 6.9 8-8 £.8 LL $99.6 S.6 0.6 9.9 6.9 Z.9 Sv 0. 1.2 6.01 | 10£.6€ 6.6 6.6 L.9 8-9 zl 1.8 TL o£ 7.6 £of.gf v.6 Lil £.9 S.9 o£ ZS $.6 g.L B-1I | 090.g£ 6.3 v2 6.5 6.8 9.9 9. 9.8 LL v.11 | zLg.Lé g.o1 | $.6 v.8 6.2 red 3.5 v.L 0. $2 cEL.LE 6.6 1.01 | 1.6 6.4 9. 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QenOT yoorluyary, ** OSnOTT YOTMOP, peabnepensserenene sess eel Mes "aresasoossensasvhbasesbaee” OTIONGTOTT psneeniensesannnsn cel cee Peer O sr rereeee ITH spuodg treeeeeseerenes TIOATOSAY P[OYULY Reet etme e seer e arenas . 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L.6 L.g €.2 9.9 VL £.9 LS 8-9 LUN GLI a TORSO Eats ore Xecorceeedehes=s ee aioTo CHE, III | 9.11 | 6.9 6.9 2.3 €.L 1.4 8-9 £.9 Sion | POTEE —raevesenerooreecsecseresees QagzaTtuD 0.01 | I.or |] £.6 S.9 $.9 Z.8 Sv 9.8 9.9 1.6 LLg.ZE —frvtrtereeseereereseeeeesyaear toqtoFy | } '*'Gg-08 Z.2I | oor | £.g ZL 6.9 1. £4 gL gS g.or | 661.2 seeeseree KIOIOOT ee 1.21] bor | 2.8 $.£ £.L Lo | vb | eZ 6.9 vor | 6Lb.1— js odpory ysorogy “praysoreyy £.6 S.or | ror | 6.9 1.6 gel £.5 8-8 £.9 1.6 z9S.0€ | qoanjg odaonjpen ‘ueqsurng | / REPORT—1873. for ||) 116 f.o1 | 7.6 L.6 6.5 $.9 9.5 for | 0.8 g-6 6.01 | +.6 S.o1 .g 8-8 5.6 0.71 | gor | 6.01 1.6 ¥.8 0.1L 0.8 | £g | gor | zgl.fb | suoRIg G Jo uopL Z.g 1.8 o.z1 | r1b.bb seers KTOPWAIOSYC) MOSSBLD } $2 7.6 €.1r | Sgzbb osnoTyT ouBApPUOTONY t.g CL S.o1 991. +b eeeeepeceoenroeren ot AYULYL JO TIN '"Ob-OF 6.9 6.8 2.01 +.6 S06. ed OREO O eee ww er ete ee nee ystuoysy) £.g o,It 1tr.of RPE RO Ramee nee enter uae ennee eVpprid O10 | Zor | o.rr tL 0.6 for | zho.ge jt suoKRg 9 Jo uvopy +.6 oLlv.6€ eee Tee TT eee eee Te eee eee eee BUOY Lar | 6.6 L.o1 0.01 | gS L.9 6.5 g.$ 6.8 $.6 ¥.0or | 9.01 Eerr 4) “Shs %.S OAT t.9 $.6 4.6 TAGcOG irs °sesscnaseciccesbe osama a AA OCIi) Georg Seer i zr 0.6 6.7 9.4 0.5 £.g 8.8 26 ESg.gh [rrreeereessereteeeesseeeres SOTAVpUIUG ij Zor | £.8 1.11 9.6 S.9 1.9 $.9 ZL 6.4 CAS Be Sh (RV | EELS CECCORESONS {yo anorg ayy EDL ||| wt |! eer L.8 Sv 1.¥ 9.4 1.8 £.01 | 9.6 Loo.L& terres acnar punog AoTT g.zr | 8.6 L.zt 0.6 6.4 S.€ eS zl 4.8 pe WCE AE LE bl sees Aussoagy ror | £.6 ZI Zor | 7.9 0.9 g.S 6.2 4.3 o.or | o1f.28 |r suOTyRAG J FO WLOT|T 7.6 1.8 S.11 g.or | 9.2 6.9 %.9 L.9 0.8 6.6 Sevaee: meets ** osnoyyT PUOTIITT 6.6 Z1I1 | 11 9.01 | 0.9 Sie) 0.9 LL USE eats) EV.LE in * Avsy Jo suuryyy 2.00 | €.11 | 92x 3.6 oS vv gb gL 0.6 2.6 Eooize * inne teresa Ad punog AOTT vor | gL O.11 £.6 Z.8 £.9 1.9 zl 9-8 gor | 186.18 feces cgreauiony | b ¢e-o¢e 1.11 | 4.8 I.1L 1.6 Bae 1.9 L.$ $.9 3.6 ZOU d| “SALTS ||heerssasedderareteesnessee aC moit “UL “UL 6.6 $.8 8-01 g.or | £8 9-9 6.5 1.8 LL Biz0 | (O@Eate ert nese toss sos aoes ease Renmanae oy, 0.01 L.6 3.6 I.Il 3.5 6.5 6.5 (A 0.01 1.8 671.18 toeeseceers descing cco es ser RRD ia) pUurysy "UL *(ponurzUod) Zoaupsay wlagsa 44 ‘oa, | *AoNT | “YQ | gdeg | “Sup | ding | -oung | Lepr “Youeyy| “Get | ‘ure | -porsed ory} UL Phebe *syUMOULy 1 — uoyL}g JO owmeyy SOIT ‘TT Tenuuy jo osvyuoo10d ATyQUOPL uRoyL 272 *ANV'TLOOG *(panuyuoo) *T IVY, 273 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. z.£r | 6.8 r.or | ¥.6 0.6 g.S z.9 + LS | 1.2 | 1.6 Qtr | Pgr.dg |r" ssu0KTg g Jo UROTT z.br | 4.6 9.6 Lor | 9.6 z.L g.S 1.$ 64 | %L | of 1.6 Lzo.gg |" TTC ** BIaUIOg §.£1 | 9g 6.0r | 0.6 6.8 $.$ Lb Ly 8-9 8. 5.6 6.rr | OL8.Lg frvetrrerereeeeers orga) ArproAUy “*0)-¢9 O71 | Hg 3-6 9.8 9.8 LY ZS gb ES 0.8 BOK |. 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Z.ZI | 0.8 L.6 2.6 1.6 ES 2.9 v.+ Ly 6.9 4.6 SEL | OFZ.TG, [rrereeseerresteserseeereeee OTKorraqy £9-09 ort | 6.2 Z.O1 | 9.8 6.6 ¥.9 £.9 Ly 0. g.L 1.6 L.ZI | SOg.gh [rrrreereeteteereeeres Orsay yormuUy | *OG-CF zor | ¥.2 g.6 4.8 ror | 6.2 £.9 £.5 1.5 el, £.6 Er | rz6.1b |r*-+ssuo1yeyg ¢ Jo uRoTT g.or | S.2 z.o1 | 6.3 v.or | of 0.9 9.5 £.$ aA 0.6 £.c1 166.8 — rvresereeecectescceteseeees Togsteagy | gor | £.2 6.6 1.8 3.6 aye 2.9 Lv $.$ €.4 | Por | g.zx | oof.rb |reereretreeees suapazwy osreumjog | }*'cF-OF se 1.6 $.L 2.6 2.8 T.or | 9.6 8.9 L.S Ad 8-9 $.3 1.1 ILp.ob = jreeeserrereeees Supe Apaeny ‘Tytog éS oO Ki I.O1 | 0.8 ZII | 6.8 6.6 v.L $.9 9.8 £.$ oL g.L V.zr | ozf.g& |-s+s-**su0reyg 9 Jo uvoyy 5 0.6 £.g f.11 | Lg £.6 LL 7.9 2.9 6.$ L.9 7.6 $.1r | Prog freer ToAsosayy Ysa YAO \ S) 0.6 $.g g.Ir | 1.6 4.6 g.L $.9 6.5 g.5 D2 1.g Perr | OSPLE frrerrereeeerees Yoory MBYSUIGqoD a B-II | 7.3 rr | 9.Z f.o1 | 6.9 $$ v7 g.v Sib gL 6.€1 SQOL.QE — frvrerrrssesererreerreees gsoraodd ry cs a bv.or | 6.2 g.11 | 7.6 0.01 | g.9 8-9 1.9 £.S 1.L g.L ZIT | OgL.GE |rrerrcerrveecereescneees TgAgrT TOOT, ees g.or | zZ 1.6 8-8 gor | z.Z 6.9 He) 6.4 8-9 £.2 vin | welSe | “ype Aya, se £.6 g.L £11} ror | %.6 1.g L.9 6.5 gr | 02 8-9 0.21 | Lgr.SS — jrrrreerseeeeees orm, pvoyl [LET “ut *(panutyu0d) gorugsay Usage ‘20qi | “AON | “900 | gdog | “Sny | Ainge | -oung | -Aep_ | -pady |-qoreyy! -qaq | ‘usp “porsad ia ot} UL ‘ “syunOUly Teqenuuy abil Sugary ‘TI8l [enuuy jo eseyuoored AT UOTT wee *aNVILOOG = *(ponuyuoo) *T £T4VJ, 277 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, Z.O1 0,01 £.6 5.6 7.6 4.6 *UNVIGUT Soo eee errr errr eT) eoaesse sy *"OF-OF Seer ee eeeerecersesens TO}SULT.1}10 F ssoaeeeneesees THOTT MOUNT. 4SUFIOKf | "07-08 “ee odoTTOD smoand suyjog | *eg-9¢ “*seeeSTIOTIRIg Z JO MLOy starteeeeeeeeeseneueseoeees OIOTIETMT. -ssesesseeoeeneypony Tourer ‘UGUG } "08-63 “POMLISUT UotogSDT “tierereeressersereneeeereess goreriryy |“ Q=05 a a sere STIOTIBIG G jo uvoyy “"-aNOK sdUaLOT rete LOT TOIT AA } “"Ch-OF “eres comnansay yIog | “8-08 "JOLMISUT Ul ]S9 Af 278 REPORT—1873, ; | Tasre II.—Mean Percentage . ENGLAND AND WALES. ee No. Western District, 1850-59. Fall. of Sta- Between | 2°98: | Jan Feb, |March. April | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. in. in I5- ZO tosnthe || eseneculll.eeesaceil cctede || hieexeupeit/tann's ee | seeee e | eeeeee Peters | cereee seeeee es 20- 25 8 79 | 5'5—| 5°7 72 | 770 to'2 | r0°6 | 10°5 gl jxme} 8°5 67 25- 30 II gt 54—]| 575 6'9 72 g'0 9°9 98 84 me7+ 8°5 8-6 pB°- 35 a oS alee 1) S| 72 1 83 $4 187 |. 94.) 87 J10 gt om | 92 35- 40 5 |10%4 | 69 6°6 TO | 58—| 85 81 xe) 79 |113+! 9g'0 9°5 “40-45 4 |1r4+) 74 6°5 69 | 58—| 77 EG $°6 76 | 10:9 972 | 103 Boe | P9817 7 1 53° | 56 1 a 8—| 94) 94 [109+] 87 j109+) BB | o2 BO- 55 2 |10'7+] 71 6°4. 78 58—|] 77 7. 92 8°0 | 10°6 9°3 | Io"2 55- 60 I | 13°9+| 7°8 57 4°99 |4°8—]| 7°'0 77, 31 8°4 | 10°7 8°5 | 12°5 is Sy) agg) yr) -58 1 5s eg | Og 9% | oot 770 |10'2 | 87 | 12°6 Seu Gtaseral siesetl| tohovsblll satay |-2seceee ld Mctess| solees legiticc, Wiksctote sles coe: t al caeee sen] maaan eee 7O- 75 14'I+]| 9°6 6:0 55 | 400o—]| 64 6°38 g'0 72 | 98 89 | 12°7 25-130 I | 136+] 9°6 6"4. 60 | 45—| 68 Ws We iSeg 7'2 | 102 Sr | Ig = TORS |e toe Cn VR a ae eee (tee) ee a a ere re el eer ence. atoohe. | osecec Mean...| ...... 112 | 75 6'0 64 | 5°5 79 33. | 93 8:0 | 10°8 $8 | 103 4 Note.—In the upper portion of this Table the affixed + and — indi- I Departure of mean percentage for each ZO Neate a lansescul eentosel| vacons | cheeses Wi aggace i) castes |! caneace® [emctake Jacstcce tl’cceee all ROMER conte. HZO— 25 | ..cu. —3°3 | —2°0 | — °3 | + °8 | +1°5 | +2°3 | +2°3 | +12 | +11 | + +3] — +3 | —3°6 e5- 30 | seceee See eee ee ek ee ed tno. |) cR |r sa otc ‘9 | 35) —2-7, Hpo- 35 | -..... —r9|—rg|/— 3 )+ 3/4 8} 4+ 5/4 4/4 1]+7]4+-9]4+-5]—re BS 40 | eevee eee Ga G6 6 Pe gl 6 | — “2 |g | — on dee | ee PSA CN ec caes SPs fees isa atte Spel St i a a el Fr sg) "4. feXe) 45— 50 | sevens EON ate — 7 Be rs faery | eeaG [et 7 | ox oro | —I'I 50- 55 Ber a ne = ‘4 -- 4 +. 9 a5 3 aes, ~ 6 PR, fours) —- 2 + “5 oy 155— 60 | seoee Sela (a Na Vm Rm a em Yet Vcr Stl em’ ea Vet be bo—' 65] ...... $277 | +16 | — 2. | — "gf —1r2 | —1'5 | — *9 | — 2. | —1'0 | — 6 | — #1 | 42°73 65- HOD Nee=vox Ub tensencdll Grucccml| coance ||| cosas op eeeten: | nedaee | ecosc™ [abegeseelne. con 4 1 cook ciety Reememnlemeeese H7O= 75 | crocs +2°9 | +2°1 oro | — *9 | —15 |} 15 | —1°5 | — °3 | — 8 J —T'0 | + oor | 24 P5130 | ...00s T2421} + 4} — 4 )—ro}—ry1 |—r1|/— 8]— -8{— 6 |— +7 | 416 SSG GL | opeocne| Marana Saks secsen | esses | cacens | csveoe | caveae | eeoese: | coves | seeees | suscas | seeces ee CrentraL District, 1850-59. 15-20 I 77 | 4°5—| 4'8 70 6°2 II'l | 1r8 {13°2+| 8:6 |x1°1 83 5°7 20-25 9 85 | 44—]| 570 70 7°38 94 | 117 | 10°6 go {IIg+] 83 6°4. 25-30 7 38 Bl e5—) 5°34) 7:6 | Bo 86 | 96 | 9°5 QO | 13:347) Bape 73 BOSH |) css eees Sl vaecemth eemeamta ine spclltects e w [ise eNA dd cvene | Ratwos |eninsete: |) covace di scsh soll Neate rest Bao | saccve | sosssottl beens SM coors abel nhcc gs" Ni ewsewelt| iw onses | faonscs) | Mtedcem |t ooseus |] obeseve tl Mememeenl eoneoe ae eee be | eee Ol ieadeWaud| iewasas | evices’ | Goecottal: vaacee ll accectameneee nl mec cnee ASSO | vrseee | aeenee | seetee | canoes “1 aieilicccess » || eiewecw | ebeansap [ats sease Jo osaeaa a raeemectll bine ee Bey ||! (oseses OH weense tl: homasam ucecactellpesws SoM erexe Ml presse | Wasees. | WrvssSh | te-ccss | east odi@ecetes )] cee le ‘Mean...| ...... 3°3 4'5 570 72, 73 O°7 ao auieroer 89 | 12°2 8-4 6°5 DIR =2O) || sssaee — 6 OOP 2 | 2 ay | m4 | 8 | eens) — “3 4 — 2:0 | — or |) — ag ZO-25 | veces > °2 1 — OO = "20S | — 93 PSE — oa a 2 x | = ny BE=20 | cesae. + 6:5 OO Wis Sols “407 | | ra 96 ees fete ree | sy eas BACAR Mach Ns sca00 | adecee | saswceal’ cecneer teeces me! eveees if Mheneet| Reaves Wi senese) |e coca IH © s| Teidee | oars eate the months of maximum and minimum percentage respectively. group from the mean of the district. ae —1'3 |-—ro|/—‘1| — °6 +17 | +40 |—15 | +18 | 3-24 — ‘6 |—31 | —1'7 sasees —21 |—1r5}/— 5} +4 | +14 | 4+ °8 | +20 | +413 oo | — 3 |= 99 | — 6 seeees Fuj}—‘9o{/+er}] +°3 | +ré jtrir}/4+2)/— 4) +71 —- "2 |—13]/ — ‘7 ve | — 15 [oz {por] gL z.L |+6.z1| o£1.€5 | 69-09g1 1.8 9. L.9 0.8 9.9 6.9 £.4 |—9.$ |+2z.z1| zgr.6b | 6S—-oSgr 1.8 0.8 o£ 6.9 £.9 |—1.9 9.9 9-8 0.01 | Sgz.bS | 6b—-obgr 9.8 ZL 6.9 1g j—-gv | 48 Fell 3.6 1.2L } Sog.zS | 6£-ofgt 0.01} ¥.6 0.6 8-8 1.8 0.9 Z.9 t.9 1.3 | S£0.Sz €or] oor} g.9 |+g.01] +.6 |—£.5 tL 7.9 6.g | c£1.bz | 69-0981 v.6 7.6 o.zr| 6.4 8-8 1.2 z§ |—S.v | Lg | bgr.€c | 6S—-oSgr 1.6 L.8 Lg £.2 S.g |—S.$ 7.9 L.9 Z% | gg6.9z | 6b—-obgr +4.or| 4,6 £.8 9.6 |—S.5 1.9 1.9 £8 S.g | 6&g.Sz | 6£-ofg1 1orj+%.zr| 9.01} 9.8 o.L Lv 8-8 z1I1} 6.6 g.Z zg v.g f£.9 |—S.S o£ zl. | 6bS.€% | 6b-obgr +S.11} £.6 1.11| 4.6 Z9 $.9 B.S 1.L |—S.$ | 198.8% | 6£-ofgr 6.12] v.01] 06 | go | Log m6 I—n.S | $36 €.9 | rzL.12 | 6c-ozgr ‘ydog ‘Suy “ATop ‘oun AV Tudy “IVYL | “Gay | “uve Pate ; ‘porsed UL [RAL yeruuesecy yenuuy ‘Tey Tenuuy Jo esuyucosod ATyyUOPL meer se eeeeeeeses savot 0S jo UeeTL see99* TOAO(T ‘MOTJNyYSUy T9}OXHT vs givok OF JO UROTL **MOAA(T “YOo}stawy, “400039 980 \\ seeeeesesers Grn OF JO UvoyT Heme e rene eeeneewnree XOSsey ‘surddgy teeseeeerees gang fh OF JO UBepy "* pxofxQ ‘AtozVatosyQ oF Tppery. “AqUMOD puL TOTYWL7g Jo ove yr + ‘sopvoo(] JUSLOYIP UL sosvyuso1eg Jo uostrvdwmog—* A a@Iavy, 291 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 6.01! £.or| g.or| Lg 7.6 6.2 8.9 1.5 1.5 9.L 8-8 0.6 | 129.1 steseeseeees sapak QQ JO Une] g.or| +.6 1.01] $.or] 9.6 |—£.5 1.9 CAS SAS $.L | 0.6 |+6.o1] zz£.€5 | 69-0991 OIL] 7 v.6 gL 9.01] 7.g £.3 |—6.+ £.$ 9. 9.8 |+1.z1] z16.bb | 6S—oSgr O 5.6 wit |+Z.11| 1.2 60. 5.6 of |—£.5 £.$ aL £.L 6.6 | gL1.18 | 60-obgr b 6.orj+S.11}| zor! S.6 L.g .6 zg |—6.2 Sv 1.8 4.6 z.L | 61z.9$ | 6£-ofg1 g.irjteg.1r}] Lor] £.6 f.o1| 2 £.$ v5 |—2zS gL 6.2 r.L | Lor.$S | 6z-ozgr ++4.11| 2.6 bin! Be +L $2 6.5 3.9 |—6.% $.6 gor} of | 6gr.0$ | 6r-o1gr [eres t**puLzacomlyso AA ‘TepUeyy L.g 4.6 6.01] 3.8 $.6 S.g 9.8 £.9 6.5 iL Lk 9.8 | 909.28 sreseereeeee spo k QP JO UBOTL : for} 2.6 |+g.01}] oot} 9.8 8-9 9.$ r.L |—zS +. 7.6 g.g | €1€.£€ | 69-0981 9.8 g.L gor} 9.8 |+%.11] 7.6 b.or |—S.S v9 3.8 v.9 1.6 | €1Z.0& | 6$—-oS gr 1.2 ¥.6 |+£.c1| 1.9 3.6 3.8 6.2 %.L |—1.9 1. £.9 2.6 | €g9.1€ | 6b-ovgr Lg |+£.11]} 9.6 V.8 1.8 1.6 g.o1 |—¥.S 0.9 1.L 4.8 o£ | v1S.v€ | 6€-ofgr | oarysytoX ‘xvprepT “peop TTAAA f.0r] g.o1} 9.01} 6.8 1.6 ror} £4 | S.9 6.5 6.9 6.9 S.g | LS9.S€ sreseessesee ganod OF JO UVOTL 4.8 |+?.11} S.6 f.or| Lor] 9.01 £ go6.g& | 6£-ofgr £ gor] g.6 |+S.11] &. 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L9 LS 6.5 z.L | 66S.22 steetereeees gapak QG JO UBayy po sily Oey eau = 6.9 eg 7.6 |+6.11] 9.8 g-tr| 2.6 9.6 SL |—9.¥ g.5 9.2 | gtg.Ez | 6g-oglr gL |+z1r] rrr] 6.01] 6.6 +.6 1.6 6.4 |—9.b £.§ 9:9 z.g | 9Lg.gz | 62-oLLr £4 |} 6.2 |+err] £.9 | ror} Lor] g.11] zL] 1S |—-Se | zg €.2 | Sbz.zz | 69-o9L1 } 3-8 be b.9 9.5 6.11 /+8.£1] 9.6 ore 9.6 oL |—g.b 6.L | £6b.1z | 6$—oSZ1 1.8 mori) £6 £.6 rL |+2z.z1| 6.11} S.g L.9 tL |—zv zL | €€S.gt | 6b-obLr srereeees Dern ‘UopudTT bows bor) Lar} grr} £.g 8-9 Lg 8.9 f£.9 | $2 6.9 9.2 £.6 | gt9.z& sreseeseseee gapak OF JO WUOTT g-o1| 9.6 |4+1.zr} 9.2 L9 1.2 £.6 |+1.€1| tar] +g oor |+Lr| tor} 2.2 ud 2.9 €.11| $.6 |+.E4] £.6 1.2 9.8 Lg |—%.9 g.6 | $1.1 | 6S-oSgr 9 ZB gor] gbz.£& | 6b—-obgr —0.$ 1.9 6.9 1.6 0g | 21S,.££ | 6£-ofgr i. 6.9 $.g | Sg9.€€ | 6z-ozgr |****** moAog ‘svmoyy, “1g ‘toJexq 1873. REPORT 0.6 ¥.01 ¥.L g.01 bor} £11 L.g Zl 8-8 2.3 L.6 9.01 6.01] 7.11 zr |+?.r11 9.8 o.II g.o1 |+8-Z1 +o.£1| 9.6 L.o1 Loop @ ¢ 8.01 L.or +9.21| 4.11 o.or| Z.01 £.6 8.01 ¥.£ | 2.6 S.g |+6.11 0.01} I.or “AON | “390 7.6 B.11 S.of |+9.11 4.8 |+9.71 1.8 Z.0O1 +6.11| barr £4 |+o.£1 6.8 2.6 2.6 9.01 g.L 7.6 6.2 0.8 9.01 8-8 .g 7.6 6.01} +8 4.8 6.6 gL 0.8 g.L V.0O1 8-8 g-It £.g |+¥.cr $.L 8-01 +21 oO.Irt 9-9 +o0.£ I ‘ydog | “sny g.or L.ot g-O1 9.01 S.o1 “Ane oun | “feyq | Tady | “wey | “deur 2.9 6.5 Z.9 Dale $.9 |—S.S oe —z.5 | $5 | 6.9 6.5 4.9 7.9 1.L |—o.$ 9.8 9.5 >a A 6.L $.6 —£5 |-L2 | ox | 26 8.9 6.5 gL \+L.11 6.5 S.9 LL EOE 9.0 1.8 7.8 z.L £.5 1.8 9-8 8-3 Se ee oe ee 2 —9.4 | +g | zor} 2.6 0.9 $.9 ¥.8 £S | 68 | £o | ez —2.5 £.$ 9-9 9- —2z.5 LS gl} L ES Wi ee 4 geo) oe z.L |—9.S 4.8 9. "1187 Tenuuy jo oseyuoosed ATUIUOPT *(panunuod) *A TIA, 612.61 Zgv.0t €1z.S1 ot6.0z £96.12 366.61 396.2 —_—_— bEV.EE 1gS.0f o6L.££ 890.rE Lot.gh glz.gb tZot.Sp gzl.z$ 170.Lv 090.£7 “UBpr £St.1z Siv.vz 1S1.Sz 617.1z “ul *porsod aut 6S—oS gr 6+-obgt 6£-ofgr 6z—-o781 ‘porsod Ul [By | [etuuooo(y [enuuy uveT tetseeeeeers gpg fh Og fo UvsTT pARRASSRRITORAE?E QUE ‘eq JO OTS] treteeseeeee Sapa k OF Jo uvayy sreeseees T7ASry ‘ARIST JO suum tteseeserers gap OF Jo uvopy sisibivieip owimele omg qaen4g JUuNnopL reeeeeeesees Crna l OF Jo weap Peete eee area eee e eee eenenee Yyoyyouy *AyUNOD puB uolzVIg Jo ome Ny 293 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, €.11/ 4.11 ¥.z1| 6.6 @.01| I.o1 L.o1 f.11 L.rr |+£.£1 £.01 I.Ir oor} 2.6 +S.11} 9.01 0.01 |+-1.z1 £6 |+6.11 £.6 Z.1L 0.01} 711 6.6 8.01 g.Z v.01 8-8 0.ZI [oes LI 3.6 £.01 +111} 7.6 7.6 €.11/+Z.11r 7.6 £6 |+£.z1 I.0r)/+£.11 9.6 g-O1 o.Z 9-8 0.OI 6.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 ¥.8 Ni $.8 £.2 —o0.$ v.L 968.92 ILf.1€ LoLl.tz ZS0.S@ V6E.Lz £1g.2£ 6zr.1£ 916.18 og6.v gzz.ct Z0S.17 ggi.be $¥0.7z 110.77 $99.61 079.61 seeseererees gag k OF Jo uvayy seecceceesccces fauyag UIog Javj}g steseeresoes gaegh OF jo uvoyy ———— ececce “MA SSOUIOAUT ‘SSUlD) pussy teeveeeeeree Sag h OG fo UveTy sees Waapreqy ‘peop, paueudry sereseseeres gapat OF jo UvoyT steseereoess TQgpdeqy ‘ssouueyong, 294, REPORT—1873. EXAMINATION OF Height of COUNTY. gauge. Station. OWNER. Observer. Maker’s name. pe ape Yate Above ground.| ,5¢% Reference number Date of examination. Construction of gauge Time of reading. level. 1870. ; ft. in. | feet. 425.| Sept. 21. CHESHIRE. X. | Negretti& Zambra}ga.m.| o 6] 182 Bidstone Observatory, MERSEY HARBOUR BOARD. J. Hartnup, Esq. 426.| Sept. 21. CHESHIRE. Adin eases: seeseeesmonth-| o Bidstone Observatory, ly. MERSEY HARBOUR BOARD. J. Hartnup, Esq. | | Eo oy _ oo ) 427.| Sept. 22. DERBYSHIRE. III. | Horne & Thorne-| 9 a.m.} 1 Willersly Gardens, Matlock. thwaite, P. ARKWRIGHT, ESQ. Mr. Tissington. °o 440 428.| Sept. 22. DERBYSHIRE. TT, DICAMION, seece easy asses] Ueeanae 2.10 5 1500 Matlock Bath. R. CHADWICK, ESQ. R. Chadwick, Esq. 429.| Sept. 26. DERBYSHIRE. TIT. | ANON, ...ccccesseeeee] Q@.M.] 5 © Alderwasly Hall. pre- A, F. HURST, ESQ. ceding. Mr, Greenwood. 53° 430.| Sept. 27. DERBYSHIRE. TIT. | Anon.....e.s00...e..)month-| 1 6 | 488 Stancliffe Hall. ly. SIR J. WHITW ORTH, F.R.S. Mr. Dawson. 431.| Sept. 30. DERBYSHIRE. X. | Casella ‘ Axe Edge. E. J. SYKES, ESQ. LE. J. Sykes, Esq. Gu cdveev’ yee] Past I 0] 1620 432.| Sept. 30. DERBYSHIRE. , |\Casellae ceeeges. es: gam.| § © | 1005 Devonshire Hospital, Buxton. E. J. SYKES, ESQ. E. J. Sykes, Esq. 433-| Sept. 30. DERBYSHIRE. VIII. | Marshall Devonshire Hospital. EL. J. SVKES, ESQ. E. J. Sykes. Esq. Heereaens| weeewe | eaeeee 434.| Oct. 4. DERBYSHIRE. VIII. | Marshall .........! a.m. Chatsworth, The Gardens. a |? THE DUKE OF DEV ONSHIRE. Mr. Speed. 435-| Oct. 4. [DERBYSHIRE. ee RAMON tseclecsote cso 9am. ; Stoney Middleton. REV. URBAN SMITH. Rev, Urban Smith. rr errr yore ee ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. RAIN-GAUGES (continued from Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1870, p. 228). Equivalents of water. i) SUN RUE Ww nn ESS HUES YH NeUFUN HU Sy n 680 1390 2100 2830 3580 480 oe 1470 1950 2460 480 960 1460 1700 490 ae 1475 1970 2465 1320 2570 376¢ 5050 6340 1320 2570 3760 5050 6340 1240 2500 3100 1240 2500 3759 4960 6250 480 97° 1470 1970 24.70 Error at scale-point | gular elevation of objects above specified in mouth of rain- previous column. in. + oor -+-'002 +004. +1003 -+'003 +005 +'006 +006 +004. +010 -++'003 "004 +'003 +006 +'003 +1003 +'006 +005 -++'007 +"oor +004. +'002 +003 +003 —*064. —'003 +'003 +-oo1r correct. —"004 —"003 +'003 +°oor —-OOe +'003 + "004. --°005 -+'oI0 --"009 +003 +004 +004 +'003 +*002 Azimuth and an- gauge. Remarks on position &e, 295 Reference number §.W. Observatory] Good position on the side of Bid-| 425. 30°. ston Hill, near summit, and N.E. of the Observatory. Observatory Dome} Close to No. 425. Testing not| 426. 8.W. 380°. Clear completed, but measuring-scale correct, and cylinder believed to be true, In kitchen garden, clear open space, ground level for some distance, from W.| This station is on the N. side of the hill known asthe Heights of Abraham; the through 8. to E. garden and grounds rise in rapid ter- Trees E. by N.| races and are thickly wooded. I could to W. 75°. not see any better position. 8. Apple 30°. Quite clear. Quite clear. In garden west of the hall. This gauge was fixed in a wooden frame which surrounded the funnel, and was not sufficiently below it to be free from liability to produce insplash- ing. I left instructions that it should be lowered 4inches. On large lawn N.W. of Hall. On the level surface of the moor, about 600 feet above Buxton, and 3 miles 8.W. of it. The posi- tion is extremely exposed. Hospital N.W. | On dwarf post in an open part of 26°. Clear in| the Hospital grounds, near the all other direc-| centre of Buxton. Position good, tions. and. gauge in good order. An old gauge, out of order at date of inspection, but subsequently repaired and used at Poole’s Cavern, Buxton. a ott a 1863, Bept 21 Co. 125); Bet Quite open, by the pluses erin Pnitialled; aba the Pree e ee eee eee funnel had been rendered more nearly circular, I retested it. I find on compari- son that of the five scale-points two errors are absolutely identical; one differs by 0:061in., one by 0:002, and one by 0:004 in. ..{On the top of dwarf stand in garden, which slopes from W. to E., eae has a wall running N.N.W.-S.8.E., at about! 8 ft. from the gauge. Mr. Smith states that his place is so exposed and wind that this partial shelter is beneficial, which seems probable. 427. 428. 4209. 430. 431. 432. 433- 434- 435: 296 REPORT—1878. EXAMINATION OF nm Height of gauge. COUNTY. Station. OWNER. Observer. Maker’s name, Reference number Date of examination. Constructio of gauge. Gee o Ww 0:5 Eg | Above i 2 |ground.| Jeyel, : ft. in.| feet. | Oct. 11. MIDDLESEX. Crosley ...... iat gam.} 4 o|} 115 Camden Square. ¥ Ist 'G. J. SYMONS, Esq. G. J. Symons, Esq. — Lond oo Ny ie) b w lon) =| = 1871. 437.|Aug. 10. EDINBURGH. TT EB rysON. wae rceease gam.|o 6] 183 Dalkeith Gardens. DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH. Mr. Dunn. 438.| Aug. 17. PERTHSHIRE. T. > Ammonia seasientuene Ist |o 6 Bolfracks, Aberfeldy. each J. F. WYLLIE, ESQ. month. J. F. Wyllie, Esq. 439-| Aug. 23. INVERNESS. V2) j || AUIS hs. nze coeds 8am.| 3 0 | 82 Culloden House. A, FORBES, ESQ. A. Forbes, Esq. 440.| Aug. 29. YORKSHIRE. XII. | Casella, ......ssse0. Ioa.m.| I o| 102 Scarborough Crystal Garden. DR. FOX. Mr. Walsham. 441.) Aug. 30. DURHAM. X. | Negretti&Zambrajga.m.| 0 © | 140 Darlington, Southend Gardens. J. PEASE, ESQ. Mr. Richardson. 442.| Aug. 30. DURHAM. XII. | Casella ..sece.seee ga.m.| 0 8 | 140 Darlington, Southend Gardens. J. PEASE, ESQ. Mr. Richardson. 443.| Aug. 30. DURHAM. Seo | Anonss.......c5de08 gam.) o 6] 140 Darlington, Southend Gardens. Fig. J. PEASE, ESQ. Mr. Richardson. 444.| Aug. 31. YORKSHIRE. WIT. | Anonsin..... 06.08 roam.) 0 6 | 30 ‘York, St. Mary’s Abbey. YORKSHIRE PHIL. SOC. Mr. Wakefield. 445.| Aug. 31. YORKSHIRE. VII. | Anon. .........00000- roa.m.|43 6 | 73 York Museum Roof. YORKSHIRE PHIL, SOC. Mr. Wakefield. 446.) Sept. 1. YORKSHIRE. See fig.) Casella ......05+ |g am.| 1 © Hawsker Garden, Whitby. REV, F. W. STOW. Rev. F. W. Stow. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, RAIN-GAUGES (continued). p | Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- $258 water. scale-point| gular elevation of Han specified in} objects above 828 || | Scale- Grains. | previous | mouth of rain- A el column, gauge. in. in. in. | 9°98 I 2525 correct, | E.N.H.House30°. 10'02 2 5050 correct. I0‘00 53 7579 correct. 10°00 “4. 10000 +:004 to‘ooo| °5 12500 +°005 3°12 | 1:00 2000 +'021 W. Trees 88°. 3°15 pee 3000 +:o18 al i 22°. 7 2°0 4000 +103 y ae be y16 | 258 | 5000 | Joss M 3°140 3°09 fo00 +025 13°00 | 4°61 | gooo +1013 13°25 13°25 13°12 M13°155 6-72 "125 4240 +002 |W.S.W. Apple20®. 6°71 ‘192|) 1660 +00 .K. 90 OE 6-76 243) 2160 Hees 6-71 *308| 2660 +:o12 M 6-725 4°98 ‘I 490 +‘oor | N. House 30°. S700 | “2 es +:ooz2 |S.W. Trees 43°. ‘02 3 1480 +'oor io 4 19 = correct. My Gi 2480 —‘oor i ‘I 1250 +:oor N. Elm 40°. 8:00 “234 3000 —'oo02 Ng: | 5; 28% 8:00 “4 ao08 ae N.W. yy oOse 8-00 5 270 -++'00 M 8-000 he 5°00 ‘I 505 —'003 . 4:98 2 1020 —'008 es | 3 | 7515 | —-o09 4°93 “4. 2010 —‘o1o M 4:973| °5 2510 —'o12 8-04 52 1250 +004 8*10 *234| 3000 +002 8'10 “4 5000 +014. 808 5 6270 +'016 MM 8-080 z — toog | “I 2600 correct. ey Sycamore | 10°31 = §o50 +'005 40, 9°98 | °302| 7575 | +-orr | N. Chestnut 46°, 10°22 *39 I0100 +-002 Mio1s0| °486; 12625 —'005 g98 | ‘t 2600 EAIOGY J [2 dthoiad scsatanat sacs a 1c"05 2 5050 correct. 10°00 9302') 7575 +°002 9°97 “39 =| Io100 —‘o10 Mio-c0o| “48 | 12625 —‘o20 5°00 “I 495 correct. | W. House 48°. 501 2 975 +004 | 8.S.W. Trees 30°. 5700 3 1460 +005 |S.S.E. Trees 25°. 5700 4 1980 +‘oor N. Trees 25°, M 5:003| °5 2460 +'004 297 Remarks on position &e, | | A second, or check-gauge, not found reliable, although accu- rate in construction. This is not the old Dalkeith gauge, of which the fate is unknown, but a com- paratively modern one, on a grass- plot, which at the above date had been allowed to grow too long; level ground and good position. A very bad gauge, wofully out of order, yery unsteady, not level, and so generally unsatisfactory, that it was not thought worth while to test its precise error. This position, though good, was not that which it was ieee” should even- tually be oceupied by the principal gauge at this station, as Mr. Forbes contemplated railing off a portion of the park expressly for meteorological apparatus. This guage was of unpainted In nursery garden sloping to south. Lurged that the gauge should be shifted a little to N.E. to get more away from the trees, which was agreed to. Fair position, near the bottom of a rather flat valley. Close to No. 441. This gauge has a very flat rim. Close to 441 and 442. This is an experimental gauge, of the re- markable pattern shown in the annexed figure. Funnel, 8 in. diameter, circular, rim vertical and } in. deep; funnel scarcely falling at all to centre, not more than finch: a, a rim falling loosely over; 0, a tin cylinder to keep funnel in place. Neither this nor the following gauge were regularly attended to at the time of this examination; but it was pro- mised that they should be in future. The former was in an enclosed part of the ruins of St. Mary’s Abbey, the latter on the roof of the Museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical <---5"—» Society — the position, in f——— > fact, occupied in 1836 by one of the experimental gauges used by Prof. Phil- lips. sine, and had a 3-inch deep snow-collecting rim, as per sketch, Reference number. as we > 437. 438. 439. 440. 441. 443. Reference number z 449- 450. 451. 452. 453- 454. 455: 456. 457. 298 Date of examination. Sept. 1. Sept. 1. Sept. 1. Sept. 1. Sept. x. Sept. 1. Sept. 1. REPORT—1873. COUNTY. Station. OWNER. Observer. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Garden. REV. F. W. STOW. Rev. F. W. Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Paddock. REV. F. W. STOW. Rev. F. W. Stow: YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Paddock. REV. F. W. STOW, Rev. F. W. Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Exp. Field. REV. F. W. STOW. Rev, F, W. Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Exp. Field. COLONEL WARD. Rev. F. W. Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Exp. Field. REV. F. W. STOW. Rev. F. W. Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Exp. Field. REV. F. W. STOW. Rev. F', W. Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Exp. Field. REV. F. W. STOW. Rev. F. W. Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Exp. Field. REV, F. W, STOW, Rev. F. W. Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Exp. Field. REV. F. W. STOW. Rev. F. W, Stow. YORKSHIRE. Hawsker Exp. Field. REV. F, W. STOW. Rev. F. W. Stow. f= 28 Sw Se g 3 Maker's name. oe. on aS ic) = 8 5 AA DV. |caveetetnates qed 9 a.m SeeNo,| Casella ........065- 9am 446. See No,| Casella .....s0c00e. Mon- 446. thly. See No.| Casella ..,..0..000- 9 a.m 446. IIT. | Casella ..,... sores] 9 2. See Re-| Anon. ......00.005 | 9am. marks. See Re-| Anon....... seers 9 a.m marks. See Re-| ANON. .essecesrevees ga.m. marks. XII, | Casella ......... | 9 a.m XM 2 | Gaxpllactsceiewes 9 a.m SeeRe-| Anon, ...,...+5 vee (QM, marks. EXAMINATION OF Height of gauge: Abye Above s ground.| evel, ft. in.| feet. | 2% 31-342 Yet 335 ro 335 | | t of} 4289 i) | ro} 428 | 10 Of} 438 | || 10 o| 438 | } § 0} 433m L oo 428 | Io 428 | I of 428 Se RAIN-GAUGES (continued). p -— | Equivalents of | Error at 8238 water. scale-point. g at | specified in au F iI Soe Grains, | previous 7) = Ha column. — — » in, in. in. B. 11°86 ‘I 2850 correct. 12°12 ‘2 5780 —"003 I2'00 3 8568 correct. 12'00 “4 11435 —'oor Mri995| °5 14280 —‘ool 5°01 ‘I 495 correct, 5700 | *2 975 +7004, Sor 3 1460 -+-'006 5°00 ‘4 1980 +'oor M 5'005| °5 2460 +'005 5°Or % 495 correct, 4°98 ‘2 975 +'003 Sor 3 1460 +005 5°00 "4 1980 correct. M 5.000} °5 2460 +004 S'Or os 495 correct. 5°00 ‘2 975 +°003 5°00 3 1460 +005 4°99 ‘4 1980 correct. M 5:000} ‘5 2460 -++'004 ' 1°00 wa 20 correct. b afore) 2 39 +°005 I'ol 58 +‘oro ‘or "4. 78 +‘o1o M 1005} °5 98 +-o1o - 3°00 ‘I 180 correct. 3°00 2 358 correct. 3°Or 3 539 —‘ool 3°00 4 718 —‘oor M 3'003| °5 894. correct, gioo 4 *Y 180 correct. 2°99 *2) 358 correct. 3°02 3 539 —"oor 3°00 “4 718 —‘ool M 3:003] °5 894. correct. s 3°02 $F 180 —"oor 2°98 2 358 correct. 3700 | °3 539 —*002 3°00 *4 71 8 —*ooz ~M 3:000] °5 894 —‘oor 5 3°00 I 180 —*"oor 3°00 a 358 correct. 300 | 3 oe Mies 3°00 "4 71 —'002 aM a “5 894 —‘oor ‘oo 8:01 Z 2560 —*002 8*00 a 7°99 4. 5050 +002 ’ 000 3°00 *! 180 —'oor 2°99 2, 358 correct. 3°00 €) 539 — "002 3°01 "4 718 —'002 “M 3.000] °5 $94. —‘oo1 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. Azimuth and an- gular elevation of objects above mouth of rain- gauge. FOP ae POe eee besersennas All objects under 20°, 299 Reference number. | This gauge was formerly used at Red Hall, near Leeds, and sub- sequently at the Knoll, Ripon. Its present position, near No. 44.6, was rather too sheltered. Similar to No. 446, but in a more) 448. open position, 447 HOO ee eee meme ee eaeneees ser eeenee eeenennarene Pee ene neeeee SOO e Renee metre eee eeeee eee Cree e reer eee ee Close to, and similar to No. 448 ;| 449. but read monthly instead o daily. ments, ae view of the same, and| 451: detaile This and No. 453 formed the pair of| 452, auges, the former with the orifice orizontal, and the latter with it ver- tical and rotated by a vane, for deter- mining the angle of rain falling at 10 feet above the surface. 453. The vertical-mouthed portion of} 454. the two-mouthed gauge at 5 feet. 455. 456. The vertical-mouthed portion of | 457. the two-mouthed gauge at 1 ft. 300 Reference number. ES nn co 459: 460. 462. 463. 464. .| Aug. 465. 466. 467. 468. Date of examination. Aug. 20. Aug. 24. 24. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. 28. Aug. Aug. Sept. 9. REPORT—1873. COUNTY Station. OWNER. Obsérver. SUSSEX. Brighton, Goldstone Bottom." BRIGHTON CORPORATION. Mr, Barker, SUSSEX. Brighton, Buckingham Place. F. E. SAWYER, ESQ. F. E. Sawyer, Esq. SUSSEX. Beachy Head. MISS W. L. HALL. Miss W. L. Hall. SUSSEX. Beachy Head. MISS W. L. HALL, Miss W. L. Hall. SUSSEX. Cemetery, Eastbourne. MISS W. L. HALL. SUSSEX. Pevensey Road, Hastbourne. MISS W. L. HALL, Miss W. L. Hall. SUSSEX. The Hollies, Hastings. A, H. WOOD, ESQ. A, H. Wood, Esq. SUSSEX. Wallsend Cottage, Pevensey. M. VIDLER, ESQ. M. Vidler, Esq. SUSSEX. Pevensey Vicarage. REV. H. BROWN, Rev. H. Brown. SUSSEX. Court Farm, Falmer. R. R. VERRALL, ESQ. R. R. Verrall, Esq. SUSSEX. Heron’s Ghyll, Buxted. C, PATMORE, ESQ. C. Patmore, Esq. EXAMINATION OF = a $, Height of ° 33 & S| Maker's name. n te : oo o XII. | Casella ...s00000...| 9 a.m, Til. eee ee eereee XII. | Casella . XII. | Casella ee eee ee rtawl te eeeeeee XII. | Casella ° XI. | Negretti &Zambra X. | Negretti &Zambra X. | Negretti & Zambra X. | Negretti &Zambra XII. | Anon... Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m. pre- ceding. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. RAIN-GAUGES (continued). Es > | Equivalents of | Error at 2 2 = 5 z water. ES'54 specified in As Il | Scale- | Ga: previous > | point rains. / column. in. in. in. 4°98 75 495 correct. 5°00 ‘ae 99° correct. 4°97 3 1490 —‘ool 5°02 *4 1970 —"‘002 M 4993} °5 2480 | —‘oo2z 49 ‘2 1000 —*002 70° 3 1490 —"ool 4°99 "4 2000 —"004 5°00 5 2510 ace M 4993 5700 ‘I 500 —‘oor 4°98 | +2 1000 —*002 4°98 23 1480 correct, 5700 4 1980 —‘ool M 4°990} +5 2470 correct, 4°99 =¥ 500 —"oo1 Sor Le 1000 —'002 5Or “4 1480 + oor 4°99 "4. 1980 +'oor M 5.000} +5 2470 +:002 5°00 I 495 correct. 5°00 2 995 —"oor 4°99 3 1500 == Se 5°o1 "4 1960 +'005 M 57000! *5 2480 correct. 5°00 I 500 —‘oo1 5°00 2 1000 —*oo2 5°00 aA 1480 +'002 Sor 4 1980 + oor M 57003] +5 2470 +002 8:00 Pe 1300 —"002 8-o1 2 2570 —"002 8:02 aa 3810 correct, 7°98 4 5100 —*002 M 8:003} °5 6320 —"co2 7°98 ap @ 1300 —"003 8:01 2 2550 —"002 8-02 | 3800 —‘ool 7°93 “4 5050 +001 M 7°985| -s5 6300 +002 Sor “e 1260 +oor 799 “2 2490 +7004. 7°99 3 3780 +002 8-00 “4 4990 +:007 M 7°997| *5 | 6250 | ++co7 ' §700 a 520 —*006 5700 | +2 1020 —*‘007 499 3 1530 —oll 4°93 ‘4 2050 ON M 4:980| °5 2550 —'o18 7°99 I 1250 +001 8-00 ra 2570 —"002 Sco | 33 3800 correct, 8-00 z- 5050 +002 M 7'998| *5 6300 | "004 scale-point | gular elevation of | a es ee 301 Azimuth and an- objects above mouth of rain- gauge. eee eee e errr e rere rr ery S. Trees 62°. W. House 52°. N. Wall 13°. E. Wall 33°. eee ee eee eseeeres sennee E.N.E. Beans50°. N.W. Elder 20°. S. Chapel 10°. S.W. Houses 36°. N. Houses 48°. S. Laurels 65°. E. Laurels 60°. W. Laurels 55°, S. House 45°. E. Trees 60°. W. Trees 50°. S. Houses 30°. E. Trees 55°. W. Trees 489. W.N.W. House 28° N. Wall 32°. E, Firs 30°. as o a © Remarks on position &e. 2 2 mel Be A In a very open position on the N. |458 corner of the reservoir-bank, entirely unsheltered. Position not good, but the best |459- available. In EH. at a distance of a few feet, the ground falls precipitously to the yard of the railway-station. At the time of visiting this and the |460. following gauge they were near together, and in the position described in No. 194. Subse- quently No. 461 has been re- moved further inland, in order |461. to obtain a less exposed position and freedom from the up- draught produced by the steep face of the cliff. Gauge fixed on a post, in order to |462. obtain better exposure. On pointing out the injurious effect of the beans they were removed. See No. 196. 463. On a dwarf post in a bed of laurels, 464. which had been cut away from time to time to secure sufficient exposure. On showing that this had not been obtained, observer agreed to remove the gauge to a thoroughly clear spot. See No. 193, It appears, from long- 465. continued observation, that the ex- tremely exposed position of thi gauge prevents its indications being’ correct. In the garden of the Vicarage, and |466. in the best position obtainable. This gauge being very much in error, the observer at once decided on hay- ing a new one. This was specially desirable, for two reasons :—(1) be- cause the locality is an important one; (2) because, in addition to the scale-error of the old gauge, the fun- nel did not rest firmly on the receiver. Gauge temporarily placed on a terrace- walk. ‘The above angles are for the position selected. « 467. 468, 3802 REPORT—1873. EXAMINATION OF a 5 5 °o g 4 2 & OWNER. & §,| Maker's name. | $ £ 2 Ee FA Observer. ge 5 3 1872. 469.| Sept. SUSSEX. X. | Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m. Crowborough, Beacon Observatory. pre- C. L. PRINCE, ESQ., F.R.AS. ceding. C. L. Prince, Esq., F.R.AS. 470.| Sept. 24. NORFOLK. XAT, | Casella ........000. g a.m. Bexwell Rectory. pre- REV. LE. J. HOWMAN. ceding. Rev, EL. J. Howman. 471.| Sept. 25. NORFOLK. TIT. | Casella .......+....] 9 a-m- West Dereham. pre- REV. E. J. HOWMAN. ceding. Mr. C. Blanchfield. 472.| Sept. 25. NORFOLK. X. | Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m. White House, Wereham. pre- F. R. H. MASON, ESQ. Ff. R. H. Mason, Esq. NORFOLK. ceding. Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m. White House, Wereham. re- F. Rk. H. MASON, ESQ. ceding. F. R. H. Mason, Esq. 474.| Sept. 25. NORFOLK. See | Spencer ...ssse0.+-| 9 @-Ms Fincham Rectory. ae pre- REV. W. BLYTHE. Report, ceding. Rev. W. Blythe. 1869, p. 390. 475.| Sept. 25. NORFOLK. IV LURE |s | Equivalents of Su = g water. erL A A = ae Grains. in. ok 1270 “2 2530 “3 375° “4 D025 5 6290 °E 498 ‘2 99° 3 1500 “4. 1980 5 247° ‘I 495 ‘2 999 *3 1470 4 1980 a 2479 ‘I 1280 2 2550 53 3820 Gr 509° "5 | 6370 "r 495 “2 980 ) =e 4 1979 ib) 7472 26 490 “53 99° *795| 1480 1'07 1990 05 810 “I 1630 3 2430 *Z 3200 °25 4.000 I 510 2 1040 3 4539 "4 2050 ‘5 2.530 “I 1250 2 2480 *3 3720 “4 5040 oe 6290 = 1250 = 2480 a3 3720 4 5040 5 6290 fi 700 my 1410 “3 2170 4 2880 Azimuth and an- gular elevation of objects above mouth of rain- gauge. Error at scale-point specified in previous column. in. —‘oor —"002 —"ool —'ool —‘oor —‘ool correct. —‘oor correct. correct. W. House 20°. N. Beech 40°. N.B. Church 25°. N.W. House 22°. N. Barn 18°, correct. +:ool +'004 + "ool +'003 —‘ool —‘ool —"ool —‘oor —*002 correct. +002 correct. S.W. Trees 35°, N.E, 30°, ” eee eter ear eeressrene N.W. Pear 60°. S.E. Acacia 52°. —"O4I correct. —'oo02 —"002 correct. correct. —*003 —*O10 —oll —'O14, —'olr + oor +004 +°006 +'002 +'003 + oor +002 +004 : —*'ool —‘OOoI +'004. +'006 + oor +003 N. Trees 33°. N.W. ,, 25° N. Trees 33°. NW. 25°, ” see eeneee Deeeeene aeeeees 8S. Birch 30°. E. o2°: We fs. ge PhP N. House 53°, ” Remarks on position &e. Very open position, on almost the highest ground in the county. On the east side of the rectory lawn, in a very good position. In small paddock; flat country, and quite open, In garden, near to, but not influ- enced by, house. ..| In same garden as No, 472, but much further from house, and quite open, A very shaky gauge, mounted on a stone pillar, but so loosely fixed that it could be blown from side to side. The gauge itself is also very incorrect, and the position bad. As observations have een made for many years and with regularity this is to be regretted. A yery good gauge in a good position, but most wofully out of order. It was in a wooden box with what had been a flat top, through which the funnel only rose half an inch; and eyen this was reduced by the warping of the split wood. It is impossible to form any opinion of the probable error due to this arrangement. | Reference number. | = a a 470. 471. 472. 473. 474. 475. 476. Nos. 476 and 477 were close together in a small garden much shutin by trees; the observer said that he had cut down several, and promised to make a fur- ther clearance. On the roof of thermometer-stand, about 15 ft. from No. 477, Un- sheltered, On roof of outhouse, in the best position on the premises, 477+ 478. 479- 3804 REPORT— 1873. Seventh Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of continuing Researches in Fossil Crustacea, consisting of Professor P. Martin Duncan (M.B. Lond.), F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., and Rosert Erneriper, F.R.S. Drawn up by Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S. Lasr year at the Brighton Meeting I was enabled to lay before the Association a very considerable list of accessions to Fossil Crustacea, and also a goodly account of work performed. A very fruitful season is not unfrequently succeeded by a smaller harvest. Such is the case with my Report this year; I am, however, able to show some favourable results, Part V. of my ‘Monograph on the Merostomata,’ containing the suborder XirnosvRa, will be ready for publication before the end of the present year. I have included in it the following genera and species, namely :— Bellinurus Konigianus, H. Woodw., 1872. Coal-measures, Dudley. bellulus, Konig. * Coalbrookdale. regine, Baily. ” Queen’s Co., Ireland. arcuatus, ” ” ” ” Prestwichia Birtwelli, sp.noy.,H. Woodw. Es Lancashire. —— anthrax, * 1866. ae Coalbrookdale. rotundata, 7 Ne = ss Neolimulus falcatus, e 3 Upper Silurian, Lanarkshire. T have also introduced into this Part of my Monograph those singular crus- tacean forms which occur in the Carboniferous Limestone, both at Cork in Treland, at Settle and Bolland in Yorkshire, and at Visé, Belgium, referred to the genus Cyclus, namely :— Cyclus bilobatus, H. Woodw. Carboniferous Limestone, Ireland. torosus, ” ” ” ” Wrightii, ” ” ” ” Har knessi, ” ” ” ” radialis, Phillips, sp. = * Yorkshire, &e. Jonesianus, H. Woodw. - =a Treland. Rankini, 4, Coal-shale, Carluke. —— (Halicyne)laxus,yon Meyer. Muschelkalk, Germany. ——(Halicyne)agnostus, ,, a pe These last are doubtless either larval forms of other Crustacea, or else they belong to a peculiar group whose appearance in time has been exceedingly limited. They remain for the present among the unsolved problems of palzeozoology. Whilst referring to the fossil Zimuli I would briefly allude to two valuable contributions to the anatomy of the living Limulus, or “ King crab,” of the north-east coast of North America:—one by my distinguished colleague and chief, Prof. Owen (see Linnean Transactions, 1873, vol. xxviii. pt. iii. p. 459, pls. xxxvi.—xxxix.); the other by Prof. Alphonse Milne-Edwards (in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie,’ 5th series, tome xvii. 1873, p. 25, pls. v.—xvi.). Limulus polyphemus, and the closely allied species common to the Moluccas and the coasts of China and Japan, are the sole existing types of this ancient race, whose longevity (as an order) in time is unsurpassed among the Crus- tacea, save by the Entomostraca alone, Neolimulus of the Upper Silurian of Lanark closely agreeing with the larval stages of the living Limulus, called by Dohrn the “ Trilobiten-Stadium.” a ee ON FOSSIL CRUSTACEA. 305 By the kindness of Professor Owen I am permitted to add three plates from his Memoir on the modern American King crab to illustrate my ‘ Monograph on Fossil Limuli” I have also introduced (from Dr. Packard’s and Dr. Dohrn’s works) figures of the larval stages of Limulus polyphemus; and from that of Barrande figures of the larval forms of certain Trilobites, the de- velopment of which he has traced often (as in the case of Sao hirsuta) through more than twenty stages. Having read carefully the arguments of Dr. Dohrn, and subsequently the views of Dr. Packard, the elaborate papers on the anatomy of Limulus by Alphonse Milne-Edwards and Prof. Owen, I find nothing in these several memoirs to lead me to distrust the conclusion at which I had arrived in 1866 (see Brit. Assoc. Reports, Nottingham, and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1867, vol. xxiii. p. 28) as to the correctness of associating the EurypreRrpa and XrpeHosura under the Order Mrrostromata, but much to confirm and strengthen that conclusion. Prof. Owen fully concurs in my general views of the Mrrosromarta, as an order, although he differs from me in some minor points in reference to the structure of Limulus. For example, he considers the anterior shield, as I do, to be the cephalon, merely proposing for it the term cephaletron* ; whilst for the posterior shield (which I demonstrated in 1866 to be the conjoined thorax and abdomen) he gives the name thoracetron ; and to the telson, or tail-spine, he applied Mr, Spence Bate’s name of “ pleon.” There can be no objection to the term “ cephaletron,” as proposed by Prof. Owen, for the head in Crustacea, in contradistinction to that highly special- ized division of the body, the “head” in the Vertebrata ; but I think I have shown good grounds (in the paper above referred to) for assuming that the “posterior shield is not merely the thorax (or “ thoracetron” of Owen), but the eombined thoracic and abdominal segments, as attested by the larval or em- bryonal stages of Limulus, and by the fossil forms of the Coal-measures and of the Silurian. T venture alsoto demur to Spence Bate’s term “ pleon” being restricted to the tail-spine in Limulus, because it is calculated, if so used, to cause considerable confusion. The term “leon,” as applied to the Crustacea by its author, includes the last seven segments of the body, of which the telson (if reckoned at all as being a segment) can only be assumed to be the ultimate joint of the series. The view propounded by Prof. Owen—that the great caudal spine in Limulus represents, either by itself or possibly with the hindmost segments of the “thoracetron ’’ (Owen), the “ pleon”’ of Spence Bate (or in other words the last seven (or abdominal) segments usually seen in other Crustacea)—is based on his examination of the innervation of the tail-spine. From its dissection he finds that the bifid continuation of the great neural axis is divided within the triangular tail-sheath into a double plexus of fine nerves resembling the cauda equina of anthropotomy. In this fasciculus of nerve-threads the author traces nine nerve-filaments, four ventral and four dorsal, the ninth being the continuation of the bifid neural axis. From this he concludes that the tail- spine may indicate as many as four coalesced segments, which with the three posterior coalesced apodal segments of the “ thoracetron” would account for the missing abdominal series, or the “‘ pleon” of Spence Bate. * From cegadh, the head, and yrpov, a part of the abdomen, in allusion to the fact that “a part of such cavity is associated with the ‘head’ in the first division of the King crab’s body, and with the ‘ thorax’ in the second division.” (Owen, op. cit. p. 463.) x 1873. 306 REPORT—1873. But, notwithstanding my profound respect and appreciation of Professor Owen’s comparative anatomical studies and his conclusions thereon, I find great difficulty in adopting this view, because it does not accord with those generally entertained regarding similar structures in other orders of Crus- tacea; neither will it harmonize with the earliest known forms of the X1- PHOSURA, nor with the larval development of recent Limulus as made known by the researches of Packard* and Dohrn*. Prof. Owen names the small modified bifid median appendage behind the mouth of Limulus the “ chilaria” +; this is doubtless the homologue of the great metastomial plate of Pterygotus§. Dr, Packard, when contrasting (in his work on Larval Limulus, op. cit.) the Merostomata with the Tritoprra, inadvertently calls the “ Metastome ”’ the “ Hypostome,” and contrasts it with the Hypostome in Trilobites, in which no lower lip exists. Referring to the habits of the Pterygoti, Prof. Owen considers they were those of burrowers like the imuli; but their bodies and broad swimming- feet seem preeminently fitted for natation. On the other hand, he thinks Limulus could not walk well, but only crawl and burrow. I have frequently seen them alive in the Aquaria at the Zoological Gardens ; and they walked with considerable ease and activity on the tips of their toes. They are, however, true burrowers by habit. Prof. Owen is willing to accept the theory of development of the Mzro- stomata from a typical and common life-form, but by “ Secondary causes or laws,” not by Natural selection (p. 501 op. cit.). Several additions have been made to the Carboniferous Phyllopods, the species of which I have described in conjunction with my friend Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun. (of the Geological Survey of Scotland); some notice of these will be found in the Transactions of the Sections (C.), in a separate paper. _ Of Cretaceous forms I have examined several new species, among which are three examples of the carapace of a small Gault Crustacean from Folkestone (near to Diaulax Carteri, from the Cambridge Greensand), which I have named D. feliceps, two small forms of Scyllaridia, the genus hitherto only known in the Eocene Tertiary :— Scyllaridia Gardneri, sp. nov. punctata, sp. nov. A small Crangon? of doubtful determination, with two delicately serrated lines on the anterior half of the carapace in front of the nuchal furrow, and the hinder part armed with very minute spines, the surface of the carapace being ornamented with very minute and scattered serrations ; the carapace, hands, and detached body-segments of which are all of a glistening black enamel. I have named this Mesocrangon atra ||. Fifteen years ago Mr. Charles Gould, F.G.S., described] a very imperfectly * «The Deyelopment of Limulus polyphemus,” by A. 8. Packard, Jun., M.D., Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1872, vol. xi. pp. 155-202, pls. iti.—y. t “Zur Embryologie und Morphologie des Limulus polyphemus,” von Dr. Anton Dohrn, Jenaische Zeitschrift, Band vi. Heft iv. p. 580, Taf. 14 und 15°(1871). t From yewdpuor, a small lip (Owen, op. cit. p. 464). § As pointed out by me: see Brit. Association Reports, Edinburgh, August 1871, Fifth Report on Fossil Crustacea, p. 53. || These specimens are from the collection of J. Starkie Gardner, Esq., F.G.S., who has kindly placed them at my disposal for examination with others. { Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1859, vol. xv. p. 237. See also Bell’s Mon. Pal. Soe, Crus- tacea of the Gault and Greensand, 1862, p. 1, pl. i. figs. 2 and 3. ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 307 preserved carapace of a small crustacean under the name of Mithracites vec- tensis, from the Greensand, Atherfield, Isle of Wight. I lately obtained six specimens from the same locality, which upon comparison I found to agree (so far as the figures and description enabled me to determine) with Gould’s Mithracites ; but when I compared the specimens with the recent Mithrawv, I failed to discover the analogy, although the specimens since obtained appear to offer a decided affinity with the genus Hyas. The discovery of these ad- ditional examples will necessitate the reconsideration and redescription of the genus Mithracites. Fortunately the abdomen and limbs of both male and female examples are preserved; and the margins of the carapace are also well seen. From the Greensand, Isle of Wight, I have also obtained a new species of Hemioon? (Bell), but larger than H. Cunningtoni. From the Hard Chalk, Dover, I have received anew form of Hnoploclytia, which I propose to call E. scabrosa. Only one new species of Trilobite has to be noticed; it was found at Utah, and sent over by Mr. Henry 8. Poole, Inspector of Mines, Nova Scotia. I have referred it to the genus Olenus, under the name of Olenus utahensis. It shows evidence of a median axis, apparently corresponding with the so- called straight alimentary canal, noticed by Barrande. The matrix is com- posed of a hydrated silicate of magnesia. This completes the list of new forms examined and determined by me, some of which are already engraved for publication. Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions. By W. H. L. Russert, F.R.S. Parr II. On the System of Hyperelliptic Differential Equations adopted by Jacobi, Gopel, and Rosenhain, Iy this part the solutions of the hyperelliptic differential equations of the first order, as given by Gépel and Rosenhain, will form the main sub- ject which I desire to bring before my readers. They will ever possess great interest, although surpassed in generality by the later researches of Weierstrass, and the geometrical methods of Riemann. The researches of Gépel and Rosenhain were nearly contemporary; as, however, those of Rosenhain are somewhat more elaborated than those of Gépel, I shall com- mence with an account of them, as contained in the ‘ Mémoires de |’Institut, par Divers Savants,’ tom. xi. p. 361. Rosenhain begins his investigations by giving formule for the multiplication of four functions @ appertaining to elliptic integrals, and uses these as a starting-point for the corresponding formule in hyperelliptic functions. He then expresses these new functions @ in terms of two new variables, and shows that from the equations thus ob- tained we can deduce the hyperelliptic differential equations. Section 1.—We commence with Rosenhain’s multiplication of four fune- tions @ in the case of elliptic integrals. His notation is as follows (it will be observed that he uses the same notation we have been already familiar with in Schellbach, except that his exponentials involve real quantities) :— x2 308 REPORT—1873. A(v, Qy= -3,(— 1)"q m? 2nv __ 1 —q(e” ae e*”) 4 ge” + m= Wes ae 2n+1 . 1 9,3 3 0,(%, 9) = =3,(— Lrg * tym g4(e’—e”)— gale” —e y+. . os aj PEEDE (2nt+)) 1 9 ; 25 0,(v, N= zd Fis v= qt(e?+ e—”) + g4(e2+4 e7”) + gale” + e—?) b siey -D ie,8) 0,(v, g)=2, qe" = 1 4 (e+ e-2*) + qtr tee) + -@ these functions are singly periodic, and their ratios doubly periodic. We have already seen that this periodicity has been fully discussed by Schellbach. Now let us assume four new variables connected with the original varia- bles by means of the equations ' w ve | | wm wae Qu, =v+u'+o"4u", or Qv =v,4+9, +9," +9,'"", ' — U ” mt if = ad Li [it we Qu! =v+0'—v"—0"", or Qv' =v,+9,'-9,"—-4,", 9 rt = = ' Spe = “al 1 eee 2 t Vijioe wt 2v," =u—v' +0" —v'"", or Qu" =v,—0'+9,"—9,", we ' ” ny mr ' wm me 20" =0—0'—0" 40", or 2Qy'"=v,—v,'-9,""+u ye whence vy? fo? py" =v? ty? 40/740", eo se P Hence 0,(v)0,(v')0,(v")0,(u'")=e loge q Dlogeg, where P=(v+n log.q)+(v' + log. gy’ +(v" +n" log. q+ (v'" +n" log. gy will remain unchanged, if v,, v',, »', v'’, be substituted for v, v', uv", v'", provided that 2n, =n4tn'4+n"4n'", or Qn =n, +n'+n,"+7,'", Qn, =n+n'—n"—n'"", or 2n' =n, 4+n,'—n,"—2,'" ee =n—n'+n"—n'"", or 2n" =n, —n'+n,"—n,"", = — pa war Pee — ary ” wm 2n"=n—n —n'+n'", or 2n'"=n,—n,'—n,"+n, Now n,n’, n", n'” are all whole numbers from +a to —w; but as these equations are written we should have 7’, n”,, n",, »'", including forms +r and +(r+ 3) when r is any integer. This inconvenience is removed by assuming that 2n, 2n’ . 2n", 2n'" must be subject to the same condition to which 2n,, 2m',, Qn! p 2n'", are subject, namely of being all at once odd, or all at once even. Boban shows (p. 373) that this necessitates the introduction of functions @,, and that we have 8,(¥)0,(0')0,(v")0,(0"") + 8,(v)8,(0')9,(0'")0,(0"") =0,(1,)0,(v',)8,(0",)8,(0"") + 84(%,)8,(0'; )0,(0")A,(0",)- +e 1) ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 309 In putting ! ; vt 5, v +e, v4, yt for v, v', v", u'"" we have ; 8(v)0(v')A(v")(v'"’)—0,(v)0,(0')0,(v") 0,0") =0(v,)0(v,')0(v,"")8(vy,"") — 0,(v,)0,(%,')0,(,")0,(4")3- «+ ) and if we substitute v'’+im in the place of v’” in these two equations, we shall have :— 8,()8,(v')0,(v"")8,(v""”)—8,(v)0,(0')8,(")8,(7"") =0(0,)8(0,')0(0,")0(01"") + 0,0 )0,(y 08,4"), +B) 0(v)O(v' )O(v"")O(v'") +.0,(v)9,(v')0,(0"")8,(0""’) = 0,(0,)0,(0y')84(Y4"")8,(4'") — aC )O4(%y'YO(%1")0,001'")» » + (4) Section 2.—Putting, then, for a moment 6=8,(0)0,(0')0,(0")0,(0"”), 6, = 8,(0,)9,(0",),(0",)0,(0"s)s we have, adding (1) and (3), secondly subtracting (3) from (1), thirdly adding (2) and (4), fourthly subtracting (2) from (4), 299)=9,+9+0,+0,%, 299 =9, 40, —0,-0,0 b] 29 = 0° —6; @) a3 6,—6,", 29) =9,°— 0, — 0,+ 9, ; from which 9 +002 4 6224 9023924 6,02492246,02, or {0,v0,v'0,0" 0,0" iz ite {0,v0,v'8,v"0,0""}? -F {0,00,0'0,v"0,0'"}* a {0v6v'6u"'6u"" igi remains unchanged when »,, v',, v",, v'’, are put for v, v', uv", uv". This and four other formule of a similar nature, obtained by augmenting the arguments by semiperiods &c., are given by Rosenhain, and constitute the starting-point from which he deduces the properties of the hyperelliptic functions, as we shall soon see. See also a memoir by Professor Smith on this subject in the ‘Transactions’ of the London Mathematical Society. Section 3.—Conceive now a function thus defined : (e,8) ps, ROP w) = soe F 2mA, q); ee) =, gq e2"0,(u + QnA . P)s -0 zs 3 Sz. @™ log. p+n log, gr4mnd+2mv+2nw -00-00 This series is a function, doubly periodic (see Rosenhain, p. 389), of v and w in the pairs of conjugate indices tx and 0 and 0 and ix; for we have 310 REPORT—1873. $3, (vtair, W)=$s, ROP Ww), 5, glu» w+dir)=¢,, ACE w), a being a whole number. We see at once that (3 and y being any whole numbers) $s, AUt Blog. pt2yA, w+2BA+y log. g}=e™Md,, (vs w)> where we have for M M=f' log. p+y’* log. ¢+4ByA+2Bu+2yw,*. Now, then, consider the quantity v log g+w* log p—4Avw e log. plog.q—4A? s, (YW) and substitute in this formula v+( log. p+2yA for v, and w+ y log. ¢g+26A for w, and the formula becomes v log g+w* log p—4Avw a 2 2 eg Ae plea 24 $s, (Y+B log, p+2yA, w+ y log. g+2BA), v log p+w? log, p—4Avw or e . log.plog.g—4A* gy. (uv, w), and therefore remains unchanged. We shall soon meet with a series of functions similar to ¢, ,(v, w) and doubly periodic; this theorem will enable us to show that the ratios of these functions are also doubly periodic with different periods (p. 411). ; Tet vlog. q—2Aw w log. p—2Av e — f a ae log. p log. g—4A°* log. p log. q—4A” then 2 log p log. q—4A? : : log plog_ g—4A? pe SSS CSS n l°S.P log. p Ps, (UW) =, € log_p F -2# (v4 2nA)? € log. Pp Cu oans py. se es ee (1) w? log. plog.q—4A° log. p log. y—4.A? log g log ¢ : log p lg Cae £ $s, ACE w) = Zin € 2 -0 (w+-2mA)P ETA POA, Do «1. delta. | SY * To prove this, write down the fully expanded form of eM, (U+f log, p+2yA, w+2BA+y log.g). ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 311 From the formula 2 Out Kk) Wk gee OCU+K',K’) 0(0, 4) wee POG). 2 given by Jacobi in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ p. 165, Rosenhain deduces the following (p. 395) :— y 1 T ft ' € Fe? 6,(u, p)= Tog. p's »P')s where K' ; He... 3; v log. p= a= log. p =-— v Bag He then enunciates the following theorem :— aoe lor » T “7 ' ' ' ' 8, Po, (Us W, p, 9, A)= Pa se log. p pe (wv, w', p', gq’, A’) where log. p log .qg—4A? log. p’ log. q’—4A” log. p log, p' =n? = log. q ; log. q’ ; eas log. p log. q—4A° i log. p' log. q'—4A”* = 53 ’ o — 7 b 08. q log. p 0g. q log. p inA ‘ 7A! Al= log p’ ksige log. p” ; 7U , wilog p—2Av = wo SS —_ w)= log plog g—4+A? ete eens! Shel CW ny pa Ae ee 3 log_p ; — —— 0,(w' + 2nd’, p’) in€ log_ p (by the formula just derived from the ‘ Fundamenta Nova’), 312 REPORT—1875. Consequently az 1 € SP g. s(Ys W, P, J, A) log_p log. g—4A? ——_.—_—_—§ (2nW 2 Se log _p ( mW +2 Z / a T Spin ezm(iv' +20 A") ie.) log. pa But w log. p—2Av w' log. ~ log.plog.g—4A° log. p log. q—4 A?" Hence ye el P $s, (UW, P, A) Tv ZL Qnw' +n? log g’ S m* log p’ 2miv’+4nmA’ = € f me ee = =1°.6) log p_« 2: / fg we 336” log. gq -4nmA!+-m* log p'+2miv’+2nw’ log. Pp Tv Rosenhain gives two other theorems of a precisely analogous nature (p. 397) for transforming uy e819, 3 (YW, Ps A) into $3, y (Y%, W,, Pp ts A,), and also v" log_g-+-w? log. p—4Aow e log. plog g—4A? $s, 9 (YM p,q, A) into ¢, , (iv',, w',, p', 7, A), where the new variables and constants emanate from the former according” to a certain law. Section 4.—Rosenhain next enters upon investigations relative to the multiplication of functions 6, commencing with elliptic functions, and thence advancing to hyperelliptic functions. He proves without difficulty that, by directly multiplying the functions 6, together, n n—1 11,0,(w+ a, 9)=3,P,€°0,(nw+stalog.g,q"), . ..... (1) 1 U) —l] 2kair » . ae nP <7), (nw+s+a log.g, q")=3,e ” 11,0,(wta,+ as q),- +» (2) 0 1 and P, is a certain constant,—where, as is obvious, the product IT extends ' to the quantities a, @,....a,,8=a,+a,+a,4+....+4,, anda is an integer less than (7). ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 313 To reduce this he makes use of the following theorem :— n=l _2akin ki ng” 9, (nw+an log. 4, q” )= ye n 0, (w+ =, i) fal ees GC) 0 As Rosenhain has not demonstrated this formula, I give the proof here. Let kin 2kir we 2(n—Dkiw o(= =) = X()+x(1)e™ +x(Z)e™ +....4+x(n—le *. rm : : F ‘ In et where (s) is a prime number, all the remainders are different as m increases from 0 tos—1. Hence we easily see, forming n linear equa- tions, by putting k=0,1....n—1, _ 2rkin meters) a(w+™™ bet 1) = =3 9 am _2m(w+ = -0 But (ne 2arin se" 0 or nil = 3,3, dite 2mw 0 Pn— Oia ee co aS ginter tnton, ery cee tg 1 This expression vanishes except when m=nuy, p being an integer, or n—1 _2arin =o (0422, )=nq"e nas = = 0 pen? 2npw+ 2npa log. q 0” =ng® 249 (na log. q+nw, q”), the formula required. This formula may be written a n—l — 2arin , 1 ngne™,(nw+alog.q,q")=3,e 0, \ w+, q \ : 0 so that equation (1) becomes n n—1 rine 1 n11,9,(w +a), 7)==,Q,6, (u+3 A te a). 1° 0 Rosenhain then shows how, by giving w the x values hog. q% 1 2 w,20-+ — log. 9, w+ — log. q,... w+" we may obtain equations to determine the constants Q, in terms of functions @ with constant arguments, 314 REPORT—1873. Section 5.—These principles are then applied to the multiplication of hyperelliptic functions. The following theorem is given without demonstra- tion, ¢,, ,(v, w) being the same as before : Ils, ; (u+%, w+b,,p, q A)= 1 n—ln—l where A, . is a constant analogous to Q, in the last section. To prove this formula we proceed as follows: the notation and assump- tions will be understood by referring to Rosenhain, p. 400. To prevent con- fusion, we write p for Rosenhain’s n. Tos, (Ua, W+b,)=zz 1 (Mr tm? +m? See +m,*) log. pH(nrtnet...... ny") log. qd. ea (MFM, AMF oeeeee Mp V+ 2(2, +2, +23 +...+-- Ny )W EAMG tay t Seer ee MpAp) +2(n,b, +2, +....-- +2pbp) Let : M,=-,+%, and also foamy tae) Uae ocr +H,=P, so that m,+m+.... +m, =B+pe, m=r,+y, and also »,+¥,+.... +” =y, so that [re Onset oe +n =y+ny- Then mi+tme+.... + m, = Spy, +2Pa+ px”, nrtn+.... n= ay, +2yy+py’, mn, +m, + ....-+-m,n =Ty,y, + Py+yxe+pry. Hence, collecting these results, and resuming the (n) I ps, ACE w+b,) 1 = BZA, gees et nlog p +4Anry+y’ .n log 4 e2x(B log p+2yA+ Za, +nv).2y(2BA+B log. g-+ Bb, +nw) =A, ‘Caaaaset be $5, (nv +B log, p+ 2yA + Sa, nw +2BA +f log, q+ Bb, p”, q" An), where A, , is a constant to be determined (see p. 404). 3, Ag, ye Bet21M9,, , (nv t+ 3a, +f log. p+2yA, nw+3b,+ 2BA+y log. q, p”, g"An) 0 0 : ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 315 Now from the definition of ¢, , (v, w) it is easy to see that n—1n—1_kB+ly ki is > se n a Ce aR w+ =, P» w) 0 0 ‘ n n Has SS et loa ptaay. A ty? log, ¢+ 20v-+ yu MEBs Baie -O -0 —ll—-1@ © = * >, >, 2, e(@ +8) log p+4(7+B)(y+y).A+(v+y)? log. qg 0 0-00 -% 2kain Qlyir r+B+2y+7)Y en en =(using the reasoning of section 4, and so putting nw for w, ny for y) Sn? pO PBF 2A) g7 -2y(w+2BA) S f —-0O -2 ei log p+4nrayA+niy? log. g+2nx(B log p-+-2yA+v)-+2ny(y log g+28A+w) mip BO yA) gr 2re+ i) ds, 5 (n(Ut Plog. p+2yA), n(w+y log. g+2/3A), p™, q””, An), whence m—1n—1 _kBtly,, Ia i. Aen, ag aa SE wa arian.) 2Bv+2 =Be TPT 4, (e+ Blog.p+2yA, nw+ylogq-+23A, p”, 9”, An), . (2) which agrees with Rosenhain, p. 404. Hence, combining (1) and (2) together, we obtain z Ilhos, 5(¥+a,, w+ bas P,q A) 1 oer nee aes ng eae OR aa a 3B, ts, (vest + Newel “ae p ) (Rosenhain, p. 405). In this way formule are found for the multiplication of hyperelliptic functions. Two others of a similar nature are given by Rosenhain, toge- ther with the expression just written down; and they are presented in a somewhat modified form on page 406. The quantities B, ; are expressed by means of functions ¢, , with constant arguments, by a method analogous to that by which the constants Q, were determined previously. Section 6.—Having thus discussed some of the properties of ¢, , (v, w), Rosenhain proceeds to develop a number of similar functions defined as follows, p. 499 :— m? 2mv ie.) %,, Yr (2, w)=,,p € 6,.(w+2mA, q)s -2 316 REPORT—1875. (oe) >,,, 3 (vy, w=, qr o,(u+2nA, P)s -*O ; = m,m?_2mv 0, p (Us W)= Zin — 1) p™ "8, (w+ 2mA, q); —0O S n? 2Inw dy, 9 (Ys W)=Zn(— 1g" 8 (v-+ QnA, p), -00 Be pt $, ,% w=s,p 2 emt 6(w-+(2m-+1)A, 9), -@ ‘ (2n-+1)? Or w=3,q "ta (vt QntI)A, p), -*O (2m+1)? pd go git lv $1, (%, W)=2(—1)™p 0.(w+(2m-+1)A, 9), (2n+1)? (n+l bn, (% w= Trg FTO, (2n-+1)A, p), where 7 denotes one of the indices 0, 1, 2, 3. It is manifest from this that there are sixteen of these functions, which may all be expressed under the form m log p+n* log g+4mnA+2ma 2nb $y, o(Us W; Ps 4 A)=23e SP 8.4 ats r, stan nr, gp, o where @,, 45 5, 4 Cp, . are linear functions of » and w. The periodicity of these functions is given by Rosenhain, pages 409, 410; and he then proceeds to develop the following theorem :—If Qu, =ut+e'+ou" +0", 2w, =wt+w't+w"4+w"", Qu) =v+u'—v"—0"" 2w, =w+w'—w"—w"", Qu," =v—v' +0" —0"," 2w," =w—w'+w"—w"", Qu" =u—v'—v" 40", 2w,"=w—w'—w"+w"", also if M =¢, , (% ”) $5, (v's W') o,, 5 (¥", w") o,, , (v'", w” +5, 2 (% Ww) 5, . (sw) b,, 2 (V's w") o, , (V'", w'"), M’ =¢, , (% “) go, s (> w’) o., 5 (Ys W") os, g (Uw) +o,, 2 (% W) $,, 2. (v', w') g, . (v, w") @ , (V'", wu”), M" =$,, 5 (% U) 9, ss &') Hy, 6 @'s w") Hy, 5 0" W") + $1, 2 (YY) Gy, 2's W) gy, 20", W") Gy, 2 (Ws w'"), M"= Ge, (25) go, » W's’) Go, 5 (W's 0") gy, (0, w") +o, 2s W) oo, 2 (v's w') oo, , (Us w") o, 2 (U'", w'"), es ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 317 and also if M,, M,’, M,", M,'" are what M, M’, M”, M’”’ become when », v' and w, w’ are substituted for v, v' and w, w’, then Re SLM MEY) Sym lut), es ) soul ET gis 0 I le dark cl 6) ea Meer PO he eh Re aM MM ee eta. wena It is a good way to prove form (1) by writing down the fully expanded forms of ¢, ,, ¢,,, and then applying the principles of Section 1. Then Rosenhain has shown how to deduce (2), (3), (4) by merely changing the periods. Section 7.—By increasing the arguments by semiperiods Rosenhain has deduced an immense number of formule, which he has placed in a table at the end of his memoir. We shall endeavour, first, to explain how this table is formed, and, secondly, how to use it. We remark especially that if in : : v, v', v', v' are each augmented by > then v, is augmented by iz, and v,', v,", v,/"" remain unchanged; but, on the other hand, if v, w', v" are at augmented by _ and v'” diminished by 3 then v,, v,', v,' are also in- ereased each by = and v,'” diminished by — Again, if while v, v' re- mr , ess 20s tr main the same v” is increased and v’” diminished by >? then v,, v,' also Ul |. So that the four equations of section 6 remain true when the variables are thus changed and the functions M transformed. Now, then, we will consider the Table. Formula la consists of the values of M, M’, M’, M’”’ written down as given in section 6. Formula 1d is obtained by augmenting w, w’, w" by ix 7 2 diminishing v'” by 5 in la, formula 2d from 1d by augmenting v” by = remain the same, and v," is increased, v,'" diminished by and diminishing w'”’ by > formula 2a from la by augmenting v” by Me me we (Tr and diminishing v'”’ by 3" We need make no special remarks respecting 3a, 3d, 4a, 4d, which are proved in a similar manner. But when we come to 5a we meet with a change. The formule of page 410 (numbered 80), are then called in, and the arguments augmented by the quantities which render the ratios of the functions ¢ doubly periodic, and which we have discussed at full in the third section in reference to @, , (v, w). We thus obtain 5a, and from this, by changing the arguments as before by adding and subtracting >. we arrive at 5d, 6a, 6d. Now consider 6¢ particularly. It gives us M—M’=M,” +M,’", as | REPORT—1873. . where M =@,,, (Ys W) bs, 9 (U's W) bp, (U's WM") bo, 9 Us Ww” ~ 4s, (5%) Ga, (5 ") Ga, (O's 10") x (0s 1"), M’ = $5, 9 (% W) ha, 0 (Y's M') Gr, 9 (Ys MW) Gy, 9 (YW — ts, 1s 0) $a, 1 (0's 0) Gs, Os 0") a (0 20) M,” =6,, o > Hy) Bo, 0 (r's Mr) Ga, 0 Uns Mr") be, 9 Ops Wy”) — 5, 1 (My My) Bo, 1 y's My’) Po, 1 (ys Wr") 1 (4 WY") a (Bars Uy) Ona (Py, 2s Wes, ee w,'") Won ick — 5, (> Wy) Oy, y's MY’) be, 1 ys My") bs, 1 Ys HY") then feat cree bi v'=—0"", w= —w""", 2, =, s, :=9, Po, ,=9, 1, o=9, and the equation becomes, suppressing the accents, os, 0 $o, U0) (v, w)+¢’,, 0 1, 0 (v, w)=¢",, 0 $s, 0 (v, W)+¢", 1 o's, 1 (v, w)*, whence 1= Pp os, 0 1, 0 (v, w) #0, ) '», i) (v, w) ? 1 $s, 1 (v, w) é Po, 0% 0, 00%) Px, 04%, 01%) $n, o Po, 0% M)’ and similarly from 8d and 12d, —— o's, 3 1, (UY, W) as ?°, 3 , 0 Q, w) aie om lb ¢ 3, 2 (Y, a. >, 3 %', o(% wv) $°o5 o's, os) $s, 5 bo, o (Ys wy 1=— ’s, 2 ? 0 (v, w) + ?'o, 2 $'» ACE w) 5 ~ ot! Ag EE So os re o 35 3 (v, w) bs Gn, 2 Fo, 00%) $2, 29, 0(%U) Fa, 2%, 0%) | In like manner we obtain from the Table, by causing the argument to vanish, ¢'s, ao, c= oo, june 5 2=o'o, ato", 3? | ¢'s, 3 sale 1=$'s, ote a. 2= Fo, aio 3? o's, ee a= %'s, ot ?s, =f, shee ? } 2 hae EE.) 2 2 2 P 5,09 3,3? 2, 0 2,3tP 0, 0% 0, a | $s, 0 d's, 2= os, 0 Orn. Seapine 0 o, 2 #5, 29's, s=P 2,292, ath, 2%, 9 / with twelve similar equations, which will be found on p. 417. (B) (C) * Because ¢,, ,(v,w)=—d¢,, ,(—v, —w), which may be proved thus. It is seen at once ca) co corte that 3,6(n)=Enp(—n). Hence g, (0, 2) = Enp"*e-2""8,(w—2mA, 9), -2 -2 2 9) or 5, 4(—% —W)=Empme2rO, (—w—QMA, 7) = — Hs, 1(¥ W). —00 ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 319 Section 8.—Rosenhain points out that by means of the Table he is able to obtain thirteen out of the fifteen ratios 2%? in terms of any two of them. 2 O90 2 He selects for that purpose the ratios #0 (¥, w) and #2, o(% ™) ; he then P 0, 9 (UW) Po, 0 (YW) introduces the new variables wv, and w,, and assumes 1, 0 (% &) ¢ o, 0 (vy, w) =—k)p.x,a,, o's, ol, w) ne LNT $°, oY w) = brn —#,)1 —H,), where 2 2 2 2 2 2 pia? wa? as NP 0 Pa a 2 %x0% 23 2 aie i, 2 Ope te) a Ie sy $3,2%s,3 Ps,0% a, 2 3,0? s,3 2 2 2 2 2 2 jz —Po2P os 2 Pwo Poe 2 Pio. 01 P.05-8. « Bast dy, CuiPuage | Sex whence it follows from equations (C) that +h =1, V+ =1, p+, =1, and from equations (A), that $3.1 (YW) _ Ap fs ; $'o, o (Y w) or mn —k a J —k*x,), o's 2 (y, w) pk . SF 1—r* T= ; P 0,0 (v, w) Rie v,)( x.) Or 3 (v, w) kr . q 2 = 1 —_— Ae 1 a 2a is #0, 0 (Ys w) Pre, let ae where 1 ke? 2 rN, pyr -= Bs Po, =) - we. Rosenhain also (p. 423) shows how the remaining ratios are to be found. I shall write down three of them, denoting a(1—«#)(1—k’x)(1—d’a)(1— px) by R(x). Go 1()_—_ Aw(L— Aw (1 =D, )( = pe, AL — pe.) $, ° (v, w) e AMA gbz(®,— 2%)? * vRu, : { Wowaydaray tava ee |? Gs, 2(w) _ AL, )(1—e, (LN, Lda) Po, 0 (% W) Bye pyky(@,— 2&1)” {| d=a)Gane) + Gade) } 320 °, 2 (¥, w) w) # 0, 9 (YW) w) REPORT—1873. _ Av, —N wx, )(1?—)*x,) Ayo Ay(@,—#,)" (aaa VR, u v(1—de,) ~ «,1—d’*x,) Now if we introduce two new variables, (w) and (w’), and assume them to satisfy the following two equations, ose 1—\ew, 1 de 2x dx 2 V Re, oar VW Re, a9 1—prw. 1—prw du'= 1d ——* (lx, ca amet a ig ema we shall obtain, of course, dz, * (11> pox, )\/ Re, Cn = Nw, )4/Re, du py, ae D du pee, —«#,) 3 — (=p V/ Re, de, (1—Nx,)V Ra, ae pe (@,—2,) dul pey(ta—2,)” when we remember that (1 —’2,)(1 - pet, )— (1 —Nx,)A — pe, ) = (Y= p*)(@,—@,)=p?,(@,— ,). From these equations we are able to obtain dVee, INee, INA—#2,)1—a,) IV (1—#«)O—a,) du au” du : du’ in terms of «,,; also the ratios * ae > fue a =) give us relations, from which we ¢', 0 are able to deduce the following expressions :— NV ieXu d V we, vv, Mie $s, 3 (v, w) $2, 3 (v, w) is du 2 hy Po, 0 (v, w) ; Po, 0 (v, w)’ vam _ cae ds, » (UV, W) Ga, (YW) a Py Po, 0 (v; w) o, 0 (%; w) M ke dV =a =a) He, a2 OW) $s, 0 (6) MINH, du at Go, 0 Us) $, 9 (YW) Vv kip dV (=a d=2,) _ Ne, 2 (YW) d1, 2% ¥) Vie du! 21 Po, 0 (v, w) Po, 0 (v, w) Section 9.—Rosenhain deduces from the Table the following equation :— 2b, o 3, 0 1, 0 (v+v', w+w') Ooo (v —v', w—w') — $9 (Utu's w+w') >, —v',w—w')} =P, 3 (v, w) $s, 3 (v, w) Po, 3 (v', w') $,, 0 (v', w') — ba, 2 (Ys W) bs, o (UY WM) Hy, o (Y's W") bo, » (Ys W)- ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 821 pee dice this in terms of v', and equating the coefficients of v', we have at once d. Pr, 0 (U> (v, w) bo, 0 5, 0 0, 0 (v, w)—— elton ae is w) — 5, 2 P12 Ps, 2 (Us W) do, 2 (YW); =, 3? '1°3(0, 0) Ps, 3 (v, w) 2,3 (v, w) and similarly, d. Py, ¢ oO (vy, w) w) os 0 _ (v, w) Po, 0 $s, 0 ¢ 0,0 (v, w) = =1¢)! 3 9'1"3 5, 3 (v, w) $2, 3 (v, w) — Po, 2 2 2 293, 0 2 (v, w) Po, a (v, w); d. s, 0 (UY, w w) —tus : Ca oe 3, w) d,, 2(% w) > ie) ,0 Po, oP 0, 0% w) iaPal 2 gy"? Ps, 2 (v, w) d,, 2 (v, w), d a Ps, 0 (Ys W) Wo, 0 (v, w) p>, 0 $o, 0 ¢'o, 0 (v, w) Saris, iiiies =a Pes o'"3 Ps, (v, w) Pi, 5 (v, w) — $5, 2 ae Ps, 2 (v, w) 1, 2 (v, w); and substituting in these equations the expressions we have obtained in the last section, we have equations of the form dV x2, dv xx, py mits dv c= A du + du” dV 2,2, By dV 2.x, AV xx, dur =A du +8 du where A, B, A’, B’ are certain constants; and we have two similar expres- sions for ' dV(1—2,)—#,) dV¥O—2#,)1—2,) du du whence we have du=adu+bdw, du'=a'dv+b'du, by properly choosing a and a’, b and 0’; and therefore, finally, adv + bdw Fe + “ie, Vis Hence our formule give us the solution of the hyperelliptic differential equations. 1873. Y *dx,. i adv+b'dw= ken gig 322 REPORT—1873. Rosenhain, in the last ate of his memoir, proves the remarkable equation ada wo Y Re VES -f* os isos ae 1 x xde me i dx 3 ada are Re wv mt Vv Re Re WV Rex a =%, ale a formula much used by later writers. Section 10.—We now proceed to consider the method of treating the hy- perelliptic functions proposed by Gopel. His justly celebrated paper in the 35th volume of Crelle’s Journal presents very few difficulties, which will make our analysis of it shorter and easier. He commences with the sixteen series of which the analogues have been used by Rosenhain, and writes them thus :— a lad / 9 2 = ' ' 9 al 2, ‘\2 oY +r, (atu) seater aK +2bL)?+r'(u'+2cK'+20L’) ; Rite nla (uw) = x(—1)° (the same expression), pee pit (u,u')= 2(—1)- (the same expression), ae aaa P''(u,w')=.1. (the same expression), oe (u, w)=3(— Daisey = ca a rue ry! € Q’ (u, w')=>( aay (the same expression), rune | € 7Q" (u, w)=3(—1)* (the same expression), rur aw! “ Bias Q'"(u, u')=3.1. (the same expression), rato rete! py th ret 2a + RSE DL) +4 (w'4 2aK' + (26-41)L! ’ € rue + ry! € ik’ (u, u')=X(— 1) (the same expression), a € BR (wy v= (1) (the same expression), rue tr'u' € R'(u, w')==.1. (the same expression), S (u, u’)= x(— ite (w+ (24+ 1)K+ (264 1)L)?+7'(w' + (2a-+1)K'+(264+1)L ru? +'ry!? € puree ; € w (u, w)=2(— 1) (the same expression), ru? tau’? € iS” (u, u')=3(—1)“ (the same expression), Purr : 4 € S'"(u, w)==Z.1. (the same expression). where = applies to (a) and (6) and extends from —a« to +a. ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 323 It is easily seen that if we change u, uw’ into u+4K, u'+4K’, or into u+4L, u’+4L’, all these series remain unchanged. Hence they are doubly periodic. Moreover their ratics are quadruply periodic ; for after removing the common factor ¢ +", all the exponents of e in numerator and deno- minator are linear in w'u’. Hence it is easy to prove that if u, uw’ are changed into u+-4A, «+4A’ when rLit ah ala ek sans ON oe A ee E(KL—K'Ly’ 4y'(KL! —K'L) Z or if w’, vw are changed into u+4B, u’+4B’ when we have aki ' Ke = len Os | =e ale B= KL —KD) 4(KL—K'L) the ratios of these functions remain unchanged, If we suppose u, w’ to be augmented by the semiperiods, the quantities P, Q, &c. sometimes remain unchanged, sometimes change their sign. The resulting values are expressed by Gépel in a Table, where the first line gives us the increments of the argument, the remaining lines the resulting signs, thus :— 2A, SB. OA98. OK, 21, 2K +90, Bon: + + = < os a: 3 +t f = 7% and so on for the remaining fourteen series (Gopel, p. 282). When we suppose w'u’ to be augmented by the quarterperiods, P, Q, &e. are changed into other functions of the series, as is expressed in a Table, where the first line, as before, gives us the increments of the arguments, the remaining lines the quantities into which P, Q, &c. are changed, thus :— A B A iy AE Tit SoC, P fp’ Pp” pir 7Q aR S ae iges be Q'" gp fecig ens and so on for the remaining fourteen series (Gépel, p. 283). Gépel next gives a Table of the values of u, uv’, which cause P, Q, &e. fo vanish ; thus Q vanishes for 0, B, A+L,K+L, B+ L,A+K+4L; P for K, L, A+L, B+K,A+K+L,B+K-+L,; all the functions multiplied by (¢) vanish foru=0, w=0. I may remark that the vanishing of functions @ has been treated in detail by Riemann, in the 65th volume of Crelle’s Journal. We shall refer to the three Tables described in this section as Gépel’s first, second, and third Tables. Section 11.—Gépel next investigates the algebraical relations between the functions P,Q, &c.... In doing so he makes use of the following notation. If in the functions P’’, Q’’, R'", 8'", 27, 2r’ are written instead of r, x’, the four results are denoted by T, U, V, W. When in these functions wu and w’ vanish, the results are denoted by ¢, u, v, w; consequently wu is used in two different senses in this paper. I shall endeavour to guard against any con- fusion arising from this. When wu, w' are put equal to zero in the functions P, Q, BR, S, P’, PB”, &c., the results are denoted by a, k, p,¢, a, a", Ke. Then by direct multiplication the following formule are arrived at without difficulty :— P?=/T—uU —vV+ ww, 324 REPORT—1873. and fifteen more precisely similar formule for Pens, eo. 28ipeees ee ie eee ee ee Putting the arguments w and u’=0, we have :— o=t—u —v —w’, and similarly for a’, a, ao”; \ | k? =2tu—2vw, and similarly for p', o? ; | . | a eee k'""" = 2tw+4 Quw, and similarly for p'"?, «'’”?; ' k, Teves P> p's o', o” vanish, p| ‘From these we easily deduce the following :— ee =p" +04 =p'44+o", = a a ll =o""44hk't=o! a ee | 29112 12 12 2 12 OTe 127.12 122 > . $ mn > (3) wa” —@ a” =o", ok''"—a@ kh? =p Oo, | P ' mp — a" po 2=K'"G", ra iM R= hg, j with many similar formule (p. 288). From formule (1) we easily see that we have an expression of the form P?=¢P?+ BS°+yP'?+ 58’; by putting the arguments uw, w’ equal to zero and the quarterperiods, we determine a, 3, y, 6, and we find (a —a'")PP= — 079"? P? + oR MS? 4+ ie'2}e""'2p"'2 —K'*9"8'?, with similar formule for 8”, P’’’, &c., also in terms of Pe ee Oe kt ee cee le eae Godpel next investigates the relations which exist between the products PS, P'S’. By means of Table 1 he proves very easily that such relation must be of the form aPS+ bP'S'+cP"S"+ dP'"S'" + eQR+/Q'R'+9Q"R"+2Q”"R" =0; and then, by the help of the second Table, he proves that this equation gives rise to the two following :— aPS +dP'"S'"+ eQR +hQ'"R'"=0, bP'S'+eP"S" +fQ'R'+9Q’"R" =0, By putting the arguments w, wu’ =0, and also, making use of equations (3) of this section, we obtain the following two equations derived from the second of those we have just written down :— R'"9'"'Q'R’ = aa "P'S! en aok''S", k'"9'"Q'R' = —acP'S' ta'"o'"P"'S". Squaring the first of these equations and making use of equations (4), . ee ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 325 k'''* ts 4 ta ps abe g/4 Tae peg? _ — (Pan op $9") Ks ‘ts OQ ” 17 tae We u tii + eT E52 BEas Sprain pg”? Qeon''o'"(a"! a aw ‘oem ep N4)2 8 p's 8 gi'4 iz PRES =0.. . « gi bid) In a similar manner the following equations are obtained :— 44 jis m4 : Res Wt } =p) a 8) 6s = pra BS" + 843,06 (B) (P's + PS)? _(a"6"+a0) y ap) igPprr2 4r2q/2 ne iy 12q12 1720112 aight (P7B" + 8°8") — Sahn (P'S? + P98”) woe a" (k'*+p'4) oy 4 oa!” mprrarcar 1 aF 2( wash" ma aye PP'Ss", 6. (C) Le) Iti Tie 2 e's” - PS)? = ep os (EAR? + 87847) ke ee nan prelp wom oa (htt a wa ao” mpraran == yt (P ag + pe a) + 2( aah a oar )ep S's”. (D) Section 12.—Equation (A) gives a relation between P’, S', P”, 8’. Gépel proves that no other relation can exist, of a purely algebraical nature, between these quantities (p. 292). He consequently investigates the rela- tions which exist between the differentials of those functions in the following: way :— Putting M XU +24 K+20,L) et 1 ? M aPC K+(20+1)L)... we have MM =_77{(m +3)K+(0,+2)LV+ oo 2r{ut(g +H) K+ (04 a) D+ ve where a+a,=n, b+6,=8, a—d,=n, 6—b,=6; this is easily seen if we remember that (a, —a,)°+(a—a,)+ 34+ (a+a,)?+(a+a,) +=20?+ 20,24 20-42, and also that 2(a— a, + 3)(O—b, +4) +2044, 4$)(5 46, + 5) =4a,), +4ab+ 204 2641; 326 REPORT—1873. and then it is seen without much difficulty that fe tne Pidd =SdP')=a.T 46.0.4 6¥,4-4.W,- where T,, U,, V,, W, are the values of oy 27(u+(n+3)K4+ (64-3) L)" y odd, ee Hence we find P'dS'—S'dP’=aP8+ bP'"S” + cQR+dQ’"R” +. a,P'S' +6, P'S" +¢,Q'R'4+d,Q'R", where such quantities as P’Q are excluded according to the law given in page 290, and a, 6, &c. are of the form fdu+f'du', where f and f' are con- stants. But since Q'R’, QR” can be expressed in terms of P’S' and P”S”, and also QR, Q'”R’” in terms of PS, P’’S’’, we shall have P'dS'—S'dP’=aPS+ 6P'"'S"” +4,P8,45,P"S’. Putting «+ K-+L for u, we have P'dS'—S'dP'=aPS+6P'"'S” —a P'S’ 6. P"S"; when @ is even and y is even, @ even and * whence P'dS' —S'dP’=aPS+6P'"S”; and changing w into w+ A+B, P'"dS' —S"dP" =aP'"'S'" +5PS, the coefficients are easily determined ; and we have, finally, Pas sap ne pg 4 Fade’ png p k k p Section 13.—We shall now show that from these equations the hyper- elliptic differential equations can be deduced. We shall give the outline of the calculation, referring the reader for the details to the original memoir. From the equations last given, we have (P'dS'—S'dP')+(P"dS"—S"dP") _ k'dp'+p"dk" prs’ ssPs Bae =p, CO et SEDs Heo a P'S” PS B75" Putting ENO we x8 Be Pp’ Ps Pp” q, pr ? PPE ES P'S" PS _ PPro — pip ee the last equations are transformed into the following :— ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 827 sdp +Ady sdp— =y ——— =dnp, ee ee ew Ee EL Also, using the same notation, the last four equations of section 11 may be written thus :— (1 —2Ep* + p*)s*—2(F(1+ pq?) —C(p? +4") + 2Dpq)s” (LS Dees es AS 3? 36 3) ogee) Ae 1 2V B—1.¢p=(1—2Ep*+p*)s*—(1-2EY’+q')z, - + + + 8) P= (+0 )1+ p79?) -a +P )+2C-4)py - 2 ee eee A Y=(b—b,)\(1+p"9’) —a(p? +P )+2C+¢)pq - + + + + + + ©) where E, F, a, 6, &c. are constants, whose values will be found in p, 299; hence, by addition, we find 2_F(L+p*q’) —C(p*+ 9°) + 2Dpqt VE=1. ob 1—2Ep’+p? 1_F+p'¢’)—O(? +7) +2Dpq—V EP—1. op = 1—2EK¢°+¢ Moreover equations (1) may be written => ~1) ( =) sAp— sAp+— (sa (2 dp + dq on) + : (2 pt) ad. yp 2Ap © 2Aq Wp 2Ap 2Aq Putting here yAz+zAy ydz—zhAy Pp a aa ’ ol al 22? —Ys —Ye where also [ha aca Ay= V 1—Ey’ +7, Az=V¥1—E2+42, and remembering that dp dy dz ye Ap Ay Az?’ Ag Ay Az we separate the variables, and obtain dy oF 2Bye ty" lz 1—2E 2°+2* Use ORI Lay Stat hea | h 1-28 y?+y AF-1 oy Ji tortie Lee ‘) v7 12( yaa ake v(U— ie +y") —2Ey+y4 é 1—2 . Naa + Wt arm: ott ap Ay sof See oT a = Vb—b dr, 3828 REPORT—1873. where C—E-—D E Chews C+E+D ” C-E+D_» = Gamaeiog ra? FEtewe F=aee oe If we put eo eEEin where «@ is a root of the equation 1—2Ke’+¢=0, we are able to deduce dz 1—2E,2’°+2* 128 ee ve 1) S/ (janes) =V CO +D gy WEVA sey ty By this substitution Gépel remarks that we obtain an equation perfect in symmetrical form with respect to the variables. And, lastly, putting —y" Q v= (Izy) v= (FP) he equations become daW1— Mv a _ dx <4 l—m,v' aR V (#1 —x)\1—mae)(1l—m,x)) * f (a'(1—«')(1—ma')(1— mx’) 6 ; Sr iy Ba hs eee E,) ) =2Vb16 47 Gar E) dx V1-—me dxe'V1—m a —m,a' A eval —x)(l—m x i Te. m,v)) + V7 (7 wx (1 = me! (1 — me’) n1vig/ (GED) when E+1 E, = EE m= f= m, => mS m, = Ss ie Hence the solution of the hyperelliptic differential equations of the first order is easily obtained. Section 14.—In connexion with this part of the Report we may consider a very beautiful method of integrating a certain system of hyperelliptic differ- ential equations given by Jacobi in the 32nd volume of Crelle’s Journal. Let : Ya"—Yja"1+Yio"?.... HY, =Ry’?+28y4+T=0 be an equation represented in two different ways, where Y, Y,.... are, of course, of the second, and R, 8, T of the nth order in y and x ‘respectively, Then this equation, differentiated, manifestly gives dx 2dy Ry +8 ny. jaa —(n—1)Y,2"".. A Ss ale Let «,, be one of the n roots of oe algebraical equation; then this gives us das, 2dy J/8,2- is Bote ra Y¥(«,,— . a ( Cy — &, De : a a) Pe ”» a ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 329 which, if f(e)=S— RT, gives rise to the system of differential equations da, . 5 da, s dx, re darko sot F W fits oi fit, eV fo, ) Wf, ade, , wde, , wde,, «de _ 4» fc, * Vfe, ' Vfo,' Vfo, &e. = ade, | x," "de, ade, _ 6 afi fe, fe, +....4+ Whe, ( Now let f(w)=M?+N*-L?, where M, N, L are three rational and entire functions of the nth order. But since M’+ N?—-T?=M?-(L+N)(L—N), , ©, may be regarded as the n roots of the equation (L+N)y?+2My+(L—N)=0, Ly, v,.. or Ld+y*)+2My+ NA—y’*)=9, which may be written L=M sin 6+ N cos 0, where @ is a new variable. Substituting w,, #,, «,.. for # in this equation, we obtain a system of equations which may be regarded as the complete integral of the above system. Parr II. On the Transformation of Hyperelliptic Functions. In considering the papers of Kénigsberger on the transformation of hyper- elliptic functions in the 64th and 65th volumes of Crelle’s Journal, it will be convenient in this Report to follow his division as to sections. We commence with the paper in the 64th volume. Section 1.—Konigsberger assumes the following connexion between two sets of variables :— u,=2K, ,+2K, wv.+....+2K,,%,, u,=2K, w,+2K, w+... +2K, pup, ee p= 2K, w+ 2K, va. 2 FAK, py v= G,w,+G,u, +....+G i, v,= Gy gt, +G, wu +....+Gp ot, are 1 \ a ‘ Oe G,,p%, + Ge, +... +G, ott; 330 REPOR1I—1873. also 7. p= 2G, okt, B +216, ne B +....+ 2G, ay ae and r, g=7, ,,3 then function 6 is defined by the following equations :— OY, AP > Ya+Py ++--¥, +P) =O(%,-++-%,), 2 2 2 eon (1) OY, +7, Motte, a: + Up tT, jae Fr, o™G(v,,. re whence (uy, --. Ui )= SPM trarsat ee by pring) tus Beabortanrt Mh a,p)+ M2 brite t- vet ove) ®t (3) It will be observed that these assumptions coincide with those of Weierstrass (Crelle, xlvii. p. 303), and which we have given in the Report (Brighton) for 1872, p. 345, by putting in the formule of Weierstrass 2rv,, 2rv,....27v, for #, v,...,Up, and 2G, .....for G then it will be found that Jc and @ are equivalent. We easily obtain from (2), —n(v +n a OU, +70; V+, a,..--)=eE er fe Be OL u,ws. + Dake L1? and Av, +17, 2,5 1,2 UAT >, 1 Ms ga iss 5) —— 2 2%+%7, M7, 2) —M,(2%, +2 Ty, ANT, Jo(v,v,. ems v,) : and writing T= TQ, eee Sse — Zn (20 +7 )rig, 6(v,+7,, ORS rire ware prt) =e yh i 2 A(w,Y, - Pin Up). This assumes, of course, that n,,,, ....%, are integers; when they are not, Konigsberger assumes another transcendent, as follows :— n (2 Bet CR ABD "0(v,+7,, U,+To) Dae ‘UntT,)s and calls it @(v,v,....¥, mn,... ,). - . eater ' U Then we shall have, if 7 pay rE aly, at oes ‘Meh, o)s / ' ' 2 fs , . OY, ATs, YoFT apes ss MMye ees n= 7”, ¥ tar 7 Ey, tr itr} 9 Rs tot ' ' ent 20, +27 +7,) Bm +n! Qe +r +r YO(v,v, wees (remembering that 3n')7,=n,7',) —n'(2u +7')xt ; =e YF OU, Uye es Ugo MEM ys MANS. 26). Konigsberger furthermore assumes transcendents with the notation :— = pyr 1 nan EAA B(Y,Uy+ + + -%y),=O(y, Fam]... .Y, + aM, 5 Zn}... 35) 5 also _ Lig ® Ime. 1 O(%, + Ue), p= OY, Hamp... .U+gm; gmy.... mn )s an ——yA be where m?=m; +m (mod. 2), nP=="+n, (mod. 2), and x} and nt &e. are given by the Table, p. 20. ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 331 Section 2.—We here supply the proof of the leading theorem given at the commencement of this section :— Lait 1 alt Ov,+3e}, v,+205, U,+3o3....U,+3 pA =0(v,+4m)i +401, v,+4ms+3o4 v,+4mr+dot, dnt, Ind 1) taee ula 2 eis, “onl Bathe Ons wat Up ea Be o> My, 2M, .-.. 2M), Vay) a "i Sdn(2v 4+2r+o+r, rt Sete tet O(v, +7, t4md+iat, v,+7,+3m}+ 304, aby Wr 1 Bee 37 3 es ni+2a%) AO, N rN BN mete, +m, boy +3247, ytangr,, ote: .)at ne 1,,,A 1 0,4 Sn, tA tant Sn AB, 1 1A 1 +233 n v2, wilt PEL) +P, + 2m + 29,7, sity BZN ry v 1 lm’ 1 1 ) oe yt2m3+p,+2ms +Xg,7, + Lantrs ,...-) pA r M11,A Lah Y = gaan (2u, my + ol banyr, yran{r, ot-- )at we 2, n* x BM B 7 J Tq (2+ Ear, tm +m pene, g+BW,Ty, ott eee 1A pitt Oy, FBIM, amy + amy + Upnlr, , Vp+ san To yt2 m+ my + S3nh 72,» A 1, Us+ SEN Ts, nr 4m + ame + Syn rs erat co) = 22, +e, +m+3nir,, 1 +4njr,, ot--)xt —_ 9 tr , Eq, (2v ytenir, atm +m Uankr Hie Petes ott N d IN . eat tm (22, +m, +m +33(np+nh), 7, ore A(u,v,- U5) ay9 : nll pest ; (remembering that m?==m+m (mod. 2)) AY< A 6 F = ee, +m, +2p, tml +2(2q, +25 )Fy, o) tt L(A + n\(2 at Ho A yl ely +n!) (2v,+ ms +m +3d(np+ni)r j)ri po A Me Me 2 =q, (20 bene, ot My bm, +ENGT, gt2ZI{57y, gt rN iN . Tn (Diner, _)wt Ber Py % Oks TART a — be + 2p, tm yi eT ERM +ntt)(m tnt \re a [ey —Zq,(m\ +m!) ri é gm, ray )art O(u,u,-- +4, )ye <= 2g, anh) (20,4(y +4nf)r,, it (Go+4nb)T,, gt-.)rt ; (remembering that X¢,Untr, = t3q, Ent, .+329,dn7, ,) CUO me vine ayo 46 A oy, 3 dnl HY ni en 1)3, (pr +9,my rt ee 3, Anh (mm +m )rt 1 Arg Mere, Pe ae gr )(20, + (9, +antyr,, it(% +4nh)7 ot..)at 882 REPORT—1873. a result substantially the same as Kénigsberger’s, although it seems to me that there is a misprint in his paper. To illustrate the Table at the bottom of page 22, I observe as follows :— Referring to the Table at the foot of page 20, we have 8(v,%,).,,=9(Y, Famitam, v,+3mi{+ im}, 3nl+in3, 3ni+4nd) =0(v,-3+40, unt, 30+20, 3044) 0, 2)s which agrees with the expression given in the Table by Konigsberger. The reader is requested to notice that Kénigsberger writes 6(v,v,), =0(v,v,), a notation which we shall have occasion to recall hereafter. For illustration of Table, p. 23, see remarks at the end of next section. Section 3.—This section opens with an expression for — a =6(v,— 29 Usy OU, HY. Up AUT, 1. -Tp,p)s O(U,—pU,. .Up—PUp. pry, - -PT,p)s where, it will be seen, a change of modulus is introduced. We proceed to prove the theorem, as it is enunciated without demonstration. Recalling the value of (6) given in Section 1, this expression is seen to be equivalent to 33"), where F(u,u,.-) = (2, +20, )u,+(2r,-26,p)y,+07 +psi)r, +(47, +po,c,)7,,+.. +(2r,+2o,)u, + (2,—2e, pv, + (v,7, +po,0;)r,, +03 +poz)r,, +.. + &e. +(2r, +26))Up+ (21 — Zapp Up t+ (rr, + pope, rp it(% +po5)tp.i+ Now put y,=8, + Pty, v=8,+7, pty, v,=8, SOs Da pie a o's o,=2,—S,, o,=N,—S,, o,=N,—S,....5 which we may evidently do, provided that we sum with regard to ,, M,.-pp from 0 to p. Now we easily see that VV, +po,o,= {uu} + {n, pu, +n, py, +p(p +t l)nn,} + {s,u,+ SoM) +58,5,(p aK 1)}, the three brackets corresponding to the three factors in the following expres- sion constituting the second member of the equation O(u,+4,.. )0(u, — pr, rs y=afe™{ lan, +e) H(t: BoP re2, where P= 2 21,uU, {n, e+ +2(u, pr, + Sie + HpPT,,p) +P(p + 1)(m,7,,,+7,7,,,+ ag )) Qu, : ’ +n, 2(p t+ 1)u,+— 2 + 2(upr,. + bk epr, p+ p(p+1)(m,7,,,+. ))+ oe ea ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 333 Q= Qu {5 (2(p+1)0, +74 2G, + ; Poh p) + (P+1)(8,7,,1. 48,744 ; .)) Qu,v 24 Our, bo potap) + (p+ Ler, + ))+ Pe tbei, . 8, + 3(2(p +1)v,+ from which Kénigsberger’s formula may immediately be derived, where, however, the letter 7 must be exchanged in several places for the number 2, for which it is plainly intended. Putting p=1, and multiplying the exponential partly into the function @ in uw, and partly into the function @ in v, and recalling the definition of O(v,U,-.. +p, N,N,N») given in the first section, we have at once O(U, +4, . Up U7), .- -Tp,p)O(%, —%, - -Up—Up> Tr,+ » Tp.) =BO(2Qu,. 2p, 2o,--BMpr» 271+ -27p,p)O(QY,. .QWp, Su... dptp, 2r,,,--2Wrp,p)s A formula is next deduced for O(u, +4, +w,. ..)0(u,—v,....). We have moreover Ce Me tlie ag See a or NRO ew ws Marek Asada ale = >9(2 il 1 ¢ = 20(2u,+w,... 2p + Wp, Paani ace One Tapes where Q,, is not connected with w. To prove this, we observe that, if we put v,=0 in the last formule, we are able to show that SGA CAS TA SS My 5 s Ny ny 9 9 m, Ny i =e2F (Gu, +37, 1+ +27, p)e@ ety +2U, + Ft, 1t + +++ OT, pe SO(Qu, wm, mit ar, pb. Qu, pw, MEH M7, 1. Bey BM, 2, 1+ +29, p)PM. But O(2u, +, -+mi+nr,, 4 Spee ‘Bhp Bila -2r, 9) =P. PMG Qu, tw, 120, FW, + 3 My + + BMp27,, 1+ +27, 4) Combining these two expressions together, we see that the theorem is true. From this equation, by using 2° values of (a) in succession, and elimi- nating, we may obtain each of the 2° values of O(2u,+-w,...- 2+ We, Bye ++Bhp» 271+ ++2T pp) corresponding to the 2° values of p,....s) in terms of a series of functions of the form A(u. 26 eUpy Tyres -Tp,p)ad(U+ W - . Unt Wp, Tite: + Tp, pas whence the formula above mentioned for O(u,+u,+u,....)O(U—U,--.-) 334 REPORT—1873. will become, by the substitution of these values, OCU UAW Up AU tps Ty y+ ++ -Tpp)O(U,—Uy- + «+ Up— Up, Ti rTprp) SB G)OU, a sUgy 71 = xs Top oUt, Woe ae aU,” 7, Veeolaiag a where the coefficients (~) are to be determined. To determine these coefficients Kénigsberger adopts a method from Weier- strass as follows. Taking the ratio 0,(v,v,....¥ teem : * ete, and remembering its value as given in OL OP RICA) Weierstrass’s paper (Crelle, xlvii.), or in the first section of the paper we are now considering, we see that it will be infinite when one of the quantities #,, #,....4, is infinite, and zero when they become equal to a,. From this Konigsberger deduces the two equations corresponding to these conditions :— 6(v,v,...-U,) =0 to the first, and O(v,v,..+-+Up)a=0 to the second, which last may be written 2p—1 a & Oy, + 3m +....+4myP+3my+.... am™...., y! 2, a Vere dm eS dns + 3m? om. TS , +3m,"; aries an, +... bane) +anti+.... gnir....)=0, Konigsberger then states that, if the symbol (1.3.5....29—1, e,e,€9) is called e*, and 6 being supposed to be any whole number, y equal to every symbol of the form de, and therefore taking 2° forms, then A(V,0 Up Jety'yt" =O, when v,v,....v, vanish, y’ and y"” being different. To show this we remark that the increments of the arguments v,v,....v, are partly numerical, partly consist of definite integrals. When y' and y" are different, the numerical part becomes entire ; and therefore when v,v,....v, vanish, @ vanishes by a proposition of Weierstrass for the expansion of 6, when the arguments are in- creased by semiperiods of definite integrals. (See Crelle, xlvii. p. 30.) When y' and y” are the same, they counteract each other and produce no effect. From these considerations Konigsberger deduces the values of the coeffi- cients (a)*. I shall illustrate the Table, p. 28, by deducing from the last equation of p. 27:— 8,9, .P.Q=P5 Py W014 + PoPo1%o4Ier2— Po Pr,2 Va 4%o9—Po.2P 2,413 U5" Put w, = —», in the equation mentioned, e-=4,a=1,8=5, 0(v,+w,....)eya,8 becomes 6(v,v..-.),,4,;=9,,, (see remark at the end of our remarks on sec- tion 2). Since we are dealing with hyperelliptic functions of the first order, e, and e, will become 0 and 2; hence y becomes in succession in the four terms of the formula, 5, 0, 2, 02, ya/3 (omitting B=5 and y=5), 1, 01, 12, 012, or 1, 01, 12, 34, as we shall see, ae'y becomes 145, 140, 142, 1402, or 14, 23, 03,3; Be'y becomes 545, 540, 542, 5402, or 4, 04, 24, 13, which give the indices required. * Konigsberger has been very brief in this paragraph from Weierstrass, I am not sure of his meaning. T hope to add something in the Supplement. ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 335 To make this more clear I add the following proofs of some of these equi- .valences (see Table, p. 22) :— O(t,%,)or0 =0(v, —3-2> U,— 2» 0, 0)=6(y, .¥.- 25 0, 0)=0(2,%,) ay (8%, U,) 402 = 9(Y, — 3-2) U,—2> +2; 2+0)=6(u,, V.—2> 0, 2)=0(,0,)5- The other formule in the Table may be proved in a similar manner. Section 4.—Konigsberger in this section gives the following theorem (without demonstration) :— If = (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) qd) GU,» Up) = O(MjPU, ayy... -mMPUptay, si....s80) . ++ -O(mpu,+a}....mju,+ar, s&™,...8%), then 8 : Sem Pvp {rut Quy—(Syrv, p+ ++ «+ + Spry, p) bard oma = Np taal : x (ut 2-H At82,4 »+Spr,,p)- Gt go ~(Apt+S,70,1 +.. S,rno)) 1 =CO(ru,..7Up, 77,,1- TT p,0)s where the summation with regard to the indices n,....n, extends from 0 to r—1, and r, A, S are given by the following equations :— ml? +.... 4+ m0* =" mVa) wees mM = A,, 1 ms) + 1... + mM = §,. I have worked out this theorem for hyperelliptic functions of the first order; and it appears from this that the demonstration for hyperelliptic functions does not differ in principle from that for elliptic functions. I shall therefore confine myself to elliptic functions, as the length for hyperelliptic functions is extremely great. Putting then p=1, the theorem becomes 81 . 1 Ze 7 (2ru+-2n—S,r,, am gut - ap (A, +8,7, ,))=CO(ru,, 77, 1). For \=1, this equation reduces itself to the following— —=(Qm?u+2n—msr,, ,)ri me 2 2 4 dem 1 O(mU +t —(a4+8r,, ,) +4: s))=CO(mu,, mr, ,), or 0(muto )= Coon, mr, 1)s which leads at once to the equivalence 3,3, which is what we want to prove. Taking now the general case for elliptic functions, we have o(u)=O(m'ut+a' : s)O(muta®:s™)... 0(mu+ur: s*) d it Be (ut 2A t8,, ») , n 1 ie aha ee WON owt ma + m9 4 vee MA )—HUmMVNSYM 4 ....m'S )) It is easy to develop this expression by means of the principles already laid down ; and we have, finally, 8, . ih 1 Xe~ 7 ade a imrh VR g(u+-—— (A, +87, )) n mAs) + m2)s) 4... +m =e = (A) 2 {2ru-+2n— (ma) +m)s)-+ 4+mNs)r,_ ifrt am n 2m) ead AA ei( 2m up 7 (mVa 4... ma") — amr, r VmUsO4..ms)42a) 45,7, ri am®n 2m om ry, seri (2m Put oe ge ma: mar) — ms) + ms) + 2a'42s7, +l"'7, xi Lal 2mm 2m!) 2m?71,1 : yea( 2m,u+ a (mVaD+ .. +ma)——* (ms 4 ,, +s) 42a, +874, rt 2m? )n 2m) r 2m?) _5 1 lle NEL ae a AA eal 2m 2+ (ma), . a) 2 (ms). . mds?) 42a) 42827, -yr,,, Vv, Xe. Putting in this expression », =m y+ p™, vVP9=mv+ p™, yO = mv + a, where » is less than m™.. .., we see that the expression vanishes, except when pD=0, p=0...., and that consequently the expression takes the form C@(ru, rz, ,). Another theorem for ¢(u,u,....u ) is given by Konigs- berger in this section. Section 5.—Kénigsberger here gives two series of hyperelliptic functions, and proposes to determine the coefficients of the second series in such a way that they may be expressed rationally by means of the first. It follows as a consequence that the periods of one set of these functions can be expressed linearly in terms of the periods of the other, the coefficients in these linear relations, however, being subject to the condition X(K, K', —K, EK’, 2) =0- Section 6.—Kénigsberger then proceeds more immediately to the transfor- mation of functions 6, the expression of (nu... . NUM, 4. ++ MTp,p) DY A(t. Up, pT, 1°* + + Tp, pis ———— ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 337 In the theorem of last section, let *9(U,U,. . Us) =O(u,u,. . 1 )0(v a 19+5) d 0(m tA. Ut ) ; this is equivalent to assuming s=0, m=1, A=n, ia I a, =, — see =0, aa.) aa ay=a= a*® tral - p n Hence n—1 Be Aes ek > and the theorem becomes i (il eal pes Spee es 29(m +e ee -Up+ 7; “Fe )= OAC Up, NT1 1. »TTp, p)- We shall apply this to prove the theorem for the transformation of the Abelian integrals of the first order given on page 32. Put n=3, p=2; take n,n, successively 0, 1, 2. Then 2p=9(%,—3, %— 3) +9 — 3H) +O +3 %—4)s +9(u,—-3, %)+o(4u)+6(u,4+ 3, %,), FOB ADE HC WADED +). =6(4,—3, 4, — Huu OmtL wth... ee. @) +0(u,u,—3)0(u,+3, u,)0(u,+2, wuts)... .... QQ) +0(u,+3, U,—3)0(u, +3, u,)O(u,+3, ujt4) 2... . © (8) +0(u,—3, u,)O(uU,, Uutz)O(u,+3, ute)... 2... . + 0(u,1,)0(u, +3, Ue s3)0(U, +2, ute) . . . ... « &) +0(u,+4, u,)0(U,+3, u+3)0(u4+8, ut3) . 2... . (6) $O(—3, MADAM, WER L tM. oe . (D +6(u,, U%+3)0(u, +3, m+5Z0(u +9, ute ..... (8) +0(U, +3, U+3)0(8, +3, u+5)0(u,+8, uth)... . . (9) We see that lines (159), (267), (348) are identical; and the theorem of last section therefore becomes Aum, OU, +3, Ue+3 0%, +3, %+§) 7 O(u, 1 3, u,)0(u, # 3 U, ‘i 3)0(u,u, + §) A(uyu, + 3)0(% +9, Her Z)OC +3, My) = OO(32, Sly, (Br, 45! OT, sae e.g) 1873. Zz 338 REPORT—1873. From this Kénigsberger deduces the well-known formule for the transfor- mation of elliptic functions of the third degree. Section '7.—This section opens with the following theorem (where & applies to p,....p, Which are either 0 or 1) :— BOD, In SUA te Welty POU oss <20p5- Bi, an wee plgy AT, > sae Now ee es) eee as Oils AE eietys AT a, p) = Seli(2% Ey, P27, ost, 3 -- --) 78 eHa(2%.+HT., 1AM eT 2, 2+bsTa, st +++ )me O20, +27, Feta teat gts: 20,4 21,7. +2p,7o, ot 2HsTo,3° + + 41,1 4759-+--) = sli@atnn, Hah, o+bsT, g++ -+)ae elta( 20.2 FE fyTe Fels, oF Me, a+: =: jae : peer +27, Ae Mety, ab ee ee F271, AH 2gTy, ab. + )at ; oP (2a + 2H To, AAMT a, at ++ F274 To, AW o, at sees )TH " e271 (2,424.7, p2yyt1,g+..--.)me eoa(2e, +2147, 12 To, at ++ :: yee (where p,=0, p,=0), ie eontn, 1+7), oT, 3) £ (eet, 1+T2,otT.,st-.--)mt ? B_271(20, +215, p27, ot-...+2y,7,, ;+2,7),,+....)at , 24 2(2%,+2r,, 1+25, a+. + $2947), o+2r474, g+--..)at (where p,=1, p,=1), pe, e(2Ma tra, ahs + )ri S202, AB, ates HPT, HWM, gts) eo s(2. +275, gee ee $2917, pAZH Te, gH. += + )The es (where p,=9, pil); The reader will see this if he will consider the following equivalences :— Avr st Age tat 4a, 4 tan ty at Ta =(27,+1))(2,+ Lr. (2v, +1) 2r,+))r,,,; 47, t+4y,y,7,,4+ Ay. v.75, 2r,(2r,4 Lr, + (2»,4+1)2r,7, |. also ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 339 To illustrate the series of equations next following, I observe :— (CREEL me SE 9 =6(v,—0—0, v,-3—-0, v,-3- ----) =O(v,, ¥—}, Uz...) Hence, substituting v,—4 in the value of 6(2v,....2u,, df... --3M&ps dr, ,...-4r,,,) just given, the expression becomes (apo. Buy Ee aps AT, vee Ata pe a a Cay From this series of equations values are deduced for OO etree), Od O(2y,. 4. dt, 3-2 Sr 4) in terms of OC ec re cacaaa es Putting p=3 in the theorem at the commencement of section 3, and then for u,, u,—, &c., an expression is found for SO v,.. Mp Uas) Ty - ~ «= 37,1.» s+ )as Modifying this by the equation for 0(2v,.. By, .4r, ,), which we have My just mentioned, we have BOW, UY, Tr yee To, pal —3Y,- +» Br +a = + y4s¢—1)™# vO Qu Qu; 3r 37, .) aD ab ‘ pr 2U, 5 Sry ++. Or, ays Spm! 5 <1) ie... By Hx os ta ab Now we observe here that the index of (—1) in both cases is a series of negative units, every one of which is multiplied by a quantity which is 0 and 1 alternately, Hence, in taking the sum, the expression vanishes except for y=96, and we have, when v,=v,=....=v,=0, DO(u,... Uys Tiss Tp aO(%; - + +Uy, ar eng JT, ade a ee. a 2u, 5 3r,, Birra 37, )a0(0. ba. Ppt? PET) From this we easily obtain, bearing in mind the method by which expres- sion (A) was found, OPO Er. Br. Wide 0) re Te Jy ah Md Snlm* 0 0 =2(—1)7""0(0....0, Bry, 1+ 6 Bry, ,)g0(0+ + +09 Tate + Tp, g)gs From this formula Kénigsberger deduces three modular equations for hyperelliptic functions of the first order. Since 3p—3 is in this case 3, and as this number is taken with one exception, the number of terms in the first member of these equations is 2, the four terms in the second member corre- spond to the values v,, v,; ¥,—4, 0,3 U,U,—33 %,—-3) %,— 3 z2 340 REPORT—1873. Section 8.—This section is very short, and contains some formule for transformation when the moduli are doubled. From the equation OCU, HY, «6 My Upy T11+ + ++ Tp, p)O(U,—U,- «+ -Up— Ups T1- + + Tp, p= Bu, .. ioxDupplt.. BOB. su 2rp pOC2rk b>, SP Byte Sito fe 1 p D 9? 1 ? D) is deduced by means similar to those used in the last section, O(2u,....2u,, 27)... +27, ,)O(2u,...-2u,, 27, -...27, 4) 1 Toe MEW Tyee Typ lA(Uy— Ms +7 arene yi and from this equation one or two other expressions are derived. In section 9 the application of these principles is made on a more extended scale to hyperelliptic functions of the first order; as, however, this is pre- sented in a more developed state in the sixty-fifth volume of Crelle’s J ournal, we proceed at once to the second memoir, and shall follow, as before, Konigs- berger’s division as to sections. Section 1.—We now recur to the equations at the beginning of Konigs- berger’s first paper. Putting p=2, we have u,=2K, v+2K, wv, %,=G, ,u,4G, 4, u,=2K, v+2K, .v,, », ,=G, u,+G 7, = 2G, KK’ +20G,, K, - 22a» whence Ea Na ed i San ; as . CS hs, ok 7G, a id 2(K,, @ 1 —K,. x ») : whence Ly AUK. Ki yiy = ie J il K, Kio = RC K 1~ 152 ' with similar values for 7’, ,, 7’. 1» To, The following notation is adopted 1 in 'Kénigsberger’ s second paper: R(v)=a(1—v)(1-—ex)(1—le)A1—mx), R(yY=yA—-yWA—Py)d—vy)d—p*y), dy dy, y dy y,dy, —— 2 — dy ne 2/2 —qd Vv Ry, r VRy, mw VRy, VRy, vas dex, dx, Vie + ——— ie = =du',=adu, + Adu,, wv, de, vdx, Re + V Rr, i =du,=ydu, + bu. These equations are plainly connected together; and, the usual notation of Dr. Weierstrass being used, we have ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. B41 -n\(a-») VG-)G—") 7 Ne 2 _ oy p y!' oy) 7 by T 1, 2? T Be we = al(u,u,, CE) Pe ' ~ O(v';,¥ a, Bites ’ ee ag —R . we v— Vv —(1—y,)\A—y,) — 9» Uy 71, Ty? asa)s =al(u,u,kdp)y5 pag pee 11) iS GCs Oey 71,297 a, ae 2? ar v', +2K u,=2K, .v', +2K nee where uy =2K 1,171 ae ay and 7’, , &c. have the values we have just given, =— 7g — &. i? AU : — Wp Y a? 71,19 71, 99 Ta) 4 il Ou, Brailes Tae) = al(au,t+Hu,te, yu,tdu,+Z, ¢, 1, m),, / SS Sti) A O(Y,5 Vas Bat ia) Tas Sy R(1) Os Yas Try19 Tr, 29 Ta 2)s c’Pm? = al(au,+fhu,te, yu,tdu,+é, ¢, 1, m),, where e and @ are two constants introduced by the integration. Also au, + Bu, +e=2C, 1% +2C, wv su yu +ou, +f=2C, ,v,+2C, v,, where the quantities C are the same definite integrals as the quantities K, if c, 1, m are substituted for «, \, », and 7 has the same relation to C that 7’ has to K. After giving a variety of formule about the periods of the hyperelliptic functions, in conformity with the notation adopted by Dr. Weierstrass, Konigsberger states the problem of transformation thus :— If au, +Bu,+ 2amK, it 23mK, tte= 2C,, w+ 2C,, Ley") yu, du, + 2ymK, it 2dmK,, i+ f=20, w+ 2C,, W's and 1, 29 au,+ Bu,+2anK, , +2pnK, +e =2C, ,w Ww, +2C yu, +du, +2ynK, , +26nK, , +¢=2C, ,w, +20 2,14; 2,29» corresponding to the periodic system al(u,+2K, ,, u,+2K, ,),=a?(uu.)ar 342 REPORT—1873. to express w’,w', in terms of w,w,, so that O(w',, w')i = A(w,, we) A(w',, w')3 = A(w,, W,)3 O(w',, w',)s O(w,, w,)3 O(w',, w',)s O(w,, w,)s and also O(w',, w')is_ O(w,, w,)i, a A(w',, we A(w,, w, ie Section 2.—For the purpose of solving these equations, a Table similar to that we have endeavoured to explain at the end of our remarks on section 3 of Kénigsberger’s first memoir is constructed; using the same notation, we have @P.Q, =—pigi rigs —PidistPisd GP,.Q, =—psg +pigistpids —PisG 65 P, Qi 3= —PiGis—PiG +p3qi +75,3%5 These three equations, combined with the last three equations of section 1, mauifestly give the following : O(w',+w,, w',+w,), W(w',—w,, w',—w,), =0, A(w',+u,, w',+w,), O(w',—w,, w',—w,), =0, O(w',+w,, w',+w,), ,0(w,—w,, w',—w,),,,=9, which reduces the problem to the solution of O(w',—w,, w',—w,), =0, A(w',—w,, w',—w,), =9, O(w',—w,, w',—w,), s=0. To resolve these equations Konigsberger enunciates the following proper- ties :— If ¢,¢, are quantities which satisfy the three equations 6(¢,¢,),=9, 6(¢,€,),=0, 0(€,¢,),,3=9, then also the three following equations are true :— O(u, +4, uU, +6, )i — A(u,, Uy)" A(u, +4; U, +6,)5 = A(u,, U,)s O(u, +2, u, + es A(u,, u, Ys A(u, +45 u, + ¢)5 O°(u,; Us) A(u, +4, U, 2 € is ba Os Mia Ou, +e, U,+6,)5 O(u,, Uy )5 These three formule are fully proved by Kénigsberger, and present no diffi- culty. They are the result of the equations at the end of section 3 of the first memoir and of those at the beginning of this section. We therefore pass on to the theorems next enunciated, namely :— a0, a) @ log. 0(u,u,) pat ae dv, O(u, 2, )i dui 0, 05 «O(u,u,)e ty) y 2» (& ‘y dv O(u,u, du Ou, i, Z te oe + 7 “O(n, u, ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS, 343 with two similar expressions for @? log. 0(u,2%, )s i @ log. CRA dub du,du, Take the equation at the commencement of p. 340, 620(u,+v,....),0(u,—v,),=0(u,u,)30(v,v, 2 +6(u,u,)i O(v,v2)i + O(u,%, 3 (YY, )3-+ O(,%4,)i, 3 (0,4, I. s- Expanding the members in terms of v, we have d0(u,u,) PO(uu,), v2 8( tty), — seu Bee ee ee 0.'{9(u, u, du, 132 } {1} — adv, 4. OC he sl teh 1 U, s =(0,+ soy? i O(u,u, P+ (= —u,+. +) 6(u,u,),” 16 2 ; +(3 29) LF ) Out (Gert oe .) O(u,u,)7, a" Hence, equating coefficients of v,7, we find dO(u,-- ++); dO(uu,)s 626 2 13/5 — a0, 3 5 (uu), die. =O, ye eae. do,’ 10? + Tet Se “4 1h 20(U,u, i, a» from which the formula we ner to prove immediately follows. This demon- stration will be understood, if we remember that dé, Ge 0 LD, 6,=0, 6, »=9. The formule for @ log.6(u,u,), anal @ log.0(u,uU,), du,” du,du, may be proved in a precisely similar manner. Combining these three theorems with the last, we find @ log O(u, +4 U+e)s _ & Log.O( witty). du2 dv} @ log.6(u,+e,, ute), @ log.0(u,u,), dus WA dua : a log.6(u, rk a U+ C)5 ? log.6 (Uyta)o, du,du, du,du, where a(e,, é,),=9, A(e,, €,)3=9, 0(e,, é,),, 3=9. 3 2 ° id A (B) These equations, give by integration, O(u, +e, U,+¢,),= Ps FIT Q(u,, U,)es 344 REPORT—1878. whence we haye é=m,+ N47, + NT, a» =m, + 14 + NT, » which therefore constitute the solution of equation B. Hence also the solution of the equations O(w',—w,, w!,—w,), =0, A(w', — W,, W',—W,),=0, O(w', —w,, ww. —w,), 3=9 is ww, =P, 7S, ave at 35 a7, 29 w',—w,=",, ahs, 27a, (+3, 272, 29 where r, ., 7, 45S, ) §,,, are any whole numbers. This formula then con- tains the required solution ; and therefore, substituting for w, in the equa- tions connecting w and w at the end of section (1), we have (m—n) (aK, 1 p.,. ) =C,, ae 1 +5, 171, 1 +5, 27), a) C,, 0 at, 172, iS, a", a)» (m— n) (yK,, it ok, ») =C, sft: 1 +8), aha its, 271, ada C, ate at, To, yt $1, a7, a): We have already stated that this transformation corresponds to the periodic system al (u,+2K, ,, u,+2K, ,)?=al(u,u,)? when a=1 or 3. In the same way, if we take the periodic system al(u,+2K, ,, u,+2K, _) =al(uyu,)* when @=1 or 3, we have (m'—n (aK, + PK, )=C,, (1, +8. 97, 8, 071, DAC, As, aS, 37,1 +5, ie (m' —n')(yK,, at 6K, = C,, Kz. 1S, itis Sa, ats a+ C,, ea a8, To, a oe Ey We shall also have, if we take the periodic system al(u,+2iK', ,, u,4+2iK', ,)?=al(u,u,)-, where a=1 or 8, i(m! —n")(aK', + BK’, )=C, 1, 48s, Tat 8 at AG, 0s, ot 8s, 17, FS, ah, a)? i(m!"—n")(yK’, “Ae oK’, J=C,, 4 Ca ae 1%, ‘eg thow ee Oe BP ae Re shi fae ara): Moreover, taking the system al(u,+ 2K’, py Ut 2iK’, a= au, AS we shall have (m" —nl")(aK’, + BK, ,)=C,, 05 8's att 8o, as, ACY, a's, at 8's, 17a, 1 +5's, ah, 2)? . am" — a" )(yK s+ OK’, 2)=Cy C's, 8's, aT, + 8'o, Fa, 2) + Co, a7’, a+ 8's, 17s, prayer. | Now we have already proved that Pere Te Ki, RS) ee Ct Oates Cas Cre 1, ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 345 The equations we have just written down enable us to determine K, ,K’, ,, &c. in terms of 7, ,, 7,,,, T2,.. Hence also’, , is known in terms ofr, ,, 71,29 To, and 7’, ,; 7’,,, can be determined in a precisely similar way. The remainder of the paper is occupied with the discussion of special cases, upon which I shall not enter, as Konigsberger has gone minutely into details. There are two other papers by Kénigsberger on the transformation of hyper- elliptic functions in the seventieth volume of Crelle, which we hope to con- sider in the supplement. At the commencement of his paper Konigsberger alludes to a paper on transformation by M. Hermite, in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for 1855, from which I make the following extracts :— Let a,a,a,4,, ,b,0,b,, ¢,¢,¢,¢,, dd,d,d, be a system of entire numbers satis- fying the equations ad, +,¢,-—¢,b, —d,a,=0, ad,+b,¢,—¢,b, —d,a,=0, a,d,+b,¢, —¢,b,—d,a,=a,d,+6,c,—¢,b,—d,a,=k, a,d,+6,¢,—¢,b, —d,a,=0, a,d,+6,c,—c¢,b, —d,a,=0; also let O(a, y)=(—1 yee ree, +(2n+v)y) (GQ p+ 2H 2+) 2n-+2) +G!(Qn-+y)2)_ then, if z; denotes the linear function a,v+b,y, where 7 is one of the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, and we assume 6(z,+Gz,+Hz,, 2,+Hz,+G'z, elt os +7122) ei™ Gz,?+2Hz,2,+G'z ae) = II(x, ); then : M(e+1, y)=(-1)"N(@, y), Ww, y+1)=(—1)"M(a, y), Me+h, yt+7')=(—DP(e, ye PV t9), M(a+g, y+h) =(—1"M(a, ye Ar +9), where g, h, g' are certain ascertained functions of the above quantities, a, b,c, d, G, H, G' and m,, ,, p,, g, certain ascertained functions of the quantities a, b, c, d, p, v, p, q- And the method of transformation consists in introducing sixteen func- tions, 6” analogous to @, but in which G, H, G’ are replaced by g, h, g', and then in employing the above relations to express II(«, y) by entire and homogeneous combinations of these sixteen functions. I wish to remark that the proofs of Dr. Weierstrass’s theorems, given in the Brighton volume, were obtained by me in the course of the year 1867, I had no assistance, except that derived from the Memoirs themselves. 346 REPORT—1878. Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnus, H. E. Dresser (Secretary), T. Hartanp, J. E. Harrine, T. J. Mong, Professor Newton, and the Rev. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose of continuing the investigation on the desirability of esta- blishing a “ Close Time” for the preservation of indigenous animals. 1. Tue apprehension expressed by your Committee in their last Report, as to the probable effects of the Wild-Birds Protection Act, has been more than justified by events ; for, so soon as that Act came to be applied, it gave almost universal discontent, and your Committee have not found one person who is satisfied with it. 2. In the House of Commons, Mr. Auberon Herbert moved and obtained the appointment of a Select Committee to consider the subject of the Protec- tion of Wild Birds. 3. Three members of your Committee, on being summoned, gave evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons. 4, The Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons has not, to your Committee’s regret, yet been published, but your Committee have good reason for believing that it will contain the following recommendations :— “(i.) That the protection of certain wild birds named in the Schedule of the Wild Birds-Protection Act of 1872 be continued. “‘(ii.) That all other wild birds be protected from 15th March to Ist August, provided that owners or occupiers of lands, and persons deputed by them, have permission to destroy such birds on lands owned or occupied by them. “(ii.) That one of Her Majesty’s Secretaries of State be empowered to except, in any particular district, any bird from the protection afforded, either by the Act of 1872 or by the proposed Act, if he think necessary to do so. ‘“(iy.) That, for the sake of giving better protection to the swimmers and waders, no dead bird, if such bird is mentioned in the Sea- Fowl] Preservation Act, or the Wild-Birds Protection Act of 1872, be allowed, from 15th March to 1st August, to be bought and sold, or exposed for sale, whether taken in this country or said to be imported from any other country. “(y.) That any violation of this proposed Act, or of the Wild-Birds Protection Act of 1872, be punished by the payment of costs alone for the first offence, except under aggravated circum- stances, and the payment of costs and a fine not exceeding 5s. for every offence after the first.” 5. Your Committee wish emphatically to condemn these recommendations as a whole, and all but one of them separately, for the following reasons, numbered as are the recommendations :— i. The great majority of the birds named in the Schedule of the Act of 1872 do not require protection, as has been shown in former Reports of your Committee; they therefore think that in the present state of public opinion it is inexpedient that such pro- tection should be accorded to them. ii. That for the sake of protecting other wild birds, most of which cer- tainly do not want protection, rights would be continued to owners and occupiers of land which would be denied to other ON THE DESIRABILITY OF ESTABLISHING A “CLOSE TIME.” 38347 persons: consequently the principle of privilege, usually urged as one of the strongest objections to the Game Laws of this country, would be introduced into the proposed Act, which would thereby be subject to the attacks of all those who are opposed to those laws. Further, that if there be any need to protect such other wild birds, the need is greater, in most cases, to protect them from the owners and occupiers of land than from other persons. iii. That the power to be given to the Secretary of State would virtually be that of repealing the Act, either entirely or in regard to any particular kind or kinds of birds, at his sole will and pleasure, without his acting on the opinion of any responsible adviser or expert assessor; and that in consequence of such unlimited power being intrusted to a high officer of State, who cannot be expected to have any personal knowledge of the intricacies of the questions involved, the results would in most cases be highly unsatisfactory to all persons concerned, it being also taken into consideration that the state of the law would vary very consider- ably in different parts of the country, even perhaps in different parts of the same county. Furthermore, the granting of such power to any authority presumes that some kinds of birds would be at once exempted from protection, which is tantamount to inviting persecution on such kinds of birds as would be included in what has been termed a “ Black List.” iv. With this recommendation your Committee have the pleasure of entirely concurring. y. The anticipation of your Committee, that the penalties imposed by the Act of 1872 would be found insufficient, having been proved by experience to be true, your Committee consider that the pro- posed increase of such penalties is quite inadequate to secure efficiency to the new Act—regard, however, being had to the indefinite phrase, “ except under aggravated circumstances,” the meaning of which your Committee cannot explain. Finally, your Committee wish to point out that, so far as they have the means of knowing the nature of the evidence given before the Select Com- mittee of the House of Commons, the four recommendations which they condemn are directly opposed to that evidence. 6. The increasing interest taken by the public generally in the question which your Committee have been now for five years appointed to investigate, is shown by signs too numerous to mention. Your Committee, however, observe with regret that.in the minds of some persons it has been mixed up, if not confounded, with other questions which are entirely distinct. Two of these may be specified—(1) the Utility of Birds to Agriculturists, and (2) the State of the Law as regards Cruelty to Animals. Your Committee not having been appointed to consider these questions, content themselves with remark- ing that both are doubtless of great importance to the community, the one from a moral and the other from a material point of view, but are likewise entirely outside the duty of your Committee. 7. In order to assist the clearer view which your Committee hope that the public will in time take of the question of Bird-protection, your Committee unanimously beg leave to submit for consideration the following remarks as to any future legislation :— 348 REPORT—1873. (1) However much we may desire it, we cannot in practice stop the killing of some birds during the breeding-season: if we pass a law totally prohibiting it, that law will either be evaded, or, if enforced, will become so irksome as to be speedily repealed. (2) No iaw, to be effectual, should pick and choose certain kinds of birds, leaving out nearly allied kinds. (3) An effectual law, dealing with a whole group of birds, may be passed, as witness the highly successful ‘Sea-Birds Preservation Act,’ (4) A law protecting birds which cannot be shown to want protection is a mistake. (5) The crucial test of whether a bird wants protection or not, is whether its numbers are decreasing or the contrary. (6) With some very few exceptions (nearly each of which can be satis- factorily explained), none of what are commonly known as “Small Birds” are decreasing throughout the United Kingdom generally. (7) Most “Small Birds” are generally increasing in numbers, some remarkably so. (8) Setting aside “ Sea-Birds,” which may now be considered safe, no birds have so much diminished in numbers as “ Birds of Prey” and ‘* Wild Fowl.” (9) No law for the protection of “ Birds of Prey,” if passed, could be at present carried out. (10) A law protecting “Wild Fowl,” if passed, could be carried out effectually, provided that the penalties are in proportion to the inducement to break it. (11) “ Wild Fowl” form a group subject to great persecution on account of their marketable value, especially as articles of food: they are commonly killed (many of them because then more easily killed) long after they have paired and have begun to breed; they, be- sides, lie under the same disadvantage as do the few “ Small Birds” which are decreasing—the diminution, namely, through agricultural improvements, of their breeding-haunts: already many kinds of ‘* Wild Fowl,” which a few years ago used to breed frequently and regularly in this country, have ceased or nearly ceased from doing so: they are perfectly innocuous ; consequently 2 “‘ Wild Fowl” are eminently deserving of protection. (12) The principle of what has been called a “ Black List,” favoured by some persons, would be the most fatal step of all in- Bird- Protection, since it would discourage, if not entirely check, the healthy feeling which is steadily, if not rapidly, growing in fayour: of many birds which have long been persecuted. 8. Your Committee respectfully urge that they may be reappointed. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 349 Report of the Committee, consisting of James GuatsuER, F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Rosrrr P. Gree, F.G.S., and Auex- anpDER S. Hurscuet, F.R.A.S., on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1872-73; drawn up by Auexanner S. Herscuet, F.R.A.S. Tue observations of meteors and shooting-stars collected during the past year have been of a more than usually interesting and varied character. The number of large meteors is more considerable; and the appearances of ordi- nary shooting-stars have presented themselves in a more striking manner as regards the explanation of their origin, than has often been the case in former years. Of the meteors which have thus appeared, the Committee have ob- tained much accurate information ; but the extent of the knowledge acquired on all hands of the origin of these bodies has advanced so rapidly with the increase of such observations, that a smaller space for discussion of the indiyi- dual descriptions can be occupied in their Report than the Committee have hitherto been able to bestow upon them; and a more complete reduction of the separate observations will accordingly be attempted when the oppor- tunities of the Committee allow of their closer examination. ‘Those meteors, however, which have been observed simultaneously at more than one ob- serving-station, have been selected from the collection for transcription in suitable columns in this Report; and a list of large meteors is added, among which some have occurred that have without doubt been noticed, and may have attracted attention, in other directions than has hitherto come to the knowledge of the Committee. Two of the largest fireballs seen in Great Britain were aérolitic, or burst with the sound of a violent explosion, on the 3rd of November and 3rd of February last, over the interior of Scotland and over Manchester and its neighbourhood respectively. The descriptions of these two meteors are not so accurate and complete as to admit of very useful repetitions of all their details. Aérolitic meteors and aérolites have also been noticed in the scientific journals of other countries, which have given rise to experiments on the composition of aérolitic substances, both chemical and microscopical, the conclusions of which continue to extend the range of our speculations regarding the origin of these bodies. Thus the existence of carbon and hydrogen in the atmosphere from which the largest iron meteorite yet found (on the shores of Greenland) was projected, confirms the discoveries of Graham and Dr. Mallet, of the existence of those gases in other meteoric irons which have recently been examined, and offers proofs of a relationship between meteorites and comets (in whose spectra carbon has been recognized as an ingredient) which it will be interesting to pursue with further expe- riments and observations. The past year was distinguished by the occurrence of a most remarkable and striking star-shower on the night of the 27th of November last, to the expected appearance of which astronomers were looking forward with especial attention, from the unexplained absence of the double comet of Biela (to which it belongs) at the time of its expected returns in the last three of its periodical revolutions. The probability of the comet’s path being marked by a meteoric stream, into which the earth might plunge on or about the 27th of November every year, was already become a certainty by the observation by Zezioli, of Bergamo, of such a meteoric shower on the 30th of November, 1867, no doubt of whose belonging to the path of the missing comet could possibly be entertained. The exact date of the shower could not be foretold with 350 REPORT—1873. certainty, from the want of recent observations of the comet; but every pro- bability of its being seen was favourable to its reappearance last year; and those who awaited it, as well as many unexpectant watchers of meteor-showers, were surprised by the display of shooting-stars which it suddenly presented at the first approach of darkness, on the evening of Wednesday the 27th of last November. The cloudy state of the sky unfortunately prevented ob- servers throughout the south of England from witnessing the sight; but in Scotland and north of the Midland Counties in England many uninterrupted views of it were obtained. In Europe, Asia, the Mauritius, and in North and South America observers were equally fortunate in recording its appear- ance ; and few great star-showers have hitherto been more satisfactorily ob- served, as well as more abundantly described. In an astronomical point of view, the agreement of the time and other circumstances of its appearance with the supposed path of the lost comet is so exact as to prove that the calculations made by astronomers of that comet’s orbit cannot be affected by any errors of a large amount; and a proof almost certain is thus obtained that the disappearance of the comet is owing to no unexplained distur- bances of its path; but that, like some former comets of variable bright- ness, it has not improbably faded for a time out of view, and that at some future time a reasonable expectation may be entertained of rediscovering the missing comet pursuing its original path in repeated visits to the earth’s neighbourhood and to the field of telescopic observations. Only partial views of the ordinary periodical meteoric showers of De- cember, January, and April last have this year been obtained, of which some descriptions are added to the close of this Report. Reductions of the scat- tered meteor-observations on ordinary nights of the year are an important subject of the Committee’s inquiries, which have been kept in view in their operations of the past year, Captain Tupman having obligingly placed a list of nearly 6000 such observations (made by himself) at their disposal, the greater part of which he has reduced to their most conspicuous radiant- points, this special object of the Committee will be most effectually assisted by the publication of the valuable meteor list which has thus unexpectedly come into their possession. A graphic projection of the radiant-points has been prepared, which will be printed as an illustration of the copious informa- tion that will be gathered by observers from the contents of Captain Tup- man’s list. The catalogue will be distributed this year to observers interested in the research; and to enable useful meteoroscopic charts to be added to it, it is hoped that the Members of the British Association will continue to assist the Committee with such liberal communications of their observations as they have hitherto supplied. APPENDIX. I. Merrors Dousty OBSERVED. In the section of the last Report corresponding to this Appendix, a con- siderable list of simultaneous observations of shooting-stars in the August and other meteor-showers of the previous year was presented of which no ecalcu- lations had at that time been undertaken. The attention of the Committee having been much occupied during the past year with the questions and cor- respondence relating to the unusual meteor-display of the 27th of November last, their intention of calculating these meteor correspondences has not been carried out; and a large addition to the number of duplicate observations of 351 OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, **+ gud 7,-10-9]380.M9 NT “ puvplopung *** gud -10-07]8v0M0 KT sereseeseres NUBTIOpUNG ‘s+ of T-W0-97]880M0 NT purptepung see eweeeeee *** ud T-W0-07}s80M9 NT = ytoX eee urea surat, seccccceeceracnees Surjooy, seereseseree ses TOTMUOOLK) “MOTYLAIOSGO I¢ gg. ot''* sqysiozy osvacay “sn.0q, a 9-0 eoerre ‘Seca fo -109 IO sopnodeyy Uy es 69 86 { eres se BRul pug “yurod 8.0 “+ Sear yp eee DB die BUISt ITO —* +: { ‘pect seen tou @ 10 ‘aofeyy BstQ ge re Seur WF (‘store F] & avoyy) \ er Pr { 9-0 seoeee Seu ST] oGE+ 9G OF 8g cesses “+ -Beur pug =9 =7 (-sn.0q It Tae ae -109 puv wg ucowyog)| + cgemoqy| e¢ | 2s o@ |{ ET nase 9+ SLE Fe OG oe ene =? =7 ai 0-1 -Seur eT < Ss ike 2 eg GLE lh OL 6 GT i aes ° ond 0-% seesereee BNTATG rie? *puooes ‘soft | “pug = “seg *s008 sod soyrur : 2 ‘ ‘yyeg jo} yesoptur‘g'g | , ‘sopnqlaseyy qurod-querpeyy Ay10079 A y ae Ur sjy SOF] woryean¢y quexeddy jo soorlg bo ST II bo L It bog G6 OT lo &F OT 0€ €9 OT 06 Indy 0% Tdy 06 Indy 6. Tady "ELT OT ysusny “GLBT 078 352 REPORT—1873. shooting-stars in subsequent meteor-showers has in the mean time been col- lected, of which (for the same reason) it is only possible to offer in this Report the materials for such a future computation of their comparative results. The following list contains the particulars of a great many such observations, of which the Committee are obliged for the present to leave the calculation to a more convenient opportunity ; and a few results obtained by a rapid gra- phical projection of the paths of a few conspicuous meteors of the list at the moment when the observations were received, are all the results of their final comparison together which the Committee are now able to present. Two bright meteors were seen, one at Glasgow and one in South Wales, on the night of the 9th of October last ; and again two separate meteors, no less bright, at Glasgow and its neighbourhood, and at Bristol and Portsmouth on the night of the 3rd of November, 1872. Of the latter two meteors only, duplicate observations were received ; and the observations on this night ap- pear to indicate an extraordinary frequency of bright meteors. Thus at Milngavie, near Glasgow, “ On Sunday evening (November 3rd) a shower of exceedingly brilliant meteors was observed falling ; one of these was particu- larly brilliant, &c.” It appeared in the north, and left for a second or two a line of light resembling the tail of a comet. The description of the meteor is the same at Leshmahagow, where it is added that, after being observed, it remained in one position and thereafter took an onward course with a rapid flight westwards until it was exhausted. The pause in its flight and the ac- companying tail of sparks are well described by Mr. M‘Clure in the list of duplicate observations. The daily newspapers at Glasgow describe it as passing there from east to north-west or west, appearing as a large bluish fireball with a long tail consisting of coruscations of red light. The Rev. A. Johnson, of Cambuslang, near Glasgow, describes it as of yellow colour, moving about 45° above the horizon from a little south of east to north of west, throwing out a red tail and brilliant bluish and greenish sparks as it seemed to curve downwards a little in the latter part of its course. The re- maining description at Melrose of this meteor’s appearance (see the list) is too imperfect to afford, with Mr. M‘Clure’s account at Glasgow, a definite conelu- sion of its height ; but the interrupted speed and curved course which seem to have marked its motion there, probably signify that the meteor’s flight, as seen at Glasgow, was foreshortened near its radiant-point, and that this point was accordingly near Perseus, Andromeda, and Auriga. This meteor detonated, being seen and heard to explode at the same time in the north of Scotland. It appeared at half-past five o’clock. The observed paths of the next large meteor on the same evening at Portsmouth and Bristol at a quarter past nine o'clock, proceeded from the same radiant-point, and, together with a few ob- servations of bright shooting-stars on the same date observed elsewhere, mark the neighbourhood of a point near #3 Persei at about R. A. 45°, N. Decl. 35°, as roughly representing a region of radiation of the bright meteors recorded on this date. On the night of the 30th of October Mr. Backhouse noticed a great many meteors at Sunderland, four of which had a radiant-point in Cas- siopeia at 0°, +55°; eight or ten others diverged from near y, A Ceti (at about 40°, +6°), and a few others apparently from near e Piscium (at about 14°, +7°),all of their radiant-centres being in the neighbourhood of the above- mentioned radiant-regions. Besides these, Captain Tupman observed a shower of ten bright meteors in forty minutes on the night of November 1st, with three others from the same direction in about the same time on the night of November 3rd, having a definite radiant-point at 56°, + 24°, close to the place assigned to a similar meteor system as seen by Mr. Backhouse on the nights ed OBSERVATONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 350 - of the 4th and 6th of November, 1869 (these Reports for 1870, p. 97), coin- ciding exactly with Heis’s radiant R,, and very nearly with No. 111 of Mr. Greg’s general list (R G) at 64°,+18°. Several meteors from a radiant-point nearer to the latter position, at 64°,+ 20°, were observed by Mr. Denning at Bristol, on the nights of the 6th, 9th, and 10th of November last. On the first of these nights a meteor also proceeded from the direction of a radiant-point in Auriga, at about 85°,+27°; and on the last date Mr. C. E. Baker, at Bristol, noted five meteors diverging from a common radiant-point near the Hyades, in Taurus. The whole of these affiliated radiant-points appear to be connected with the well-known shower from near a Tauri, often noticed by observers during long watches for the Leonids or meteors of the 14th of November, having its time of maximum from October 30th to November 6th, or in the first few days of November. The next considerable meteor of which duplicate observations were ob- tained, appeared at about ten o’clock on the evening of the 3rd of February, 1873. Owing to the cloudy and hazy state of the sky, which nearly con- cealed the moon at many places, the descriptions of its apparent path were nowhere sufficiently determinate to indicate its real course with great pre- cision ; but they combine to show that the meteor moved at a lower elevation than common amongst ordinary shooting-stars, over the northern part of Staf- fordshire and Cheshire, passing at a height of less than forty miles above Crewe, and disappearing at a height of less than thirty miles over a point between Liverpool and Chester: at some point of this course a violent explo- sion was produced, the sound of which was heard like the loud boom of a ‘distant gun or a low roll of thunder about three or four minutes after the meteor’s disappearance. The accounts of its apparent path, and also of the time and character of the occurrence of the report, are very discordant; but there appears no doubt that the meteor was a detonating fireball of the largest class, illuminating the whole country over which it passed with one or two prolonged flashes of light at least as powerful as that of the full moon, and the report differing altogether from that of any signal gun, of which it is said that one took place at about the time of its appearance. Its course may also have been rather more nearly from east to west, or from over Chesterfield to above Chester, than that above described, the best descriptions at Manchester and Sheffield stating that it vanished at its extinction near and directly above the moon, which was then shining in the west. The light of the meteor was bluish, with a train of many brilliant sparks in its track; and it burst into many fragments, but without leaving any visible streak of light in its course. Mr. Greg, Mr. Wood, and Mr. Sorby have collected numerous descriptions of this meteor’s appearance at Manchester, Birmingham, and Sheffield; but the definite results to which they all point, scarcely vary sufficiently from the above general conclusions to make their separate enumeration necessary to complete this notice. It is remarkable, as observed by Mr. Wood, that on the same date and at the same local time of the evening, a very brilliant fire- ball was visible in Australia, of which a description appeared in the ‘ English Mechanic’ of May 2nd, 1873, p. 171. £873. 2a 354 REPORT—1873. APPARENT PATHS OF METEORS DOUBLY star 55 Pegasi. Hour, Apparent Date. | approx. oe, Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path. G. M. T. “| as per Stars &c. 1870:| hb m 5s Noy.13} 9 38 0 |Radeliffe Obser-|>2 ........ eae res PDLUC sas vases ..-.|4 seconds,.....|From near Capella vatory, Oxford. to near Omicron, Ursz Majoris. ; 1871. Aug.10) 10 57 O |Luxembourg Ob-|Very bright metecr}....cccceseeceersslere sete gets Heals en (Paris servatory, Paris. From 247°+33° time.) to 251 +13 1872. July 22} 8 55 p.m,|Bridgewater = Sirius. Orange-red .../1:25 second .,.|For 5° N. of East (Somersetshire). read 13° N. of East. Aug. 8] 10 29 16 |Bangor, N. Wales|3rd mag. ...ccesseees|eccceseeecenees «| Very swift e= d= 0:2 second. |From 809°— 3° to 300 —15 SiMO530) (0! (Royall Observa- |Ld Mag. ....ccscsee-|.cccossceavecacessleseaceeoseascccers From 221°+37°7 tory, Greenwich. to 226 +22°7 8] 10 39 19 |Bangor, N. Wales3rd mag, ...eee...es Pree seceeeees| Very swift; {From 352°+9° ; 0:2 second. | to 344 —1; passing right across the small star at 347°, +3° 8} 10 40 0 /Royal Observa- [1st Mag. ...ccceceeeel cccees eves dosuns | seveh cdameaeantte a= b= tory, Greenwich. From 222°5+65° 7 to 221 +46; passed through 39 Bodtis. 8) 11 36 23 |Ibidem.,.......... Ist mag. .....+0++..|Bluish white .{1 second ...... Passed towards the horizon in con- tinuation of a line joining a Persei and c Ca- melopardi. 8) 11 37 0 |Radcliffe Obser- |2nd mag...........+. Sasa daswaansenes 1 second .,..../From « Persei to yatory, Oxford. ( Camelopardi. 8) TY S38! "S| Lancaster, 2... ces}2NG WAL... ccovvecess|esseceoogsacanever{eqsesuceseeneetass| PASSE ClOSeEto ithe + 158, . star 20 Pegasi. G. M.T. 8] 11 55 33 |[bid....ecsssseeees- (2nd TAD. syvenncasnval execuueeraxessehay|iacwspresesesees eh Passed close to the OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 355 OBSERVED DURING THE YEAR 1872-73. Length of Direction or Apparent Path. Radiant-point. Appearance ; Remarks. Observer. : | Bi tccess Buanaceseses| Sceecone Stassesees se RRageesadsievncsss [Also observed at the Royal|J. Lucas (Radcliffe Ob- 4 Observatory Greenwich. See| servations, 1869). i Report for 1871, page 34.] P “lsseseenscvercssces|sovececeeeeerseovesssssesecsssesvensees(A Very brilliant meteor. [Corre-|Chapelas Coulvier , sponds nearly, but is not iden-| Gravier. r tical with that seen in England at 10251™ G. M.T. See last Report, page 80.] |For 20° read Slope about 35° ,.....ss0..-1-008 For 8 Pegasi read Altair. ddd J. E. Clark. 35° or 40°. Place of disappearance as mea-| sured by a house-corner close to which it disappeared. [Cor- rections in last Report, p. 118.] Jee cssseneeeeee/POTSCIAssoseseeesseesseeeeseeeeseree(GOOd general position, fair direc--G. L. Tupman. tion, and doubtful point of disappearance of path. en eeith ng sie2 eos seeevececeeeseesesseeeuseeeseeseeeeesse/Disappeared behind dome of the|G. Forbes. : Sheepshanks Equatorial. Ist mag. .. eereee ‘Bluish white [White ...sss0+ ‘Bluish white . Colour. Duration. '0°75 second... en ee ea 1 second seer ne eeneetes seeeeeecenoerrere '0°7 second .. Bluish white ./0°7 second .. \Bluish white .|1 second ..... White eooes{l Second ..... Orange......«.- I second ..... Bluish white ;!2 seconds..... changed to flame-colour. —_—_—_— 0'3 second ... L second ...... Apparent Path. | Passed horizontally about 6° below Polaris. 1 “= From 167°°5+71° to 188°5 +52 Shot from near y Persei. From 13 [a] Came-, lopardi [74°°4+) 62°°3] to B Au-| rige. Passed between and 7 Urse Ma- joris. ji From 346°-+25° to 335 +10 (Apparent course as mapped. ‘ a= o= From 30°+58° to 27 +77 ,|Passed across y Ce-' phei. | .|Passed a little be- low « Honorum) [Andromedz] to a point between a and 6 Pe- gasi. Passed above « An- dromede. e= o= From 355°+8° to 347 —8 From between f and & Cassio- peiz ; passed to a point a little below 6 Pegasi. From to 349 +422 [Apparent course as mapped. ] From A Persei to e Aurigze. 2= From 14°-+32° to 8 +18 = . Length of Direction or Apparent Path. Radiant-point. a eRe Hee eebeeee ve eetetone ORO eer dete eeree eeeeeeeer i RRIELOTIZONGALyscedsssvansyaeesecdves a hs | 12° ereterores OBSERVATIONS Moving from Cassiopeia to- wards 8 Ursx Majoris. ../Radiant, 7 Persei ... deve Plctedessesseccs: Directed from f Custodis ..,... Ree We see |cossansarocesesiscessacvsees “corsnbonee: On a line from the upper part OOO RE Heme teeee of Perseus towards « Pegasi. POOH e eee ee eee tee COCR HOOP eee tote ae eee eee Obese ee 20° ee Oeoes|tteeeee POO EEE EE POOR POET e Pes ereeeees Sette reared neers 14° eeeeerees Pegasi. CORO He ee PROT ERE Heat ste ne tee eeeeene -| Left a streak for 0°25 second .|Left a streak for 1 second....... OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Appearance; Remarks. Left no streak PCa eee tere ee eaenenens dameee | Left a streak Ome e neem eee eter tewens Left a streak OPEN OO Deo eROese rs BOG Lsseeeeee Left a streak ......000 Sevenequeeteer \Left a fine streak .esssscovecsscves The stars in Perseus and Pegasus much obscured by clouds. Left a streak for 3 seconds . eee Left a magnificent train, which| lasted 3 or 4 seconds after the Observer, R. Cross. G. Forbes. disappearance of the meteor, Position carefully observed. Followed in thirty seconds by another meteor as bright as Venus; on the same course, »-| Left a streak ....ssecevee ECC EDR UE, J. Lucas. W. C. Nash. ..|R. P. Greg. T. Crumplen. W. Marriott. Id. H. W. Jackson. W. H. Wood. W. Marriott. As from x Persei towards «Left a streak for 1 or 2 seconds.,H. W. Jackson. .-| Left a streak ......00000. seccavenvestidls LUGHSa Left a streak for one second.|J. E. Clark and T. HV. Waller. 398 Hour, approx. G. M. T. Date. 1872. Aug.10 10) 11 10) 11 10, 11 10) 11 40 10) 11 42 10) 11 44 10) 11 10 10 46 30 10 10 10 10 1] 11 11 ell Apparent | én. ae Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path. * | as per Stars &c. York....ssseesseeee/20d mag. «414.4006 White ........./0°S second .., a= O= From 319°+70° to 289 +60 Radcliffe Obser- [4th mag. cicssciscsss|esevessseseseoseesle sessseceveveeesss{Eassed from o to ’ vatory, Oxford. x Urse Ma- joris. Mbid ee cccecstecacs} ond Mags wrseys secs ..|White .,......./1°5 second ,..|Passed from 6 to 8 Aurigz. OTK seassparene as SHRORY pobauoonccade ++|Red .cccossesees/t'2 SEC. 5 SLOW. c= = From 6°-+30° to 8 +20 REPORT—1873. Radcliffe Obser- 4th mag. ........606- Sear rer A soveceserscesevss(Ktom © Urs Mae vatory, Oxford. joris to @ Canum Venaticorum. Birmingham ...|3rd mag. ........606- NBlae ” scene 0°5 second ... a= d= From 284°+70° [2194 +70] to 197 +57 MOEK i ts cessaseenent [Sd Mae. cose ccrsesse Red wcticcktit \l second ...... From 38°-+51° to 35 +49°5 Radcliffe. Obser-V4th map, sesescssesss|, tscdeccscccaaancaleneeeremmmandeatee Shot from near 6 vatory, Oxford. Aurigz. [Did Gsveseenecssssce DURMH AGH e cs scesnrene| stores Ser aritrercca eocicssan Passed from o to x Urse Ma- joris. WOvksercscssusemese St OMUE. setcesaacere Blue .........|0°75 second ... a= 0= From 339°+.67° to 306 +63 Birmingham .../3rd mag. ssececesseos|BIUC cecesace.[eeeeeeeers seeveeejErom $B Aquarii to a Sagittarii. Royal Observa- Ist mag. ...... veeese|Bluish white .|:++seessseseeseeee(Fell almost ver-| — tory, Greenwich. tically down-| — wards from Z — Aquilz. Birmingham .,.\Ist mag. v...eseee Vellow semawess |ucovacndncsecee »./Shot from 8 to-|_ wards Z Andro- : mede. ‘ Royal Observa- [Ist mag. ....0....+«.|Bluish white .|1°2 second ...|Disappeared near «| tory, Greenwich. Ursze Majoris. | — Tbidks ses ghesvaeniiee PUG TOMES sth oeehtives|>0°5 second 2— so | From 326° 0° | to 323 —7 11) 10 57 30 Royal Observa- [Ist mag. .....sececclecssssevens edeces lsecond ...... From 273° +35? | | | tory, Greenwich. to 267°5 +15 SAT Geel ONL bidsiosssersvevsvac|seveee seanerpeasieeeeas'- 'Bluish white ./0°S second .../Shot between 6 | and y, about 2° from y Urse Ma-| | joris. | AMUN 3 00) | MOLKS. cece ccesesse [2nd MAP. vesereseeees (Reduercan ae lsecond ...... e= b= | From 283°-+445° | | to 262 +32 | 11} 11 6 O |Regent’s Park, |Ist mag. ........0... IBIUC — saseerss.levecsevers sseonsie From 115°+472° | | London. to 166 +56 | | [Apparent cours¢| as mapped. J Apel ZnO) Royal: Observa- |3rd Maps cssssccaecso|esecseccvece osgent l second ...... = |" tory, Greenwich. From 156° 64° 19 to 162: ‘5-+53 BU TSO | MOnK ssa snscseencee = QD vrsseecccceeeeeene HB] ees. gs cneone 6°75 second ...|From 321° +28° | to 369 +15 11) 11 10 30 |Royal Observa- j3rd mag. ......ssceee|ecescsecsseeseece 0:5 second .../From 150° + 61° tory, Greenwich. to 160 +652 OU LO AM WG aia co nce dap ec-|ceesouseeedeseers-essenn 'Bluish white ./0°8 second .../Passed between « and 0 Ursx Ma- joris. D1 ee Le) HN OV Kenan: caitech a ==) Bes o0n eee Aa WEE ccs cone td ,..0°75 second... q=~ 6= From 322°+5§° | to 300 +43 13} 12 11 0 |Buntingford, |2nd mag. .........48. Bluish white .!L second ,..... From 323°-+34° Herts. to 308 +12 | [Apparent course : as mapped. | 11) {2 11 10 |Prior Street, Ist mag. .....,,...../Bluish white .|1 second ...... Shot from be- Greenwich, tween y and € Cygni in th direction y A- \ quilze. 11, 12.18 0 |Buntingford, [Sirius .....,.00.00... Bluish white .'1 second ,,..., 2— os Herts, From 31°+17° © to- 30 +6. [Apparent cours: as mapped. ] OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 361 LL Length of Direction or Apparent A ; Path, Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks. Observer. | | q = = | etree moissltieidialistais 0 Mevanseaegsiivadassescek chapmegatinecnacet.s DENdosboucesnee oben Ganley sedeaan ‘J. Lueas. | : Rare Rantala sess SonCECOCO Te Hab COR U RECTORY Left a streak sesseeerssrseceenees W. H. Wood, cen PARR ae porseseseeesseersrsseceesseeerseeee Left a Streak for 2seconds ......J. E. Clark and T. LL. Waller. Rei ek econ eaieasses)ees Pee eenseereneeecane wepenieeale sease(Mu@ib A'StLEAK: sscecenssscwsvecenendes |W. H. Wood. | el ae 0 Cea eee tee Hae scussaebesins Bideak Pea iucnaeern eee ‘Id. | Ria gsis det Ist mag. ......... Bluish white .|/I second ......\Shot from the Greenwich. direction of €¢ Persei in the direction of ¢€ Arietis. (Ap- proximate posi- tion. 19} 8 47 0 |Radcliffe Obser- j1st mag. .........66 Yellow to 2°5 seconds.../From w Aquilz to vatory, Oxford. green. near 0 Aquila. 19} About [Bristol..........+.|S>-Ist Mag. sees Bright blue ...|Moved slowly |Passed down the 8 50 0 E.N.E. sky. | Noy. 3} 5 30 0 |Glasgow (Scot- | apparent diam-|Vivid green to 2°5 seconds; |Began about 10°) land). eter of the moon.| bluish white,) not rapid. left of *Capella,} with red and disappeared} sparks, behind a cloud}, near the N.N.W.|| | horizon, NNW. NE | 3) 5 30 © |Melrose (Scot- |Very large and|Pink, green, {Moved so [The line of its flight land). bright. blue, and slowly that | was from E. tol’ white. it could be | N.W. well ob- served, 2= 0— 3| 9 14 O [Portsmouth .../Nucleus about 10/\Red andyellow)3-5 seconds .../From 57° +69° — in diameter. to 135 +6775, From near Camelopardi Custodis) to Ursz Majoris. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 363 Length of Direction or Apparent Path. Radiant-point. Appearance ; Remarks. Observer. | a rs | a | ee POT teaPetUVeUE |i bevovvetvevbeitsteccssevectccesvess.(Lielt & Very fle train iiieisisss..... R. Cross. DOS UMMENAVE NA cdipesclvacenccsccocccesscnscrccecccccccess(iGL6 & StLCAK conssecccsnsesvensseveee| We Marri0tt, sesvecenereceeconslecesccosecsscesoneceosctensserrssseesesi(A fine meteor; radiant ap-|J. Lucas. parently near y Draconis. A bright meteor was seen at a later hour of the same night at York. See the ac- companying list. | Hee EP eee e eer er eel eseese rene EOO Perec eee eneenee se PO onnnoes Nucleus starlike ; left no streak WwW. F. Denning. of light on its course. It did not explode, but seem- ed to burn out gradu- ally. Meerevendecsvceseslesssccsevssssesevessvessceseesgegseces {NUCLEUS With short red tail, ac-[Robert McClure. f companied in the latter por- tion of its flight by a shower of red sparks. About the mid- dle of its path its velocity de- creased as if the fireball were passing through a denser me- dium, thereafter pursuing its path with renewed velocity. Viieceeteesesseeseslecscrssscssssscssesercessseesssveeess-(Lhe train was a mixture of many|A. Dodds. Communi- colours. The nucleus exploded| cated by G. J. Symons. with a shower of sparks. [Its red coruscations and flight from E. to W. in the north was ob- served at many places near ‘ Glasgow. See Appendix II.] teseeeeeseeeeeeeeely Andromede, radiant of Biela’s|Exceedingly _ brilliant. Com-|G. L. Tupman. ‘ comet (?). menced as an ordinary shoot- ing-star, and increased until it greatly surpassed Venus at her greatest brilliancy ; with a long train of sparks, but leaving no streak upon its course. The observed po- sition very accurate, 364 REPORT—1873. D Hour, Place of ate. CMT Observation. 1872./; h m s Noy. 3) About |Bristol...... decent 915 0 | | 28; 10 25 0 |Regent’s Park, | London. ' 28) 10 29 0 |Hawkhurst (approx. (Kent). time). 1873. Feb. 3) 9 58 O [Bristol ...scrceee 3) About |Wordsley, near 10 0 O| Stourbridge. 27| About (Tooting, near 7 30 0 | London. 27| 7 35 0 [Bristol .......00.. Apr.19) 10 42 30 Newcastle-on- Tyne. 19} 10 44 O [York.e..ec.ssseeees 19 11 15 0 |Radcliffe Obser- vatory, Oxford. 19 11 17 0 |Street, near Bath (Somersetshire). 20) 10 22 15 |Newcastle-on- Tyne, Magnitude, as per Stars &c. Ist mag., bright ...| Ist mag. Large meteor As bright as the half nioon, 2nd Mag. oerssseeeeee Apparent Very bright meteor',..... eee eeereseees Colour, The train green, pur- ple, and yellow. SO .|Brilliant white Ist mag. .,.00+....-| Yellow...... te 1st Mags weosseseeere Bluish ......... Tstsmag. sanssievaren® Blue seescceee 14 mag. ...-+....+-|Orange-yellow 1-1 second ... Duration. Apparent Path. ooo .../Appeared at a point near the zenith, and passed down- | | wards about 10°)| E. of the Pleiades in Taurus. oO From 73°°5+429° to 88 -+35°5 Moved slowly .». Rather slow |Began near 4 Ca-|| speed. melopardi. seceeeseeeeeeeeeee/Flash of the meteor}, behind clouds near the horizon, || 6 seconds.,..../Shot from a point} about 40° or 50°} \ above the N.W. horizon towards | and about half. point of the ho.| rizon, From near Sword-hand Perseus to about 2° beyond 4 (a. () Andromede. |) More than 2 seconds. sass |ceauneeneegensteeae Shot towards Venus|| from E. to W. Passed 1° above and disappeared about 5° beyond Spica. Less than 1°5/From d Bootis to} second, about 5° south of] : B Leonis, -|From 6 Draconis to' y Cephei. 15 second .. 15 second , = 44° a2= From 295° to 307 55 — ...|From @ Corone t e Bodtis T} exact position). 0°6 second Length of Path. HAA a Deere eeeree OHNE ee we near renee pot course... ha i oo wee eeeee Fee eee PEM e reer eseeeeeeereed Veneers . Directed from 3 (0, #) Serpentis\Lyraid. Left no streak ... [From Cerberus] * Lyraid FOVN owen eeneeeecereeenrree eer Left a slight StLERKs sp syecuccscedenct OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 365 ee Direction or Apparent Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks. i a a es es es Mevecsecsensscssescessoscecsseeneenss,(@fe Sparks and smoke on its track. Position of apparent path carefully observed. A sound as of an explosion was heard 3 seconds after its disap- pearance. Radiant RG ..seccseecceeeeree/ Left a streak Towards Tarandus ......+++.06+++/Left no streak MMMRSUSENGRsaecl-secccsccvecstevcavacces sesreeeeesseseelTlluminated the clouds brightly; in the northern sky. [Seen also at Manchester as a large fireball; vivid blue, duration 10 seconds; moving from S.E. to N.W.]. _ (Detonating. See Appendix II.) Inclination about|Nucleus with a long streak or to the horizon. train as wide as half the appa- rent diameter of the moon, and of mingled colours. [E. to W.] | 40° seoovee|Left a streak for 2 seconds (?). Readily compared with Venus, which was only a few de- grees off. Had two distinct maxima. The point of termi- nation more correctly observed than the commencement. seeeeeeelSky rather cloudy. Several bright meteors were visible this evening, without parti- cular attention being paid to note them, Radiant Vega Lyre ......,.....|Lyraid. Left a bright streak last-| ing, with the meteor, 14 second. Left a streak. [The agreement of this observation with that of the next meteor, both in time and in apparent position, is very doubtful and imper- fect. | Observer, | E. B. Gardiner. Com- municated by W. F.) Denning. T. Crumplen. Miss Herschel. W. F. Denning. ‘Nature,’ Feb. 6, 1873. | H. W. Jackson. W. F. Denning. A. S. Herschel. A. K. Brown and T. H. Waller. J. Lucas. | Teter wee eeeeoene Lyraid .....:...scseeceneseseeeseseee( Left a white streak for? a second; brightest in the middle of its course, | J. E. Clark, A. 8. Herschel. 366 REPORT—1873. Hour, Apparent Date.| approx. mh ae oe Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path. G. M. T. * | as per Stars &c. a i i i 1873.| hh m 8 Apr. 20) 10 23 O |Sunderland BIA THA i Fesescs. Aleeepopseegenensoes cadeus sesecesesess(Disappeared at (Durham). a=?) ones 35°, or at 4 (y, A) Bodtis. SOT 7) ONEbid.cscsessesveies Ath Mag. .essscceesssfeceaseceeeeveeeee/Rather quick...|Disappeared at 4 (kh Come Be- renices, E Leo- | Senish: 20) 11 7 0 |Neweastle-on- 4th mag. .......0....,White ...e000.. 0°8 second ...|Disappeared at e Tyne. Virginis. (Ter- mination well observed), BOWED NS 15 |Ubids-b.c...cccccens 35 MAG. .ssoeeee soe] LELLOW ve vaseae 0°6 second ...|From 7 Virginis to } 2° below e Leo- nis. 20} 11 15 30 |Sunderland 2nd MAL. veeseseveeeefeeeens sevcesvevees| QUICK sesserees Commenced 2° (Durham), above » Virginis. Aug. 2} 11 38 0 |Radcliffe Obser- |1st mag. ............]White ........./1 second ......|From Polaris to vatory, Ox- Urs Majoris. ‘ford. 2| 11 40 0 |Bristol............ SON. sc saNieeses cegesaldeeyddeeenn. svececlOt8 Becond Mass a= 6= From 43°-++54° to 62 +56 7| 9 33 0 |Radcliffe Obser- |= 9 ........., aes Yellow ..,......(2 seconds...,.. Began at e Urse vatory, Oxford. Majoris and dis-| the observatory tower. 7| 9 33 0 |Bristol...... Rec secliec tai h., AMP. JeieFibpes guess oacascae es 0°9 second ... a= O= From 190°-++59° to 195 +30 9| 11 33 0 |Regent’s Park, |2ndmag....... eats e | BIWC “ee sweaees lana sap eaeecrennes a= O= London. From 225°+66° to 223 4+45° | 9) 11 34 © [Bristol ........e00-/2nd Mag. secsseecess-lesseesseeerecereee(OG Second ,..|From 51°5-+44%5 | to 57 +34 4 11] 911 © |Tooting, near [1st mag. .secocseees|WHItE ssccrsorslorersrtersnazooaee a= = | London. From 65°-+81° — to 70+72 (Position ac 1- rately observed.) OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 367 Length of irecti A er Die Pant p Sa, Feng Appearance; Remarks. Observer, | ——— - Not a long Directed from % Corone to-/A Lyraid. Left a streak for aT, W. Backhouse. course, wards ¢ (y, A) Bodtis. moment after the head vanished. ..|Directed towards a point at|[From a radiant north of UrsalId. dbout a=181°, d=+9°. Major. ] TO? seccessseve. Vertically down, as from Cor|Left no streak. (Direetion ofjA. S. Herschel. Caroli. path imperfectly observed). 10° ......s00«+|Directed from o Virginis .,,...[Lyraid .........e006 Bocenvasssssscotesse(LQe 8° or 10°....../Directed towards @ Leonis ...|Lyraid. Nucleus undefined. Left/T. W. Backhouse. a streak. PEP ere eee e Pees eeelsnseeneres DOC eee ee OOO rer eeeneeeeraeeeer|® 20o8 seeseeees OO eoeeereeesecereerereseees J. Lucas. 2? Ce Peeeeeeene Pegasid Seema eres eee eeeeerenecre ten! POO e ne Peo eee tee ees eae teneereereneeeeses W. F Denning. seeseseeersereeeeeiItS Course prolonged onwards|Left a streak .ss.ceccossessseeeeeeees(Js LUCAS, must have passed between « and 7 Bodtis. 30° ......s0++e.|Radiant Polaris [? or ¢ Cassio- Left a well - defined train just/W. F. Denning. pei]. north of Cor Caroli for 7 seconds. [Seen also at Tooting, near London, ‘in the north going towards Richmond,” i. e., west- wards, and bursting out with sparks like a rocket, as it travelled. (Communicated by H. W. Jackson.) ] ee eer oeceeceeres ETE e Terr ere roi cere e rere r tire ieee ey eer eerie rer yal Tri ty T. Crumplen. 10°5 oeeeeree Radiant x Persei... rr Feneeertoons Left a streak for a second ....,....,W. F. Denning. Y en eetetene PPPS PPC Terre ey Tiree ee yy eee Left a bright streak. A beautiful/H. W. Jackson. explosion at the end of its course. 368 Date ale Place of a oo T. Observation. | — } fa73| h-m s | Aug.11} 9 11 0 |Bristol............ | | | } | | 9 12 0 Radcliffe Obser- vatory, Oxford. REPORT— 1873. Apparent Magnitude, Colour. as per Stars &c. [st MAG. ...ceecssevelescevescecrerses NUSEMGG Aovedcoauseas Yellow «...... Duration. 0°8 second ... 2°5 seconds ...| II. Larcr Merrors and AEROLITES. Apparent Path. e4e= é= From 11°+40° to 21 +29 From Z Cassiopeiz to 46 [w] An-) dromede. In the ‘Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society’ of the past year (vol. xxxiii.), several interesting instances of very large meteors are recorded. The earliest having occurred nearly on the same date of the year as the well- known fall of the meteorite of Orgeuil (on the 14th of May, 1867), it may very possibly have been, as its description renders probable, an aérolitic fire- ball. It is thus described by Commander H. P. Knevitt, as observed on board of H. M. S. ‘Fawn,’ on the passage from Manzanilla to Panama. “On the 16th of May, 1872, at 2"45™ a.m. (the weather having been squally since midnight), a phenomenon was seen in the heavens at an altitude of about __ 50°, and bearing Kast of compass; the ship at the time being in lat. 14° 55! N. » and long. 99° 58' W. I did not see it myself, but the following is the de- scription given of it by Lieut. Cecil G. Horne, who was the officer of the watch. Attention was first drawn by a very bright flash, resembling a small flash of vivid lightning, but being much more solid and lasting four to five seconds ; the passage of the luminous body was towards the horizon for a short distance (say 8° or 4°) in a zigzag course ; it then appeared to burst and throw off a tail such as a comet has, the tail forming a ring and spreading itself round the body till the whole had very much the appearance of a large Catherine- wheel; it then gradually faded out of sight, having been visible from first to last about ten or fifteen minutes.” A large meteor observed at the Mauritius at about 7 o’clock p.at. on the 7th of November, 1872, by Mr. W. Wright, is described at p. 176 of the same volume, being communicated to the Astronomical Society by Mr. Meldrum. The appearance of the meteor was exactly like that of the moon in her first quarter, the lower quarter only of the disk being illuminated and the upper three quarters being of a dull dusky stone-brown colour. The writer’s atten- tion was drawn to it by a sudden flash above the brightness of moonlight ; and it appeared to him to fall from the direction of Aquarius. In communi- cating this observation to ‘ Nature’ of January 23rd, 1873, Mr. Meldrum re- marks that the moon was actually at the end of her first quarter, in the posi- tion indicated by Mr. Wright as the direction in which he observed the meteor ; id Length of Direction or Apparent OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 369 Path Radiant-point Appearance; Remarks. Observer. 13° ....e0se0e04)Radiant Andromeda .........05- [The real radiant of the meteor,|/W. F. Denning. by comparison of these obser- | vations, was near B Draconis. | SL SEeiesin 501 PEDEM CULVER tHUS— ...csosucsos|scevesccarsescessccgessescntaccesssessssee{d« LUCAS. san E and his description of its appearance differing widely from that of any large fireball hitherto observed, it is questioned by Mr. Meldrum if the object which appeared to Mr. Wright may not have been the moon itself, flashing forth, per- haps suddenly from behind clouds, and by their motion appearing to descend among them. A similar meteor, Mr. Wright adds, was seen at the Mauritius about a year previously; but the entire disk of that meteor was luminous, and the moon, at the time when the meteor presented itself, was not shining. The following description (on the same page of the above ‘ Notices’) refers to the bright meteor of the 3rd of November, seen at Glasgow and elsewhere in Scotland at half-past five o’clock in the evening, which appears, from this account, to have been aérolitic or of a detonating kind. Mr. H. D. Penny writes thus from Nairn to Mr. Duncan :—“ I was coming up the street at 5.30 p.m. on that day, when, without any warning, I seemed enveloped in flame ; on looking to the sky it seemed illuminated, and continued so for two or three seconds, so brightly that I had no difficulty in seeing the smallest stone on the ground. For a second or so the illumination waned, and then it shone for a second brighter than before. I hurried home to see the exact time of the circumstance; and being about 100 yards or so from the house, I heard, on coming at the gate, a low rumbling noise as of distant thunder away to the south-west. I then concluded that it was thunder, and remained outside for half an hour in the expectation of hearing more, but in vain, as thunder is rather uncommon in this quarter at this season.” On making inquiries respecting it, Mr. Penny found that other persons, a few miles from Nairn, more fortunate than himself, had observed the fireball itself; and the description given to him by one of them is as follows :—‘ He saw a large ball of fire, about the size of the full moon, coming up from the east-south- east, about twenty degrees from the horizon, and gliding along comparatively slowly, so that he could distinctly discern it. The ball was of the colour of intensely heated iron, and had a tail attached to it. For the two or three seconds that it remained in sight, the sky was so lighted up that he could have picked a pin from the ground. It then seemed to him to descend behind some of the hills to the south-west of him; and for a second the sky was a i when all at once the light burst forth stronger than before ; 1873, 2B 370 REPORT—1873. LARGE METEORS AND FIREBALLS OBSERVED Hour, : Date.| approx. Oe " Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Position. G. M. T. 1866.|} hm s Jan. 1) 9 20 0 |Bristol ..e.vs.sceee (Brag htenmihatigthel..¢.ccc---coness-|sehorccsscsuecsens iPassed a few de- fixed stars. grees from the moon, and near a certain bright fixed star, either Procyon or Pol- lux. Nov.13} 9 18 30 /York ...cce..se0 IDEXGD Ls hewariecersesanct Yellow ..sesee- (32 seconds .../From clouds close to Mars to « For- nacis (110°, + 22°5 to 34°, — 24°-5), Low down along the eastern horizon. 13| 12 30 0 |Bristol............ Far the brightest|...cccsccssssccsselssseseaevseeeseens Passed directly a- meteor seen du- cross the zenith. ring the Novem- ber shower. Dec.10} 10 24 0 |LDId.....eercccsenes Brighter than any|Blue,.....seess.[esereeneeeereeeees(COMMeEnced near meteor seen on the constellation November 13 to Ursa Minor, and 14, 1866, ex- taking a south- cepting perhaps erly direction, the above noted. disappeared when it reached 1868. Orion. Sep. 14| About 8 Keynsham, near|As bright as either}......s.s++esee0+-(Glided along'Commenced near or 15} o’clock. Bristol. of the foregoing the sky. Cassiopeia. (Ap- (Exact meteors. parent path not time and exactly noted.) date un- 1869.| certain.) Aug.11] 14 8 0 |Radcliffe = L..eaaee Perpatestnirietes Mpdressdccarcue eaquducnmaed .seee.[Position of the Observatory, bright streak Oxford, about midway between « Cygni and « Aquilz. Oct.27| 8 15 0 |Besselsleigh, = YY sscseareceeesereee/ White .,seeeee-/2 seconds or 3/From wf Tauri to near Oxford, seconds. the Pleiades. Noy.15| 10 13 0 |Radcliffe 5 hep cne isareeeent ..|White ...,...../2 seconds..,...)/From Pollux to A Observatory, : Urse Majoris. Oxford, 19). 7 <0 0 Whi Na veavere eens |= esr aidan eteseus figacxdavgisacyade-(aane naadqucte Gonqdhe GSES through 1870. Ursa Major. Mar.30) 8 20 0 /Ibid...... yeeecaneee| > op seveeeseey| Brilliant white|/About 5 secs.|.From the zenith to a point near the horizon, a little south of east. | OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 371 CHIEFLY DURING THE YEARS 1872 anp 1873. soreih of Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks, &e. Observer. ———— sessesesseeeeeees(PrOm west tO €aSt ......000000.../A splendid meteor; very con-|W. F. Denning. spicuous, though passing so near the moon, which was very brilliant. Sky very clear after a cloudy evening. 203" congc ane esos From N.E. to S., in a hori-\Left a bright green streak, gra-|J. E. Clark, and several zontal, slightly curved] dually growing fainter. Ap-| other observers. course. parently an early meteor of the stream of Leonids. a Maneater seek « afd « sf BH, tO W. voseseveceerreeeeeeeeeeeee | LefG a, vast train of light; at|/W. F. Denning. first seen as a long streak, but soon becoming wavy 01 serpentine, and like a nebu- lous cloud, which grew fainter and drifted from its place until it disappeared, having been visible at least three quarters of an hour. tem yirerarcesel| Nei tO) Sa]! eenssvspeccsecss sses.-{LHuminated the whole sky (which/Id. was at the time hazy, with a slight fog obscuring the fainter stars). Immediately before ex- tinction, burst into many frag- ments like a rocket. Left no perceptible streak. No sound . of an explosion heard. Reasvereessssevoeclecoshsconovecacneccesscessseos vseeveeee(I]]uminated all surrounding ob-|[d. = jects with a sudden light; dis- appeared rather suddenly, left no streak. —————_——— $$$ ssseeeeeereeeeeeee] The meteor must have started/The observer was startled by|J. Lucas. (Radcliffe from, or passed near the] a bright flash, and on look-| Observations, 1869.) |s zenith, and have disappeared] ing in the direction named, behind trees in the west. saw the streak which re- mained upon the meteor’s *course. (Also described in the ‘Astronomical Register’ for September 1869.) PERTH E RTH eee eee lene eH eee EHH EEF EHOO OEE E HEHEHE SHORES HES FORE HE eEE HEHE RHEE THEE SHE HH BESTE EHH EEH OES Id. Measaneeersrcesweeleceepesevapeteepernsrcceenersetessacses Left a faint streak .........c..0000e. Id see Perens eeeders DOWNWALGS, ..ccccccstcccnccnscrecsisenceredecdsteedsscdesetetecreescevcoccecs Id. sesteeeenssceeeees| Vertically downwards... Disappeared behind some trees ..|J. R Main. Beg 372° a Date ane Place of 3 aM. T. Observation. 1870.} hm s Sep.25} 8 51 0 |Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. 26] 15 15 O [[bid.ies... cesses. Oct. Jj/About [Did.....s.000seees. 8 0 0 1871. Apr.10] 11 45 0 |[bid........ eee ept. 1; 8 44 O JIbid.....c..seceeeee Noy.13) 11 25 15 |Cambridge ...... Dec. 6} 6 25 O |Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. 1972: * July 27} 11 40 0 |Dalston, near and London. 12 30 0 29) About Creuznach 9 30 01} (Germany). (local time). Aug.18) 10 45 0 |Cambridge ...... 19} 10 20 0 |York wenenceetnee REPORT—1878. Apparent Size. > 4 Oe eesetaeeees =D] cevevevesseccvoess = Dpedenddercaat estes GOI . ieevieevadens Very large and bright. ph Fb e eee ete enrerees The first meteor rather fainter than the second, which was a very bright fire- ball. Large shooting-star Twice or thrice as bright as a Ist mag.*, and larger than Venus ever appears. Large meteor «+. Colour. Duration. Position. sesseessssesseeeee/4 Seconds,,.,..{£rom @ point above y Delphini to a point below « Aquile. 3 seconds......{'rom « Androme- dee to between a and y Pegasi. Blue White to blue/3 seconds......,From a little be- low ® Urs Ma- joris; bursting at W Urse Ma- joris. sesseeseeeeeael/t S@CONAS,...+.[From a point near € Herculis to « Corone. Green to 5 seconds......|from a point near orange. a Serpentis. Bios ansausteveses|cvecveresqusuesens} ie Geeee a ann aemamaEs Cassiopeiz. White ...,..+../9 seconds......|Fell from a point west of Polaris to near the ho- rizon. vecseeeesees/Lhe first fell in the north,the second more to thie east, at some altitude in the sky. ROG aire cavaereelanasee seesseeee(Shot from 4, or 4 « «Pegasi, & Cygni, straight towards Saturn, and nearly as far. Quite 5 secs.|From near Lyra to taeeeee OO Vee ee eee see eeeeee Brilliantly white. if not 10} near Andromeda, seconds ; where it disap- remarkably | peared behind slow speed.| buildings. Moa adeiisiststelaealie veuonses seveeveee(Erom 35° S. of E., altitude 30° to 30° S. of E., alti- tude 10°. (Posi- tion not very pre- cise; by refer- ence to the moon.) OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 373 —————————E—EEEE 2s = ae Length of Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance ; Remarks, &c. Observer. SeeseueeudOese ev atifncescaiseees wince dueisscccvesheqpusessfecstmeens Praia es vedi tis sacscoteah seveee(J. Lucas. EBT. cecesaccoscsodesssscevcssseeses/ ON Septe 28, ats 25, a sudden|id. flash of light, evidently me- teoric, was observed, but no meteor could be traced. (See also the ‘ Astronomical Regis- ter’ for Nov. 1870.) “on SURE RGR SUG BEDABREBSG BBPCOCr ERE: CLACOnener crt nga ic Preah Es caeanep menace cepescaeee Id. 0 obee SECReREEe Be oe evasec te osisaesnuaesiad| trecnenenunesmrnesininvuntanrsesayxeunndia| Lele piuides sesveceeesee{L@ll vertically COWNWATGS .os...!.s.sneeeescceeccneesensecansereeeaserenns Mr. Keating and J. Lucas. Bete akateaes ov otct Horizontally from right to\One of the brightest meteors|W. Davenport. Com- left. hitherto observed. Among| municated by W. F. about 30 meteors mapped with) Denning. eeetan ae = a meteoroscope on the same = night; not more than 8 or 9 had their radiant-point in Leo. [Also observed at Beckenham, Kent. See last Report.] sessecesesseveeree| Vertically downwards | ...++++++{s Lt. a. Mea MSS, Sa ee and Mr. eating. The first meteor faint in colour;|Joseph Seaton. (Com the second very bright, re-| municated by G. J. sembling a red-hot iron bolt or) Symons.) urn-heater. AOR R ERE eR HERR eter E HPP E EPPO SERRE EET HTE SETHE ERED OOOO STOOD hae (Oe cdeeee adic Gabdee us eve voneseed MIChW A BGKGOME seer tet nereeeees eee neroevereneersoretesneanenenereerer|. ceseeeseseeseeeess|Lhe opposite direction to that Pear-shaped with a narrow short/E, H. (newspaper para- of the Perseids, or August] train 1° or 14° long. Its} graph). _ Communi- meteors. brightness decreased, and its} cated by R. P. Greg. speed diminished towards the end of its course as if by the effect of foreshortening. Ao ee ,....-|Probable direction :— Fireball; nucleus with a con-(Communicated by J. E. siderable disk. Well observed.| Clark. 374: REPORT—1878. i Hour, 4 Place of ° cise Position. Date. ae Ghat Apparent Size. Colour. | Duration osition 1872.; h m s Sep.17) 7 50 0 /Ticehurst Very large fireball |........ss000004{About 10 secs.|Fell from $.W. to (Sussex). S.E. 22} 8 54 O /Tooting, near |= a Lyre; very)...... erereenee sae Swift ..sc0ce Apparent course as London. bright. in the sketch. Vega. @ e aOphiuchi. Oct. 9} 919 O |Glasgow ..... ..../One tenth appa-|Yellow ...... 0°75 second; |From ¢ to x Persei. rent size of the very swift. , moon. 9) About Hay, S. Wales...|About = 2......... Yellowish....../Slow motion.../Passed from near 12 0 0 and a little n. f. g, towards § Ceti, disappear- ing a little before reaching _ that’ star. 27\A little Samoa, South /Unusually large|...cccrccsccceceselesssssesesseevevee{Lt became visible before Pacific. fireball. near Z Ceti, and 12 0 0 rushed towards (local mid- the south-east. night.) |Nov. 1/About Portsmouth 45.)= Q vscccssovesvesess.| White (?)...00- 4 second ...... 2 oO 1150 0 From 100°-+-48° to 132 +49 6) W045: VOM idieevescsit sence ED inaasaneerenene ch White .........{Very swift; |From 77°+35° 0°3 second. to 91 +47 17; 6 10 0 South Shields (Brighter than ¢.../White ..,......;About 14 or|/From a point about p-m. (Durham). 1g second. | N.W., altitude 15° or 20° to a point about W.N.W., _alti- tude 3° or 4°. 19} 910 0 [Bristol ....... woe{Very bright meteor|ss.sceeeveceerees lascateavaneesyssen(SHOt — down apie north-west sky. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 375 Length of Path. Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks, &c. Observer. Liteserssanbsueces[escevecescceserssssseeeesscssseeseneeee(Lhe meteor did not burst, but/Communicated by A. OUUUUUUTISICOCOO SECT ECEC eee eee) 20° ~ sessssibeoeestaees(Path a little convex to the Pee eee ee wbbertoee 15° eeeeeerserenler zenith. ROO O Re eee eae e eee ORe esses es OOtaeenee POOR O eee eee tees eee ee eeeeseeeesrsOeEsee began small and grew brighter and brighter until it went out. Just before disappearance it “appeared as large as a break- fast-plate.” Left no streak ...cccsscccceccvece Acce caveeeveeees [SHOE UPWATAS sessssssveeeeseeeeeeep NUCLEUS Accompanied by sparks ; disappeared with an explo- sion: left a white streak in passing over « and y Persei, which remained visible fifteen seconds. For three fifths of its course it continued equally bright, a fireball with sparks round it, and a slight train. In the rest of its course it diminished gradually to dis- appearance. Left a bright train in its wake. Nucleus of the meteor of very large apparent width. Several other bright shooting-stars were visible on the same night. [See this Appendix, below]. The meteor appeared behind a cloud, through which it shone ; and it must have been exceed- ingly bright. Nucleus accompanied by a slight train ; left no streak. BOWE 25° cns|ecccerccsssiscsccesccsdascscsccecceeece| Meteor very. bright. when. ; first PHPPRR eee oebeeereelsonees eaeeae POO ee bee eere reset ee etes seen, and remained so until it disappeared without bursting close to the horizon. Nucleus with short tail of red sparks; left.a streak for a moment or two along its track. |The brightest meteor seen du- ring the month. A flash of light, apparently meteoric, ap- peared at about 95 p.m. on the 18th of November, when the; sky was nearly overcast. Eden. H, W. Jackson. Robert M‘Clure. T. W. Webb. (‘ Nature,’ Oct. 17.) S. J. Whitmee. (‘ Nature,’ Jan. 30th, 1873.) G. L. Tupman. Id. | F, Hurmian and Johan | Taylor. W. F, Denning. a sasaesaiae 376 REPORT—1873. - Tlour, Date.| approx. x M. T. Place of tion. Observation. Duration Apparent Size. Colour. — 1872.; h m s Nov.22| About 514 0 South Kensing- |Rather — brighter|.....1...sseseereeleoesees ton, London. than % at his brightest. 23) 7-20 (0 | Bristol .......0-00. Se oonnce Sreaeenee BlUGyesccrsesens About 2 secs. . 30} 8 10 0 |St. Thomas (local time).| (West Indies). Dec. 9} 11 15 0 |Tooting, near London. slow speed ; not less than 5 seconds or 10 seconds. 23} 610 O |London fixed stars. 26] 7 58 0 |Bristol.........00 = Daa Te. AOS. BING weateness 2 seconds 26) -OeS0 Oullbids.,.cetc.00..25 About as bright as/Blue the quarter-moon. POee et aeeleeteerons 1873. Feb. 3} 10 © 0 /Australia...... veo WEXVADNP CMs ceesecs|-sassnsenseons+cea|scsaseassesreavisss(neeuuuaneneeee p.m. (local time). April 6) 9 8 0 [Tbid..........ss...[Nearly as bright as|......... sessevess(About 1°5 se- Venus at ber cond ; brightest. tion slow. seoseeesese(Disappeared about From 18°+44° Large mctcor ees...Jeoe. Sarcencueesuen|scapsieesoseire salencgeeeNsiessnccein eevee A bright meteor .../Deep red...... Exceedingly |Shot on a line from baaeaeent Brighter than the}.........sccccssesfeetessevessseeees-(Er0m Close to Po- ...|From 343°+422° First seen at alti- mo-|From B3°-+-42°5 Position. 10° before reach- ing the zenith,}. which it would have gone about 5° or 10° to the south of. a= b= to 164 +63 From the N.W. part of Andro- meda, across thc sword-hand of Perseus, and Ca- melopardusto the head of Ursa Maj. 6B through z Pe- gasito y Cygni, beginning near a Pegasi and ending near y Cygni. laris, passed close to a, £ Ursze through square of Ursa Major. to 338 — 4 tude about 60° in the north- west, a= O= to 56+31 Began between «, B, @ Au- rigee and ended near Z Persei, about 10° above Venus, OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 377 a aa aaa aaa Length of Path. Direction or Radiant- point. Appearance; Remarks, &c, — ——— tion of position rougher than that of the time. Observer. Jecavcesssscessece({NeEs tO S.W. ..scccssccceseveeeeee(A bright shooting-star. Fistima-|Mr. Merrifield. (Com- municated by Dr. W. Huggins. ) snide Seb aBSqr. 206054 se eran peEEROocE sarnc Nucleus globular; faded and|W. F. Denning. brightened again very rapidly several times. Illuminated the sky very strongly in its flight ; left no streak, but emitted a spark in its course, 1D, Oy We ctnenasbenpudoornceacnennc ce cneeccensenececenecssreoeeeescensseerane .|Nucleus with a short tail 2° or 3° in length, which distinctly tapered towards the end. PO ee wee tet ee ewer were neeee Peewee reeiie Peed near ee ee ree eee sete renee ee sees reas .....|Directed from a little north of/The light of the nucicus faded B Pegasi downwards, almost} and revived rapidly several perpendicularly. times, like that of the meteor See P Oa w et eeeeeane | sttoe Pema meee trees ereetenee seers reees: on Noy. 23rd. Left no streak. ~ IIE HOSWs “scewesvecccecesecccsseeeees{GlObular;...no. |sparks . ors ex- plosion, and it left no streak; but on a prolongation of its path, a small meteoric spark seemed to continue to some distance beyond its point of extinction. .s..e..On the same date and local time as the large meteor seen in England.—‘ Mechanics’ Maga- zine,’ May 2nd, 1873. The nucleus did not explode, but disappeared gradually, and it left no streak. SPEC e Per eee etree reer e er eeeoeaee Communicated by Mr. R. C. Rawson (Governor of Bar- badoes). ‘£ Nature,’ Feb. 6th, 1873. H. W. Jackson. H. Hardcastle. W. F. Denning. F, Denning (and seen by several observers). Communicated by W. F, Denning. ‘Communicated by W. H. Wood. W. F. Denning. Hour, approx. G. M. T. s Date. 1873.| h m April 8)/About 9 o’clock. (‘Tuesday evening.’) May 1) 12 40 0 July 1/1315 0 11 32 Ang. 2} 10 28 10 35 12 11 9 10 11} 11 30 16) 11 27 30 Sept. 9/10 5 0 Place of Observation. Cardiff, 8. Wales MONON Jecteseves Bristol... Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. Grasmere, Cumberland. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. Tooting, near London. Birmingham .,.. Hawkhurst (Kent). Pontefract, Yorkshire. Apparent Size. Very brilliant me-}... teor. Brighter than any of the fixed stars. REPORT—18738. As bright as the full moon. = 9? atherbrightest Much brighter than 2. A sensible apparent disk. flame. | Yellow White .. Colour. ee tetene Bright yellow Duration. Position. ...+./Shot across the sky from N. to S., and burst before reach- 15° below Polaris. Appeared at a great eleyation in the southern passing north-west to a low elevation in the south. i 6= From 210°+49° to 200+38 Shot from Arcturus towardsthe N.W. horizon. ...|Disappeared at a point as far from y Pegasi as @ Andromede on line drawn beet eee e en eneree 0:8 second ... 3 seconds... mede, 6 Pegasi. From near 58 to! near 63 Aurige. 0°5 second ,.. Vivid blue ; like the magnesium Nearly 2 secs..|.....000+ ebeeseseas Perr 3 seconds...... e= o= From 339°—20° to 1 —20 l second; very|Passed close to} slow. and on the left of 0 Pis- cium. 0°75 second,..|From 37° south of/ east, altitude 49° to 48° south o east, altitude 10°. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 379 penal of Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks, &c. sessseceseeenessse| Ne £0 S. sevsereesseesessesoneveesee| Durst like a rocket, the fragments illuminating a large area of the sky. Observer. ‘The Western Tele- graph,’ Thursday, April 10th, 1873. seaveeasseevevesssleceasessececsnscueceecesseeesetseesees/ NUCLEUS pear-shaped with a long/T. Crumplen. broad tail, and leaving a few sparks along its track. Mereceteseserscceelsccssstececccscvesteccecsdésoosssccsees/A Magnificent fireball. Nucleus of very intense light, separated into two halves and afterwards into numerous pieces which immediately became extinct. 14° ...ccsevees-(Fell vertically ; radiant in Pe-|......ccccsccsscesses gasus. feneee Febeeeereeeeres W. Bowman and other observers. (Commu- nicated by W. F. Denning.) W. F. Denning. Dec csecabbecvessts/AIPZAG PAE. ..ccssccesssecsnessoess (Left A StLCAK .ssccecieess serssseeeeee(Js LUCAS. sevesseseveseveeee|Directed from y Andromedz,|Left a streak. Imperfect view of/T. W. Backhouse. and from 3 (y, 7) Persei. its course among clouds, be- hind some of which it may pos- . sibly have disappeared. TETITT TTT Teer Ty ee [A bright meteor on the samelJ. Lucas. evening at 95 33", See the foregoing list.] sevevesssvevcesseslsecseecscesscoesssecrssscesesesscssseesiAd Very beautiful meteor; left aH. W. Jackson. faint streak. seceeceeeceeseeess{ Radiant O; (Neumayer).........|Left astreak. Nucleusverybright;/W. H. Wood. appeared occasionally through the clouds (between which the moon shone) as if below them. Nearly approached the horizon ; disappeared with an explosion. AO. .ssevsseoves.| Directed from 2 (6, 7) Pegasi.a|.....ctssseccssvccccsscscevesessosseseevee|Miss Herschel. . sscveseeeesseeesss(Lnclined about 70° to a verti-\Seen through the window of a|E. Worsdell. Commnu- { cal direction, thus :— well-lighted room. The view) nicated by J. H. Clark. i of the beginning and end were perhaps intercepted, and no streak was certainly percept- ible. 3880 REPORT—1878. and shortly afterwards he heard a sound as distinctly as if three or four cannon had been at once discharged at a distance of a quarter of a mile. But the last lighting up of the sky seemed only for an instant, when all was as dark as before. .... There must have been a meteor of extraordinary size trayelling from the southern part of Banffshire on towards the centre of Inverness-shire, and bursting somewhere near the source of the river Nairn, The brilliancy of the light was as if a brilliant flash of lightning had remained visible in the sky.” Aérolites.—The following extract from a journal of travels in North-west America, ‘The great Lone Land,’ by Capt. W. F. Butler, F.R.G.S. (1872), deserves Dieuon, as the existence of the mass of meteoric iron which it describes appears to have been hitherto unknown, or unrecorded. “In the mission-house of Victoria (on the Saskatchewan river, not far from its source) there lay a curious block of metal of immense weight ; it was rugged, deeply indented, and polished on the outer edges of the indentations by the wear and friction of many years. Its history was a curious one. Longer than any man could say, it had lain on the summit of a hill far out in the southern prairies. It had been a medicine-stone of surpassing virtue among the Indians over a vast territory. No tribe or portion of a tribe would pass in the vicinity without paying a visit to this great medicine: it was said to be increasing yearly in weight. Old men remembered haying heard old men say, they had once lifted it easily from the ground. Now no single man could carry it; and it was no wonder that this metallic stone should be a ‘ Manito ’-stone, and an object of intense veneration to the Indian ; it had come down from heaven; it did not belong to the earth, but had descended out of the sky; it was in fact an aérolite. Not very long before my visit, this curious stone had been removed from the hill upon which it had so long rested, and brought to the mission of Victoria by some person from that place. When the Indians found that it had. been taken away, they were loud in the expression of their regret. The old medicine- men declared that its removal would lead to great misfortunes, and that war, disease, and dearth of buffalo would affect the tribes of the Saskatchewan. This was not a prophecy made after the occurrence of the plague of small-pox ; for in a magazine published by the Wesleyan Socicty in Canada there appears a letter from the missionary setting forth the prediction of the medicine-men a year prior to my visit. The letter concludes with an expression of thanks that their evil prognostications had not been attended with success. But a few months later brought all the three evils upon the Indians; and never, probably, since the first trader had reached the country, had so many afflictions of war, famine, and plague fallen upon the Crees and Blackfeet as during the year which succeeded the useless removal of their Manito-stone from the lone hill-top upon which the skies had cast it.” Siderite of Augusta County, United States (see ‘American Journal of Science’ for July, 1872).—Analysis of the gases occluded in the iron, by Dr. J. W. Mallet, U.S. (¢ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xx. p. 365). Both shavings and a small bar of the iron cut and polished cold, and freed from oil, from the most solid part of the iron were heated first to redness and then to whiteness in the vacuum of a Sprengel pump. The experiment lasted 143 hours, only a quarter of the whole volume of gas being extracted in the last two thirds of the time, and a small residue still remaining unextracted at its close. The quantity of hydrogen and carbonic acid diminished most rapidly; and those of nitrogen and carbonic oxide continued to be discharged most abundantly towards the end of the time, as the following Table of the OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 881 percentage volumes shows, which were obtained from 15-87 cubic centims. of the iron in successive intervals of— 2h hours. 2} hours. 92 hours. Total. Horseshoe-nail percent. percent. per cent. per cent. (Grahame). Givdragen........+... 22:12 10°52 3°19 35°83 35°0 Carbonic oxide ...... 15:99 Tz 11:22 38°33 50°3 Carbonic acid ...... 7:85 1:02 0-88 9°75 he ot 6:06 1:45 8:58 16:09 fal) 52:02 24:11 23°87 100-00 100-0 Reduced to the standard temperature, 60° F., and barometric pressure, 30 inches, the whole volume obtained was 50:40 cubic centims., or 3:17 times the volume of the iron, while Grahame found 2°85 times its volume of mixed gases occluded in the Lenarto iron. The quantity of hydrogen contained in the Augusta-County iron is 1-4 times its volume, while ordinary terrestrial iron only occludes about 0-42 or 0-46 times its volume; and the meteoric origin of the mass is thus confirmed. But the quantities of carbonic oxide and carbonic acid, especially, are much larger than the corresponding quantities found by Grahame in the Lenarto iron, and more nearlytesemble the pro- portions found in a sample of a horseshoe nail. It cannot be supposed that the Augusta-County iron has undergone any artificial process to test or to improve its quality; and hence it may be inferred that the atmosphere in which it originated as a meteorite was more rich in carbon than that from which the Lenarto iron was derived. _ Siderite of Ovifak, Greenland.—Among the discoveries made by Sir J. C. Ross in his Arctic voyages, was that of some implements partly made of iron by the Esquimaux of Greenland, the metal of which was found on analysis to be probably of meteoric origin. The iron used in their manufacture was reported by the Esquimaux to exist on the shore of Cape York, some hundreds of miles north of Disco Island, on the west coast of Greenland. During his investigations of that coast in the year 1870, Prof. A. EK. Nordenskiold, of Stockholm, by offering rewards for its discovery to the Esquimaux, learned the existence of such masses of native iron at Ovifak, on the south side of Disco Isle. Arrived at this indicated spot, Prof. Nordenskidld was there shown the largest piece of meteoric iron yet known to have been found. Two other large, and many smaller fragments lay at no great distances from it. heir site was between high- and low-water mark on the shore, among sea-worn blocks of gneiss and granite at the foot of a high rock of basalt. A Swedish vessel transported them to Europe ; and they are now deposited in the Royal Museum at Stockholm. The largest one weighs about 50,000 lbs., and the two smaller masses about 20,000 lbs..and 9000 Ibs. the rest of the fragments together weigh about 1500 lbs. Nickel, cobalt, phosphorus, and sulphur enter into their composition; and the probability of their meteoric origin is ably maintained by Nordenskiéld in his narrative of this expedition _ ( Redogirelse for en Expedition till Grénland.” Stockholm: 1871), and in a later work on the history of the iron. Not many yards from the place of the discovery a siliceous stone, enclosing grains and lumps of metallic iron, and a vein of that metal some fect in length and a few inches thick, projected from the basalt breccia of the locality, and differed in its trap-like composition entirely from the stones among which it lay. A portion of this iron, together with specimens of the larger blocks, was presented to Dr, F. Wohler for 382 REPORT—1878. analysis, who found in its chemical composition the following approximate ingredients :— Fe Ni Co Fe,0, FeS Cc P Total. 46°60 119 O47 40:20 7:75 369 015 100-05 On heating the iron strongly in vacuo, carbonic oxide and carbonic acid gas are given off by the reaction of the free carbon on the magnetic iron oxide with which it is in contact; and the amount of oxygen present i in the iron is so great (11:09 of its weight of oxygen being extracted from it when heated in hydrogen gas), that no lower oxide of iron than that here assumed can be regarded as its original mode of combination. As octahedra of magnetic oxide were found by Nordenskiéld in the larger siderites, the highly siliceous stone appears to be of the same origin as the large iron masses; and the ad- mixture of free carbon and magnetic oxide of iron in its composition appears to indicate that it has never been exposed to a very high temperature, since its deposition in its present site. (F. Wohler’s Analysis of the Ovifak meteoric iron, Poggendorft’s ‘ Annalen,’ July 1872). Montlivault, Loir-et-Cher, France, 1838, July 22.—This and the following meteorite have lately been added by M. Daubrée to the collection in the Geological Museum of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. The meteorite weighs 510 grammes; it has the form of a three-sided pyramid. Its mate- rial is a finely granular mineral, consisting chiefly of olivine and augite with - grains of nickeliferous iron and magnetic pyrites belonging to the aérolitic group to which the name of leucite has been given. (‘The Academy,’ May 15th, 1873.) Beuste, Basses-Pyrenées, France, 1859, May.—Two pieces of the stone were found 700 metres apart, the larger weighing 1-4 kilogramme, and the lesser one 420 grammes. The smaller stone penetrated the ground to the depth of half a metre; it is covered with a black crust half a millimetre thick; and its specific gravity is 3°53. It belongs to the Chantonnite group, and most nearly resembles the meteorites of Poultousk, Its grey compact mass is penetrated in every direction by veins of a black mineral, which anastomose and exhibit irregular ramifications. (Jbid.) Shergotty, India, 1865, August 25, 9 a.m. (local time).—This stone was recently analyzed and examined by Prof. Tschermak (‘ Jahrbuch fiir Minera- logie,’ 1872, No. 7). The chief mass of the stone is a greyish brown augijtic- looking mineral, of which, however, the following analysis shows that it does not possess the true augitic composition :— Silica. Alumina, Iron protoxide. Magnesia, Lime. Total, 52°3 0:2 23°1 14:2 10:4 100:2 Another mineral having the percentage composition Silica. Alumina. Lime. Soda. Potash, Total. 56:3 25°7 11:6 51 1:3 100-0 forms small octahedral crystals with vitreous fracture in the mass; and having . not been observed so definitely hitherto, it has received the name of Maskelynite as a new species. Bronzite, magnetic oxide, and sulphide of iron form the remaining ingredients of the stone, whose mineral and chemical characters strongly resemble those of the meteorites of Stannern, J uvenas, Jonzac, and Petersburg, these stones as a class forming a group that is widely separated from the great majority of ordinary avrolites, (1hid.) OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 389 Ibbenbiihren, Germany, 1870, June 17, 2 p.m. (local time),—In the same No. of Poggendorff’s ‘Annalen’ as that last cited (of July 1872) is contained the analysis by Dr. G. vom Rath, and the microscopic examination of thin sections by Dr. O. Biichner, of a meteorite which fell in Westphalia in June 1870. The principal meteorite, weighing 22 Ibs., struck the earth some distance from a countryman who heard it fall, and, when passing by the same place two days afterwards, observed the hole where it had penetrated the earth of a well-trodden footpath to a depth of 2} feet. It was almost uninjured, being covered, except at some corners, by the usual black crust. It was brought, several months after its discovery, to Dr. Heis at Miinster, by whom some of the particulars attending its fall are related. A lightning-like flash, followed in about one minute by thunder, preceded the fall of the stone, which was heard striking the earth about three minutes after the flash. A small fragment, weighing about 1 oz., was found 300 or 400 paces from the larger stone ; and no other fragments (the ground having since been tilled) could be afterwards discovered. The black crust is dull and extremely thin, its rippled texturé and penetration into fine crevices of the stone being only discernible by means of a magnifying lens. As seen at the fractures, the interior mass is greyish white, compact, and contains no grains of metallic iron (which, with chrome-iron, are absent in this meteorite), but interspersed yellowish crystalline grains, generally minute, but at one of the exposed sur- faces reaching to 7 inch, and even to 1 inch in diameter. The microscopic sections show that this structure is continuous, the whole mass being com- posed of the same crystalline ingredients in larger or smaller grains, The specific gravity of the grains is about 3-425, and that of the matrix about 3405. Chemical analysis also leads to the same conclusion, the separate crystals being found to have the composition— Oxides of manga- Silica. Iron protoxide. Magnesia. nese and calcium. Alumina, Total. 54:51 17°53 26°43 1:33 1:26 101-06 SS a Oxygen 29:07 14:82 0-59 which is also the composition of the matrix, Classing the manganese with the iron, and the calcium oxide with the magnesia, the mineral substance is a bronzite, or enstatite (RO, SiO,), in which the atomic proportion of iron oxide to magnesia is as 4:11. This simple composition is almost unique among meteorites; but the aérolite of Shalka (India, November 30th, 1850), as analyzed by G. Rose and Rammelsberg, consists mainly of a bronzite (86-43 per cent., together with olivine 10:92, and chrome-iron 2°11 per cent.), haying almost identically the same composition, yiz. :— Silica. Iron protoxide. Magnesia. Calcium oxide. Sodium oxide, Total. 55°55 16:53 27:73 _ 0:09 0:92 10082 The single-silicate composition of the Ibbenbiihren meteorite occurs again remarkably in the nearly pure bronzite or enstatite materials of the aérolite of Menegaum (India, June 29, 1843), as determined by Rammelsberg and Maskelyne, the analysis of the crystalline portion of which (as given by Maskelyne), from which that of the matrix scarcely differs, was as follows ;— Silica. Iron protoxide. Magnesia. Calcium oxide. ‘Total. 55°70 20°54 22:80 1:32 100°36 differing only slightly in its specifie gravity (3-198), and in a rather higher 884 REPORT—1873. atomic proportion of iron-oxide to magnesia, from that of the foregoing minerals. No examples of terrestrial enstatites present nearly such a high percentage of iron in their composition as the above specimens of the same mineral found in meteorites are shown to exhibit by their chemical analysis. Lancé, and Pont Loisel, Loir-et-Cher, France, 1872, July 23rd, 5" 20™ p.m. (Tours time).—A brilliant meteor passed over a spectator stationed between Champigny and Brisay, towards north-east, in the direction of Tours. It presented the appearance of a spear of flame with two spheres of fire of an orange colour. The track of one seemed to incline downwards, that of the other to proceed straightforwards, the whole appearance becoming somewhat more luminous at the instant that a slight divergence of the course of these two spheres was first seen. It was lost to sight behind a cloud at St. Maure, and an explosion was heard at 5" 26". Many observers affirm that they heard two distinct explosions very near together; others noticed but one; all testify to the appearance of two meteors pursuing nearly the same path. A meteorite fell in a field near Lancé, Canton of St. Arnaud, and passed a metre and a half through the light soil into a bed of marl. It weighed 47 kilogrammes [104 lbs.]. Some fragments separated by the fall were found near it.” (Note by M. de Tastes, presented by M. Ste-Clair Deville, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ July 29th, 1872.) «In the last No. of ‘Comptes Rendus’ [August 5th, 1872] M. Daubrée records the more recent discovery of a second meteorite at Pont Loisel, 12 kilometres [74 miles] south-east of Lancé. The line joining the two localities coincides with the direction of the trajectory of the meteors; and the Pont-Loisel stone, though much smaller (it weighs 250 grammes [about 3 1b.]) bears the closest resemblance as regards mineral characters to the Lancé stone. The smaller stone fell first [i. e. behind the larger one ]—a cir- cumstance observed in former showers—and penetrated the soil to a depth of only half a metre [about 1} foot].” (Extract from ‘The Academy,’ Septem- ber Ist, 1872.) As a phenomenon perhaps connected with the appearance of the Lancé aérolite, it may be added that a large bolide (as described by M. W. de Fon- vielle, in the ‘Revue des Courses Scientifiques’ of Aug. 3rd, 1867) was visible at Bayonne on the evening of the 23rd of July in that year; but no further particulars of its appearance and of its apparent course were stated. Orvinio, Italy, 1872, August 31st, 5" 15™ a.w. (Rome time).—In the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of October 1872, the occurrences of some bright meteors in August last are thus described by Father Secchi. One of these appeared on the 11th, and was visible at Rome, Velletri, Naples, and Palermo. A more remark- able one was seen at Rome on the morning of the 31st, at 5" 15™ a.m., as a bright reddish fireball appearing near the §.8.W. horizon, and disappearing in the E.N.E. It moved slowly at first and then rapidly, expanding as it advanced to the form of a cone with a rounded base, and flaring up at disappearance with the emission of several bright lines, which were not seen by all the ob- servers. 112» 19h 193m 13h 134 14h 142h 15h 152% 16% Total. Meteors seen August ie bs 383 34 28 49 58 43 58 59 57 57 32 44 46 58 674. (2 observers) Meteors seen August ies ba 10 15 15 23 11 25 23 24 24 18 22 16... ... 248 (1 observer) If the numbers seen in the first night are halved (having been reckoned by two observers), it will be seen that they were scarcely less abundant on the second than on the first night of the shower. The numbers seen at other places on the night of the 9th of August were much less than those counted on the nights of the 10th and 11th. A large number of the meteors seen were very bright, many descriptions of considerable fireballs occurring in the long accounts of this August star-shower collected in Padre Denza’s ‘ Bul- lettino Meteorologico’ of the Moncalieri Observatory for August to November, 1871, from which these notes of the star-shower are extracted. From the above list of observed hourly numbers, Signor Bassani concludes that the hour of maximum abundance of the meteors at Cosenza was during daytime, at about 10°34™ a.m. (local time) on the forenoon of the 11th. Padre Secchi at Rome and Prof. Galli at Velletri also consider it to have taken place 1873. 20 385 REPORT—1873. during daytime of the 11th; and by comparing together all the descriptions, Padre Denza regarded it as occurring between 2" and 3" a.m. on the 11th, irrespective of the effect of the rising moon in greatly diminishing the number of the meteors visible after that hour. A peculiarity of many of the brightest meteors was observed that they disappeared, and then again reappeared further on upon their course. The number of sporadic meteors was also greater than usual, being about one third of the whole number seen at Velletri in place of one fourth part, as was recorded in August 1869. The horary numbers of the shower at Velletri on the 11th of August, 1871, were greater than on the corresponding night (with an equally clear sky) in the year 1869, in the proportion of 102-2 to 67-5. The reduction of all the obser- vations made for the determination of the radiant-point is being undertaken by Prof. Schiaparelli, to whom all the observations were forwarded, at Milan. The November Shower in 1871.—In the same journal of Italian observations for December 1871 and January 1873, a few notices of observations of the November shower in 1871 at Italian stations are described. The sky was in general overcast, or nearly so, and few extensive watches could be kept. It was, however, found in Italy, as in England in that year, that the number of meteors from Leo seen on the nights of the 12th and 18th scarcely exceeded that of the unconformable meteors seen on the same nights. The time of central passage of the earth through the stream on the morning of the 15th (see the last volume of these Reports, p. 96) appears to have escaped obser- vation at the Italian stations, the sky on that morning having been every- where overcast. Meteor-shower of August Tth-12th, 1872.Observations of this shower were communicated to the Committee from most of the observers usually recording their notes of such phenomena for the British Association, by the staff of Mr, Glaisher’s observers at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and by Pro- fessor Main’s assistants at the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford. The sky was completely overcast, with wind and heavy rain, on the night of the 9th of August ; but with exception of this interruption a long list of observations of the shower was recorded on the other nights of its duration. The accom- panying Table shows that the apparent paths of 447 meteors were mapped, of which nearly the same numbers were seen on the nights of the 10th and 11th by about the same numbers of observers watching for nearly the same time, in equally favourable conditions of the sky. Many of the shooting- stars were very bright, but the shower was not so conspicuous in the number of bolides, and of other meteors of all descriptions, as it was in the previous year. About twenty-five of the meteors seen were doubly or triply recorded by observers at distant stations, enabling their real paths to be computed, and a list of these simultaneous observations will be found in the foregoing catalogue of such results. The whole of the recorded tracks have been more or less completely projected upon graphic charts; but it has not yet been found possible to determine very clearly the predominating centre of emana- tion, or the general limits of radiation of the shower from the miscellaneous groups of evidence which so many valuable independent observations will in the sequel afford. For this purpose a thorough sorting of all the recorded tracks among the known radiant-points of the epoch will be required, for which sufficient time has not yet been at the disposal of the Committee. Meteor-showers of September—November, 1872.—On the nights of the 5th to 9th of September, 1872, Mr. Clark recorded the paths of several shooting- stars at York, radiating chiefly from Cygnus and Andromeda, the greatest number mapped being ten per hour on the night of September 8th. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 387 The sky was almost everywhere overcast on the nights of the 18th to 20th of October, 1872, and the moon shone brightly, so that no useful observations of the October meteors on this occasion of their annual return could be obtained, The condition of the sky was equally unfavourable on the annual date of the November shower of Leonids; and among the few meteors seen in this interval, the small groups noted by Mr. Backhouse at Sunderland on the night of the 30th of October, and by Captain Tupman at Portsmouth on the night of the 1st of November*, are the only indications reported to the Committee of meteors during the months of September to November having been more than ordinarily abundant on any night before the appearance in the latter month of the bright display of shooting-stars connected with the recent periodic approach of Biela’s comet to the earth. The instructions communicated by the Committee to the observers of these meteoric showers included directions to record any unusual abundance of meteors observable during the last week from the 23rd to 30th of November, and to note their radiant-point. The anticipated watch was regarded by all the observers with attentive interest ; and the first symptoms of an approaching frequency of meteors was reported by Mr. Jackson of Tooting (Surrey), who, observing at Hyde Park in London on the evening of the 24th of November, in four 10™ intervals between 75 30™ and 9° 15™ p.m., saw four meteors as bright as first-magnitude stars, all diverging from the expected direction of the Andromedes or Biela’s comet-meteors. Between 11" 20™ and 12> 40™ on the night of the 26th of November, the sky being equally clear and star- light, no shooting-star was visible in an equally attentive watch. The occurrence of a distinct shower of the Andromedes on the night of the 24th of November, 1872, was well proved by the observations of them obtained in America (‘American Journal of Science,’ 3rd ser. vol. v. p. 53, Jan. 1873). They were first seen by Mr. T. Hadley, Prof. Twining, and Prof. Newton at Newhaven between half-past seven o’clock and midnight on that night, when their number was about forty per hour for one observer. Several of their tracks were mapped, and the position of their radiant-point was estimated by Prof. Newton, at the time, as being two or three degrees north of the star y Andromedet. They were also noticed by Mr. Gummere, of Bethlehem, Pa., on the same night. On the night of the 25th the sky was more obscured by clouds ; but in comparison with the unconformable meteors visible at the same time, the frequency of the Andromedes appeared to be scarcely more than a third of what it had been on the previous night. During the night of the 26th the sky was quite overcast. A correspondent of ‘The Field’ newspaper of January 25th, 1873, Mr. K. L, Layard, adds at the end of an animated description of the Biela comet- shower, as observed in his vicinity at Para in Brazil, “on the night of the 26th of November [7.e. the 27th, European style] one of my servants informs me she saw an equally fine display on the 23rd inst.” This notice of the earlier shower in South America evidently relates to the same border- stream of the Andromedes, observed also by Mr, Maxwell Hall (‘ Nature’, * As described in Appendix I. (Meteors doubly observed, November 3rd, 1872), viz. three radiant-points by Mr. Backhouse on October 30th, at 0°,+-55° (4 meteors) ; at y, A Ceti (about 40°, +6°, eight or ten meteors); and perhaps a third radiant-point ate Piscium of a few meteors not conformable to the two former points: and lastly a distinct radiant- point of ten pretty bright meteors seen in about 40 minutes on the night of November Ist, and of three others seen in about the same time on the night of November 3rd, at 56°, +24°, notified to the Committee by Captain Tupman. t A radiant-point of some fainter and more rapid meteors was at the same time noticed in the eastern sky, perhaps in the neighbourhood of Orion. 2c2 388 REPORT—18738. March 6th, 1873) in Jamaica, with about the same radiant-point on the night of the 24th. The display of the 27th, Mr. Hall relates was simply a repetition of a star-shower quite similar to it on the former date. The first announcement of the principal display on the night of the 27th of November was received by Prof. Herschel at Newcastle-on-Tyne, by tele- graph, from Messrs. Waller and S. P. Thomson at York, and Mr. Backhouse at Sunderland at about 6 o’clock P.m., when it was also being watched at most of the observatories and other points of observation in the north of England and Scotland, while an impenetrable veil of cloud unfortunately prevented all the observers, south of a line drawn from Wisbeach on the Wash, through Birmingham, from obtaining a momentary view of it in the south of England. The best series of observations were accordingly only obtained at a few northern stations, where the sky continued cloudless throughout the night; and the rate of frequency of the meteors was thus counted continuously until the end of the display by Mr. Lowe at Beeston, near Nottingham, and by Prof. Grant at the observatory at Glasgow. During 100|= Sty Sree eae ee Dee ar i Dern es Seen | |) a So | | | | | | | er S Meteors per minute for one observer. Meteors per minute for one observer. 3 a | Za an ena fed Hl CORPS eM ae | | | 1 | Ss Hour, P.M. (G. M. T.), the latter part of the shower a continuous enumeration of the meteors was also obtained by Lord Rosse at his observatory at Birr Castle in Ireland. The numbers counted by other observers in general only applied to very limited portions of the shower. It was thus observed by Captain Brinkley and his two sons, near Dublin, that bright meteors were already visible in full daylight on the afternoon, and that about twenty-three per minute could be counted by one observer as soon as dusk set in on the evening of the 27th, at about 5° 20™ p.m. Counting alone, Mr. Lowe reckoned that an even greater number per minute could be counted by one observer at that early hour. The numbers, however, rose as the hour grew later; and between ebout half-past six and eight o’clock p.m. the shower continued to be visible at its greatest brightness, declining gradually after this time until an observer near Dublin, Mr, M. H. Close, looking out for more than a quarter of an OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 389 hour immediately after 2 o’clock a.m., with a sky fairly clear for observations saw not a single meteor in that time. By examining the accompanying diagram, it will be seen that the curves of meteoric frequency, 1, 2, 3, which represent the rates of appearance of the meteors observed by Mr. Lowe, Prof. Grant, and Lord Rosse, all descend towards midnight to the low average of about five meteors per minute for one observer. At about the latter hour (corresponding to 6" 52™ p.m., Washington mean time) the shower first began to be visible in the United States of America, where it was carefully observed by the astronomers at Washington, by Profs. Newton and Twining at Newhaven, by Mr. Marsh at Philadelphia, and by many other observers for some hours, with a view scarcely obscured by clouds. The following rates of appearance for a single observer are derived (as nearly as such reductions can be made by the convenient table supplied for this purpose by Prof. Newton; see these Reports for 1867, p. 412) from the numbers counted by the party of observers at Newhaven, and by Mr. Marsh at Philadelphia; and the correspondence, if not complete, yet shows that the rate of appearance of the meteors at the commencement of the shower in the United States of America, did not differ very greatly from that observed nearly at the same absolute time in England, when the most long- enduring series of observations there of their decreasing frequency towards midnight were discontinued. Approximate numbers of meteors per minute for one observer of the star- shower in the United States of America on the 27th of November, 1872*. Newhaven. Washington mean time ...... 6h44m 4m Th4m 15™ 28" 49m H8m Bb17™ 38" Meteors counted per minute... 8-2 77 51 45 44 37 37 31 25 Greenwich mean time ......... 11552m 12hg" 12™ 23m 36m 50™ 1356" 25m 46m Philadelphia. Washington mean time ...... 6516" 623m 37m 7h20™ 54™ = 11537" Meteors counted per minute... 5'5 3 2:5 2 15 02 Greenwich mean time ......... 11524m)41h3gi™ «45m «12h28mghQm 16845" During the height of the shower various maxima occurred, the principal of which were seen by the English observers shortly before 7, and shortly after 8 o’clock p.m., with a less marked maximum between them. The greatest disagreement and uncertainties of the observations relate to the commencement of the shower, which set in and was first begun to be counted during the departing twilight. But as the sun had set nearly three quarters of an hour in Italy, and about an hour and a half at Athens when it disappeared in England, the observations begun at dusk in those more eastern stations supply materials to complete the curve of frequency towards its commencement, which may be more fully relied upon than the imperfect observations made at the same time in Great Britain. In the accompanying diagram, the curves 4 and 5 represent the numbers of meteors per minute for one observer, as recorded in Italy by Padre Denza at the observatory of * The times of observation in the first list are the middle points of the periods in which 200 meteors were counted at Newhaven ; und the numbers of meteors “‘ per minute” are the average rates of frequency in those periods from the numbers counted in the sepa- rate intervals as stated in the original list, reduced in each case to the number that would have been recorded by a single observer watching for the same interval of time. The numbers in the second list are similar average rates for the middle points of the intervals of his watch, as obtained directly from Mr. Marsh’s observations. 390 REPORT—1873. Monealieri near Turin, and by Prof. Carlo Bruno at that of Mondovi in Piedmont. The curve No. 6 is the average rate of frequency per minute, as given for each hour of Athens time, beginning from about 4 o’clock p.m. (G.M.T), in the results of his observations of the shower by Dr. J. F. Schmidt, the director of the Athens observatory. All the curves thus shown are drawn in the figure in their proper relative positions in Greenwich time. The progress of the meteoric shower was intermittent, or composed of alternate lulls and outbursts of the intensity of the display which almost defeated attempts to count the meteors when flights of large numbers of them often appeared almost simultaneously. The mode of counting adopted by Professor Grant at Glasgow, and by Professor C. Bruno at Mondoyi, of noting the numbers visible in successive intervals of 5 minutes, fails to show the rapid oscillations of intensity which took place, while it gives very distinctly the gradual variations of the shower. The method adopted by Padre Denza at Moncalieri was to record the minute and second of time at the end of each interval in which 400 meteors were counted, and the curve of frequency thus obtained shows all the sudden oscillations of the shower*. The description of its appearance by Padre Denza suggests that in the clear Italian sky more remarkable features attended it than have been recorded in any other meteoric shower. ‘‘ Frequently small white or yellowish clouds sprang up in the clear sky, and after remaining visible for -a few seconds disappeared. Some of these as soon as they appeared dispersed themselves in shooting- stars, in general minute, but sometimes all of considerable brightness, radiating towards every side like fragments from a bursting shell. The most remarkable of them made its appearance suddenly near and north-west of the radiant-point above Capella at 6"35™ p.m., in full view of the observer, Signor Vergnano, without being preceded by any shooting-star. It formed a round white or yellowish nebular patch of light, about 2° in diameter, in the appa- rent position 71°,445°. It slowly drifted a short distance towards the west, becoming elongated and assuming various shapes as it gradually grew fainter and yellower in colour. At 6"50™ its position was near a and 2) Persii at 57°,+53°, and it disappeared at this place at 6"56™ p.m., having been con- stantly visible for not less than 21 minutes.” Similar meteoric light clouds are stated by Padre Denza to have been seen in the November star-showers of 1868 and 1869 at Madrid and in the United States, and in the August meteor-showers of 1867 and 1872 by the observers at Modena and Urbino; a substance of unusual tenuity in such cases perhaps entering the atmo- sphere, and either emitting some denser shooting-stars at its collision, or remaining luminous alone at the point where it first encounters the upper strata of the air. “A more singular appearance, not exemplified in any former star-shower, took place at about 7°30" p.m., during the greatest intensity of the shower. A cloud of faint greyish light, like a thin veil, spread itself in one instant over the wide space in Camelopardus between the Pole-star and the Lynx, with its centre at about 55°,4+ 66°, and with a breadth of about 20°, hiding the faint stars in that direction. From this cloud Signor Vergnano and I beheld with surprise a perfect shower of meteors of the smallest size falling vertically on all sides, like the slenderest serpent fireworks, differing entirely from the star-shower that occupied the * A process of equal-weight reduction, recommended by Mr. Glaisher, for levelling very abruptly varying observations, was three times applied to the meteoric rate-curve at Moncalieri before all the extraordinary oscillations which it presents were so considerably removed as to produce eyen the very irregular curve of frequency represented on the accompanying figure. ~ OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 391 other portions of the sky, and continuing to appear as long as the principal shower was at its height until 5 minutes after 8 o’clock. The cloud then gradually dispersed, and at 8 minutes after 8 o’clock it left the portion of the sky which it had occupied as clear as it had been at first. So small and frequent were the meteors of this group that they could not be counted, and they were omitted from the enumeration of those which passed across that region of the sky.” Although many meteors of great brilliancy were seen, Padre Denza esti- mates the proportion of first-magnitude shooting-stars not to have exceeded the fifth or sixth part of the whole number visible. Their courses were short, their speed moderate, and their colour white or bluish white. A faint aurora was visible during a great part of the continuance of the shower. These singular features of the display were not, however, recorded by the majority of the observers; but a faint aurora was observed at Palermo and at other places in Italy, which, owing to commotions of the sun’s photo- sphere on that day, and not in the anticipation of any meteoric shower, Prof. Tacchini telegraphed to some distant stations would probably be visible during the night of the 27th. It was seen at Liverpool, and elsewhere in England ; as well as a much brighter aurora at Bristol on the morning of the 24th. The shower was seen at Bombay, beginning at 8 o’clock p.m., and lasting with great brilliancy for eight hours; at the Mauritius passing its maximum between 11” and half-past 11 o’clock p.m. (where pulsations of the Aurora Australis were also seen); and at Para in Brazil beginning at dusk and con- tinuing until nearly midnight, besides at numerous places in Europe and the United States of America where it was carefully observed. From the nearly vertical descent of the meteors in Europe and America from a radiant- point overhead, their apparent paths and durations were short, and a few only of the brightest left very persistent streaks. It was remarked by Prof. Newton that the bodies themselves were without doubt smaller, and would therefore in any case be more quickly consumed than the usual August and November meteors. None were observed at Washington or Newhaven that _ would have appeared notable in either the display of August 10th or of November 14th. Among the 10,000 meteors counted at Glasgow Obser- vatory by Professor Grant, only eight are described as having been as bright as Sirius or Jupiter; and about the same number were regarded by Mr. Lowe as sufficiently conspicuous for description among about 14,000 meteors, which he estimates to have been visible from his point of view. By Padre Denza about twenty meteors are stated to have been as bright as Jupiter or Venus among the 33,000 shooting-stars counted by his assistants. In a foggy and lamp-lit atmosphere on the Capitol at Rome, Padre Secchi reckoned only a fifth part as equal to second-magnitude stars, and a twentieth part as bright as first-magnitude stars. Of the latter kind 188 were recorded, and only thirty-three leaving phosphorescent streaks, among a total number of nearly 14,000 meteors seen there by his observers. One of these bright meteors was a fine bolide, leaving a bright streak visible for about 3 minutes. Prof. Tacchini states the numbers of various brightnesses seen at Palermo thus :— Ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th and 6th magnitudes. Numbers of meteors seen ...... 10 1 40 53 698 (Total 802) Of the ten first-magnitude meteors four were unconformable, and radiated from a point below Orion, leaving very persistent streaks. Among about 8000 meteors seen at Athens, Dr. Schmidt could also not include a single bolide having a sensible apparent disk. The average magnitude of the 3892 REPORT—18738. meteors at all the stations where they were carefully described is regarded as not having much exceeded the fourth magnitude of the fixed stars. Orange, red, and yellow, and more rarely green, were the predominating colours of the brightest ; and when thus conspicuous an aureole of red and yellow sparks surrounded the nucleus in mid course, while a short white streak was left for a few seconds, and very rarely for a few minutes, upon the track. The astro- nomer at Bordeaux, M. Lespiault, however, records (‘ Comptes Rendus,’ 1872, Dec. 2nd) that “many of the meteors left bright streaks, some of which re- mained visible 10™ or 15", changing their shape and position in the sky slightly before they disappeared.” The great majority of the meteors were mere points of dull white or yellowish light, without sparks or streak, moving with very moderate speed in short courses of from 4° to 6° only, attaining greater lengths of 10° or 15° and brighter white or bluish colour only in excep- tional cases of the larger meteors of the shower ; their extinction was always without explosion and quite gradual, but a few showed two maxima of brightness or intermittent light. A frequent peculiarity of the meteors was a curved or wavy course. This was noticed by Dr. Schmidt at Athens, by Prof. Newton at Newhaven, and by Mr. E. L. Layard at Para in Brazil, who writes, ‘Some I saw apparently disappear for a moment and come out again, and two to my great surprise had a wavy course.” At the Mauritius, on the other hand, where the radiant was nearer the horizon in the north, the meteors had long courses, and frequently left long streaks upon their tracks. ‘The first meteor at 11" 22™ p.m. started from the tail-stars of Aries, and vanished south of the ecliptic. The train of this meteor was distinctly visible for 4 minutes, slowly wheeling from horizontal to vertical, and remaining 2 minutes vertical to the horizon. The other meteor, starting from a point at right angles to Aries and the Pleiades, passed through the Pleiades, Taurus, and Orion, and vanished near Sirius. Its luminous train was visible for more than a minute. Nearly all the meteors observed radiated from a point near Aries, at right angles with the Pleiades, and shot either like the last or transverse to it. A streak as broad as the head in all cases, and in 80 or 90 per cent. of them 10° or 20° long, remained visible on their tracks generally for a second or two. In the last two cases the broad bright streak was at least 40° long.” (Messrs. Bruce and Hon. E. Newton.) “ From 10°15™ to 10"30™, the Hyades, Pleiades, and Orion being about 40° or 50° above the north horizon, the meteors appeared flying from north to south, and from N.E. to S.E. or from N.W. to 8.W. on each side of north. Their rate of appearance was about one per second, two or three sometimes appearing together. The nearer ones every few minutes showed trains and sparks like a rocket, varying from 2° or 3° to 5° or 6° in length, and seldom reaching 10°. Towards 11 o’clock fewer seemed to be falling than before.” (Messrs. A. C. M‘Pherson and Hon. Robert Stein.) In lat. 19° 52’ S., long. 50° 25’ E., Captain Gaston of §. ‘ Penelope,’ “ saw an extraordinary star-shower beginning at about 7°30". The meteors shot from north towards south-east. Some of them were bright, others leaving only a slender streak, and this display lasted until 2" a.m.” The radiant in the Mauritius must have been near o Z Persei, and the time of maximum of the shower at or soon after 11" p.m. (Mr. C. Meldrum’s report on the shower in ‘ Nature’ of January 23rd, 1873.) ‘ The radiation of this star-shower was very scattered, and the positions assigned to it by various observers often differed very considerably from each other. Thus the last-mentioned position assigned to it by Mr. Meldrum from the observations at the Mauritius, is at about R. A. 54°, Decl. + 31°; OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 393 while an observer near Dublin, Mr. M. H. Close, describes its position as near — Andromede at R.A. 19°, Decl. + 45°; and independently of their geo- graphical position, such differences are found among the notes of many ob- servers of the shower. The great majority of the best determinations of its place are, on the other hand, very near the latter place. The accompanying diagram shows the recorded positions, from ninety independent determina- North Declination. 35U 2U 10 v) R.A. in degrees. tions of its place, which are described as definite points among the accounts given by different observers of their observations of the shower. The prin- cipal region comprises a compact group of about thirty-five observations, having their centre or average place at R. A. 25°1, Decl. +42°9. There are besides many observations of radiant-points on the northern and eastern side of this group (twenty-two observations) in the same ten-degree square of R. A. and Decl. with it, of which the centre is at R. A. 25°-9, Decl. + 46°-7, forming an apparent diffuseness of the principal radiant region in that direction. Lastly, the average position of all the outlying radiant-points (thirty-three observations) is at R. A. 23°-0, Decl. +45°3, and the average position of all the ninety observations projected in this map, at R. A. 24°54, Decl.+ 44°74, can scarcely be more than half a degree from the general di- rection of these numerously recorded centres of divergence of the shower. The position fixed by Mr. Hind’s computation of the radiant-point of par- ticles of Biela’s comet had the shower been visible at the comet’s last return in 1866 is at R.A. 25°-25, Decl. +42°, not quite 3° southward from the general radiant place, and 1°.south of the mean principal or central radiant- point of the shower as found by these observations of its recent great appear- ance in November 1872. The November Meteoric Shower in 1872.—The annual appearance of the star-shower on the morning of the 14th of November, 1872, was observed at the Lyceum at Matera, in Piedmont, by Signor Viso Eugenio ; and from the numbers seen, it appears to have been of considerable brightness. The following were the hourly numbers counted. Although the number of the 394 REPORT—1873. observers is not stated it was probably four, the number who watched the appearance of the following star-shower on the 27th of the same month, and who counted during the whole of that single night 44,644 shooting stars! (Communicated by G. V. Schiaparelli and Padre F. Denza). Total numbers of shooting stars seen at Matera, Italy, on the morning of November 14th, 1872, in the half-hours ending at— 12 30™ aw. 12 1230™ 2b Qh39m 3h 3h30™ 4h 4b 30™ 5h 5230™ 6 Total. Nos. of meteors i 10-9 13°17 25) 41-79 122 149: 109" 57 ~ “638 seen Star-showers of December 12th, 1872, and January 2nd, 1873.—From the effect of bright moonlight and of a cloudy sky, no observations of the December meteors in 1872 could be obtained. The sky was equally overcast on the night of January 1st, 1873; but accounts in the newspapers (‘ Daily Telegraph’) of the 3rd mentioned the occurrence of several bright meteors on the morning of the 2nd of January between 1" and 2” 4.m. at Wrexham. On the night of December 31st, Mr. Denning traced the paths of twelve meteors in 3 hours on a map, without perceiving a distinct radiant-point, the principal centres of divergence being apparently near 6 Leonis, a Geminorum, and in Ursa Major. The sky was clear, and the light of an aurora rather bright in the north. ; On the night of January 2nd the sky was clear between storm-clouds at Bristol, and Mr. Denning saw an intense flash of lightning (which was per- haps meteoric) from the south, at Bristol. But shooting-stars at this place and at other stations where the sky was clear were exceedingly scarce until midnight, not more than two or three small ones appearing in an hour. The largest number counted was six meteors per hour, by Mr. Wood at Birming- ham, of which only one diverged from the usual radiant-point of the January shower. The appearance of the star-shower at Wrexham on the morning of January 2nd was, however, fully confirmed by Mr. Backhouse at Sunderland, whoin a watch kept between 5" and 7" a.m. on that morning, recorded the paths of 31 meteors, the rate of their appearance being 37 per hour for one observer. The radiant-point, or rather the centre of a radiant area, which seemed to be 7° or 8° in diameter, was at R. A. 234°, N. Decl. 48°, within 3° of the position near ¢ Quadrantis, where it was observed by Professor Herschel on the 2nd of January, 1864 (‘ Report’ for 1864, p. 98), and agreeing well with the bright character of the display, and with the great scarcity of meteors on each of the adjacent nights, in marking the shower as a very well-defined reappearance of the January meteors of that periodic date. On the nights of the 25th and 27th of February, 1873, bright meteors were seen by Mr. H. W. Jackson at Tooting, who drew attention to their appearance as perhaps indicating special star-shower dates. On the latter night several bright meteors were also noted by Mr. Denning at Bristol while observing Jupiter through a telescope, without paying particular attention to record their numbers and directions. A bright flash like hghtning appeared behind a cloud in the south at 10° 30™, the rest of the sky being clear; and a bright shooting-star observed at 7" 30™ was recorded simultaneously by Mr. Denning and by Mr. Jackson at Tooting (see the foregoing list of double observations). The April Star-shower in 1873.—On the nights of the 19th and 20th of April, 1873, the sky was in general clear, with fog or clouds at some stations a“ Os aa ange? yalivepll ; "¥) bt) AV ah eta @ | Pn ie Fil a ait : sn ‘s at oI igrod: I (tothe septal , Ort HEB] eek way : | St iP a ; stake Jmebal Ww Nis *. ( , he re edods o - | MOMS ie ; prea y” en os , i arya uP ax om Fe + TRGPPNOE LW i... Desght cea . a i puine mr | ates . pi nore sou Aeviftaney NT Fe bd eteeraiag of * b er me goo 4 |) pa — Smee _cemnent anemia ani Diener a ea aa ee — NUMBERS OF METEORS SEEN (s.) AND MAPPED (m.) IN AUGUST 1872 To fuce page 395. ae g o fuce page ] Dates and Durations of the Observations. Y Anew 1872. | 7th. | 8th. | 9th. 10th. | 1th. Ph, |———— Se SEEEEEEESEEeeee| EEE SET EET saa a ee ae = ae =a = ed Hour. | No.of | , eke &, |. Hour. No. of | « ; _ Hour, | No.of | , aaa Tanne loNoot |e i Geer alla lee One eu ern te eel RESO ihes | iim Te afte Stato of Sky, 0) From (‘To Moteors. | Balch {pez orcas | astadca, | State of Sky, &. | From To | Meteors] State of Shy, &e- | rom To | Meteors State of Sky, ka | = | a es a == je ae | | = / } | | | [hm hm] h hm h | S| hm hm | {hm hm | j hom hm} : | a! m ’ m hm Portree, Skye. | | | At 1050) Im. rn cee ss ove 0 Quite overcast. At 10 33 | 1m, udy. In 10™ & 0 Quite overcast. - re The TW. Backhouse | | . . Torr ; | 5 ‘At night. Afine aurora, | «+ nae ) Torrents of rain. ire. see cen arene oe z . | en 5 | 950 1050| 158 | },then quiteover-| 10 14 1047] 15s, | Fclear in places, | 1040 12 0/908. | ¥ clear; 1020 1150] 58s. |4fairlyclear; 49) | a Cet reo tet BR MClure a } | 8m. cast; 2 obser- | (40™ watch.) 5m. then quiteover- | | 21m vers; 80 Per- 16m Perseids, 9 un- | ‘Perseids, 97 W 2 E, Clark. | } | vers; aurora at cast | | seids, 10 nn- conformable. | | enforce am | 1. HL Waller. | 9.56 and 10, | conformable. | le.) ee an, oe gl ec ere | 0) Overcastandrain.| 11 30 1230] 15s, | Clouds 4. 10 82 1056] 4m. | Cloudy 3, then | Idi per’ en cat | = (tlm. tle ofereat | "4, oar on WH Woon | | 1043 1052] 2m. |Thelatterbright*; fiaak fa eee | | | | | | F elles }ithen 4 cloudy. | sky. unconformable, Birmingham a | | | | | } 9 0 1085) 8m. | Cloudslightrain,| ... ... oe a Allin and near | D. Smith, pasar bec | | | | | | then } clear. | lis Parseusl racllarit|| ama | | | | 11 0 12 0| 13m. | Cloudy }, in last | | at xp. | | | | | 30 often over- | | | | cast. | | | | 13 0 14 0| 25m. | Meteors frequent. | . | | | | 14 0 15 0} 7m. | Meteors at wide | | H | | | | ] | intervals. | | Bangor, North) 1027 ll 2 | js. 4 Perseids, lun-| 10 0 1045) &m ?Sky; 7 Perseids, | wo 20 By | lees , ate 2h i Vi cece es on | cts G. L Tupman. | ‘Wales. : 4m. conformable, | 1045 1140] 2m. | 3. uuvonforai-| | | | able. | | | Tatone Saye a | = Wt 2 4s. |Smallones;bright} .. + 0 | Overcast and | . a. | 0 Cloud and wind. At 1015] 1s. |VerybrightinW.,| ... ae an lw. Weston - Super | ry brig] F, Denning. Miaralenccuoc ett | aurora, and on windy. | | only downwards. ai | the 3rd. | | Clear in W. for | | | afew minutes. Buntingford, | }1015 1045| 5m. |Clearsky; aurora} -. - a At 10 1m. | Cloudy, almost) 1045 13 0 | 35m. |Clouds; bright} 1030 12 0/ 13m. | Clear; 1 bright| RP. Greg. Herts.........+++4] | | }__ at 126, | overcast. one at 12.18 t. at 11.12.30. i don | | 5 | 9 0 935| 0 | Pretty clear; no| 2 ss AD e | 1047 1155] 9m. | Olouds (1 very} 10 20 11 10| Many | Cloudy }, then ae H.W, Jackson Tooting, Loi | iy J y of | | | | meteors in 30. | bright at seen, quite overcast ; | | | 10,04*). 2m. 1_ bright at | ‘ 10.48. | Regent's Park,| =. --. Bilt paces | 5 10 8| 3m, |Cloudsondrain.| .. ... 0 Quite overcast. | 10 3 1215] 23s. | }clearinpatches,| 910 935] Im. | 4 clear; no Per- | 1. Crumplen. Tiondon .........| | | | 12m. then quite over- seids; bright, | | | cast ; 2 bright, at 9.18, Lyraid. | | 10.3 and 10.46, b| | Pior Street,| 10 20 1044} 3m. |Smallones;1ob-| 1012 1112] 5m. | Bright ones; 1 et 0 Overcast. 938 11 3|12m. | Bright ones at| 937 1237 | 52m. | Bright one at | | W. Marriott : 2. Greenwich......| | server, observer. 10.58* and 11,3. 12.19.28 t. One observer. One observer. | | Royal Observa-| 948 1045] 95. | Afterwards over-| 959 11 56| 20s. | 1 observor. li wen ees 0 Quite overcast. | 13 31 13.37 | 2m. | Generally over-| 953 12 0} 29s. |15perhour; one) .. .. | G. Forbes. y. tory,Greenwich| Gm. | cast. 17 m. cast. One ob- | 19m. observer. ? sky. | server. | Royal Observa-| 1014 1221| 9m. |Some bright; 3| 934 15 8| 28m. |Small bolido at| 912 941| 2m. |Smallones;2ob-) 945 1830 | 34m. |1 vory bright ot | 922 1242) 55m. | Bolides 2x x at| 10 52 12 55 | 10m. | Small ones; 1 ob-| W. C. Nash. tory.Greenwich | observers. 14.27.45. 3 ob- sorvers, | 13.34.30 in N. 10.641 and | server. T, Wright. | | | servers, then 1 2 observers, 11.19.48. 3, | W. Bishop. | | observer. | then 3 obser- then 1 obser- R, Cross. | | vers, ver. W- A. Schultz. Totals . 948 1221 Pretty clear; 6} 9 0 15 8| 918, |Clovds about 4. 912 1047|17s | Wind and min;| 9 0 15 02968, |Cloudy,}to}. 15] 910 18 0 [217s |12 observers; 4| 1090 1265|23s. | Clear; 2 obser- 610s observers. 78m, 14 observers. 7m. almost entirely {153 m. observers. 164 m. to $ cloudy. 23 m. | vers. 7m. an overcast. | | * A bright meteor triply observed at Greenwich, Tooting, and Birmingham at 10% 63™ r.s1., on August 10th (seo the first Table in Appendix T.). A fine aurora was seen at Rothbury, Northumberland, between 9° and 104 p.w, on this night by Mr. G. A. Lebour, + A bright meteor triply observed at the Royal Observatory and at Prior Street, Groonwich, and at Buntingford, Herts, nt 124 19™ 4.s1., on August 12th (see the general list of duplicate observations in Appendix I.), OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 395 only, but on the 21st it was generally overcast. In London, and at Bristol, Street (near Bath), York, Sunderland, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, observa- tions of some hours’ duration on each night were made; and a list of shooting- stars was also recorded on the night of the 21st by Mr. Denning at Bristol. The number of meteors from Lyra did not exceed that of the unconformable meteors (amounting together to about eight per hour) on either of these periodic nights ; but the proportion observable on the 19th was slightly higher than on the other nights. A long-continued watch was kept by Mr. Lucas at the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford from 10 o’clock p.m. until half-past two, and half-past one o’clock a.m. on the nights of the 19th and 20th of April respectively, with similar results. The centre of the April meteor-stream appears from these observations to have been crossed by the earth during the daytime of April 20th, when daylight intervening between two slender indica- tions of the shower must have caused the period of its greatest intensity to pass unobserved. Four double observations of shooting-stars occurred among the lists recorded on the first two nights, descriptions of which are contained in the foregoing catalogue of such identifiable accordances. The August Meteors in 1873.—The observations of this annual shower were much incommoded by clouds, and the brightness of the full moonlight concealed a large proportion of the meteors of the shower, which would otherwise have been visible. -On the night of the 10th the sky was every- where completely overcast, and on that of the 11th so much so that a conti- nuous record of the numbers seen could not be obtained at any of the ob- servers’ stations. The following are the numbers seen at Bristol by two observers, looking towards the N.E. and N.W. quarters of the sky, during successive quarters of an hour, ending on the night of the 9th of August at Totals in TOe30™, ~45™ 028 ote do™, 30", 45s och ome Nos. of meteors seen in the N.W. 2 3 ieee fee 0) 1 2 1 9 (C. P. Denning) . Nos. in the N.E. (E. Barker) .... ; e : a 4 2 26 Total numbers seen 11 v4 1 6 5 5 35 On the night of the 11th Mr. Denning found them to be more frequent than on the 9th, and the appearance of their display was that of an August star-shower of somewhat considerable brightness. At the other stations it was not found possible to count the meteors, as at Bristol, so as to trace the pro- gress and apparent brightness of the shower on account of the frequent in- terruptions from the general prevalence of cloudy skies; but a continuous watch kept at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, by Mr. Lucas, for about four hours on the night of the 9th, and for an hour and a half on that of the 11th, corroborates Mr. Denning’s observations. About 50 meteors were mapped at all the stations in a total watch of about 7 hours on the 9th, and about 30 meteor-paths in a total watch of about 33 hours on the 11th. Those meteors of the collected list which were simultaneously observed at two or more stations in the watch are described in the above catalogue of double observations. The position of the radiant-point and other particulars of the appearance of the shower will be examined for comparison with the observa- tions of the previous year, when the necessary projections of the meteor- tracks can be completed. 396 REPORT—1873. Meteors of September 1st, 1873.—Quite an abundance of bright meteors (as communicated by Mr. J. E. Clark) was seen at Street, Somersetshire, on the night of the Ist of September, 1873. Nine meteors, some of them very fine ones, were seen between 11" and 12" p.m., mostly in the south; but the directions of their apparent paths were not noted with sufficient accuracy to determine the place of their radiant-point, or if all the meteors of the display diverged very definitely from a common centre. IV. Papers RELATING To MretEorIc ASTRONOMY. The discussions relating to the second great star-shower in November, now known to be connected with Biela’s comet, occupy the principal place of in- terest among the various published papers on meteoric astronomy during the past year. In the Reports of this Committee for the years 1868 (p. 399) and 1869 (p. 305), the communications of Professors d’Arrest and Galle on the con- nexion of certain comets with meteor-showers are briefly abstracted from two Numbers (1633 and 1635) of the ‘Astronomische Nachrichten ’ of the month of March, 1867 (the same apparent connexions having already been announced by Dr. Weiss, of Vienna, in the next preceding No. 1632 of the same Journal), with some errors and omissions which require correction. The star-shower indicated by d’Arrest differs entirely from the principal December star-shower of December 11th—13th, there supposed to be signified, whose radiant-point is between the constellations Gemini and Auriga. That indicated by Prof. d’Arrest is a star-shower, having a more north-westerly radiant-point in Andromeda, appearing in the British Association list of 1868 as A,, (Nov. 23- Dec. 18), connected perhaps with A,, ,, of an earlier date, and in Dr. Heis’s list of the year 1867 * as A,, and A,, in the latter half of November and beginning of December, whose positions are all in or near the constellation Cassiopeia. It is pointed out by Prof. d’Arrest that meteoric showers having this direction occurred on the following dates :— A.D. 1741. ap. 1798. A.D. 1830. A.D. 1838. Dec. 5. Dec. 6. Dec. 12. [?A bolide only.] Dec. 6 & 7. which may be supposed to be connected with the passages of the earth through the node of the orbit of Biela’s comet. On the last of these dates the position of the radiant-point was found by Flaugergues in France, and Herrick in the United States to be near Cassiopeia, at about 30°, +40° for the former, and in less R. A. and greater declination for the latter observer’s estimate of its osition. 3 In ‘Nature’ of Jan. 16th, 1878, Mr. T. W. Webb thus recalls some excel- lent observing-notes of that star-shower, which he formerly reported with many similar notes to the late Professor Baden Powell :—‘‘1838, Dec. 7. A great number of falling stars were observed between 6" and 7° p.m. In about half an hour 40 were counted, sometimes by one, sometimes by two, sometimes by three observers, two at a medium. They were of all magni- tudes up to the first. The larger dissolved into a train of light, but left no train behind them. The S. and W. quarters were chiefly observed, but their prevalence seemed to be universal. They all fell in nearly a vertical direc- tion ; but those in the N.W. and§.E. quarters inclined towards 8.W. [7. e. the radiant-point was not far from the place occupied by it in November 1872]. The colours of the more conspicuous ones seemed to verge towards orange. Their courses were of no great length. There was at the same time a pale * Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1642. See end of this Report. + These Reports, 1852, p. 185. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 397 auroral light along the north horizon, extending from N.W. to N.E., apparently equally extended on each side of the true meridian. The meteors were not watched after 7"; but about 11", on looking out again, I saw one, the only one in several minutes in the 8.W.; but it had now no longer a vertical di- rection, its course pointing now to the N.W.” ‘The endeavours of the Com- mittee to consult an account of the same phenomenon by Mr. Maverly at Gosport, if it was published as stated by Mr. Webb, have not hitherto been attended with the success that will, perhaps, await the further continuation of their search. An error of omission is also contained in the above-mentioned abstracts of the Papers of d’Arrest and Galle; as it is not observed that the latter as well as the former astronomer pointed out the probable connexion of such meteoric showers with Biela’s comet. At the close of his note on the cometary cha- racter of the April star-shower, Dr. Galle adds:—“< Amongst other comets yielding meteor-showers, if some overtake the earth they would appear more deflected from their real orbits than meteor-streams arriving from the oppo- site direction. As an example of this kind, I calculated the radiant-point of the comet of Biela at its descending node, since the date of this (Nov. 28th) is found to occur in a period of considerable frequency of meteors; but I have not found in all the observations to which I could refer that the date of Noy. 28th is especially distinguished from other days near it; and it appears to be connected with the weeks immediately preceding and following it in the prevalence of meteoric displays. The comet’s direct motion makes the date of its nodal passage less fixed and less certain, and the agreement with observations accordingly less likely to be so perfect in the case of this comet as in other cases. Yet renewed observations on the night of the 27th of November certainly deserve to be very carefully repeated.” (Breslau, March 11th, 1867; ‘Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1635.) D’Arrest’s communi- cation in the ‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 1633, is dated Copenhagen, Feb. 25th, 1867. The calculations showing the probable connexion of two comets (1861, I., and Biela’s comet) with the April and November to December star-showers by Dr. Weiss, are contained in an earlier No. (1632) of the ‘Astronomische Nach- richten.’ The latter memoir was extended and completed by Dr. Weiss in the ‘Astronomische Nachrichten,’ No. 1710, and in the valuable paper presented to the Academy of Sciences at Vienna on the 16th of January, 1868, ‘ Beitrige zur Kentniss der Sternschnuppen’ (see these Reports for 1869, p. 304). A short review of the above predictions was presented to the Royal Astro- nomical Society (‘Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxxii. p. 355) during the summer of last year in preparation for the expected approach of Biela’s comet to the neighbourhood of the earth’s orbit in the latter months of the year; and the attention of astronomers appears to have been already drawn to the favour- able prospect of a meteoric shower from the above-cited papers sufficiently to make its character at once decided by the majority of the observers when the abundant star-shower was observed. Prof. Klinkerfues at Gottingen, whose observations of the shower were most complete, immediately dispatched an instruction by telegraph to Mr. N. Pogson, the astronomer at Madras, to search the portions of the sky opposite to the radiant-point for any cometary body which might be visible in the direction of the departing and retreating meteor-group through which the earth had passed. Such a comet was found by Mr. Pogson on the 2nd of December, about 13° from the place of the anti- radiant-point, and close to the position pointed out by Dr. Klinkerfues. Another observation of it was obtained on Dec. 3rd, and there is sufficient resemblance in the observed track of the comet to that which meteors con- 398 REPORT—18738. nected with Biela’s comet might pursue to make it probable that this tele- scopic body is at least a member of the cometary group, of which it is not impossible that the double comet of Biela may contain other representatives hitherto not detected by telescopic observations*. Should the principal bodies of Biela’s comet have undergone no uncaleulable perturbations, it is shown by Mr. Hind (‘ Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxxiii. p. 320) that up to its expected return in the year 1866, no calculable causes depending upon its actual position until that time have been overlooked, and that if uninvestigated disturbances may yet explain its presence in the recent meteor-shower at a place of its orbit which ‘it should have passed at least twelve weeks before the date of the meteor- shower, those disturbances must have affected its course during the last re- volution (1866-73) which the comet has performed. It appears more pro- bable that the comet has faded out of sight ; and it is pointed out by Professor Schiaparelli, in a new volume of three lectures on meteors published in con- nexion with these recent discoveries at Florence, that more than one instance of variability has been observed in comets, of which the two portions of Biela’s comet itself presented a remarkable example at the last return, when. interchanges of brightness were observed between them. It may also be added that when first discovered to be periodical in the year 1826, it was found to be identical with a comet observed in the years 1772 and 1805, haying accordingly escaped observation during two previous series of returns in this and the last century, when it might be expected to have been detected, had not some diminution of its light, perhaps, rendered it invisible on each of those occasions. Telescopic and meteoric observations may thus be found, if perseveringly conducted and comprehensively carried on together, to assist each other in tracing the effects of the sudden variations in their physical condition to which comets, from their small masses and highly eccentric orbits, are exposed, more than all other classes of astronomical bodies, in their circumsolar revolutions. The newly discovered connexion between meteor-showers and comets, according to which the periodic comet of Biela and the recently observed star-shower are associated members of a common stream of bodies following each other in nearly the same path about the sun ; and the question of the pro- bable nature of the physical connexion between the invisible particles of the meteor-stream, and the faintly or brightly luminous body of its-attendant comet, have given rise to considerable discussion respecting the extent and mode of the connexion in which comets in general, and all the different forms of meteoric substances may possibly be regarded as allied phenomena. With respect to appearances of the latter class, it must be admitted that many of the grounds for such conclusions regarding detonating fireballs and aérolites are hitherto very indefinite and uncertain. ‘The directions and real. velocities in space of very few aérolites and detonating meteors have been exactly ascertained ; while, on the other hand, the collected proofs derived from observations of a distinct connexion between star-showers and periodic comets are as abundant and precise as the most rigorous process of research in any kindred subject of scientific inquiry would demand. Reviewing certain instances of hyperbolic velocities of fireballs and aérolites that have been sufficiently well observed to be accepted as examples of their class, and contrasting the evidence which they present with the remarkable absence among comets of very excentric hyperbolic orbits, Prof. Schiaparelli is led to recognize two different original sources of these two classes of bodies, and to regard comets as cosmical bodies belonging to the same star family, or “ star- * Astronomical Society’s ‘Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxxili. pp 128 & 1380. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 399 drift” as the sun, and some aérolites and fireballs as derived from more distant regions of the fixed stars, the direction and speed of whose motions in space (as gathered from the recent researches of Dr. Huggins and Mr. Proctor) resemble each other, but differ considerably from those of the sun. As examples of hyperbolic velocities among fireballs and aérolites are of rather rare occurrence, it is, however, admissible to regard these instances as exceptional cases, and not as the normal representatives of their class*. In that case aérolites, as well as shower-meteors, may be parts of cometary systems; and it is not impossible that the extraordinary meteorological changes which comets undergo from the excentricities of their orbits, may, by the process of a kind of ‘ weathering,’ disintegrate their surfaces suffi- ciently to scatter such bodies in crowds along their pathst. In this view, instead of presupposing the existence of cosmical clouds containing all these several bodies separately formed, comets may be regarded as parent bodies, from which aérolites and shower-meteors are similarly derived. Adopting a special theory of the origin and of the physical constitution of comets, Zolner explains the production of such star-showers as that which was wit- nessed last November, by a process very similar to the lastt. Supposing the remnants of a shattered star or planet to be scattered by some ‘catastrophe into intrastellar space, besides the materials of aérolites and detonating fire- balls which would result, it may be assumed that fluid masses, as of their seas (and possibly hydrocarbons) and other easily volatilizable substances would occur among the débris of such a shock. Among the fluids and easily vaporizable materials thus ushered into space, and there maintained as liquids or solids by cold, and by their own attractions, the sun’s heat acting upon their otherwise fixed masses, when first drawn into its immediate neighbourhood, would effect a surface distillation sufficiently abundant to detach some vaporous portions from their spheres, or even to volatilize them completely, and to efface them after many periodic revolutions from the sky. These vapours might possibly recondense afterwards into solid dust or drops, to assume the form of meteor-streams along the cometary orbit, producing on their collision with the earth’s atmosphere, the extraordinary phenomena of star-showers§. In accepting such explanations of their origin, it must be borne in mind that the streams of meteor-particles with which some periodic comets are associated are altogether differently constituted from the tails and envelopes of such comets, in obeying, as far as has yet been discovered, without any deviations like the extraordinary exceptions which those appen- dages present, the simple law of universal gravitation which governs the * Schiaparelli, ‘ Entwurf einer Astronomischen Theorie der Sternschnuppen’ (Stettin, 1871), pp. 207-210, and 216-229. + Ibid. pp. 212-13. ¢ F. Zollner, “ Ueber den zusammenhang von Sternschnuppen und Cometen,” Poggen- dorff’s Annals, vol. cxlviii. pp. 822-29. See also ‘Ueber Die Natur der Cometen’ (Leip- zig, 1872), by the same author, p. 109. ; § That even mineral substances are gradually volatilized at comparatively low tempera- tures, and sublime or are recondensed in appreciable quantities, is shown by sume remark- able experiments by the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt on various minerals placed for many years under the hearth of an iron smelting-furnace, as described in the volume of these Reports for 1860, p. 175 ez. seg. (with coloured plates). Under the action of a prolonged heat, in which neither copper, zinc, lead, nor tin were melted, the oxide of copper which formed a crust upon the plate of that metal, had sublimed, and deposited itself in red erystals along with sublimed metallic copper, not only upon the surface, but also in the interior of the neighbouring piece of lead. The adjacent pieces of the other metals were similarly calcined, and coated with a thick crystalline crust of their oxides which had diffused itself in a similar manner among the substances of the surrounding blocks (see the explanation of the experiments and of the plates, at pp. 188 and 192 of that Report). 400 REPORT—1873. motions of the planets and of the comets in their paths. It is also important to observe that among the spectra of several telescopic comets which have been examined, there is a typical resemblance which leads us to infer that the coma or envelope of such comets is at least in great measure composed of gases shining, for some reason, with self-resplendent light. A state of liquid or solid aggregation of vyaporizable materials by extreme cold cannot on this account be regarded as a complete explanation of the original con- dition of their nuclei, unless, with Zollner, we admit that a feeble electrical excitation accompanies the development of the vapours from them that pro- duce the envelope and tail; and that a restoration of the disturbed electrical equilibrium among these vapours produces in them (as in the extensive tracts of auroral clouds) a sufficiently strong illumination to be visible on account of their great depth; as even bright auroral beams may be produced by weak electrical discharges lighting up vast volumes of air through which they pass. The free electricity with which the vapours are charged would be suffi- cient, as shown by Dr. Zéllner, to account for the rapid projection of the extremely rarefied materials of the tail in an outward direction from the sun, if its tension, and that of free electricity similarly present in the sun itself, is supposed not to exceed the amount assigned by Hankel as the ordi- nary tension of free electricity in the earth’s atmosphere. On account of their larger masses (compared to the surfaces, upon which electricity resides) no sensible effect of repulsion is produced by solar electricity on the nucleus, and on the larger fragments separated from the comet’s mass, that appre- ciably diminishes the force of universal gravitation upon them, to which, in common with all other bodies coming within the sphere of the sun’s attrac- tion, the separate particles of the cometary cloud are principally subject. Similar views to those of Dr. Zollner on the electrical origin of the sun’s repulsive force on the tails and envelopes of comets (a force whose intensity was first mathematically investigated by Bessel) were previously entertained by Olbers, and discussions of some of their principal consequences, with excellent illustrations derived from cometary observations by M. Faye, will be found in the ‘ Comptes Rendus’ (vol. xlviii. p. 421) for 1870, and in a con- temporary number of the French ‘ Revue des Courses Scientifiques.’ The - theory of a self-luminosity in comets, and perhaps in the vaporous nebule, resembling the glow-discharge in the vacuum of a barometer-tube when the mercury is shaken, suggests, as shown by Dr. Zéllner, no insuperable diffi- culties, when the enormous thickness of the vapour-tracts is considered, in which a very feeble illumination of this description would be sufficient to render them very discernibly self-luminous, with all the visible characters of a glowing gas. During the last two or three years the discovery of energetic forces of eruption on the sun, and therefore also probably on the surfaces of the stars, has demonstrated the occasional occurrence of some convulsions so extremely violent that they would suffice (at least, if they were but little stronger, or equally energetic at an earlier period of the sun’s history, when its diameter was somewhat larger) to project molten and gaseous matters from its mass to distances beyond the sphere of its own attraction. One of the most violent eruptions of this description was observed by Prof. Young in America on the 7th of September, 1871, when masses of glowing hydrogen left the sun’s surface with a velocity of projection which cannot have been less than 200 miles per second; had it started with this velocity from an elevation but little more than twice its actual distance from the sun’s centre, it would have been projected beyond the orbit of the planet Neptune, and a velocity of OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 401 projection from the sun’s present surface of 380 miles per second would have sufficed to carry it beyond the limits of the solar system never to return*. The existence of such forces, and the evidence which the microscope affords that aérolites have had their origin among mineral masses in a state of fusion, if not of vapour, combine to support a theory formerly entertained by other writers, and recently announced most definitely by Mr. Proctor in England? and Prof. Kirkwood in America as an “ astro-meteorological hypothesis” of the origin of meteors and meteorites. By a still more remarkable supposition Mr. Proctor proposes to regard the class of periodic comets with their attendant trains of meteors as originally projected from the major planets Jupiter, Uranus, or Neptune, in the neighbourhood of whose orbits it is well known that the greater number of their aphelia are placed ; and some peculiarities of the light as well as of the dense atmosphere of the largest of these planets, Jupiter, renders it probable that it is partially self- luminous, and that it still continues to be in a more sunlike state than the smaller primary and secondary planets of the solar systemt. A close appulse of the November meteor-comet to the earth is pointed out by Mr. Hind as haying probably occurred in the year 1366, when it was observed in China in the same month of October with the memorable star-shower recorded in some parts of Europe in that year. Another visible return of the comet appears to have taken place in 868, when its path among the constellations was also recorded in China, and appears to be in good agreement with the orbit of the present comet§. It also appears that the November meteor-shower may be of older date than the period assigned by M. Le Verrier (4.p. 126) to its last encounter with the planet Uranus, a previous encounter with that planet not less close having been shown by Prof. Kirkwood (in the journal above quoted, p. 338) to have taken place in the year n.c. 43, while the next close appulse of the comet to the planet will happen in the year 1983. A general list of approximate agreements between orbits of comets and those of observed meteor-showers, extracted from the works of Weiss, Schia- parelli, and Schmidt, will be found collected, exclusive of the four well-known examples of perfect correspondence in the cases of the April, August, and two great November showers, in the Report of the Council to the last Annual General Meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, where the length of the list, and a due regard for the limited space of this Report, will only permit its insertion to be noticed||; but a peculiarity in two of the accordances appears to claim exception in order to explain the supposed agreements which they present. In the early parts of April and August two meteor-showers are found to proceed, the former from a radiant-point between Corona and Bootes, and the latter from near the north pole of the heavens, agreeing well with the radiant-points of corresponding comets whose line of nodes the earth encounters at those dates. But the orbits of these comets falling far within the orbit of the earth, it is not possible that an encounter of the earth with any meteors lying upon their tracks could be produced. ‘These accord- ances must therefore be rejected, unless, with Weiss and Schiaparelli, it is * « Astro-meteorology,” by Prof. D. Kirkwood, U.S., ‘The Popular Science Monthly,’ 1871, p. 335. ie“ Cornhill Magazine,’ November 1871.—In the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xiv. pp. 120-129, March 1865 (see these Reports for 1865, pp. 132 and 140), the late Prof. Brayley, founding his observations on the microscopical investigations of Mr. Sorby (vol. xiii. of the same‘ Proceedings,’ p. 333), strongly maintained, although he some- what less lucidly developed, the same hypothesis. ¢ “The Origin of the November Meteors,” by R. A, Proctor, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiii. p. 45, § Ibid. p. 49, | Ibid. p. 260. 1873, ay 402 REPORT—1873. supposed possible that some parts of the cometary substance, repelled from their proper orbits by the sun in the form of the tail and other luminous appendages emitted by the comets near their perihelion passages, may have extended to such a distance in their orbit-planes as to intersect the orbit of the earth, It is known that substance repelled in this manner from the comet, if it consists of materials capable of finally gravitating towards the sun, will describe closed orbits round it, and might thus periodically produce the appearance of a corresponding meteor-shower. for the purpose of an approximate comparison with the known meteor-showers, the repelled par- ticles may be assumed to move in orbits which differ little from those of their derivative comets, excepting in having a larger perihelion distance. In order to complete and facilitate, as far as possible, the comparison of meteor-streams with the orbits of known comets, lists of observed radiant- points of meteor-showers continue to be compiled and recorded by obseryers, an important contribution for that purpose during the past year being the ‘* Catalogue of Observed Radiant-points ” obtained by Captain G, L, Tupman from his observations of shooting-stars made in the Mediterranean during the years 1869-71*. This list contains the places of 102 distinct radiant-points, independently determined, and for the most part confirming the results presented in the earlier catalogues of other observers. Thus, in about sixty cases, the same showers appear to haye been recorded by Dr, Schmidtt at Athens; and the agreements with the general list of radiant-points for the northern hemisphere, exclusive of Dr, Schmidt’s results (see the last Report), compiled by Mr. Greg are equally numerous, Captain Tupman regards fifty-eight of the meteor-showers described in his list as identical, and twenty-one others as fairly in accordance with those of other observers ; of the remaining twenty-three positions, nearly the whole may be regarded as well determined and as probably true radiant-points. Among the brightest showers and the most conspicuous radiant-points were remarkable displays of about fifteen or twenty shooting-stars per hour on the nights of April 30th and May 2nd, 1870, from the direction of a point at R. A. 325°, 8. Decl, 3°; and showers of less abundance on March 7th, September 8-10 and 13-15, and October 5-10, 1869, and November 1-9, 1869 and 1872: the last was the well-known shower from Taurus in the early part of November; and a good average position of its apparently double radiant-point in about R. A. 53°, N. Decl. 12°, and R. A. 57°, N. Decl. 20°, was obtained by several well- agreeing observations on successive nights. The following corrected Table of radiant-points, compiled and published by Dr, Heis in April 1867 (‘Astronomische Nachrichten,’ No, 1642), was included by Mr. Greg in his general list of radiant-points contained in the last volume of these Reports. In a future continuation of that list it will be attempted to condense and to add to it a similar reproduction of the new materials afforded by the two ample catalogues of Dr. Schmidt and Captain Tupman, of which no comparison has yet been included in its collection. A suitable analysis of their contents will thus complete the discussion of all the known radiant-points of shooting-stars of which published or private informa- tion has hitherto been obtained by the Committee. Itis proposed to exhibit the results of this examination on maps of a special kind, adapted to assist observers in recognizing immediately the particular radiant-points or showers to which any observed meteor-tracks might correspond, and thus to enable * Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for March, 1873, vol. xxxiii, p. 298. _ tT In his Catalogue of Radiant-points for successive months of the year, ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’ No, 1756. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 403 them to arrange and classify their observations. It is further intended to accompany the maps with a printed catalogue of Captain Tupman’s obser- vations, only a certain proportion of which are designated in the catalogue as belonging to some of the numerous meteor-showers included in his list, while the greater number have not yet been distinguished as conformable to any known centres of radiation from which they may very possibly have been derived. A complete analysis of the catalogue, and of the scattered _observations collected for the Committee within the last few years by observers for the British Association, will during the present year occupy the attention of the Committee, and will continue to engage their consideration with the best opportunities and facilities for reducing and arranging them under their proper radiant-points which it will be in their power to bestow on their discussion. ' List of Corrected Radiant-points by Dr. Heis, ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’ No. 1642 (May 1867). Half-monthly, Monthly, or Meteoric Periods and Positions of the Radiant-points. R.A. N. Decl. R.A. N. Decl. R.A. N. Decl.! R.A. N. Decl. January 1-15. February 15-28, April 1-15, June 1-30, ° fo} ° i} Ay. 28 450 | A... 76 440 | A,.. 84 445 | Nip... 158 +83 M — K, , 227 +54 | M,... 173 +63 | M,... 180 +49 1 ae M,... 145 +451 toe 45 +76 | Ny os 260 +86 Q 242 +12 me. 200 ed |S... 174 416 | Be... 185. +22 ... 292 +15 January 16-31. March 1-15. Period of April 20. July 1-15. ai 80 461 | AL... 50 449 | Asa. 58 +66 | Ny 20 485 K, ... 227 +60 | M,... 1290 +54 | M,... 160 +49 | A,.. 41 +62 M,... 169 +45 |N,... 15 +80 | N,.. 275 +83 | B,... 31d +54 N,... 35 +87 |8.... 181 +6 |8, ... 199 +14 | Q,... 262 +412 On OTP) #58 February 1-14, | March 16-31, May 1-31. | duly 15-31. 61 +56 N, «.. 315 +79 | Ar. 51 +58 M,... 171 +56 ['M,.., 150 +447 | 8 ... 202 +9 | By... 320 £70 N, ... North Pole. | 8,'... 176 416 | B,... 825 +55 | Nj,... North Pole, Q, ... 282 +27 Period of August 10.| September 16-30. | Period of Nov, 14. | December 16-31. fA... d1 +55 | A... 44 +63 | PL... 46 +43 | Aro 37 +09 B,... 297 +68 | B,... 811 +465 | A,,... 15 +462 | N,,... 340 +89 N,,... 345 +85 |N,,... 65 +84 |D... 279 +56 | K,... 2385 +52 Ps 1 +11 |} R,... 85 +16 | R, 46 +37 |L ... 148 +24 August 16-31. October 1-15. November 19-30, | A... 35 +61 | A,;... 51 +461 | Ay... 15 +62 B, -. 8306 +59 | N,,... 105 +81. | Nj... North Pole. es ct Oe ely | Ry. (4) E82) Py aed ye 4Oi) +44 .., s1£. 1b. | By September 1-15. | Period of Oct. 16-31.| Period of Dec. 1-15. Aj... 385 +63 1+ ,28 +40 | Aj. 21 +54 By «oe. 293 +57 | Ajgsee 72° +44 | Noo. 123 +78 N,,... 180 +84 | B,,... 834 +54 | M,... 112 +89 T, ... 843 +10 | N,,... 205 +85 | — Pa ra 404, REPORT—1873. On the Visibility of the dark side of Venus. By Professor A, Scuararix, of Prague. [A Communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] Ir is well known that the unillumined side of the planet Venus has been sometimes seen shining with a faint grey light, like the dark side of the moon when illumined by the earth. Schroter in 1806 thought he had made for the first time this remark- able observation; but it was found afterwards that Harding had made it almost simultaneously, and Olbers pointed out an old observation made by A. Mayer at Gryphiswald in 1759. Arago found a still older observation of the same kind made by Derham at a date not fixed, but certainly anterior to 1729, the date of publication of the French edition of his ‘Astrotheology.’ - Nevertheless this phenomenon is stated in the best text-books of astronomy to be one of the utmost rarity. Midler knows only two observers of it, the profoundly learned Humboldt only three, Arago only five; and even re- cently Dr. Winnecke, of Karlsruhe, believed that he was the only witness of that phenomenon in daylight since the time of A. Mayer; but under these particular circumstances it has been seen by eleven observers, and by five of them more than once. It was known to me for a long time that there were on record far more observations of this phenomenon than is ordinarily supposed; and when, some years ago, I happened to be a witness of it myself, I undertook to collect all existing observations of it. This I have now done; and as I have succeeded in collecting the sur- prising number of twenty-two observations, many of them repeated more than once, a short account of what I have found will perhaps be not unin- teresting to astronomers. 1. The first observation recorded is that of William Derham, Canon of Windsor, referred to in his ‘ Astrotheology ’ as made in the perigeum of Venus, probably in bright twilight, when he saw the dark side of the planet shining with a dim reddish light. Arago, who mentions this observation, quotes from a French translation published in 1729. It would be interesting to ie if this observation is found also in the first English edition published in 1714. 2. The second in order was Christian Kirch, first astronomer of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He saw the phenomenon twice (June 7, 1721, and March 8, 1726), both times with moderate optical power and in bright twilight. He remarked that the bright crescent was apparently a part of a larger sphere than the faintly shining dark side. (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1586, vol. xvii. p. 27.) 3. Third came Andreas Mayer, Professor of Mathematics in the Gryphis- wald University, who, on October 20, 1759, observed Venus, culminating only 10° from the sun, with an unachromatic transit-instrument of only 13-inch aperture, and saw the whole disk “like the crescent moon which re- flects the light of the earth.” (Observationes Veneris Gryphiswaldenses, 1762, p. 7h) Schréter, Beobachtungen des grossen Cometen yon 1807, Appendix, p. 74. _ 4. The fourth witness is Sir William Herschel, who about 1790 several times saw a part of the limb of the dark side in a faint light. Neither date nor time of day is given. (On the planet Venus, Philosophical Transactions for 1793.) ON THE VISIBILITY OF THE DARK SIDE OF VENUS. 405. 5. Count Friedrich Hahn, of Remplin, Mecklenburg, saw the phenomenon unusually well and often during the spring and summer of 1793, in twilight as well as in daylight. He employed excellent instruments, and gives a very detailed description of what he saw; also two sketches. No other ob- server seems to have seen the phenomenon so often and so well. (Berliner astronomisches Jahrbuch fiir 1793, p. 188.) 6. The venerable old selenographer Schroter saw the phenomenon only once, February 14, 1806, in faint twilight, with an excellent telescope, and gives a very accurate description and sketch of it. He remarked an im- portant feature in the phenomenon: the limb of the dark hemisphere was brighter than its central part. (Berliner astronomisches Jahrbuch fiir 1809, p. 164, and Beobachtungen des grossen Cometen yon 1807, Appendix, p- 66.) 7. Simultaneously with Schréter, and independently of him, C. L. Hard- ing, at Gottingen, succeeded in observing the dark side of Venus on three different evenings—January 24, February 28, and March 1, 1806. On the second of these days the light was reddish grey, and on all of them the phenomenon was seen with the utmost sharpness and distinctness. (Berliner Jahrbuch fiir 1809, p. 169.) 8. The well-known observer of the sun J, W. Pastorff, at Buchholz in Prussia, saw the phenomenon (as he reports) many times so distinctly that he could distinguish bright and dark patches in the faint grey light. Only one date and a corresponding drawing are given, February 10, “1822, at 5 v.M., when the breadth of the crescent was 0-23 diameter of the whole disk. (Berliner Jahrbuch fiir 1825, p. 235.) _ 9, June 8, 1825, at + a.m., almost in full daylight, the phenomenon was witnessed by Gruithuisen at Munich. No particulars given. (Astronomisches Jahrbuch fiir 1842, herausgegeben von Gruithuisen, p. 158.) 10. The next observation was made by Mr. Guthrie, near Bervie, N.B. (Great Britain), during the inferior conjunction in December 1842. Mr, Guthrie saw a narrow ; fringe of light around the whole disk ofthe planet. (Monthly Notices of the Roy. Astr. Soc., vol. xiv. p. 169.) 11. G. A. Jahn, at Leipzic, saw the dark side of Venus on September 27 and 28, 1855, at 11 a.m., in broad daylight. (Jahn’s Unterhaltungen im Gebiete der Astronomie, vol. ix. p. 320.) 12. Mr. Berry, of Liverpool, saw the phenomenon on the evening of January 14, 1862. (Month. Not. vol. xxii. p. 158.) 13. Mr. C. L. Prince, of Uckfield, observed Venus almost daily during her inferior conjunction between Sept. 23rd and 30th, 1863, in bright daylight, and could trace on every day the whole disk, or at least a faint fringe of light around the edge. (Month. Not. vol. xxiv. p. 25.) 14, Mr. W. Engelmann, of the Leipzie Observatory, saw the phenomenon repeatedly—most advantageously, as it seems, on April 20, 1865, immediately after sunset. The dark side was greenish grey, a little brighter than the sky. (Astron. Nachr. No. 1526, vol. Ixiv. p- 223.) 15. During the inferior conjunction of 1867 Venus was well observed by Professor C. s. Lyman, of Yale College, Newhaven, U.S. The extension of the crescent over more than 180° was seen during a period of eleven days: on 10th and 12th of December the thin bright crescent formed an unbroken ring; on the day of conjunction (11th December) the close proximity of the sun permitted no observation. (American Journal of Science, 2nd series, vol. xliii. p. 129.) 16, Mr. Th. Petty, of Deddington, near Oxford, saw the dark side of Venus 406 rEPoRT—1873. on May 23 and June 9, 1868, probably during twilight. (Astronomical Re- gister, No. 68, p. 181.) 17. In the same year I was observing Venus attentively for some months, chiefly in broad daylight, with a small but good achromatic. I saw spots on different occasions ; and on July 4, 1868, at 1 p.m, I could see traces of the dark disk, though unsteadiness of the air and insufficient optical power prevented me from becoming certain of what I saw. 18. On February 5, 1870, the dark side of the planet, then near inferior conjunction, was seen (in daylight, I suppose) by Mr. R. Langdon, of Sil- verton, Devonshire. (Month. Not. vol. xxxii. p. 8307; Astron. Reg. No. 115, p. 163, where the year is erroneously stated to be 1872.) - 19. Captain W. Noble, of Leyton, Essex, saw the dark part of Venus very distinctly on February 22, 1870, only twenty-four hours before conjunction, in close proximity to thesun. In a later communication, Captain Noble adds that he saw the dark side always darker than the surrounding sky, and that he rarely failed to see it whenever Venus was in or near inferior conjunction. (Month. Not. vol. xxx. p. 152; Astron. Reg. No. 88, p.74, and No. 130, p. 258.) 20. At the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, March 11, 1870, Mr. Browning stated that, without any special contrivance, he could see all the globe of the planet in his 12-inch speculum—perhaps on twenty different evenings, as Mr. Browning told me orally, and always in bright twilight. The unillumined side appeared darker than the sky around it. (Ast. Reg. No. 88, p. 74, and No. 131, p. 281.) 21. On August 9, 1870, I was regarding Venus in bright sunshine at 11 A.mw., when a lady who was with me at that time immediately perceived the whole disk of the planet. I showed to her Schréter’s drawing, which she declared to be in perfect accordance with what she saw in the telescope. I fancied only at moments that I saw a faint line of light all round the greyish disk. Illumination unusually large (0°35) ; air much disturbed at the time. - 22. Dr. A. Winnecke, of Karlsruhe, saw the phenomenon twice, on Sep- tember 25, 1871, at noon, and November 6, 1871, at5a.m. (Astron. Nachr. No. 1863, and No. 1866, vol. Ixxviii. pp. 236 & 287.) On the day subsequent to Dr. Winnecke’s first observation, September 26, Captain Noble could not make out the dark hemisphere so well seen by him a year before that time, but he adds that the sky was not clear. (Month. Not. vol, xxxii. p. 17.) : From the above conspectus it appears that the unillumined side of Venus has been seen by 22 different observers :— In twilight by 13 (once by 4, many times by 9). In daylight by 11 (once by 6, many times by 5). 4 observers saw a faint line of light encircling the dark disk, 19 of them saw the disk itself. Of the 22 cases reported, 12 have been observed during the last eleven years, say one per year; and I am disposed to think that the phenomenon is a normal one, and that with sufficient optical power and attention under a favourable sky it is to be seen at every inferior conjunc- tion, though I would by no means advance that it is constantly visible, which would be a statement directly opposed to facts. For the explanation of this remarkable phenomenon the following causes have been suggested :— 1. Phosphorescence.—This was the idea of Sir William Herschel, Harding, and partly of Schréter. It does not appear clearly whether they under- ON THE VISIBILITY OF THE DARK SIDE OF VENUS. 407 stood the word in its modern sense, meaning substances which absorb sunlight and emit it in darkness without being chemically changed, or whether they included under that name, like all the elder physicists, slow combustions also, like that of phosphorus and rotten wood, which in modern terminology do not belong to true phosphorescence. In both eases it is difficult to imagine the whole surface of the planet to be covered with such substances as sulphide of strontium, diamond, phosphorus, or rotten wood. 2. Auroral phenomena.—tThis was partly Schroter’s idea; it is supported by a most extraordinary observation of Miidler, who, during the whole evening of April 7, 1833, saw Venus surrounded by long bright immovable rays. Professor Zollner, of Leipzic, strongly advocates this idea, and trusts that the spectroscope will reveal bright lines in the grey light of the unillu- mined hemisphere of Venus. 3. Proper light——An explication upheld by Pastorff, who supposed the atmosphere of the planet to be large and self-luminous. Possibly also the planet might still be incandescent, as is supposed to be the case of Jupiter by Mr. Nasmyth; but on this supposition the secondary light should be always visible, which is positively not the case. 4. The light of the Earth.—This, as seen from Venus, far exceeds the greatest brightness of Venus as seen by us; and according to the calculation of Dr. Rheinauer, of Munich (Grundziige der Photometrie, 1861, pp. 58-77), the grey light of Venus, if resulting from this cause, should equal a star of the 14th magnitude. That this explanation is insufficient is so clear as to need no further proof. 5. Negative visibility, as it is called by Arago, or projection on the coronal light of the sun, as suggests Mr. Lynn (Astr. Reg. No. 109, p. 12) and, if I am right, Mr. Noble (Month. Not. vol. xxxii. p. 17). This explanation suits only those cases in which the unillumined side of the planet was seen darker than the surrounding sky (Messrs. Browning and Noble), but not those of the majority of observers, who make it brighter than the sky. 6. Accidental combustion and other illumining processes.—Gruithuisen suggests large luxuriant forests set on fire, an idea by no means absurd in itself; Lut, indulging in the fantastic cast of his mind, he brings it in connexion with general religious festivals of the inhabitants of Venus, a speculation in which it is not quite easy to follow the famous Munich seleno- grapher.. Immense prairies and jungles would do still better; but even these will hardly suffice for so frequent and general a phenomenon. I will suggest another explanation, without laying too much stress on it, though perhaps it is not a mere fancy. The intense brightness of Venus, and particularly the dazzling splendour of her bright limb, is deemed by the late G. P. Bond and by Professor Zéllner, a competent authority in photo- metric matters, not to be explicable without assuming specular reflection on the surface of the planet. This Professor Zéllner supposes to be done by a general covering of water; and indeed if the faint grey spots of Venus, delineated in 1726 by Bianchini and rediscovered by Vico in 1838, are land, then nine tenths at least of the surface of Venus are covered by sea. Should Venus be in a geologically less advanced state, viz. less cooled than our globe, a supposition rendered not improbable by her considerable size and her nearness to the sun, then the present condition of Venus would be analogous to that of the earth in the Jurassic period, when large isolated islands were bathed by immense seas, blood-warm, and teeming with an abundance of animal life difficult to be conceived. 408 REPORT—1873. The intensity of the phosphorescence of the sea, shown not unfrequently by our tropical seas, gives us some idea of the intensity which this mag- nificent phenomenon could acquire under such unusual circumstances; and it is, I think, not unreasonable to expect that such a phosphorescence could be seen even at planetary distances. It would explain the fact that the edge of the dark hemisphere of Venus is seen brighter than its central part; for itis demonstrable by calculation and confirmed by observation (as in the case of the sea near the horizon, or the edge of the full moon), that a rough surface emitting diffused light is seen the brighter the more obliquely it is regarded. It is satisfactory to think that my suggestion can be put to the test of physical inquiry. M. Pasteur found the spectrum of cucuyos (tropical phosphorescent beetles) a continuous one ; and, according to Mr. Piazzi Smyth, the same holds good for the phosphorescent animalcule of the sea (Month. Not. vol. xxxii. p. 277), so that the spectroscope will be able to decide be- tween Professor Zéllner’s hypothesis and mine. Since the foregoing note was read before the British Association, Dr. H. Vogel has published observations of Venus with the large refractor of Baron Bilow (Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte zu Bothkamp, Heft 2, pp. 118- 132). He saw the secondary light of Venus on seven mornings between October 15 and November 12, 1871, in bright twilight. The light was yellowish, faint, brighter near the terminator, fading away on the other side, and never extended over more than 30° of arc on Venus. On five other mornings nothing was seen. Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Ro.iuston, Dr. ScuateEr, Dr. Anton Dourn, Professor Huxiey, Professor WyvitLe Tuom- son, and HK. Ray Lanxester, for the foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the Globe. Drawn up by Anton Dourn, Secretary. Tur Committee beg to report that since the last Meeting the building of the Zoological Station at Naples has been completed. [A photograph of the building was exhibited at the Meeting when the Report was read. | The internal, mechanical, and scientific arrangements require two months for completion; and though the cost of the whole has exceeded the esti- mates in no small degree, Dr. Dohrn hopes nevertheless to balance them by finding new means of income for the establishment. He has succeeded in obtaining a subsidy of £1500 from the German Empire, and his scheme of letting working-tables in the laboratories of the station has met with general approval. Zwo tables have been let to Prussia and two to Italy, one to Bavaria, one to Baden, and one to the University of Strasburg; a letter from the Dutch Ministry of the Interior informs Dr. Dohrn that Holland accepts the offer of one table for the stipulated annual payment of £75; and, moreover, Dr. Dohrn has been informed that the University of Cambridge intends to hire one table for three years. Applications have also been made to the Imperial Government of Russia, both on the part of Dr. Dohrn and by different Russian scientific authorities. A correspondence has taken place between Dr. Dohrn and Professors Loyén and Steenstrup about a possible participation FOUNDATION OF ZGOLOGICAL STATIONS. 409 of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but has as yet led to no definite result. The ease with respect to Switzerland and Saxony has been similar ; but hopes are entertained that these countries may join the others in their endeavour to support the Zoological Station, and to afford every facility to their naturalists of profiting by this new and powerful instrument of investigation. Dr. Dohrn thinks it desirable to explain once more the leading ideas that have induced him to request the assistance of all these Governments and Universities. The Zoological Station has sprung up altogether in consequence of the desire to facilitate investigation in marine zoology, and to enable naturalists to pursue their studies in the most effective manner and with the greatest possible economy of money, time, and energy. All zoologists who have visited Naples during the last year (amongst whom have heen Professors Gegenbaur, Claus, Oscar Schmidt, and Pagensticher) consider that this end will be fully attained by the organization and arrangements made or intended to be made in the station. They all agree that it is in the highest degree desirable that nobody who ¢ares at all for the progress of zoology should fail to join Dr. Dohrn’s exertions in bringing about a universal participation in the expense of keeping up the new establishment ; and thus it is due to Pro- fessor Oscar Schmidt’s influence that the Imperial Government at Berlin have hired a table for the University of Strasburg, and to the initiative of Pro- fessor Pagenstiicher that the Grand Duchy of Baden has also taken one table, whilst Professor Claus has promised his best services to induce the Austrian Government to take a similar step. As is, we believe, universally known, no money-speculation whatever is contemplated by the founder of the Naples Station, in so far as money specu- lation means a high interest and the return of the capital invested into the pocket of the founder. Nevertheless, every honest means will be used to procure as large an income as possible, for more than one reason. There is not only the necessity incumbent upon the establishment to repay some of the capital to those who have lent money to Dr. Dohrn, in order that he might complete the building in its actual enlarged state (a task for which his own means would not have sufficed in spite of the German Government's subsidy), but, further, there must be provided reserve-funds for the eventuality that the income of the aquarium may not cover the outlay for the year’s manage- ment, thus causing a sudden stand-still of the establishment: and last, but not least, it is intended to have every year a certain sum to spend for scien- tific pursuits. If, for instance, Professor du Bois Reymond, as- he has ex- pressed to Dr. Dohrn his wish to do, should proceed to Naples to carry on experiments on the electric Torpedo, it would require no inconsider- able means to buy the necessary apparatus and physiological instruments, and to provide this famous physiologist every day with fresh material to conduct his investigations on a scale large enough to yield a distinct result. Or to enable embryologists to carry on an investigation on Comparative Selachian embryology, it would be necessary to buy large quantities of female sharks and skates, which are by no means so cheap as a foreigner might think. And for conducting researches well and accurately, every naturalist knows what an amount of money must be spent in dredging-expeditions, how much trouble, how much time and work are necessary to get at the animals and to determine their identity or non-identity with the known and described species. And this is one of the foremost duties which the Zoological Station will propose to itself, as it is too well known how great a confusion exists with regard to systematic and zoological questions of the Mediterranean 410 REPURT—1873. fauna. To bring this confusion to an end, it will require more than one lustrum and more than one thousand pounds. There may perhaps have risen a prejudice among Systematists against the new establishment, as one which, in consequence of the partiality of its leader for Darwinian views, might dispense altogether with Systematists. Nothing could be more erro- neous than such an opinion. ‘The leader of the Zoological Station is as little opposed to Systematists as the Darwinian theory itself. He is of opinion that zoological battles may be best won, according to Count Moltke’s principle, “ by marching separately and fighting conjunctively,” thus leaving to Systema- tists their own route, as well as to anatomists, physiologists, and embryolo- gists, on condition only that they will, when meeting the enemy (Error and Ignorance), fight together ; and he desires the Zoological Station to become such a battle-field, where all the different zoological armies may meet and fight their common adversaries. That such wars need much of the one element, which, according to Montecuculi, best secures victory, “‘ money, money, money,” will be illustrated by two letters, which Dr. Dohrn has received from Professor Louis Agassiz, and which he has been authorized to publish. The celebrated American naturalist writes, under the date “ Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., 10 June, 1873,” the following :— “It is a great pleasure and satisfaction to me that I can tell you how, in consequence of the munificence of a wealthy New York merchant, it has become my duty to erect an establishment whose main object will be similar to that of your Naples Station, only that teaching is to be united withit. The thing came thus to pass :—During last winter I applied to our State autho- rities to secure more means for the Museum in Cambridge (Mass.). Among the reasons I alluded to the necessity of having greater means for teaching purposes. I addressed my speech to our deputy, and it was afterwards re- ported in the newspapers. By chance the report fell into the hands of a rich and magnanimous tobacco-manufacturer, Mr. John Anderson, of New York. He sent on the same day a telegram, asking me whether I would be at home the following day in order to meet two friends : to which I answered, Yes! The two gentlemen came by order of Mr. Anderson, offering me a pretty island in Buzzard Bay for the purpose of erecting a zoological school. I accepted this offer, of course, but added that without further pecuniary means it would be difficult . toteach there. After two days a sum of 50,000 dollars was handed over to me ; and now I am erecting there a school for Natural History, which at the same time will be, as a Zoological Station in the immediate neighbourhood of the Gulf-stream, of the greatest assistance to our zoologists, especially as splendid dredging-ground existsthere. This certainly must greatly promote zoological study in the United States. Already forty teachers of our normal and high schools have applied for this summer’s lessons ; besides, I shall be accompanied by my private students. “Some of my colleagues are ready to assist me, so that I may hope to obtain already some results before winter’s approach.” The next letter is dated “ Penikese, August 13th, 1873,” and contains some more information. “The school was opened on the 8th of July. Some of my friends have assisted me as teachers; several other naturalists are occupied with special studies; the bottom of the sea is very rich, the general situation quite excellent. The solitude which prevails is a great help for our teaching pur- poses. As students, forty teachers of our public schools are present, besides ten younger gentlemen, who are preparing for a scientific career, FOUNDATION OF ZOOLOGICAL STATIONS, 411 “ The buildings are very well constructed and adapted to their uses. The two chief houses have a length.of 120 feet, and a breadth of 25 feet each. In the lower story are the laboratories, each with 28 windows ; every student occupies one window, and has for himself one aquarium. In the upper story of each house are twenty-eight bedrooms, one for every student. ‘The professors and naturalists are lodged in another house of the shape of a Greek cross. The dining-room is in a third house, which contains also the kitchen and the servant-rooms. Besides, we have an ice-house, a cellar for alcohol, stables for domestic animals; about one hundred sheep are feeding in the pasture- grounds of the island ; some smaller hutches contain rabbits, guineapigs, &e. “ Next year physical, chemical, and physiological laboratories will be con- structed. ’ «.... I believe I did not tell you before that my son-in-law presented me on my birthday with 100,000 dollars for the enlargement of the Museum ; I intend to apply this sum chiefly to the augmentation of the collections, hoping the State will pay for the adequate enlargement of the buildings... ” These letters prove that the name of this Committee has not been ill-chosen ; for though the American Zoological Station has not been founded by its direct intervention, there can be little doubt that the foundation of the Zoological Station at Naples has been the signal for a new and powerful movement to assist zoological research. Of course the American station has met with such extraordinary advantages that a competition between it and the Naples Station, as regards means and favourable circumstances, would be all but hopeless for the latter. Neverthe- less it may prove a powerful instrument in carrying out strictly the self-support- ing principle, by earning money through the aquarium, and by letting tables in the laboratory. And though any act of munificence to the Naples Station is exceedingly desirable and would be heartily welcomed (as the moment has not yet arrived when any scientific establishment in this world has at its disposal more money than it can spend), the greatest stress will always be laid upon these two elements. The Reporter is further glad to state that the library of the Zoological Station has constantly been augmented. A magnificent gift has been made by the Zoological Society of London, which has presented a complete set of its illustrated ‘ Proceedings.’ The Royal Academies of Copenhagen, Naples, and Berlin have also granted their biological publications, and promised to continue to do so in future. The Senckenberg Institute in Frankfort-on-the-Main, as well as the Zoological Garden of that city, have sent all their Transactions ; so has the Smithsonian Institution in Washington with respect to its biological publications. Well-founded hopes are entertained that in a short time many other Academies and scientific Societies will follow the example of those above mentioned. German publishers have continued to send their biological publications gratis to the library of the Station ; and great quantities of books, pamphlets, and publications, in separate form, of papers published in periodicals have been forwarded from all parts of the scientific world through the kindness of the authors. On the part of the Zoological Station, though still in an embryonic state, considerable activity has been displayed with regard to furnishing continental zoologists with collections of well-preserved marine animals. Thus, Prof. Wilhelm Miiller, indeed, has been supplied with Amphioxus and Tunicata, Prof. Greeff, of Marburg, with large quantities of Echinodermata; mixed col- lections of every kind of animals haye been sent to Prof. Oscar Schmidt, 412 REPORT—1873. Strasburg, Professor Claus,Vienna, to the Senckenberg Museum at Frankfort, the Natural-History Society at Offenbach, and many others. Several German zoologists have already announced their intention to come during next winter and work in the Station; a similar announcement is made from au Italian zoologist and from Dr. M. Foster; and I am informed that two young English biologists will arrive at the Station in January. The Committee hope this Report will convince the Association that the year between their present and last Meeting has been one of steady and con- siderable progress for the Zoological Station at Naples. The Committee refrain from making any further proposition to the Association, but express their wish that every influence may be used to secure to the Station at Naples such assistance as will serve to promote the eminent scientific ends for which it has been erected. Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness, Wituram Jotty, and Dr. James Bryce, appointed for the purpose of collecting Fossils from localities of difficult access in North- Western Scotland. Drawn up by Witu14sM Joy, Secretary. Durine the past year search has been made for fossils at various points along the great limestone strike of the N.W. Highlands, but, with the exception of the Durness basin, from which the fossils already collected have been alone obtained, none have been found at any new locality. The lessee of the lime-kilns of Loch Eribol has been obliged to give them up. This the Com- mittee have to regret on their own account, as, from his interest in the subject, they anticipated good results from the intelligent search he was making in the large development of limestone in that interesting locality, which till now has continued barren of organic forms. Special search has been made by two teachers in the limestone at Inchnadamph on Loch Assynt, but as yet without success. The Committee have not been fortunate enough to find any thing in this locality, except one piece found by the Recteniye which it is hoped may prove to be organic. None of the Committee have this year found it possible to proseugiie the search in person; but this continues to be done by several gentlemen resi- dent in the district, whose services they have been fortunate in securing. The Committee have, during the last two years, gathered a considerable number of specimens. These fossils, with those obtained for Professor Nicol of Aberdeen, and deposited in the College Museum there, they think it impor- tant that the Association should have carefully examined by an adept in fossil remains, in order to lead to more certain determination of the age and place of these North-western rocks in the geologic series. They think, how- ever, that this examination should not be made till a larger collection has been obtained. As the discovery of fossils at other localities than Durness is most desirable, especially in order to determine if the fossiliferous Durness limestone is the same as that in the line of the great strike from Eribol to Skye, they are anxious that the search should still be prosecuted in these hitherto barren localities. The Committee would therefore propose their reappointment by the Association for this purpose. ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 413 Fifth Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage, consisting of Ricuarp B. Grantruam, C.E., F.G.S. (Chair- man), F. J. Bramwe.t, C.E., F.R.S., Professor W. H. Corriztp, M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), *J. Battey Denton, C.E., F.G.S., J. H. GitsBert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., W. Horr, V.C., Professor A. W. Wittramson, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., and *Professor J. T. Way. N.B.—Those members whose names have an asterisk prefixed haye not attended any meeting of the Commitee during the year. Tur Committee, in presenting its Fifth Report, has to state that it has con- tinued that part of the inquiry for which it was more particularly reap- pointed, viz. the examination of the typical case of sewage-farming at Breton’s Farm near Romford; and similar Tables to those furnished last year are again supplied, and are described in the portion of this Report referring to this subject. Another analysis has also been made of the soil of the farm, showing a con- siderable increase in the amount of nitrogen and of phosphoric acid contained in it. A further examination has also been made of the sewage-farm at Earls- wood, with more satisfactory results than on previous occasions ; and Dr. Gilbert has again furnished a note on the dry earth system, which he has made a subject of special investigation. Whitthread’s process, which was described in‘last year’s Report, and of which a short account will be found in the subjoined abstract, has been for a few days at work on a considerable scale at Enfield. A member of the Committee, who recently inspected what was going on there, states that an excellent opportunity for further investigation will now be afforded. It has been considered advisable at this time, when the Committee has (within a few pounds) exhausted its funds, to prepare and present with this Report an abstract of the four previous Reports made by it to the British Association; this has been done by Professor Corfield on its behalf, and the abstract will be found in another part of this Report. Since the Committee’s last Report the Local Government Board has pre- sented to Parliament a Return moved for in the House of Commons, dated May 13th, 1873, and entitled a “ Return of the names of Boroughs, Local Boards, Parishes, and Special Drainage Districts which have, through loans, provided Sewage-Farms or other means for the Disposal of Sewage by Fil- tration or Precipitation.” The various Tables contained in this Return profess to give information, which, so far as it goes, would be valuable if exact. One radical error in the scheme of the Tables is, that there is no separation of the capital expenditure and working expenses of the year, while in the case of sewage-farms the cost of purchasing land is not separated from that of works. Suction I.— Additional Note on the Dry Eurth System. In former Reports the Committee has given the results obtained by Dr. Gilbert on the determination of the nitrogen in the soil which had been used in a Moule’s earth-closct once, twice, and three times. The same soil, after passing through the closet the fourth time, has been again examined, and the results of the series of determinations are given below :— 414 REPORtT—1873, Before |After using | After using |After using |After using used, once. twice, |three times.| four times. —<—_-| ———<——_—$ —_— Percentage of nitrogen ‘7 i : AA “5 in soil dried at 100° C. | 0-073 01240 0-388 pe46 One0 In the air-dried condition the soil, even after being used four times, con- tained less than a half per cent. of nitrogen, and, as the Table shows, only 0-54 per cent. in the fully dried condition. Thus, after passing through the closet four times, the soil was but little richer than a good garden-mould ; and the Committee must still say, “‘ that such a manure, even if disposed of free of charge, would bear carriage to a very short distance only,” The Committee would refer to former Reports for its opinion of the system in other aspects than that of the mere manurial value of the product ; and its conclusions will be found summarized further on. Sxcrion II,.—Harlswood Sewage-larm, The Committee paid another visit to this farm on the 17th May, 1878, and found that nearly the whole of the land was occupied by Italian ryegrass, except about one acre which had been planted with potatoes. There was a very small sale for the ryegrass when green, so that it had been made into hay and stacked; some of last year’s stacks still remained on the ground; this shows the necessity of growing crops suited to the neighbouring markets, or else of keeping live stock to consume them, and more particularly cows, for which Italian ryegrass and similar forage crops (grown by means of pro- perly conducted sewage-irrigation, and periodically cut and carried to the stalls) are especially suitable. At the above date the first crop of ryegrass was only just being cut, whereas the third or fourth crop ought to haye been ready, and would have been on a thoroughly drained, properly laid out, and systematically managed sewage-farm. Samples were collected of the effluent water as it flowed in a ditch, on its way to the river Mole, about half a mile from the farm; and the results of analysis showed that the sewage was much more satisfactorily purified during the dry summer of 1873 than during the wet one of 1871, when the land was supersaturated, In former Reports of the Committee attention was drawn to this farm, which was then receiving the sewage of Red Hill; it was intended that the sewage of the town of Reigate should also be conducted to this farm, but the works for this purpose are not yet completed. Analysis. N.B.—Sam ples taken twice a day, in the proportion of yoo of the flow per minute. Results given in parts per 100,000. E Solid Matter. Nitrogen. Ele | a od = a - lo , o4 . in suspen-| ¢ ales Goae Description of 25 Sonesta sion. e in cole 3 \25 - “ § iS} o8 “ie samples, Sq = : a|os sive). = oe Slay Ss : co - v re G8 | 85 |/_,8} FO },8] O B/-8 |.83/ 9 |] #|8e o, | 3 o.9) 2 2 0 Bo 1) ihe ey os 3 =] RA) ee 62\ % les 42/8 |228! 6 | 2/32 o ‘BS BES |4°3 ale |263/ a r=| ue] 1 t= he a ee H|o BEE ales 1873 galls | From Effluent water ) 16th June,! from Earlswood;| 270 | 36°10] 24:90)... ... | 4°93] 0:008/0:155} 0:96 | 1125) we. [1128 to Sewage-farm 1 all | Sth July, | | if 1 { 1 | ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 415 Srcrton LI1.—Breton’s Farm, Romford. The systematic observations hitherto carried on with regard to this farm (for a record of which sce previous Reports and the following abstract) have been continued during the past year, and the form of last year’s Tables has been again adopted to set out the results arrived at, tons, The quantity of sewage received from the town of Romford into the tanks and pumped on to land from March 25th, 1872, to March 24th, 1873 (inclusive), is according to the gaugings.. 405,443 The quantity of effluent water repumped on to land during the DEI nce be okie haere Spay eta ae bide Shs MISES” 38,671 The total quantity of diluted sewage pumped for distribution 444.114 BL Sills Gayl oe od S58 aOR eee ne ane ec ar ke : The quantity of sewage received from the town of Romford and distributed on to land by gravitation during the above periodis 74,499 The quantity of effluent water distributed on to land by gravita- Mereurne the kgine period is... ee eee ecg awn 8,980 Therefore the total quantity of sewage, diluted sewage, or 527.593 effluent water which we have to account for is~.......... " Accounted for thus :—- As appears by the cropping Table the quantity of sewage applied to the land is .............. 523,810 tons. Supplied to Mr. Gooch (adjoining farmer) ...... 1,548 MPAA SATION, oi ari gs sa los de boce was yee 2,235 Pafalalt Pou. GE dorian onewds day 527,593 Tables I. & IT. are continuations of the Tables of last year bearing the same numbers, and are records of the observations made with regard to the quan- tity and composition of the sewage and the efiluent water. From the organic nitrogen column in Table II., referring to the effluent water, it will be seen that an improvement has taken place, due probably to the solidifying of the earth over the drains; the proportions of total nitrogen in the effluent water for the two years show a difference of only 0-01 in 100,000 parts. Table IIL. shows the absolute quantities of nitrogen contained in the sewage and in the effluent water, as calculated from the details summarized in Tables I, and IT. From this it will be seen that the volume of sewage distributed was con- siderably greater than in the previous year ; but the proportion of nitrogen was smaller, indicating a greater dilution due to. the large increase in rainfall. It would appear that the total amount of nitrogen distributed on the farm was 26-9814 tons, while the previous year’s total would appear from the Table to have been only 21-0245 tons ; but the explanation is that during the previous year a large quantity of undiluted sewage, namely 83,962 tons, “ was run upon a plot of land at the lower part of the farm by gravitation, and simply filtered during periods when it could not be put on the farm, owing to further. drainage-works being in progress.” The amount of nitrogen which must be added to last year’s total to make it comparable with this year’s is 6-1964 tons, which makes 27-2209 tons, or practically the same quantity as this year. 416 REPORT—1873. The quantity of effluent water measured was 470,552 tons as against only 195,536 tons last year. This is to be accounted for partly by the greater dilution by rain, indicated by a difference of 0-01 of nitrogen per 100,000 parts in the composition of the effluent water, but principally by the fact that the extra drainage alluded to in the last Report has been carried out. Although, therefore, the effluent water this year shows less total nitrogen per 100,000 parts, yet the absolute quantity contained in it amounted to + instead of -1, of the absolute quantity distributed over the farm. Tables LV. to VI. are similar to the corresponding Tables of last year, and are subject to the same qualifications with regard to the quantities of sewage applied to the various crops and plots; that is to say, that the means available for the measurement of the quantities of sewage and effluent water only rendered possible the actual measurement of the total daily quantities, the details professing to show approximately the quantities applied to the individual crops and plots being merely calculated numbers obtained from the daily totals by breaking these up in proportion to the areas irrigated each day. The chief value of these figures is to show the desirability of obtaining such details with precision. This, however, would require a numerous staff of trained chemical and engineering assistants, and also the expenditure of a considerable sum of money in apparatus, and in isolating, by means of sunken barriers of concrete, the individual plots. By comparing Tables V. and VI. of this year with Tables VY. and VI. of last year, it will be found that the total produce taken off the farm during the year ending March 24th, 1873, was 1704 tons against 2714 for the pre- ceding year. This was due partly to the fact that the area in standing crop on March 24th, 1873, was 87-62 acres against 40-49 acres on March 24th, 1872 (see Table VII.), and partly to the fact that there were 26-18 acres of cereals in the year now recorded, against 0-9 of an acre in the previous year. The nitrogen recovered in the crops taken off the land for the year under review is estimated at 15,704 Ibs. as against 19,667 lbs. for the preceding year. This smaller quantity recovered out of a larger quantity applied is obviously due to the same causes which affected the weight of crops. The nitrogen escaping in the effluent water is estimated at 11,973 lbs., as against 5024 1bs. in the previous year. This increase is due to the additional drainage of the farm giving a larger measured quantity of effluent water as before explained, namely 470,552 tons as against 195,536 tons. The amount of nitrogen unaccounted for (that is to say, accumulated in the standing crops and top soil, washed into the subsoil, or lost) is the differ- ence between that applied in the sewage (60,438 lbs.) and the sum of the quantities recovered in the crops (15,704 lbs.) and escaping in the effluent water (11,973 lbs.)—namely, 32,761 lbs., as against 22,404 lbs. unaccounted for in the previous year. These quantities, expressed in percentages, show that of every 100 parts of nitrogen distributed over the farm in the sewage, 26 were recovered and taken off the farm in crops, 20 escaped in the effluent water, and 54 remained in the standing crops, in the soil, or in the subsoil, or were lost. This nitrogen balance-sheet shows that the results of an experiment in agricultural chemistry over so extended an area, and with so great a variety of crops, can only give true averages if conducted over a lengthened series of years ; for the produce of the farm was in many respects more satisfactory in the year now recorded than in the preceding one, haying regard to the amount of cereals grown and the crops left standing, and yet at first sight it appears the reverse. ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 417 In the Report of the Committee presented at Liverpool it was stated, on the authority of information furnished by the local authorities, that (1) The population of Romford was “ about 8000 ;” (2) That the refuse of about 7000 persons was discharged entirely into the sewers ; (3) That the whole population is within the area provided with under- ground sewers. As the Committee had some doubts as to the correctness of these statements, it was thought advisable to have a census of the town, with particulars of sewage connexions, &c. made, and the results will be found in Table VIII. Samples of soil were very carefully taken on April 30th, 1873, in presence of Messrs. Corfield, Gilbert, Grantham, Hope, and Williamson, at the same part of the farm as on the previous occasion (July 15th, 1870), when no sewage had been applied to that part of the farm. These samples were mixed, and an average sample was analyzed by Dr. Russell with the following results :— Examination of Soil from Breton’s Farm, Sample taken April 30th, 1873. Soil, after drying by exposure to the air, consists of, in 100 parts :— Stones too large to pass through holes of a sieve 3°88 millims. 35°77 Pencate driven off af 100° Co ce ease eee oo thd eis 9 3°40 Roeepasding Through Sl6Ve 25% rsa le ake he ee cals He vigielne 60:83 100-00 In 100 parts of the original soil there is :— Insoluble in strong hydrochloric acid .......... 00 cere 55:02 Loss on ignition (includes water driven off at 100°C.) .. 6°65 mane etd Ce Ory Le eee Ee Oe PL SP OE 0:058 (LE Liga eens homens Aare id itea hg ete 9 Bed tee eS 0-002 PRISTINE Sad Wit adie aly Heatran on 2.4 «Sib 9-aoe tae hk BSR 0-016 meetoron aa NitratedGe: © ten eahd. S704 Vay. le oeiheN 0:00029 The second part of the above Table represents the percentage amounts (cal- culated from the original soil) of the more important constituents of the 6423 parts of undried soil. Comparing these results with those given in the Com- mittee’s Second Report, it will be seen that the phosphoric acid in the soil has increased from 0-01 to 0-058 per cent., that the loss on ignition of the soil is much greater (leaving water out of the question), that the amount of am- monia has been increased from an inappreciable quantity to 0-016 per cent., and that the amount of nitrates has been also increased. The amount of total nitrogen in the 64:23 parts of soil was estimated by the soda-lime process with the following result :— Total Nitrogen determined by the Soda-lime Process. ab OXPOrImont'y Ph) Pe Pe neat ae . 0-191 per cent, Nitrogen. Be OXPOREMONE Ting ea y.c svg kins TOaRTT 0} Gg Auwnaqaiy Plot. Total A II. No. of beds III. Con- (inclusive), | tents. 1 to 20 21 and 29 Toces ‘a1, 25, & 26 9 to 16 17a; 2p 7 pg :) ” acres. 6°41 1'79 a7 1097 a°97 REPORT—1873. Taste LY.—Breton’s Statement showing Sewage applied and Crops grown Description. Onions Carrots Aen e ene eneneeeeee eee ee eee e re ere seenee Cabbage......- RoREDOOnaGe Italian rye-grass Hardy green plants... Se es eee. reer Hardy greens Wheat Henne eee eeeeenees eee eeeeeees We Date when sown or planted, eal ee Peete en eeeee Sept. 1870 and March 1871. April to June 1872... AID G18 72 cesawa sienna Aug. and Sept. 1872. July and Aug. Vins Date when cut or gathered, een er eeeres eee wees sete eeeenee fern areas May to Aug. 1872... April to Aug. 1872. Sept. 1872.......... vee Aug. and Sept. 1872. Dec. 1872 and Jan. 1873. Jan. to March 1873. Depts 872 ieswerdenasecle) peeeenaee oes Maren 1874.2. g-csl) iereeeeten steve 4 ess eset oy gente meen Manreh 1872 ..0.-.0: Aug. 182m says ace: <2 Sept. oe ae Jan. and Feb, 1873. March 173° hes.<| S isacceeepere: The figures in columns marked thus (*) are to be considered ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 423 Sewage-Furm. from March 25, 1872, to March 24, 1873. Approximate estimate of 2 Produce. sewage applied. Mii} ViELI. 1b-<, xe p45 Xil. Remarks, eee | | | Sewage No. of applied arate Total, | Per acre.) Total. | Per acre. per ton of ings. s' < a produce, tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. 17 | 10,650 | 1,661 | 659 | 10°3 162 | 9°75 tons of this crop ploughed in. 5 2,250 | 1,259 | al3 i1'9 106 | 14:2 tons consumed by cattle on the farm. 6 2,300 1,447 4:0 a5 575 | Including straw, 3°5 tons consumed by cattle. 3 ZG | 14,000 | 1,430 | veeeee | serene | sevens This crop remained March 25,-1873. 29,200 2,982 91:2 93 320 The whole plot was under crop at the end of the year. This crop received 8577 tons of ‘ ; sewage previous to March 1872. Bee |).23-55° meas, | tease ig 233 38-4 tons were consumed by cattle on the farm or ploughed in. 22 | 13,800 3,566 85:0 22°0 162 | 1108 tons sewage applied in March : 1871. 6 1,500 | 1,128 | 128 96 117 | One half of the plants were ploughed in. 6,050 1,626 10:0 2:7 605 | Including straw, 8-4 tons consumed by cattle. 8 3,600 1,946 7:0 3:3 514. | Ploughed in 1°4 ton. 10 7,700 | 2,271 | 29°6 8-7 260 | 5:9 tons ploughed in or consumed by cattle. 11 74550 PROSE Ws cseuan bey be MAREE This crop remained March 25th, 1873. ef coadeg ll Nene Oona ane RAR Te lot a Ena RRA SS : DUE os cease | ssocedaus || casastet, (> sesame Crops remained March, 25th, 1873. MD rSes |) 64: | owe. ict. ee, 82,200 6,782 | 298:0 24:6 276 The whole plot was under crop at the end of the year. ee | . red ; Riis. 63 34 we. | 4°6 tonsstraw. 20,328 tons of sewage applied to the fallow previous to sowing the oats. — 30 8,850 | 4.492 67 3:4 | 1,321 | 373 tons ploughed in &c. ve 8,850 | 4,492 | 135 63 656 | Plot all under crop at the end of the * 7 Fe year. SS ER PR AR SE EE ES I ES only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report. 424. REPORT—-1873. Taste LY. Description. I. i. 4) eg IV. v. VI. 1 No. of beds, Con- Gaon Date when sown or | Date when cut or Plot. (inclusive). | tents. I . planted. . gathered. acres. D All 6:03 || Wats! (ctesmeesacaeee ~s...| March 1872 ..../...: Alig S72. nsccteees Ff . 6°93 | Italian rye-grass .,....] Aug. Phas soso Noy. 1872 to March 1873. Total D Like ote Gos | Apes 685" ach + bv eemtibe se cmarceetes © pg Beneecnmeeeeerees E 1 to 13 3°60 | Italian rye-grass ...... March 1872°......0.: June to Sept. 1872... if 145; 22 2°17 | Strawberries ......... wail panseaslaneorestepeee so.e-| June to July ,, ... x ByeeaS | 83°90. | CAB. 05-658 ses sceacans sacs MING TSF vnncectevact Sept. 1872),:ceres sae *- i T toe 5°76 Cabbare's2..2.0i eset BeVOet.- bey ete spa |! By henmnteharthptenae Semncis (yoy 1 | ee ree AOU. Uisacasbiinects ae onascestcesends) - Ries Bteameemametee = BR 1 to 8 1370" (OARNOLS ons. .cevesseebses April 4 Ee NOV. 3872><5-c02s00ret 4 g and 10 Site WEIS PEEL cantinseasnbec: ime fee Soe Sept.) _ we scoezanece 5d 11 to16 | 1'27 | Potatoes ................ PAD IUL aaa ee ete ee ag ip Uiesscoanterse ze 17 and 18 Dies WMA WNONIICS assseccepese WVIATCH 5, «a-c:cbcccccl | ueeeee Renee 3 12 to16 | 1°06 1” Sept. to Nov. Le siiceahenonstr Atal eh| ame earcemes 3°82 Sivccepscecnmes, | 1x o(uhabecmeescapias, «ill uenaeeeeeenee 5B G 13and 14} ‘47 | Hardygreens............ Oct. 187 Tasco May S872 %.cbcsccupes &, ne pe SAT MAN POI © ss. nsaeavens PIU 7c snderac es Nov. 187 2inisbeencteee f 3 Rog MIU OAETOUR 2, bass deao haaseeeeon se: “Deer ees Wke. = 3 osoccs E 9 "23 | Cauliflowers .........0.| July ,, seeeese-see.| Aug. and Sept. 1872 ” { per 2°82 | CADDARC..-.css-0eece saps] NEDb. ANG OC Wwo72)| | vacseadeseecees Total G anieeee s rik) ae oe as. my The figures in columns marked thus (x) are to be considered ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 425 (continued). Approximate estimate of : Produce. sewage applied. rove | xx. x XTi i Ree winch eo, i | Sewage: No. of applied dress-| ;Total. | Per acre.) Total. | Per acre. per tonof, ings. produce. * * * tons tons tons. tons tons in 4 leis aaa lea 23°3 eek Wh ceapes 16:2 tons straw. ard a £75750 2,561 | 34:7 5:0 511 | The crop remained March 1873. 17,750 | 2,561 | 58:0 84 306 | Plot all under crop at the end of the year. 6 3,850 1,069 91 a5 423 Fallow received 6670 tons previous to sowing grass. 2 I,I00 507 0-2 Ol 5500 : 10 6,500 1,969 8:0 24 812 | Straw 74 tons. Used on farm. 15 9,350 HOZSM | Tececdee |? teceeees || execs Crop remained March 1873. 20,800 | 3,611 17:3 3:0 1z02 | Plot all under crop at end of year, SS SS | SS SS | 1 500" 294 | 30°2 17.8 17 | Tops used for fodder, 7°8 tons. 1 150 357 12 2°8 125 | Straw used as fodder, ‘94 ton. | eS eee 8:9 7:0 1 200 AGh Oia pak aeresie gy ||| ECan cai allie uatealts These plants remain. No yield at present. PEE Esk abn ms snide aeazeeen pr aaawsger|iemensens rs is < re 850 223 | 403 10°5 21 Beds 1 to 11 fallow all the winter. SSAC NTs cgee 2°3 4:9 vss | Received 1109 tons of sewage previous to March 1872. 16 2,850 6,064 | 13:4 285 213 | Tops &e. ploughed in 2 tons. 11 950 | 4,130 35 15:2 271 ‘66 ton tops used as fodder. | This crop received 802 tons of sew- age previous to March 1872, 12 tons of the onions were ploughed | in, there being no sale for them. 5 1,000 1,429 14:5 20°7 69 | 1°5 ton ploughed in. 4 950 1,357 58 83 164 | 3:1 tons ploughed in or consumed by cattle, 400 1,739 4:2 18°3 95 150 652 1:3 56 115 2,050 1,737 31:0 26'3 66 400 1,739 15 65 267 450 | .1,957 58 25°2 78 | 5:2 tons cut for cattle and ploughed in. 3750 1,329 vane ceeeee | ceeees Crop remained March 1873. 16,050 3,104 | 101-4 19°6 158 | Part of plot fallow all winter. * * ; 5 only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report. 426 REPORT—1875. Taste LY, ee Description. ip Il. Tne a1i\ Ye Wie VI. No. of beds} Con- : Date when sown or | Date when cut or at (inclusive). | tents. Crop. planted. . gathered, acres. : H 1 to 24 | 6:40 | Cabbage...... dae tnee cas Ti MOPt. LSPP eeesccnecess Apvril to July 1872... 55 1,17 | 4:25 | Hardy greens ..... weet) CULL y NOS seis sere eit Oct. to Dec. 1872... 4 18 ,, 24 | 2°15 | Cabbage......ceeree FIVEE CIs wer yea nostic anos Aug. 1872 to March 1873. oD I 53 24 | 6:40 | ONIONS cscccccesrereeeeee Feb.and March 1873} —.... ss seeesseee 5 Total 1s IE Pee saooe GAM metbieseeeeciss--s0s, | |, cogeseveoneees-) | [agg Racusaveapences ee D 1 to 3 and part | Cabbage and hard : I { “a Bs 3 rte renania y \ Sept. and Oct. 1872} April to July 1872 ” 4 to 9 2°27 | Potatoes...cccccscesseeees Heb. 18°72 <..cvesesers Ouly T3722... sarees ” Ty *9 TIX | Cabbage......ccececseeees DESY: ig) Me ete co paedas Aug. 1872 to March 1873. 4 439 2'27 | Cabbage-plants ........- RATELY! (25th locates sn a Sept. and Oct, 1872 * 10 ,, 15 | 2°32 | Hardy greens ......... ~ 3 Oct. and Nov. ,, 3 16 ,, 18 97 | Peas °......ssecsseereeaees SNE | 4) cece. -sesene Sept. 1872 ....cacseoe. . AvaaS, less) \SHeGWe specesses-coo deed te GSetesccsoene) | lo Senpeeeeieneete otal Dale: secauaree (FE oo) Cane RRC OR Seon Occ paiam sl (Dame ETI Oat tinea ric. OD0080 OC K All 4°44] Barley .....---0..25-200 April 1872 ......00. | Aug. 1872....,2-..556 ap 99 4°44 | Italian rye-grass...... Bapt: Fs hum wesceesae Noy. 1872, | cutting ih Roy TNE ease 4°44 Shee Seeaeeee peariccsawes ans ., ego aceaee — L All. 28s WAHBLIOW. sbxcwcesose>so- gee |” ccneseeccsencnt, ful 1) See ceeeeeeraet - Part. $4Q.4) Mamoold %......0:..0-s0- JUNE 1872......0000.- NOY fap ea cceceexeces x 3 2°37 | SAVOYS ..0...00 aes eae June and July 1872 | ,, » to Jan. 1873. All. 2287) \) HAM OW vcnawenseaane ene Sidecsrcesesess Rc cealtes oases Mota i ieeeccns > « OR ih OU RRRAS eee meee KS | ace Adiony nacean A cagaameeee as i a M All. g°17 | Cabbare |...s0c..casis Oct. 1871 ...e00...... | dune to Aug. 1872 x 3°17 | Italian rye-grass ...... Sept; aye nantecest meses nee Total M]. .....2.55 dix Ae anes ceeresseeceeces ke hanna Nias The figures in columns marked thus (x) are to be considered ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 427 pontinued). Approximate estimate of : Produce. sewage applied. oe ee ae a Hones | Se a a ee Sewage No. of applied dress-| Total. | Per acre.| Total. | Per acre. per ton o ings. produce. * bd tx tons, tons. tons. tons. tons. 32 | 19,950 | 3,117 | 1012 158 197 | 10°6 tons ploughed in. The crop re- ceived 6387 tons of sewage previous to March 1872. 20 6,800 1,600 | 65'5 154 104 | 6*4 tons ploughed in. 14 7750 3,605 45'3 all 171 | 4’7 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed in. 40 | 33,600 Dees aisrrers aie cenrep ll css Crop remained March 1873. Sewage all applied to fallow. 68,100 | 10,641 | 211-9 | 33-1 321 | Plot all under crop at end of year. 9 5,000 | 1,202 | 54:0 | 13°0 93 |10'5 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed 2 1,250 551 73 32 171 athe 21 8,250 | 7.432 | 232 20°9 356 | 1°5 ton consumed by cattle or ploughed in. 2 650 286 25'3 11°4 25 11 5,650 | 2,435 | 30°9 13°3 183 | 3 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed in. 7 1,450 | 1,495 26 27 558 | Straw 2°3 tons, 24 | 19,250 | 3,462 41,500 | 6,222 |143°8 216 289 | Nearly all this plot was fallow through- out the winter, and the whole clear at the end of the year. SEEN wweee, |) asses 15'3 34 5 Ee 10°4 tons straw. 19 10,750 2,421 67 15 1604. | This grass remains. 10,750 2,421} 22:0 49 489 | Plot all under crop at end of year. ee SRO TSS SS ars 24,800 8,641 4 1,300 2,600 4-1 8:2 317 | 1.25 consumed by cattle on farm. 11 3,830] 1,616] 49°7 | 21:0 77 | Only one sixth of this crop sold; re- mainder destroyed by floods, vi 6,600 2,300 ——_ —_ | ——_- “i 36,530 24 | 12,000 65°7 20°7 183 | 32°75 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed in. The crop received 4394. tons of sewage previous to March 1872. . Pye) ot Pech st: oy hb apeests. Grass not cut till March 1873. 65'7 20°7 258 | Standing crop at end of year. * only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report, 428 ; REPORT—1873. Taste IV. Description. I. II. III. IV. We VI. No. of beds | Con- E Date when sown’or | Date when cut or eet (inclusive).| tents. Cup, planted. gathered. acres N 7 and 8 GHZ wMSEOCCON f..casennosacesr July 1871 we... ive | Atprilen872)5 ....e0e- # All. 4°15 | Italian rye-grass ...... Mar.and May 1872| July ,, to Jan. 1873. Total N | idarcacs BSTIE SUMING raccnsveey oh Lleetesabiesmese eed. Gail eMua ieee eee metic O All. 5°92 | Wheat «....... spossosaag HeDWiLa72 ceccess= ees ANE 72 eee as serees 5 is 5292 = IOADbage ./sc-coce.casebs Sepbs aieiternre 3 PPS: 8s Total O} ws... page| ROMS RRs. | ccsaceccestees) | 0 eaeneemetterre P Part. 2°00 | Hardy greens and a June 1872 to RAVOYR .tes-cencs =f spel A a mentee { Mar. 1873. } # is 1°50 | Drumhead cabbage...| May ,,_— sss sae Oct. to Dec. 1872. 3 All. BGO AAV NP Abe sere stesscerensee Mirch 1'873....c.s001 waamocenteldeaers Sosy Ie ar oee B25O! SP eesssaesccas | FG canedeescaracccs). SI | Se eeeeneae ——— OE | ee. ee eee Q x to aor })ixro4/1|/Barley: <......0-50..--00. iMay 1872 ..+.....-:a0 | Sept. 1872............ 55 PTMEO: 20) 0) EOF Wl WSAVOKS Sac. ccceseraectan July: yy) Wenvecent> soe | NOV, 45 10 Jan, 187 3. 21 and 22| ‘23 | Drumhead cabbage...| May ,, .........0 Nov. 1875. cacceec + 1toro | x04. | Cabbage ...ccssessa-se: + 11 to 22 | 1730 | Fallow Motal Qi) ieassseses 2°34, R All. 2°52 a Part. 2°40 ” ” “12 TotaleBil i ssesesae 2°52 Ss All, $225 MONLONE si. snteaee nee se ess March 1872 ........ . | July and Aug. 1873. as a ‘22 | Hardy greens ......... Aug. Sp. hates Dec. T8720... sce Bs - ‘22 | Rhubarb ...........00. | Feb. ee Ee STE an Seo Total § ee DOM BAe Miatetece iss ss sc.. os) dl cgaaomseneseitenscneuae ml tal aseee etki sess ii The figures in columns marked thus (*) are to be considered ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 429 (continued). i Approximate estimate of sewage applied. Produes, VII. | VIII. Ix, X. XI. XII. Remark <= e Sewage No. of applied dress- | Total. | Per acre.| Total. | Per acre.|per ton of ings. produce. * * a tons. tons. tons tons. tons. eaeree 138 265 see | This crop received 2194 tons of sewage previous to March 1872. 11 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed in. 75 | 37,959 | 9,145 | 1879 | 45:3 202 | Grass cut 6 times and still remains. -- | 37,950 | 95154 | 2017 486 188 | Standing crop at end of year. meshes 20-7 35 seeeee | 30 Qrs. Wheat=6°75 tons, tail wheat= *45 tons, straw 13°5 tons. 31 | 21,100 BS OMee eerscecaeee |b oat all Neecbsere This crop remained March 1873. oe, 21,100 3,564 20°7 3°5 1o1g | Standing crop at end of year. 52) | 16,300 8,150 22-7 113 718 rotons consumed by cattle or ploughed 55 | 18,450 | 12,300 | 45:1 30'1 4°9 | 30 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed in. PEP cic: | | Moshectt lbqsteas .{i- eences The crop remained March 1873. 341759 | 9:927 67°8 19°4 513 | Standing crop at end of year. a SEEN oeesase. |“ seccee 2°6 Ba i sscccs 2'12 tons straw. 3 1,150 | 1,075 | 23:6 | 22:1 487 | 15°7 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed in. 1 159 652 3-2 13'9 47 | 2°1 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed in. 2 250 DAG) ceatccm It cccsses fh sates Crop remained March 1873. 2 55° 423 2,100 897 29°4 12'6 71 3 1,450 575 46'6 185 31 | 5 tons small mangolds ploughed in. 14.| 8,150 3396 13 680 eR Tae We cate ull serene’ ‘leu aa sate Crop remained March 1873. Foy 10,280 4,079 46:6 18°5 221 2 400 1,818 ‘18 8-2 222, 2 150 682 a1 95 71 | *33 ton consumed by cattle or ploughed in. S| neers, ee cesatcct) |i. osacen, MM aeemgieliy veceuee Crop remained March 1873, vee | 5 5° 25509 3:9 17'7 14a Standing crop at end of year. Neen nn css seer se AR SR SESS | only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report, 4.30 REPORT—1873. ‘Taste IY. Description. tf, iE hey hy: We VI, Date when sown or | Date when cut or planted. gathered. No. of beds | Con- (inclusiye).| tents. Plot. acres. U All. 2°53 | Sprouting broccoli ... | Oct. 1871 sees... April 872 .....000 4 2 2°53 | Dwarf and runner | May 1872........006. AEP Dey) feceseesrs beans. ” ” 2759 o) Wiheati cess... tures: necte March 1873 ......+0 Geeghaics Ghias sts UO BALRTE Marware ces. 253 BA See ee Be ie rrr) ae eel oa caer cue sc Vv Part. *50 | White broccoli......... June 187% .2,.t.c5. Aprile 72) veces: ” ” BOO |) CAWDHE | \edcuivsc.sbs. Obt.: 5) WR May to Aug. 1872 + 5 O38 al MBE TEN gee tevactasss eas Miaiy 18 72, ensewasnst Sept. 1879. steaseens ” ” 2°00 | Hardy greens ........ Sept. be ohtace March 1873 ...008... "3 ' 208 Tt WOADDALO. lessee sea sech vs Obi. by tescdackinit Reeeeererenaes Total V |... Rigg) a Bee kee~ p> Ue abe ee WwW All. ROM Oabts |S .bcetecccgeccess | March 1872). .:¢s:t08] AUG: Deyo reuetesesens 5 Part. 2°75 | Hardy greens ......00 Sept. Stee sae ‘| Feb, and Mar. 1873 ” ” 2°75 | Wheat \....cccssecoecens March 1873 ......... cal Bhedtesdvese io seal ance See ie | ieee: ae Lae Total W docsccese 2°37 Ravdraccstces et) 0” seams teeeieon S ere oeteeteeee . x All. B86 | Hallow: seec keke... df Ohm sasSrtieescs CHA Brake AF Sie “ Part. 3°36 | Mangold ...seccsseeee.s | May 1872 ...ccccseees Nove Bhp aired: .wecweve i: a "50 | SAVOYS ....-.s0eseccecree aly | ,, Sie ie.t SE Noy. ,, to Mar. 1873, D All. 9°86 | Wheat ssssccoccsscceseee | March 1873 serene saiaCanolesne whan Motel Xi), Sesssevt Sk 3°86. || >... Wetesaitiaect oth pedeedentea Sgvaanies a4 All 5iGO | May seccsesnaneescs ve. | Permanent grass ...| 2 cuttings, June and Sept. 1872. The figures in columns marked thus (+) are to be considered ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, Per acre.|per ton of | (continued.) Approximate estimate of : sewage applied. Produce, VEE.) VEEL: 1D. xe XI. No. of _| dress-| Total. | Per acre.| Total. ings. Eo a tons tons. tons. 200. eel lade 13°4 53 15 7;900 3,122 72 23 37 93550 S5775 | sccece. (|| ovveae 17,450 6,897 20'6 Sl saeee 14:5 29°'0 3 25950 1,475 35:1 175 - Occ oe en Bees 72 25 i) 2,800 1,400 47 23 5 3,000 Tj O24 RIM 3005s ee, os ntea 8,750 1,775 61:5 12°5 fon, Hes an) eeeeeee 10°2 34 33 | 9,600 | 3,491 6:0 22 fe 9,600 31345 16:2 56 : zl 5,000 1,295 7 6,150 1,830 84:0 25:0 4 4 650 1,300 10°1 20°2 ‘ 14 | 14,800 Sea S4ie i, s © 1 1850s... hc teats aioe 1 12 Total. 2). 24 Probably the above list gives only the hurricanes that were remarkable from their destructive effects in the island; and much stress should not be laid on observations taken at a single station. Nevertheless it is rather suggestive that out of the twenty-four hurricanes mentioned, seventeen fall within, or very nearly within, maxima sun-spot periods, and only seven within minima periods. Thus :— Maxima No, of Maxima No. of Minima No. of years. _ hurricanes. years. hurricanes. years. hurricanes, a7CU 2h Sab Bt. forward.. 9 hye: 3 ES See ua (gt ies Be eee | 1O88. a tee ee 75s. 0. FD ee a Sey oi ck DBI bisa 5 pee IL Tia fo aie: ae ol ae te | 1326. ie... fl 1824.16. 2 NBG p. § 4L0 TS ZO ry eel ISSA eh. ak aB06hae to IBSB i, ee 1844, .... 1 tSOTin 3: VRS 1848 whys ok — L815. 00-0 1 1850.2 Total; ann 9 Total... ..17 The same * Chronological Table ” contains the following entries :—~ “1760, December 1, Meteorological Phenomena.” «1815, February 5, Meteorological Phenomena.” T have not been able to ascertain what these phenomena were ; but it is not improbable that they were auroral displays. The aurora of the 4th Feb- ruary, 1872, was described in some of the local newspapers as “un phé- nomene météorologique ;” and we know that 1760 and 1816 were years of maximum auroral frequency. Tf, then, it be ascertained that the “‘ meteoro- logical phenomena” observed at Mauritius in 1760 and 1815 were aurore, we shall have further evidence in favour of the theory of increased activity of the magnetical and meteorological elements in the maxima sun-spot years. CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-spots, 469 Baron Grant, in his ‘History of Mauritius’ (p. 194), regrets the destruction of the woods near Port Louis, because, he says, the town was thereby “ ex- posed to the violence of the winds, as well as to the heat of the sun ;” and in a footnote it is remarked, “these inconveniences, however, are fully counterbalanced, if it be true-that the cessation of hurricanes since 1789 has been caused by the great diminution of the woods.” As the ‘History’ was published in or soon after 1801, it would appear that during the twelve years (1789 to 1801) no hurricane occurred in the island. Now since, according to the Tables of sun-spot frequency, the years 1788 ‘and 1804 were maxima years, and the intervening minimum occurred in 1798, the theory would lead us to expect a comparative cessation of hur- ricanes during the period mentioned. ' If time permitted I would adduce similar evidence respecting the hurri- canes of Bourbon (Réunion) and other parts of the world. The hurricanes of the Indian Ocean are well known to be attended with - torrential rains.. So much is this the case, that the popular belief at Mau- : rifius is that cyclones are the cause of our rains. Heavy rains over exten- * sive areas are certainly concomitant with cyclones in the Indian Ocean. It was therefore determined to examine whether there was also a rainfall perio- ' dicity. As far as the Mauritius observations went, the case was clear; but it was desirable to extend the investigation to other localities. The Queensland and South-Australian observations gave similar results; and as Adelaide is far beyond the limits of tropical cyclones, it was surmised that _ there might be a rainfall periodicity generally. The Cape of Good Hope observations were afterwards found to support this view. The rainfalls of England and the Continent of Europe were next examined, and also found to be in accordance with the hypothesis, It would occupy much more time than I can at present spare to enter fully into this question of rainfall periodicity. With the help of researches on the same subject by Mr. Lockyer, Mr. Symons, and Dr. Jelinek, of Vienna, I have now examined ninety-three tables of the rainfall for various parts of the world; and I find that, with few exceptions, more rain has fallen in the maxima than in the minima sun-spot years. I beg to append a Table showing the general results for the different quarters of the globe. It will be seen that, as far as the investigation has gone, Europe, Africa, America, and Australia give very favourable results, Asia is represented by only three stations, one of which is Jerusalem, where the excess of rain in one minimum period exceeds the excess in the maxima periods for two stations in India. - France is the only European country (the rainfall of which has been examined) that gives an unfavourable return; but it must be remarked that we have as yet got only five stations in that country, most of which are inland, and that they may not fairly represent the whole country. By taking the longest possible series of observations for several stations spread over the globe, a periodicity comes out; and there is, I think, very strong evidence that rainfall is subject to a secular variation, corresponding with the sun-spot variation. Having given the facts, as far as I have been enabled to do so, I abstain ’ from making any theoretical remarks, beyond saying that if cyclone and rain- fall periodicities be fully established, a similar (direct) temperature periodi- city should also exist, and that sudden variations of solar heat and radiation may, by disturbing terrestrial magnetism, be the cause of an increase of aurore and magnetic storms when sun-spots are most numerous, *poyseursiq BRO e eee OOOO hese seer serene rasesessseseseres qoqedstq. ; *RULISLOT “PoTqUstp SpossaA | TAT Tone, LUE Cor ‘Teve) ee eee *pesvurep sTasse A oy “TjeqQezq ‘soruerddy *poseuep S[O880 A see eeeeeeeseme ease rnpes “On ‘hog [2.qsUTAL ‘S110 “ULRTRg TRIN] “taen() 8 U0pLAg "zonStrpory ye wAOp TACT sosnoyy eee error eee ee eee ee erry ‘On To}9q 49 ‘ony ‘anquyeyy ‘poomsuttyog “uaen?) 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ST pue ZI ‘qr “** Tg pu Og ‘ULL steaasucrsrseaz() uBe ‘OL8T 978 477 CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-SPOTS. *UOATS OTB SSUTPLor (pa}OoTLOD OY} JOU) PaATOSqO OY YL} OS[e poyAvUTEA oq ysnut 47 eouay { pxvod UO SI T[v 4B Jo}OMIOIeG OU SoUMTJMIOS pue ‘seuvOIAINY SulIMp uoyorq xo pernfur APUenboayun you ore sxojomoaeg *syooq-FoT 04} Ut pejou «(TOJOULOTLG JSOMOT ,, JO WUINTOO oY} UI SYULTA ore o10T]} oanssetd ysaaoy oyg ynq ‘seuojo4o oy} Ur oAnsserd o1teydsomye YSoMo] [VNR oY} MoYs sfeaTe JOU OP AoJoTMOIeG OY} JO SSUTPwod POATOSGO 4SOMOT OUT, ‘aajU20 OY} WoIZ quLysIp ATGBIOpIsMOd Futeq 41 poouettodxe Yor spossoa oy} ‘(GZ]) ouUorAMy wv Jo y.avd AT[voa seA (G) OTS v eq} oq Avut qf puw fouvoTLINy pur ‘WAG ‘oTVH oPoU MA “TBH Suoayg ‘ATearyoodsea ojouep (ZT ‘TT ‘OT ‘G) PUTA OY} JO Coty VANMAIXeU oY} SuTyworpuUr sAequinu oL, “S}IUMTT [vnjov oy} you pu ‘syoog -dOT 94} 0} Surptosoe popue pur uvseq seuopodo oy} oxo Ajozetarxoadde moys ,,Aj[VooT,, Surpvoy oy} Jepun uoAls sopnySuo] pue sepnzyey ey, *SHUVNGY (21 700) “oUeT II Zs OL [wrt sg Len *‘puvjiqneayneyg II g¢ 0G |""" og pur Fz Avy “O719N} 09-66 Oo. | 09“ s9] 08 “ 26 |o7*. 4.07.7 dep *T]OAULQ, eeeree SI Ill 9T ere rr Ty LT aidy ‘Oy ‘ergomeda0yy “UOJSMIY| F8-6G OL. | 69 “ co} 16 “ AT |" OL 9% ‘Ady *poiseusrp ‘oy ‘pooy Surpry ped ‘eroumun(q) **"""" II LL “ 98 |G “ GI I" 86% ST Ae Spossea { zonStmpoy 3B ouvOTIMY opMuay)| eee coy ‘sxoUTTLYO “pedyTY COUN) 01-86 GI 09 “ FL) “ OL f° FTF 6 Ae “OR “ene gy ‘ony ecccce IL eG 77 09 08 “ SI Sy 0} SI "qa, “petepunoy pue poset -sIp S[OSsoA £ pefoaysep ZONSTIPOY 4e sdoip see ee ese sesso eeseesaseres ‘OW ‘oTepsreaTy ‘mooTe A C6-LZ SI 09 “ce $L 9% “ OL evceee OL 0} SG "q2,q7 ‘op “euawiTy ‘anesedeg) 08-66 Or eg “ 09 | O& “ GI [9g 97 GT ‘uee *posvuep [9889 A POP e eee eeee sas eseseserestesoee ‘oy TUE ‘oyjasseg OL-86 IL Sf 1g IO CE IL “ueer “pojseusip pure pao =punog spossea {uOgINOg yu osvUIULP Yeo) trereeetersssereeeerereee OD SHSTIG ‘oUTTEpy] ****** GI OG °F OL | SG OF LZ |". ST 04g ue “S181 (ET ‘100) ‘zensapoy tao possed ouvors.amy|"* "rr" “ony “UTETRY oye “epoorsy, ***** GI | G9 “19 | OG “ ST IL “AON 99 Te “390 «Soot qoopog "i Sos edeeaas Yoon eesnnesuussss cuccrnwanms aouuds espndury 08-66 IL > G6 0 SPL 0} ral Ane ‘oy ‘T[easyipnyy ‘oraosamy] ***"** OL G9 94 89 | # “ ST | 0G pur GT AeTT (OULITAINY B Sumorg,, resesteeseenanseneserennsenssseensts oss tees aR Seveve It ras) Qg [reesttessseeeeg key "OW ‘BIAv}OO “WANODTEAOG] OF-6Z Til: OL} 13 93 ST | 9 07% Ae *Teqizuez cap peanansarssahsabubisississnosscscdsesaas senmennmeanad aseeee SL eeeeceeee Tee eeeseseee GI ady REPORT—1873. 478 80-E8+ 6Le + P13 + CLT + T¢-81+ €0-96-+ 08-ST+ CG + 1o-. — 843 + She — lor) le] a +4+4+++1 44 “pefep IO ss00X0 © [enuue uveyy SossooxTT 919 pus ‘yove savof sary} Jo spotod yods 66-0881 + SLIT £6-96 04-01 GS-49 OL-8L 66-9FL 06-79 OL-F 99-6 FOL 08:88 06-E1 OL-Gs 00-1 OF-€8 OL-6S 08-64 66-8 81-86 61-696 0G-G9T 09-86 08: IF 19-06 L9-91¢ ¥8-0 “UL L+t+4++ $+ l++14 ++4+++144+4+4 41 “(—) woayep 10 . 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OTST CG-LELG 09-FELT G9:89G LE-686 9¢-LET GZ-689¢ LLCO “ul “sported BUITXBUL UP Tear 8&€ ‘O98T | “6E8T G ‘T48T | “O98T 6 “T98L | “SPST iP ‘9C8T “OF8T G “CPST ‘9E81 G “6981 “PSST G ‘6ST ‘CEST 8 “6981 | “PS8T G GL8I “E981 P “LOST “Se8T G ‘OL8T ‘CPST F “TIST "GaST 6 “T98T “SPST 4 “T98T “SPST v ‘L981 | “LEST G “TL81 “SPST 9 ‘TO8T ‘GE8T as ‘OL8T ‘CEST OL ‘OL8T ‘GE8L 86 ‘OL8T “CEST tL ‘T9I8T “GEST 86 “T98T “6E81 9 ‘OL8T “CEST GL “6981 “6E81 v “GLB “GI8T 86 ‘698T “GIST FL 04 moat *yoro saved 90,744 JO spore eyararur *MOIBAIOSGO JO S189 K pe fa jo zoqum jt -UNG BULUTPY pUw VUITXe]L cO lor) * re A CV G34 GY 119 16 11 GN Ant sss st BORA ee *SIL01}B48 Jo soqum yy ‘sporred vuUIxey, OY} UL syoofoqy 10 se eeeeeronseesees sung soreereseeesons BITBIISNY TNOs} teeeereres DuBrsuaENg), seseecegeesercomeres soOpEqied srreeeseoseos BIB IQUO(y sse099+ EBT) MONT steers On og Hreeeeeeeessoeees sonBig payTUy seeeeeneseeseecseseeres UDEUUD SHIN’ eseaeeaeneseneeeeeteentens TeIBNT ‘aedoy pooy jo odep seaeeetse*-OTTIqTLR]SUO,) ee eoeceetetecesercer eteaeenneneeseneensene ee sraISTW oulyso[eg seteaeeseeseesemsereeeeres” BIDUT ee eereeese see TUTdOZTING eLysny eIssnig ooUR TMispog BISSNYT SVA.10 Ny purpyoog setae ceeeesteneteseoeses purpsug reer oy “02g ‘S01I}UN0D FSM ST iy waaens nyEuSNY senees ep OTIOUL woMpy oneesceenens BIST eb eee eee edoamng, } s ) ) 4 | | ‘aqors ayy Jo siaqaeng SULINP 9GOTD ot} 19A0 [[eJUIEYT OY} SULMOYS OTqe], ON THE STRUCTURE OF CARBONIFEROUS-LIMESTONE CORALS. 479 Fifth Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Structure of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals. Drawn up by James Tomson, Secretary. The Committee consists of Professor Harkness, F.R.S., James Tuomson, F.G.S., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., and Tomas Davinson, F.R.S. Dvnrine the past year the Committee have continued their investigations with increased interest. Indeed the longer they continue their investigations in this branch of paleontology, the more they are impressed with its importance ; and now that they can reproduce in facsimile the internal structures of fossil corals, they hope that the British Association will be convinced of the pro- priety of continuing these researches. Within the period embraced by the Report upwards of 200 specimens have - been sliced; these are from a locality in Fifeshire, which had escaped our notice. Many of these specimens, in addition to confirming the discovery of new forms (noticed in a previous Report), exhibit structural characteristics that warrant us in determining two (if not three) new genera. There are others figured this year in Plates*, upon which we at present hesitate to decide, They require careful comparison before we can feel con- fident of the group in which they must be classed. In the Report of last year it was stated that the gradations of varieties are in some cases so constant, and the species pass so imperceptibly into each other, that we are induced to infer that there has been an inherent tendency in the polyp to yary independent of, but modified by, the conditions of its surroundings. It was also stated that it was our intention to figure these variations, so as to enable us to see what are the essential characteristics that distinguish the species. We have accordingly prepared six Plates and figured 284 forms, showing in each case the internal structure. The external aspect is also represented when necessary. We have deferred to another occasion our treatment of such forms as Beaumontia, Alveolites, Favosites, &c. Some paleontologists have doubts as to whether several genera should be retained among the Rugose Corals, so that we are the more induced to delay dealing with several forms belonging to this group ; and we feel convinced that our future researches will bring to light specimens simpler in organization, but presenting new facts which may cause considerable alteration in the classification of this group. It is better, therefore, to wait until these distinctive characteristics are clearly brought out. We have, however, given in (what we provisionally call) Plate I, some forms which are closely allied to the above, Plate I. contains twenty-three figures of the genus Amplexus. Ten of these forms have not been recorded before, whilst others are now for the first time recorded as occurring in British strata. These figures represent the develop- ment of coralline life, passing from the simplest forms to the more complex structures of the genus, which passes by imperceptible gradations into the genus Zaphrentis. Prof. De Koninck finds a similar transition in the Moun- tain-Limestone Corals of Belgium belonging to this genus (Recherches sur les Animaux Fossiles Belgique, prem. part. p. 81). Figs. 22, 23, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, and 32 have not been represented before, and their structural characteristics are distinctly different from any of the forms that have hitherto been described. Plate II. contains sixty-six figures; twenty-one of these are varieties of * The Plates referred to in this Report will be published by Mr, Thomson, 480 . REPORT—1878. the genus Zaphrentis, Figs. 8 and 27 represent a new genus; they are from Fifeshire. Fig. 8 may possibly be determined as a distinct species. Fig. 7 belongs to the same group, and will form another species. These forms are readily distinguished from all other corals belonging to this period by the granular costie. Fig. 26 is closely allied to the genus Lophophyllum; but it differs in structural characteristics from the species described by Prof. M‘Coy in the ‘ Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ 2nd series, vol. vii. p. 167, and in ‘ Brit. Paleont. Fossils,’ p. 90, 1851. _ Figs. 23, 40, 42, and 43 are very much alike in external aspects; and it is only from transverse sections that they can be determined as belonging to distinct species. The other forms figured in this Plate require careful com- parison before we can determine to what species or even genera they belong. Plate III. contains thirty-three figures, representing twelve varieties of the genus Zaphrentis. Fig. 1 is Zaphrentis Enniskillent ; and figs. 2, 3, 3 A, 3 B, and 3 C repre- sent the same coral cut into five different sections, to show the structural characteristics in the different stages of development. Fig. 5 is Zaphrentis Edwardsiana of De Koninck, Fig. 14 is Zaphrentis Guerangeri, E. & H. The internal structures of the other forms upon this Plate have not been figured before, and therefore we deem it prudent to say nothing about them until they have been more carefully and closely examined. At some other time we may return to them, Plate IV. represents forty-three species. Figs. 1 to 6 represent varieties of Amplexus and Zaphrentis. Figs. 3 and 4 have a striking resemblance externally, but in internal structure they represent two distinct genera, viz. Amplexus and Zaphrentis; and this fact confirms the statement made last year, that we cannot rely upon external aspects for purposes of specific identification. Figs. 14, 15, and 26 belong to the genus Lophophyllum. These three forms have characteristics sufficient to warrant us in classifying them as distinct varicties, Fig. 28 belongs to the same genus, but differs from the others in having two of the primary septa passing into nearly the centre of the calicular cavity, and terminating subreniformly at the inner extremity. Fig. 21C is Heterophyllia Lyellit, nat. size. Vig. 21 is the same, magni- fied ; 21 A is a transverse, and 21 B a longitudinal section of the same, Fig. 36 is Heterophyllia grandis. This is the first time that this form has been recorded from Scotch strata. Fig. 36 A is a longitudinal section of the same, showing the internal structure. Figs. 36 B, 36 C, and 36D are trans- verse sections, exhibiting structural characteristics at different stages of development. Fig. 37 is a new species of the same genus. Fig, 38 is Heterophyllia angulata, while figs. 38 A and 38B represent the structures in longitudinal and transverse sections. Figs. 39, 39 A, and 39B have well-marked specific distinctions. They must represent forms which differ from the other species of this genus, The septal arrangement is quite distinctive. It is certainly a new species. We propose to name it Heterophyllia Phillipsii. Fig. 40 represents the external aspects of Heterophyllia mirabilis, nat. size. This is the typical specimen that Dr. Duncan described in the ‘ Trans- actions of the Royal Society’ (1867, p.643). Fig. 40 B is the same, magni- fied. This species is distinguished from the other species by a series of ON THE STRUCTURE OF CARBONIFEROUS-LIMESTONE CORALS, 481 curved spines which are attached to the crown of the coste. They are round, and attached to the coste by a broad, expanded base. The “ ball- and-socket” process alluded to by Dr. Duncan we have failed to discover. Fig. 40C is a transverse section of the same, nat. size. Figs. 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, and 35 exhibit structural characteristics hitherto unnoticed. Several of these forms may be seen in many of our museums and private collections named as Cyathropsis and Zaphrentis; but in structure they have no characteristics common to either of these genera. Figs. 21, 38, 40, 41, 42, and 43 are typical specimens of Heterophyilia, described by Dr. Duncan in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society’ for 1867. Plate V. contains six varieties of genus Clisiophyllum. Fig. 1 represents the external aspect of Clistophyllum Keyserlingi. This species is distinguished by the lamelle curving round, and ascending to the crown of the large conical boss that fills up the centre of the calicular cavity. Fig. 1A is a transverse section of the same. Fig. 1 B exhibits a longitudinal section, with the columellarian line passing down the centre of the coral. Figs. 3, 3 A, 3B, and 3C belong to the same species, and represent the structures from the earliest to the mature state of development in any normal specimen. Fig. 6 is a transverse section of the largest specimen of the same that has come under our observation. Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are closely allied species, if not varieties. Figs. 9, 11, 12, and 13 are distinct species, and illustrate a previous observation, viz. that specific identification cannot rest on the mere num- ber of the lamell filling up the columellarian space in the centre of the ealice. Fig. 12 A is 15 lines in diameter, and has twenty-seven lamella. ' Fig. 11 is only 6 lines in diameter, and has thirty-seven lamelle filling up and forming the conical boss in the centre of the calice. Figs. 7, 8, and 10 are distinct genera. These forms, before being cut, were classified as genus Clisiophyllum; but the transverse sections present no characteristics in common with that genus. They belong to a genus quite distinct, and as yet unnamed. - Plate VI. contains representations of three species of Lonsdallia. - Fig. 1 represents a longitudinal section of Lonsdallia rugosa. Figs. 1B and 1 C exhibit the young corallites in their different stages of development. - Fig, 2 is a transverse section of the same species. In this section we have delineated the growth from the ovular germ through the different stages of development to the mature coral. In one stage the embryo coral is seen passing from the interseptal locula; in another it is seen semicircular in outline, and just outside the epitheca. In some it is circular in outline, whilst others exhibit the full development of the septa. Fig. 2A is the same species, enlarged six diameters. Fig. 3 represents Lonsdallia duplicata. Fig. 4 A is one of the corallites enlarged, with a young corallite attached to the epitheca, exhibiting the development of the primary septa, which, in the maturer forms, is seen to fill up the columellarian space. Tt will thus be seen that we wish to avail ourselves of every fact, and to delineate the most delicate structures. To accomplish the latter, our peculiar process is well suited. We may thus assist the student and beginner in 1873, 21 482 : REPORT—1873. identifying specimens; but we may also check the superficial and hasty generalization and classification of the more advanced. In regard to the stratigraphical distribution and duration in time of these forms, we must meantime remain silent; but by-and-by these will be duly recorded, Report of the Committee, consisting of Colonel Lanz Fox, Dr. Beppon, Mr. Franks, Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr. FE. W. Brasroox, Sir J. Lussock, Bari., Sir Water Exxiot, Mr. Ciements R. MARKHAM, and Mr. EB. B. Tytor, appointed for the purpose of preparing and - publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers, Ethnologists, and other Anthropological Observers. Drawn up by Colonel A. H, Lane Fox. Snorrry after the last Meeting of the Association I received an intimation from the Geographical Society that two expeditions were about to start in search of Dr. Livingstone—the one under Lieut. W. J. Grandy, R.N., by the Congo river, and the other, under Lieut. Cameron, from the East Coast—and requesting that anthropological instructions might be furnished to those officers for their guidance. As not more than a week’s notice was given me of the departure of these expeditions, and it appeared desirable that each party should be provided with printed instructions, I wrote at once to several members of the Committee, requesting them to send me a series of questions for the use of the travellers ; and the following gentlemen having responded to my appeal without delay, I caused their contributions to be printed in a © small volume having blank leaves for memorandums and answers to the questions, each of which was numbered; and a sufficient number were fur- nished to the officers commanding each expedition, who were requested to distribute them on the coast to Her Majesty’s Consuls, officers of the Royal Navy, and others who might be in a position to use them, or to place them in the hands of other travellers who might set out on expeditions towards the interior from time to time. ‘ The following Members of the Committee were contributors to this volume, viz. A. W. Franks, Esq., on General Anthropology ; Prof. Rolleston, F.R.S., on Physical Anthropology ; Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S., on Physical Anthropology ; E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., on. Religions, Mythology, and Customs; Colonel A, H. Lane Fox on the Use of Iron in Africa, and on Prehistoric Archxology. I enclose a copy of these instructions for the information of the General Committee. Although these instructions have been the means of carrying out to a great extent the wishes of the Council of the Association in appointing the Committee, and it was important that the opportunity afforded by the start- ing of these expeditions should not be lost, yet as the instructions were drawn up solely with a view to African exploration, and a certain amount of repetition was apparent in the volume, owing to the hurried manner in which it was drawn up and printed, so as to be in time for the travellers before starting, it did not appear to me to meet as fully as could be desired the intentions of the General Committee in placing a grant of £25 at our disposal, such grant haying been intended for the information of travellers INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS, ETHNOLOGISTS, ETC. 483 in general rather than for the use of travellers in any one quarter of the globe, Ihave therefore defrayed the cost of printing at my own expense, and the amount has been made up to me by copies purchased by the Geo— graphical Society, the Anthropological Institute, and by Mr. Franks. This volume, therefore, although issued under the auspices and with the approval of the Committee, will not be charged to the Association. The Committee for drawing up “ General Instructions for Travellers” met on the 21st of Noyember, 1872, when the following resolutions were passed :— 1. That the work to be published by the Committee shall consist ot numbered sections, each section being prefaced by a few lines of explanatory notes and followed by questions, 2, That the notes and questions shall be expressed as briefly as possible, 3. That the Secretary be requested to draw up the headings of about 100 sections, and submit them to the Committee at their next meeting, 4, That the Secretary be requested to draw up a specimen section or sections upon half margin, and circulate them amongst the Members of the Committee for their remarks previously to the next meeting of the Com- mittee, 5, That the title of the work shall be ‘‘ Notes and Queries on Anthropology for the use of Travellers and Residents in uncivilized lands.” 6, That M. Broca’s chromatic tables be adopted; and that Dr. Beddoe be requested to communicate with him for the purpose of ascertaining in what manner they can be most economically reproduced in this country, Acting upon these resolutions I drew up a list of 100 sections, which, having been circulated amongst the members for their remarks, have -been printed in their approved form and are herewith annexed, together with the names of some of the authors to whom the sections have been submitted for - detailed questions. Two specimen sections have also been circulated, and have been approved by the Committee. Owing to the large number of contributors there has ie some delay in collecting the contributions of the several authors. The sections have, however, now been completed continuously up to No, XLII., and some of. the later ones have also been received ; these sections are now in manuscript ready for printing. The sections have been divided into three parts,— Part I. relating to the Constitution of Man, Part II. to Culture, and Part III, to Miscellaneous Questions relating to Anthropology. The List of Sec- tions will form an index to the volume 3 and for convenience of reference the sections have been numbered in Roman figures, the questions in italics, . Each section has been submitted to some writer who is known to haye devoted his special attention to the subject referred to him, and, as far as possible, the best known authorities have been selected. The cost of printing the part already in type amounts to £3; that of the MS. already in hand has been estimated at £10, The probable cost of the whole work, including illustrations and the chro- matic tables, will be about £50. Viewing the importance of the contributions already received and the scien- tifie status of the contributors, and considering that the work is exhaustive, of its subject and calculated to suffice for the use of travellers for some time, to come, I would suggest, on behalf of the Committee, that the grant of £25 voted at the last Meeting be renewed, and £25 added to complete the. work, The yolume may then be published without delay. It may be estimated that the sale of copies will cover a portion of the expenses, Dine 484 REPORT—1873. List of Szctions into which the Notes and Queries on Anthropology are divided, with a Summary of the Subjects included in each Section. Part I.—Consrrrurion or Man. I. Measuring Instruments.—A description of the instruments of precision required for the measurements of the body or in testing its func- tions, Dr. Beppor. II. Form and Size.—Instructions for measuring and deseribing the form of the body in living subjects, as also skeletons and skulls. Instructions for estimating the relative size of the parts of the body in individuals of dif- ferent races as well as of the same race living in different climates or under different conditions, and the best order of making a table of results and of determining averages. Dr. Beppor. iI. Anatomy and Physiology.— Questions relating to the soft parts of the body, organs, muscles, circulation, respiration, temperature, nerves, tissues, &e. Dr. BEppor. IV. Development and Decay.—Relating to the periods of growth and development of the body, length of life, child-bearing, puberty, menstrua- tion, dentition, decay, growing grey, death-rate, birth-rate. Dr. Beppor. V. Hair.—Relating to the texture and qualities of the hair. Dr. Beppox. VI. Colour.—Questions as to the colour of the skin, hair, and eyes, with directions for the use of M. Broca’s tables, which will be included in this section. Dr. Brppor. VII. Odour.—Relating to the peculiar smell of the body of different races, whether natural and constitutional, or merely the result of filth. Dr. BEppor, VIII. Motions.—Muscular peculiarities, such as the power of moving the ears, scalp, use of toes in holding objects, agility, climbing. Dr. Brppox. IX. Physiognomy.— Questions as to the expression of the countenance, natural gestures, blushing, &c., with instructions for taking the form of fea- tures. See also No. XCVIII. Casrs. C. Darwin. x. Pathology.— Diseases, as well as alterations of the powers produced by mode of life, use, disuse, climate, &c.; recuperative powers, healing of wounds, Dr. Breppor. XI. Abnormalities.—Natural deformities, such as steatopyga, albinism, erythrism, &ec., not including Drrormarions, which come under the second part—Cvrrvre. Dr. Brppor. XII. Physical Powers.— Instructions for testing strength, speed, en- durance. Dr. Bepvor, XIII. Senses.—Instructions for testing the powers of the senses—sight, hearing, sense of smell, touch, &e. Dr. Brppor. - HIV. Heredity.—Inheritance of qualities, both physical and mental. F. Gatton and Dr. Beppor. XV. Crosses.—Fertility and character of half-breeds, shades of colour and other peculiarities produced by crossing, continuance of fertility in de- scendants. Dr. Brppor. _ XVI. Reproduction.—Numbers of family, numbers at birth, propor- tion of sexes, &c. ' Dr. Beppor. XVII. Psychology.—Quickness of perception, power of reasoning, eamming, generalizing, memory, perseverance. Dr. Beppor. INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS, ETHNOLOGISTS, ETC. 485 Part II.—Cutrvnre. XVIII. History.—Known facts regarding the history of races, name by which they call themselves, their migrations, their traditions concerning . themselves, and mode of recording past events. E. B. Trzor. XIX, Archzology.—Inquiries into the monuments and other relics of a past age, with the ideas of the people concerning them. Cor. Lane Fox. XX. Etymology.—Information obtainable from the derivation of words, names of places, rivers, &c. I. B. Tytor. XXI. Astronomy.—Knowledge of the people concerning it. Division of time. Names of the stars, with their meanings. Astrology. F. Gaxron. XXII. Arithmetic.—Extent and knowledge of numbers. Method of notation by fives, tens, twenties, &c. Analysis of compound numerals. Names of numbers. KE. B. Tyzor. XXII. Medicine.—Knowledge of simples and medical remedies. Superstitions connected with the healing art. Charms and ceremonies used in sickness. Sanatory measures. Treatment of sick. Dr. Barnarp Davis. XXIV. Food.— Articles used as food; mode of cooking. Manufacture of wine, beer, &c. Quantity eaten. Comparison of native dietary with law of diet. A. W. FRANKS. XXV. Cannibalism.—Its causes, frequency, motives for, and circum- stances under which it either is or has been practised. A, W. Frayxs, XXXVI. Narcotics.—Use of tobacco, snuff, hemp, Siberian mushroom, betel, coca, &c.; forms of pipes and snuff-cases, ceremonies and practices connected therewith ; effects, purposes for which used, &c. A. W. Franks. XXVIII. Crimes.— Acts regarded as criminal, whether against person, property, or religion, stranger, slave, or chief, &c., and the reasons why they are so regarded. EK. W. Braproox. XXVIII. Morals.—Acts recognized as right and wrong in family and public life; chastity, honesty, sobriety, truthfulness, &c. E. B. Trror. XXIX. Fetishes.—Description and history; whether worshipped as emblems or otherwise; mode of carrying; superstitions and ceremonies con- nected with. K. B. Tyzor. XXX. Religions.—Nature of deities, whether ancestral, elemental, or typical. Beliefs concerning souls and spirits, their forms and actions; de- scription and meaning of religious ceremonies—sacrifice, purification, &c. ; position of women in relation to religion. E. B. Tytor. XXXII. Superstitions.—All superstitions not included under any Special section. E. B. Tyzor. XXXII. Witchcraft.—Evil eye, possession by devils, spells, &c., with the ordeals and punishments connected with them. E. B. Tytor. REXKITII. Mythology.— Including folk-lore. KE. B. Tyrtor. XXIV. Government.— Appointment and government of chiefs, and offices of subordinate rank, whether hereditary or otherwise. E. W. Brasroor, XXXV. Laws.—Including game-laws; laws relating to land, inheri- tance, administration of justice, punishments, fines, &c. E. W. Brasroox. XXXVI. Customs.—It may be difficult in some cases to distinguish between laws and customs, but they should be defined when practicable. KE. B. Tytor. XXXVI. Taboo.—Its origin, history, customs, and superstitions con- nected with it. E. B. Tyzor. XXXVI. Property.—To what extent private property is recognized ; 4.86 ‘ REPORT —1873. personal and landed property. Tenures of land, customs concerning, &c. ; individual, family, and common property. Heirship, succession to.’ SMXMMIX. Trade.—Mode of barter and exchange in all its phases; conveyance of articles from a distance by means of barter. §Hypr Crarxe. XL. Money.—Including all objects recognized as mediums of exchange, ‘and gradual development of the idea of a standard currency ; relative value of. Hyper CrLarke. LI. Weights and Measures.— aseasndvbrb dase ibeegess«teqssep Carbonate of lime, in veins intersecting ditto ... 2 0 241 0 Indurated black sandy shale, very sulphurous ... 12 0 253 0 Blacker ditto; softer...-::.....coscesectesevsoreveetbere 7 0 260 0 Harder shales, with much chert .........ceseseseseee 12 0 272 O Black horizontal shale, very sullen stan bis ade 2.0 274 0 Sessiaaiaia 12 0 286 0 Shale, paler i in colour, with veins of ZYPSUM..,.+» 4°0 290 0 Shale, darker and more BALDY sessssssscoseesestasest : 2 0 202 0 Shale ..scccssscseves coe ece eee ecesvensecsveseseccscseest teee 2 0 294 0 The higher beds marked as “limestones” in the boring-section are mostly impure. These are the “ bastard blues.” Below these, in Rounden Wood, there are other limestones known as the “ Rounden greys,” and then come the “ Dunk shaws.” The ‘ greys” and “ blues ” are easily identified by the workmen whenever they occur. The “ Dunk shaws” are peculiar in character; but as neither they nor the “ Rounden greys” have been identi- fied in the boring, they may be a local peculiarity. The new discovery of gypsum is an important addition to the Purbeck series of Sussex, The two principal beds of gypsum consist of perfectly white alabaster. The gypseous shales are dark in colour, but they contain so much gypsum that, when pulverized, they appear almost white. The gypsum is mostly eyenly bedded ; but that found in the shales is nodular and irregular in structure. It is not improbable that at or near this horizon gypsum will occur over a considerable area in the Sussex Purbecks; and it probably occurs not far below the sur- face at the bottom of the ‘“‘ rough field” in Rounden Wood. With regard to the depth at which the Paleozoic rocks are likely to occur beneath the Weald, I may remind you that 700 feet has been mentioned as a probable minimum, and 1700 feet as a probable maximum. It would seem, from borings already made in other districts, that the depth of the palzeozoic floor below the present sea-level is to a large extent independent both of the newer formations above it and of the apparent disturbances which are supposed to have affected them. The borings at Kentish Town, Harwich, Ostend, and Calais, all reach the paleozoic floor at a depth only slightly exceeding, or slightly less than, 1000 feet below the sea-level; and in these cases the higher strata passed through are of very varying character and thickness. These, however, are all on, or to the north of, the supposed westerly extension of the “Axis of ‘Artois,’ > and it is possible that different conditions prevail to the south of that line. I may also remind you that, in the Pays de Bray, Carboniferous Limestone occurs at a depth of 59 feet from the surface, underlying Kimmeridge Clay. It is this presence of the Carboniferous Limestone in this position which gives some slight hope of the occurrence of Coal-measures near Boulogne and in our Wealden area further west. Mr. Godwin-Austen has pointed out that ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 495 the general dip of the Carboniferous Limestone of the Boulonnais is to the south ; and this is the dip where they are last seen passing beneath the unconformable secondary rocks, As Carboniferous Limestone occurs under the Pays de Bray, it is not unlikely that some Coal-measures may be preserved in a palzozoic trough between these places, Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis Garon, Mr. W. Froupg, Mr. C. W. Merririexp, and Professor Ranxine, appointed to consider and Report on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea and Measurement of Waves near shore. In consequence of the death of one of our number, the late lamented Professor Rankine, and the pressing occupations of the other members of the Committee, it has not been possible to make much progress with this subject during the past year, and they are not at present prepared to report upon it. Report of the Committee on Science-Leciures and Organization,—the Committee consisting of Prof. Roscon, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof. “W. G. Avams, F.R.S., Prof. Anprews, F.R.S., Prof. Batrovr, F.R.S., F. J. Bramwett, F.R.S., Prof. A. Crum Brown, F.R.S.E., Prof. T. Dyer, Sir Watter Exriot, F.L.S., Prof. Frowrr, F.R.S., Prof. G. C. Foster, /.R.S., Prof. Grrniz, F.R.S., Rev. R. Har- LEY, F.R.S., Prof. Huxtey, F.R.S., Prof. Firrmine Jenkin, F.R.S., Dr. Journ, F.R.S., Col. Lanr Fox, F.G.S., Dr. Lanxester, F.R.S., J. N. Locnyer, F.R.S., Dr. O’Cattacuan, DL.D., D.C.L., Prof. . Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. Batrour Stewart, F.R.S., H. T. Stainton, F.R.S., Prof. Tart, F.R.S.E., J. A. Tinneé, F.R.G.S,, Dr. ALLEN Tuomson, F.R.S., Sir Wittiam Txomson, F.R.S., Prof. Wyvitie Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. Turner, F.R.S.H., Prof. A. W. WiLLIAM- son, F.R.S., and Dr. Youna, [Read at the Brighton Meeting.] Your Committee endeavoured in the first place to obtain a clear view into the nature and extent of their possible sphere of action, as defined in the. two following Resolutions, by which they were appointed at the Meeting at Edinburgh :-— 1. To consider and report on the best means of advancing Science by Lectures, with authority to act, subject to the approval of the Council, in the course of the present year if judged desirable. 2. To consider and report whether any steps can be taken to render scientific organization more complete and effectual. In this endeavour your Committee have been greatly aided by the follow- ing statement handed in by Dr. Joule, clearly pointing out the general objects which should be aimed at in Science Organization in this country. 496 REPORT—1873. Dr. Joule’s Statement. In order to render scientific organization as complete and effectual as a great nation may rightly demand that it should be, it is essential to obtain the authority of and material assistance by Government. This view is evidently in harmony with that which has been adopted by the country respecting national education. Indeed the education of the people in the rudiments of knowledge will prove comparatively useless if the higher developments are not fostered with at least equal care. The following are some of the principal objects to be obtained by a more complete organization, for which Government aid is imperatively demanded :— 1, Observatories for the continual watching of a. Astronomical phases. 6. Meteorological phenomena, including Magnetism of the Earth. ec. Tides and Sea-level. 2. Museums for permanent collections of a. Specimens in Natural History. b. As Chemistry. c. 3 Geology and Mineralogy. d. Manufactured products. e. Machines, tools, &c. J. Scientific Apparatus. 3. Libraries of books on Science, comprising the Transactions of British and Foreign Societies. _ 4. Publication of complete classified catalogues of scientific researches, inventions, and discoveries in this and other countries. 5. Scientific researches. 6. Inquiries, at the instance of Government, respecting a, Artillery, Ships, Fortifications, &c.; also b. Mines, Adulterations, Sanitary matters, &e. 7. Scientific Expeditions. 8. Verification and issue of Scientific Instruments. 9. Scientific Instruction by a. The Foundation of Chairs. 6. Popular Lectures. 10. Rewards for discoveries, researches, and inventions. The first of the above objects has been treated of by Professor Balfour Stewart. It is most desirable that thoroughly efficient observatories should be established in various localities of the British empire. Complete museums and libraries should be founded and scientific instruc- tion provided in all the centres of large populations. It is impossible to be satisfied with national collections in the metropolis only, and with instruc- tion supplied in a few and sometimes ill-chosen localities, when we regard the present wants of society. The fourth object has been undertaken by the Royal Society. It is, how- ever, absurd to expect that it can be attained in the completeness which is absolutely essential to the progress of science without the continuous supply of ample funds. Government has already done something to promote the fifth object, espe- cially by its grant to the Royal Society. The result has certainly been to encourage further steps in the same direction. ‘The same remark applies to the seventh object. ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION, 497 The sixth object is of immediate concern to the State. At the present day, when war has been raised from an art to a science, it would be the height of folly not to secure the best theoretical talent that the country can afford. Under the head (4) it may be remarked that the commonest feelings of humanity call for authoritative and intelligent interference with arrange- ments and processes by which the lives and happiness of so many are so frequently imperilled. The verification and issue of scientific instruments is a most important duty, and ought to be undertaken by a body armed with authority sufficient to secure the use not only of instruments which are correct, but whose indications are on a uniform system of units. The duty of verification has been undertaken by the Kew Observatory with such good results as to encourage further efforts over a wider field. The objects proposed are extensive, and would involve some difficulty in carrying them into effect. But the benefits to be attained are so immense that these considerations should not be allowed to weigh. Moreover, existing Societies, several of which possess a very complete organization, would supply a great deal of the necessary machinery, so that the chief business of the cnet would be to supervise, give authority, and furnish the necessary unds*. Your Committee, believing that the only mode of making progress in so wide a field as that described by Dr. Joule was to select some few points upon which to commence action, determined to appoint three Subcommittees for the purpose of taking up the discussion of three of the above-named objects. Subcommittee A.—To discuss and report on the first of the resolutions under which the Committee was appointed, viz. the best means of advancing Science by Lectures. Subcommittee B.—To discuss and report on the question of Scientific Organization as regards Meteorology. Subcommittee C.—To discuss and report on the question of Scientific Organization as regards Local Scientific Societies. Reports from the above Subcommittees have been received; their substance is as follows :— Subcommittee A.—On the best meaus of advancing Science by Lectures. In accordance with the first original resolution, the Council of the Asso- ciation, on February 28th, 1872, gave permission to the proposed action of your Committee as regards Science-Lectures. The Subcommittee A was charged with the preparation for one year of a list of lectures for the con- sideration of your Committee, and with the task of communicating with the various towns with the view of establishing a system of Science-Lectures throughout the country. The necessity of establishing some regulation under which the names of proposed Lecturers should be selected became at once apparent. The following regulations were ultimately adopted :—(1) The names of the Lecturers to be selected (with their consent) from Members of the General Committee of the Association, or from amongst the Graduates of any University of the United Kingdom. (2) The subjects of the Lectures shall be such as are included in one or other of the Sections of the Associa- tion. Circulars were then sent to a certain number of gentlemen asking for their cooperation in the delivery of Science-Lectures in various parts of the * See Lord Wrottesley’s Address to the Royal Society, Noy. 30, 1855; also Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the British Association at Glasgow, 1855. 1873. 2x 498 REPORT— 18783. kingdom. It is clearly understood, and distinctly stated in the circular, that neither your Committee nor the Association can be in any way responsible for the pecuniary arrangements which must in each case be made between the Lecturer and the Institution or persons engaging ais services. It is also not intended to publish the list of Lecturers, but simply to send the same to the various Institutions who may apply for information. The Subcommittee have received many promises of assistance from many eminent and well- qualified lecturers ; the list is, however, not yet completed, and, owing to the difficulty of getting the several members resident in the country to meet together, it has not been possible as yet to open any communication with the various towns or institutions as to the further spread of the Science-Lectures throughout the country ; it is, however, hoped that speedy action in this direction may be taken. Your President, Dr. Carpenter, has taken special interest in this branch of your Committee’s proceedings ; and he writes that he is sure, from applications which he is continually receiving, that an organ- ization for the promotion of Science-Lectures would do great service by facilitating arrangements between such as want them and such as can effi- ciently supply the want, and by making known what experience shows to be the best method. Subcommittee B.—On Science-Organization as regards Meteorology. The following statements from Professor Balfour Stewart [embodying certain remarks of Mr. Baxendell] and from Mr. Lockyer, containing their Opinion as to the present condition of Meteorological Science, have been received by your Committee. Prof. Stewart's Statement. The subject under the consideration of the Subcommittee is a very exten- sive one, and I am not prepared at this moment to present any thing like a complete statement of the subject ; nevciileless there are two very pressing wants of observational science to which I tiink attention ought to be directed without delay, and which I therefore beg to bring before the Subcommittee. The first of these refers to aid in meteorological investigations. There is probably no science which depends more for its progress upon the patient and laborions reduction and discussion of numerous and extensive series of observed facts than that of meteorology. Hundreds of valuable series of meteorological observations, some of them extending over long periods of years, have been made and published, at a great cost of both time and money; but hitherto no results have been obtained from them at all pro- portionate to the enormous outlay they have involved, the reason being that the close application and labour and expenditure of time required to carry out meteorological investigations are usually much greater than private indi- viduals can afford to devote to them. It is therefore absolutely necessary for the interests of the science that State aid should be given to scientific men who are willing to undertake meteorological investigations of the nature of reductions, provided they can show that the objects they have in view are of sufficient importance to justify a moderate expenditure in endeavours to attain them—this aid to be given in the form of pecuniary grants, to defray the expense of engaging assistants to make such reductions and tabulations of observations and results and such computations as the nature of the investigations may require. If proper representations were made to Govern- ment on this subject, there is little doubt. that something would be done; ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 499 for Government are at this moment largely subsidizing the observational part of meteorology. It is, however, very evident that unless the facts so accumulated can be thrown open sufficiently to men of science their use will be limited. In the establishment of the Meteorological Office, Government have virtually allowed that the proper maintenance of a sufficient number of observing-stations cannot be expected from private means ; but they appear to have forgotten that it is also necessary to open up these observations to men of science, and to provide the necessary means for discussing them. When it is considered that it is now an established fact that meteorological changes have more to do with the production of diseases and death than all other known causes, it will be apparent that, besides its uses for the purposes of navigation and in the operations of the agriculturist, a knowledge of the laws and principles of meteorological science has an important bearing upon the welfare of all classes of the community, and that therefore the advance- ment of meteorology ought to be an object of anxious solicitude to every civilized Goverument. The second point to which I would direct attention is the bearing of Solar Physics upon meteorology. ~ Recent investigations have increased the probability of a physical con- nexion between the condition of the sun’s surface and the meteorology and magnetism of our globe. In the first place, we have the observations of Sir E. Sabine, which seem to indicate a connexion between sun-spots and magnetic disturbances, inas- much as both phenomena are periodical, and have their maxima and minima at the same times. On the other hand, the researches of Mr. Baxendell appear to indicate a relation between the daily wind-currents of the earth and its magnetism, and also between the earth’s wind-currents and the state of the sun’s surface. In the last place, the researches of Messrs. De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy appear to indicate a connexion between the behaviour of sun-spots and the positions of the more prominent planets of our system. Whatever be the probability of the conclusions derived from these various researches, they at least show the wisdom of studying together for the future these various branches of observational science. Now, while a good deal has been done‘of late years in extending meteoro- logical and magnetical observations, very little has been done in the way of taking daily photographs of the sun’s surface. Mr. Warren De La Rue has undertaken, since 1862, the charge of the Photo-heliograph belonging to the Royal Society at the Kew Observatory ; and the Royal Society have hitherto contributed yearly funds from the Government Grant for the working of this instrument ; but this annual grant from the Royal Society is about to expire. Unless, therefore, these solar autographs shall continue to be obtained at private expense, we shall, in February 1872, be without a single station, either in the British Isles or, as far as we know, in any favourable part of the earth’s surface, from which any thing approaching to a sufficiently regular production and discussion of sun-pictures is likely to proceed. It has already been acknowledged by Government, in the formation of the Meteorological Board, that it is beyond the power of private liberality ty maintain such regular and long-continued observations ; we therefore trust that they will once more come forward and establish stations in which the ‘sun’s surface may be regularly mapped, and the positions and areas of sun- spots regularly measured. 2x2 500 REPORT— 1873. Again, in connexion with these solar researches, it is of importance to know both the heating and actinic effects of our luminary, and how these vary, not only from hour to hour, but from day to day and from year to vear. No instrument has, however, yet been devised by which the heating-effect can be conveniently registered. On the other hand, Dr. Roscoe has perfected his method of observing the actinic effect so as to make it automatic; and thus a series of hourly observations of this element of the sun’s activity can be very easily obtained. This ought to be done at every station where the surface of the sun is mapped ; and we understand that this plan of Dr. Roscoe’s is about to be adopted in all Russian observatories. It would thus appear that we are now in a position to define with precision what ought to be done at a sun-station; and, as long as the sun-establishment at Kew lasts, ob- servers may there receive instruction in solar photography through the courtesy of Mr. De La Rue. They may also receive instruction in the art of measuring the areas and position of sun-spots through the same source ; and, finally, Dr. Roscoe will be glad to give the necessary instruction in actinic observations. It is hardly necessary to remark that the stations should be so selected as, taken together, to be independent of weather, and to be capable of giving at least one picture of the sun’s disk every day without the chance of inter- ruption. We know enough of the climate of various places to bring about this result ; and in our dependencies, if not in Great Britain, we have a suffi- cient area from which to choose our stations. The influence of weather in causing blank days is particularly detrimental in solar research. In the observations lately reduced by Messrs. De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy, it has been found that a good record of the behaviour of sun-spots, with regard to increase and diminution, as they pass across the disk, is of great value ; but that, owing to blank days, this record can only be obtained for half the whole number of spots observed, and even for this half in a more or less imperfect manner. And it is of so much greater importance to select the stations so as to obtain a coutinuous record, inasmuch as such observations are not like experiments which may be multiplied ad libitum; for here we are furnished in a year with a record of a certain number of sun- spots and no more; and it remains with us to make the best possible use of the limited information which nature gives us. In fine it is believed that a daily record of the sun’s surface, accompanied by a record of his actinic power, is, in the present state of science, of the greatest possible importance. In the preceding remarks no allusion has been made to the establishment of regular spectroscopic observations of the sun’s disk—not because it is con- sidered unimportant, but because it forms a separate branch of inquiry, which will be best reported upon by Messrs. Janssen and Lockyer, and by Dr. Hug- gins, gentlemen who have especially devoted themselves to this subject. Your Committee have received the following communication on the im- portance of the establishment of regular Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun’s Disk from Mr. Lockyer. Mr. Lockyer’s Statement. The following are some among the secular inquiries which in my opinion ought to be undertaken at once on a perfectly definite basis and with un- swerving regularity. Of course I have not named all the secular inquiries, nor have alluded to any of the special ones which are suggested almost ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 501 every time one looks at the sun. These must be provided for, of course ; but the great thing is not to lose time in starting the work in which time plays the most important part. I think the future will show that in its broad outline this work is as follows :— a. Observations on the Janssen-Lockyer Method. Prominences at limb :— 1. Number. 2. Position on sun, with reference to spots and faculee. 3. Height and brilliancy. 4. Materials. 5. Currents, direction, and velocity. . Thickness of lines at top and bottom. a Prominences on sun :— 7. Number. 8. Position (as above). 9. Materials. 10. Rate of elevation or depression. 10a. Width of lozenge. 1]. Thickness and brilliancy of lines and associated bright lines in spectrum of photosphere. Spots :— 12. Lines thickened. 13. Thickness of lines. 14. Alterations of wave-length. 15. Variations of spectrum near spots, including bright lines. Faculee :-— 16. Thinning and disappearance of lines. 17. Bright photospheric lines. b. Observations on Kirchhof’s Method. 18. Map frequently suspected regions of spectrum to detect changes in Fraunhofer lines. 19. Determine accurately every three or six months the thickness of the principal Fraunhofer lines. 20. Note changes in bright lines. If the Committee wish, I shall be happy to state at length the reasons which have led me to consider these observations as of high importance and of a secular nature. I may at once, however, very briefly point out, seeing that observations of the spots are considered valuable on all hands, that as the prominences occur in regions where the pressure is less than at the spot- level, they wili be likely to afford better indications of the fact of the solar forces being at work ; and as there is reason to believe that they are connected with the spots, we shall get more complete evidence in the same direction as that given by the spots. But we may get very much more than this. We now know that the sun’s atmosphere extends 10’ at least above the spot- level ; we may therefore hope in this way to catch shorter periods than the sun-spot periods. Again, the spectroscope takes us beyond the fact of forces being at work. The bright prominences and the lozenges seen on the sun itself, the thickening of lines in spots, and the alterations of wave-length are 502 REPORT—1873. unmistakable evidences of what is going on; we get an idea of what forces are at work. But spots are not alone in question. I say a few words with reference to some of the proposed lines of obser- vation. Prominences at Limb. 1. This is clearly necessary. We must have a prominence-curve as well as a sun-spot one. 2. In this way we shall be able to do for prominences what Carrington has done for the distribution of the spot in latitude, and in time setile another question about which there is much contradictory assertion among foreign observers at present. 3. For this perhaps C and brilliancy at base should be universally adopted. It will doubtless prove of much importance ultimately to keep to the division of prominences I have proposed in a paper communicated to the Royal Society. 4. Some one line in the case of each element must be taken and kept to. These observations have already given me much evidence of this kind— a+b-e, at+b+c+d; and the series should be extended as far as possible. The structure of the solar and stellar atmospheres cannot be got at in a more convenient manner than this at present ; and as the lines indicate the vapours above the highest level of the photosphere we may look for secular changes. 6. I have already evidence, I think, of change since 1868. Prominences on Sun. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. The observations are complementary to those made at the limb. 12, 13. I have already detected changes which are probably connected with the sun-spot period. 18, 19, 20. I have already detected changes. I think these observations should be made over one of the 11-year periods, under absolutely the same conditions, with the same eyes and instruments, if possible ; and even after that time I would rather extend the programme than alter it. The value of each observation will be increased by each additional similar observation. Of course I expect the chemical end of the spectrum to be photographed. Rutherford and Cornu have shown this to be perfectly feasible in the case of 18, 19, 20. I believe that time and money are alone wanted to do part of all I have put down by photography. It will be an immense gain if this can be done from F, for the region between F and G is terribly trying for the eye. Up to F the eye must naturally be depended on. Of associated work there will be such researches as explain to us what the various phenomena mean; measures of solar diameter ; photographs of sun- spots on a large scale; and eye-observations with a fine instrument to deter- mine whether the changes I have pointed out in the spectra and appearance of sun-spots are connected with the sun-spot period. I hope my accidental connexion with the new method of work will not cause me to be considered presumptuous if I state my opinion, that if it is ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 503 considered necessary to study the sun—the fountain of all our energies—at all, whether for practical ends or for higher objects, the method of local spectroscopic observation must not be neglected. I further believe, as I have before stated, that it helps us where nothing else does, even if the photosphere be alone considered ; and that, as we have above the photosphere a region of greater delicacy, the continued study of this will lead us far beyond the point we could hope to attain by merely observing the spots. While I hold these opinions most strongly, I must also add that I see no way of having the work done by private effort. I have tried hard to continue the work ; and in the fact that it was begun in this country by myself I had the strongest inducement to carry it on ; but nothing short of one’s whole _ time will suffice for such inquiries. For the purpose of commencing action in this branch of science, your Committee directed its Meteorological Subcommittee to put themselves into communication with the Observational Establishments of the United Kingdom, with a view of ascertaining from the directors of these establishments what information besides that which they publish, they are willing to communicate to men of science, and on what terms. This has been done with respect to the four following institutions :— 1. The Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 2. The Meteorological Committee. 3. The Kew Observatory Committee. 4. The Stonyhurst Observatory. The following questions were put to the Astronomer Royal :-— 1. Might men of science be permitted to inspect the traces of the Green- wich self-recording instruments, especially those recording the changes in terrestrial magnetism and those recording earth-currents, and to take notes of them ? 2. Could accurate copies of such traces be procured? and on what terms? 3. Could accurate copies of the hourly tabulated values, taken from such traces, be procured? and on what terms ? To these questions the following reply was received from the Astronomer Royal :— Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E., April 3, 1872. My pear Si1r,—In reply to the questions which you, acting with the British-Association’s Committee on Science-Lectures and Organization, have placed before me (received this day), I have to answer as follows :— 1. It will give me great pleasure to offer every facility to any man of science to see, examine, and take notes on all traces of self-recording in- struments in this Observatory. I cannot very well allow the sheets to be taken out of the Observatory, and should be glad if persons inspecting these sheets would come at an early hour in the morning. 2. Every facility shall be given for taking accurate copies of the records. If a small number only is required, we will at once have them made (when the specific records are designated) without further trouble to our visitor ; if a large number is wanted, some further arrangement may be necessary, on which at present I cannot speak positively. 3. Copies of the tabulated values shall be furnished to any practicable ex- 504 REPORT—1873. tent—limited as above, but not so closely, because copying figures is easier than copying curves. I am, my dear Sir, Yours very truly, (Signed) G. B. Arry. Professor Roscoe. The Astronomer Royal was thanked in the name of the Committee for the facilities which he was willing to give. The following questions were put to the Meteorological Committee :— 1. Could accurate copies of the hourly tabulated values, taken from the traces of the various self-recording instruments of the Meteorological Com- mittee, be procured? and on what terms? 2. Could accurate copies of certain portions of logs, relating to meteorolo- gical observations, or any other meteorological information in the possession of the Meteorological Committee, be procured? and on what terms ? The following reply has been received from the Meteorological Committee :— Meteorological Department, 116 Victoria Street, London, 8S.W. April 30, 1872. Str,—In reply to your inquiries, I am instructed to inform you that the Committee will be ready to afford to gentlemen recommended by the Council of any recognized Scientific Body facilities for obtaining accurate copies of MS. meteorological information which may be in their office. 1. Accurate copies of the hourly tabulated values taken from the traces of their self-recording instruments can be supplied. 2. Accurate copies of portions of logs relating to meteorological observa- tions and of other meteorological information in the Meteorological Office can be supplied. In every instance the cost of copying must be defrayed by the applicant, who, in the case of ships’ logs, must state whether he prefers to have the observations corrected, or to receive the correction, and apply them himself, I am further to draw your attention to the fact that in the first Annual Re- port of this Committee, at page 11, it was stated that copies of information in the Meteorological Office could be supplied on the terms mentioned in the enclosed circular, which are identical with those above mentioned. I may say that several gentlemen have availed themselves of the opportunities offered. Iam &c., (Signed) Rosert H. Scorrt, Professor H. E. Roscoe. Director. [A circular accompanied Mr. Scott’s reply, in which it is stated that in case of the publication of such information or of results wholly or in part from it, an acknowledgment of the source from which it has been obtained must be annexed. | The Meteorological Committee were thanked in the name of the Committee for the facilities which they were willing to give. The following questions were put to the Kew Observatory Committee :— 1. Might men of science be permitted to inspect the traces of the Kew self-recording magnetographs, and to take notes of them ? ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 505 2. Could accurate copies of such traces be procured? and on what terms? 3. Could accurate copies of the hourly tabulated values from such traces be procured? and on what terms? The following answer has been received :— Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey, 8.W., June 5, 1872. Sir,—With reference to your letter of March 25th, addressed to the Kew Committee of the Royal Society, I am instructed to send you the following reply, which was adopted at their meeting of the 31st ult. :— 1. Resolved, that the Committee will be ready to afford facilities to men of science to inspect and take notes of the traces of the Self-recording Magneto- graphs; application to be forwarded in each case to the Secretary of the Committee, in order that arrangements may be made for the attendance of a duly authorized person. 2 & 3. The furnishing of unpublished results of tabulations not only in- volves considerable expense, but would materially disturb the current work of the Observatory. The Committee are therefore not prepared at present to supply copies of such results. They would, however, if necessary, gladly supply photographic copies of the instrumental traces at the cost of produc- tion, and they hope that this would meet the requirements of the case. In aall three cases the cost would depend on the amount of time and labour required. Your obedient Servant, Rosert H. Scort, Professor H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S. Hon. Sec. The Kew Committee were thanked for their communication. The following questions were put to the Director of the Stonyhurst Ob- servatory :— 1. Might men of science be permitted to inspect the traces of the Stony- hurst self-recording magnetographs, and to take notes of them ? 2. Could accurate copies of such traces be procured? and on what terms? The following reply has been received from the Director of the Stonyhurst Observatory :— Stonyhurst College, Blackburn. April 3rd, 1872. Dear Srr,—In answer to the two questions appended to the circular with which you favoured me this morning, I have little else to say than that I shall always be most happy to place at any gentleman’s disposal the curves traced by the Stonyhurst instruments. Iam at present working systematically at the tabulation of the magnetograph traces, and I hope to be able in time to publish the results, but this will not in the least interfere with any man of science recommended by your Committee taking any notes he may require. Accurate copies of the distinct curves can easily be taken photographically ; the assistant’s time and the materials used will be the only things charged for. I could not undertake any thing that would deprive me of the aid of any of my assistants for any considerable time ; but a fair sacrifice I am quite willing to make, and that is all I am sure you will expect. Yours sincerely, Professor Roscoe. S. J. Perry. 506 REPORT—1873. The Director of the Stonyhurst Observatory was thanked by the Com- mittee for the facilities which he was willing to give. Subcommittee C.—On the question of Scientific Organization as regards Local Scientific Societies, Your Committee, believing that much valuable scientific effort is being lost throughout the country for want of a system by which the labours of isolated workers can be brought forward, appointed a Subcommittee, with Sir Walter Elliot as Secretary, for the purpose of discussing and reporting whether some means can be taken for establishing closer relations than at present exist between Local Scientific Societies, which, as a rule, work independently each in their own circle, with little knowledge of what others are doing. It is thought that if such means can be adopted it may lead to something like unity of action amongst them, and to investigations productive of general results, as well as to the interchange of views and observations advantageous to Societies individually and to the cause of Science at large. The Subcom- mittee point out that this end may be accomplished in two ways :— 1. By the publication annually, in a collected form, of observations or dis- coveries possessing general interest. 2. By organizing a system of cooperation by personal or written com- munication, or both. The Subcommittee also suggest that delegates from certain selected So- cieties, varying from year to year, together with representatives from such Societies as may find it convenient to depute them, should meet along with the British Association, and that to them should be submitted any general questions of combined action or inquiry ; and that the Councils of Local Scientific Societies should place in their hands such contributions made to the Societies during the year as they may think it desirable to publish in a com- mon volume of Reports, the Court of Delegates being possibly assisted by the officers of Sections of the British Association acting along with them as a Committee of Selection. Your Committee think it right here to observe that all cost of publication and expenses incidental to such suggested Meetings must be defrayed by the Societies concerned. After some preliminary discussions, the Subcommittee determined to com- municate with as many of the Provincial Scientific Societies and Field Clubs as possible, explaining the objects for which the Subcommittee was appointed, and inviting them to consider the means by which the results of their opera- tions could be made available to each other and to the advancement of science at large. Circulars expressing the above-mentioned views were in June forwarded to ninety-four English, twenty-two Scotch, and eight Irish Local Scientific Societies. Replies cordially concurring in the plan have been received from the following Societies, several likewise engaging to send delegates to Brighton to deliberate further on its details :— 1. Bath Natural-History Society and Field Club. 2. Bristol Natural-History Society. 3. Eastbourne Natural-History Society. . Folkestone Natural-History Society. 5. Ludlow Natural-History Society. 6. Ludlow Field Club. 7. Lunesdale Naturalists’ Field Club. 8. Maidstone and Mid Kent Natural-History and Philosophical Society. AS ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 507 9. Norfolk and Norwich Natural-History Society. 10. Tamworth Natural-History and Geological Society. 11. Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club. 12. Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle Natural-History Society. 13. Whitby Literary and Philosophical Society. 14. Largs (Scotland) Field Naturalists’ Society. Acknowledgments have been sent by many more, promising that the sub- ject shall receive their early attention. The Subcommittee find that proposals of a similar character to those which they now put forward have previously been made by several Societies and private individuals who have favoured them with communications. ‘These plans have, however, for one reason or other, proved abortive, Your Com- mittee confidently hope that the Subcommittee on its reappointment may succeed in carrying out the objects aimed at. In concluding what must inevitably be a very incomplete first Report, your Committee have only to request that they may be reappointed, and to express the hope that, if you see fit to renew their powers, they may be able in the coming year to make further progress. Second Report of the Committee on Science-Lectures and Organiza- tion,—the Committee consisting of Prof. Roscon, F.R.S. (Secretary) , Prof. W. G. Apams, F.R.S., Prof. Anprews, F.R.S., Prof. Bat- rour, F.R.S., J. Baxenpent, F.R.A.S., F. J. Bramwen, F.R.S., Prof. A. Crum Brown, F.R.S.E., Mr. T. Bucuan, Dr. CARPENTER, F.R.S., Prof. Corr, Warren De La Ruz, F.R.S., Prof. T. Dyer, Sir Watrer Exnior, F.L.S., Prof. M. Fosrzr, F.R.S., Prof. FLower, F.R.S., Prof. G.C. Fostmr, F.R.S., Prof. Gerxin, F.R.S., Dr. J. H. Guapstonr, F.R.S., Mr. Grirrira, Rev. R. Harty, F.R.S., Dr. Hirst, F.R.S., Dr. Hooxer, F.R.S., Dr. Houeerns, F.R.S., Prof. Huxury, F.R.S., Prof. Freemine Jenxin, F.R.S., Dr. JOULE, F.R.S., Col. A. Lant Fox, F.G.S., Dr. Lanxester, F.R.S., J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S., Prof. Crerx Maxwett, F.R.S., D. Mitne-Homg, F.R.S.E., Dr. O’Catracuan, LL.D., D.C.L., Dr. Opuine, F.R.S., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., W. Srorriswoops, F.R.S., Prof. Batrour Stewart, /.R.S., H. T. Srainron, F.R.S., Prof. Tarr, F.R.S.E., J. A. Tinné, F.R.G.S., Dr. ALLEN Tomson, F.R.S., Sir Witu1aM Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. Wyvitte Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. TURNER, F.R.S.E., Col. Strance, F.R.S., Prof. A. W. Wiuiamson, F.R.S., G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., and Dr. Younc. Tue report of this Committee will on the present occasion consist entirely of proceedings originating in the various Subcommittees, and which have like- wise received the sanction of the full body, It will therefore be desirable to proceed without further delay to the business transacted by these Branch Committees. 508 ; REPORT—1873. Report of Subcommittee A on Organization as regards Science- Lectures. (Prof. Roscoz, Secretary.) Subcommittee A on Science-Lectures have to report that a list has been printed, for private circulation only, of gentlemen who have kindly intimated to the Committee their readiness to undertake to aid the scheme by deliver- ing lectures on scientific subjects on terms which are indicated. As certain Members of the Committee are also willing to deliver lectures, the names of the Committee are appended. A short Circular, pointing out the aid which the Committee was thus willing to give, was forwarded (as a private communication) to about ninety Scientific Institutions throughout the country, with an intimation that a copy of the list of lecturers would be sent to any institution requiring assist- ance of the kind. Owing to the death of Mr, Askham, the late Clerk, the Secretary has been unable to learn the exact number of Institutions which have made application for the aid of the Committee ; but, judging from the numerous letters which he has received on the subject, he believes that the action of the Committee in this matter has proved useful, and that the aid which has thus been afforded appears to be generally appreciated. Report of Subcommittee B on Organization as reyards Meteorology. (Dr. Batrour Stewart, Secretary.) At a meeting of this Subcommittee, held at Albemarle Street, it was re- solved, ‘‘ That in the opinion of the Committee it is desirable that the indivi- dual observations in magnetism and meteorology, which at present exist, should, as much as possible, be accessible to all those men of science who wish to make use of them. ‘They therefore request their Secretary (Dr. Stewart) to put himself into communication with the Directors of the following British and Colonial observational establishments, with a view of ascertaining,— (1) What unpublished individual observations in magnetism and mete- orology they possess, specifying the most important. «© (2) On what terms, if any, will they consent to open them up to men of science desirous of obtaining copies of them. “ British.—The Meteorological Committee ; the Greenwich Observatory ; Sir E. Sabine (Magnetical Superintendent); the Scottish Meteorological Society ; the Trinity House ; the Hudson-Bay Company. “ Colonial.—The Observatory at Mauritius; Cape of Good Hope; Mel- bourne; Sydney; Toronto; Bombay ; Calcutta; Madras.” The various replies to this communication are given at length in an appendix to this Report, and this Committee desire to express their thanks to the Directors of the various establishments, who, in sending their replies, have not only afforded much information regarding their unpublished obser- vations, but have likewise shown their willingness to open up these observa- tions to men of science as much as possible *. * No communications have yet been addressed to foreign observatories. It is requested that any observer into whose hands this Report may fall, and who may have information he is willing to communicate, will have the goodness to forward the same to Dr. Balfour Stewart, The Owens College, Manchester ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 509 Report of Subcommittee C on Scientific Organization as regards Local Societies. (Sir Waxrer Exxior, Secretary.) The Subcommittee have given their best consideration to the instructions - of the Committee, to report as to a plan for the systematic publication of the proceedings of local societies, with reference to the suggestion adopted at the Meeting held at Brighton, viz. to incorporate in an annual yolume such papers as the societies considered worthy of reproduction, by means of a given number of additional copies struck off for the purpose. It was further added that the responsibility of selecting and publishing such papers as were offered should not be undertaken by the Association. The chief difficulty to the elaboration of any such scheme is the financial one. It has been found that none of the Provincial Societies are in a posi- tion to contribute towards the cost, either of editing and publishing such papers, or even of furnishing additional copies printed of a uniform size, especially where, as often happens, they are accompanied by plates. It is - also found that the local publications are so irregular in appearing, that it would be no easy matter to get a sufficient number together, to allow of their being brought out in a volume simultaneously. Moreover some of the lead- ing societies, especially those of which the Transactions have attained some celebrity, object to the proposal, as tending to detract from the value of their own publications. Besides the plan specially referred to them, the Subcommittee have con- sidered other suggestions ; for example, the issue of a quarterly or monthly magazine, containing the best papers of the various learned societies, not con- fined to those of the provinces, with the titles of the rest, and a brief outline of the proceedings of each. But this appears to go beyond the scope of the Subcommittee’s deliberations, and to belong rather to an independent pub- lishing speculation. The Subcommittee, however, consider that a Handbook or List of Societies might be prepared annually, showing the names and addresses of the office- bearers of each, the day and place of meeting, and a list of the articles printed during the past year. It is believed that by this means a closer intercourse would be induced ; persons engaged in particular subjects of inquiry would be directed to sources of information bearing on their own investigations, and those engaged in similar pursuits would be led to assist each other. An intercourse so commenced will, it may be hoped, lead to more intimate relations, and so bring about that larger cooperation and union which it is the object of the Committee to promote. The Subcommittee believe that a Handbook of this description might be produced at a moderate cost. From the general approval of some plan of cooperation by the greater number of Provincial Societies, it is believed that they would readily purchase such an annual, the moderate cost of which would cover a part of the expenditure ; and it is recommended that the Committee should apply to the Council for a small grant to cover the remainder, At the Brighton Meeting, it was intimated by a member for the Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge, that if the Society resumed their publica- tions they would probably aid in bringing out such a work. H. E. Roscox, Secretary to the Godntaee 510 REPORT—1878. Appendix to the Report of Subcommittee B. The following replies have been received from the various observational institutions communicated with. Meteorological Committee. Meteorological Office, 116 Victoria Street, London, 8.W., 9th April, 1873. Dear Str, In compliance with the request contained in your letter of the 28th of February, I am directed by the Meteorological Committee to enclose, for the information of the Observational Subcommittee of the Science-Organization Committee of the British Association, a list of the principal unpublished materials in this office. It is understood that an answer to your second question has been already given in my letter to Dr. Roscoe of April 30, 1872. (See First Report.) Yours faithfully, Roszrt H. Scorr, Director. Balfour Stewart, Esq., LL.D., The Owens College, Manchester. The tabulated information received from the Meteorological Committee will be found at the end of this Appendix. Greenwich Observatory. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E., 1873, March 3. My pear Sir, In reply to your inquiry (on the part of the British Association) of March 1, as to the extent of unpublished observations of magnetism and meteorology preserved in this observatory :— 1. You will remark that the Greenwich Observations in extenso are in the library of the Philosophical Society of Manchester. Referring you to these volumes for the observations which are published, I will state the following as the deficiencies, generally. 2. The eye-observations of the three magnetometers (declination, horizon- tal force, vertical force) for every two hours, and sometimes more frequently, from 1841 to part of 1848, are printed in full. The indications derived from the photographic sheets for the salient points of the curves are printed in full from 1849 to 1867; after 1867 they are printed in detail only for the days of great disturbance, the means of the less disturbed days for useful purposes being printed. All the photographic curves exist, furnished with the base-lines and the time-scales, which make the records immediately available. 3. The means of numbers for all dips and measures of absolute force are printed ; the individual readings are not printed. 4, The abstracts of meteorological observations are printed to an extent which you will best see in the Greenwich Observations. Few of the indivi- dual numbers are published; but the sheets of the two anemometers, the photographie sheets of the two thermometers (wet and dry), and of the barometer are all preserved and available. 5. As to the terms on which observations can be communicated. The omitted observations &c. can only be copied in manuscript at this place, either ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 511 by the Officers of the Observatory, or by persons engaged to come here for the purpose. When limited extracts are required, I will have them made here at once. When the extracts required are long, I will give every facility to other persons ; the expense then ought to be borne, I think, by those who apply for them. I am, my dear Sir, Yours very truly, G. B. Arry. Professor Balfour Stewart. Scottish Meteorological Society. Scottish Meteorological Society, General Post-Office Buildings, Edinburgh, 13th May, 1873. Dear Sir, Your letter of 28th February last, enclosing the resolution of the Observa- tional Subcommittee of the Science-Organization Committee of the British Association, dated 13th of the same month, was laid before the Council of this Society at their Meeting of 28th ult. In reply, the Council have instructed me to state that the more important of the unpublished individual Observations in Meteorology which this Society possesses are the following :— I. Regular daily observations made at the Society’s Stations, beginning with January 1857. The Stations at which the observations have been and are made are given in the successive Numbers of the Society’s Proceedings—the last issued of which I send by this post. The Stations are given on pp. 334— 336 and 339-342. The nature of the observations will appear from the specimen of the Society’s Schedule sent herewith. The hours of observation are 9 A.M. and 9 p.m. At Stykkisholm, in the N.W. of Iceland, the hours are 9 a.m., noon, and 9 p.m. In addition to the regular daily observations of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, wind (direction and force), rain, and cloud, obser- vations are made at certain Stations on the temperature of the soil, of the sea, and of wells, and on ozone. The Stations at which such observations are made will be seen by consulting p. 329 of Journal sent. II. Observations for elucidation of special questions :— 1. Daily curves showing for every ten minutes the pressure, temperature of dry and wet bulbs, and the rainfall from Nov. 1868 to Nov. 1872. The self-registering instruments with which these curves haye been made were designed under the superintendence of the Marquis of Tweeddale, in connexion with the growth of agricultural products. 2. Observations, twelve times daily, at six Stations, on temperature of the soil (3, 12, 22 inches deep), together with observations of pressure, tempera- ture, humidity, wind, rain, &c. during these four months, viz. July and Octo- ber 1867, and January and April 1868. 3. Observations on temperature of drained and undrained hill pasture, and of drained and undrained arable land, at two Stations daily, from Ist October 1864 to 30th September 1865. 4, Daily maximum and minimum temperatures as shown by thermometers (not blackened) fully exposed to the sun and weather, at 4 feet over old grass, at eight Stations, from Ist April 1861 to 30th March 1862. 512 REPORT—18738. 5. A large number of Term-day Observations (hourly) of temperature of sea (Hebrides), together with observations of pressure, temperature, humi- dity, &c. during 1858-63. III. Old Registers :— 1. From July 1767 to November 1827, at Gordon Castle, giving pres- sure, temperature, rain, winds, &c. daily, and for shorter intervals during the same period at Sion House, Edinburgh, Selkirk, &e. 2. Daily register of pressure, temperature, and rain at Carbeth-Guthrie, from January 1817 to December 1859. 3. Daily register of pressure, temperature, humidity, rain, &c. at Dollar, from April 1836 to present time. 4. A number of other weather registers,—Edinburgh, 1820-36, Castle Newe, 1836-47, &c. IV. Monthly Means and Sums :— Of these may be specially mentioned the rainfall for individual months for nearly the whole of 290 Stations, discussed in the Papers on the Scottish Rain- fall in Society’s Journal. As regards the unpublished meteorological information possessed by the Society, the Council have hitherto supplied copies of any portion of it to all meteorologists or other scientific men who have applied for it, free of charge. The Council will still be glad to continue to do so in so far as the very limited means at their disposal will enable them. I am, yours faithfully, ALEXANDER Bucwan. Professor Balfour Stewart. Trinity House (received through Dr. J. H. Gladstone). (Letter from Dr. Gladstone to Dr, Stewart.) 17 Pembridge Square, London, 28th April, 1873. My pear Proressor STEWART, I ought perhaps to have told you long before this what has been done in regard to the Trinity House. In accordance with the desire of the Science- Organization Committee, I put myself in communication with the Elder Brethren about their meteorological records, and received the reply of which I enclose a copy. You will see that in fully acceding to our request they asked me to come and judge for myself as to the value of their records. On the first convenient Tuesday I accordingly went to Tower Hill, and found that they possessed most voluminous returns from all the Lighthouses, giving the state of the barometer and thermometer, the direction and force of the wind, with description of fog, cloud, &c. every three hours, drawn out on tabulated forms, of which I send you one not filled up. At the Floating Lights a log- book is kept, in which is entered very much the same particulars, but not so frequently during the day, and not in a tabulated form. Captain Nisbet, the Chairman of the Light Committee, spoke to me about the differences he had observed between the readings of different barometers and his endeavours to obtain the true correction for each. He has also tried to get “ fog-marks” set up at the same distance from the different light- houses ; but at present there is no accepted definition as to where a “ mist ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 513 ends and a ‘‘fog”’ begins. He would be thankful to us for any suggestion on these or other points. ¥ From the enclosed ‘‘ Regulations’ you will see that every Light-keeper on being first appointed as a supernumerary has to learn the use of the meteoro- logical instruments, and to obtain a certificate of competency in that and other duties. Believe me, Very truly yours, J. H. Grapstone. Professor Balfour Stewart, F.BRS. (Letter from Trinity House to Dr. Gladstone.) Trinity House, London, #.C., 15th March, 1873. Dear Sir, 5 Sir Frederick Arrow having placed your note of the 10th instant, with its enclosed resolution of the Science-Organization Committee of the British Association, before the Board, I am directed to assure you of the pleasure it will be to the Elder Brethren to afford any facilities to men of science for the inspection of the Trinity House meteorological records that may be compati- ble with their official purpose ;.and I am to suggest that if you can make it convenient to attend here about half-past one o’clock on any Tuesday, the Light Committee will be happy to go fully into the matter with you. I am, dear Sir, Your most humble Servant, (Signed) Rosin ALLEN. Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.BRS, Mauritius Observatory. Observatory, Mauritius, 26th June, 1873. My prar Stewart, I enclose a copy of my answers to your questions. We are to make a bold attempt to publish all our observations on the spot. The first step is to find out the cost, and the next to raise the funds. The local government will be applied to for a smallannual grant. If we get the necessary assistance, there need be no delay, as the greater part of the material is ready, all the meteoro- logical observations having been reduced. Yours truly, C. Metprum. Answers to the Questions of the Subcommittee of the Science Organization. (1) The unpublished observations, belonging either to the Mauritius Observatory or to the Meteorological Society of Mauritius, are as follows :— (a) Observations of the principal meteorological elements taken since the 1st January, 1853, at 33 and 93 a.m. and P.m., and also for several years at noon. Since the 1st January, 1872, the 33 a.m. observations have been discon- tinued, and others taken at 6 a.m. (6) Hourly meteorological observations on the 21st of each month, for a ie of nineteen years and also during hurricane weather. 1873. 21 514 REPORT—1873. (c) Barographie curves since February 1872. (d) An extensive collection of daily meteorological observations taken on board ships in the Indian Ocean for a period of twenty-five years. Since 1853 these observations have been tabulated in chronological order. They afford in- formation respecting the atmospheric pressure and temperature, the direction and force of the wind, the state of the weather and sea &c.,and amount to about 250,676 of twenty-four hours each. (e) Aseparate colleetion of the details of the hurricanes, storms, and gales which have taken place in the Indian Ocean since 1847. (f) A large number of daily synoptic weather-charts of the Indian Ocean for different periods since 1853, and charts showing the tracks of hurricanes. (g) Observations of the absolute values and daily variations of the magnetic elements since February 1872. (2) Sun-spot observations taken three or four times a week since 1869. All these observations are valuable, but, considering the length of time and the locality, I think the meteorological observations are the most valu- able. (2) I have little doubt that the Observatory and the Meteorological Society would consent to open up the observations to men of science, on condition of their paying the expense of copying, and that they would, as far as possible, give copies gratis. The best and cheapest way in the end, however, would pro- bably be to publish the observations in ewtenso, and to distribute copies of them. The Meteorological Society will do all in its power to accomplish this object. Mauritius Observatory, 26th June, 1873. C. Mretproum. Cape of Good Hope Observatory. Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, 873, May 2. My pear Sir, With respect to your letter requesting copies of magnetical observations which have been made here. Soon after I came here I hunted these records up and completed their reductions, but the observations have not received my final examination. I hope, however, to get them printed this year, when copies shall be at once forwarded to you. I am sorry, however, to say that the observations do not appear of great value. However, such as they are, you will soon haye the results. Believe me, Yours very truly, Professor B. Stewart. E. J. Strong, Melbourne Observatory. Observatory, Melbourne, May 20, 1873. My prar Sir, I received your note and enclosure (resolution of the Observational Sub- committee of the B.A.) by last mail, and I am very glad to find a step has been taken in this most important direction. We shall be only too glad to make any arrangements we can to meet the end in view. I suppose, of course, there will he some general scheme adopted in which we can join. ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 515 In the mean time I enclose a memorandum showing a, our observations in magnetism and meteorology now stand. Since the beginning of 1872 we have published the pelt of meteorological observations at Melbourne: and those of the stations in a more condensed form; copies of this monthly Record are, I believe, sent to you every month, but I post another copy now in case I am mistaken. In this pamphlet you will see we give the results of our monthly observations for the absolute force of Terrestrial Magnetism. The question, how to make all these available to such men of science as may wish to make use of them, is not easy to answer. Pentagraph or Photo copies of all the graphic records could be furnished; and MS. copies of such un- published other observations could also be made to be deposited in any con- venient place that the Committee of the B. A. may decide upon. ‘This, or any other plan, I should be glad to adopt in order to render our work of use and available. I shall be glad to hear what the Subcommittee recommend or decide upon, and I shall do my best to fall in with its views. Yours faithfully, Rosert J. ELLEery. Balfour Stewart, Esq., Owens College, Manchester. Magnetic Observations. Between 1863 and the end of 1867 occasional absolute determinations were made with Lamont’s instruments, which are unpublished; from De- cember 1867 regular monthly absolute determinations were made with the Kew instruments, which are not published to the end of 1871; also the Magnetograph Curves are complete from December 1867, of which no results are published. Meteorological Observations. Barograph Curves complete from August 1, 1869—not published. Ther- mograph Curves complete from January 21, 1870—not published. Meteoro- logical Observations for Melbourne and country stations, unpublished from January 1, 1863, to December 31,1871. From January 1, 1872, results of Meteorological and absolute Magnetical Observations have been published monthly. Sydney Observatory. Sydney Observatory, June 14, 1873. Dear Sir, I am in receipt of your letter 6th of March, enclosing a resolution of the Subcommittee of the British Association. I shall be glad to assist you in any way I can. (1) Our magnetic observations are few; none were taken before Mr. Smalley’s arrival in 1864, and, with the exception of a few determinations of variation and observations of dip at different parts of the colony, the rest were found at his death to be wanting in some essentials for their reduction. At the present time the press of work, astronomical and meteorological (I have now more than forty stations), renders it impossible to do more than take the variation, but I hope in a few weeks to have a Declination Magne- tograph at.work. Pe, 516 REPORT—1873. I send you a short paper read before our Royal Society, in which I brought together all the available observations of variation at Sydney. So much may be of interest to science, but the curves of daily variation were only added for the use of our local surveyors. I have a great mass of meteorological work, of which only monthly means have been printed. I will by next mail send you a complete set of our pub- lished results, from which you will be able to see what the means are derived from, and whether any of the individual observations are likely to be of service. Generally the country results are taken from one observation (per day) at 9 a.m., and at Sydney from three observations, 9 a.m.,3 P.M., and 9 P.M. Of self-registering instruments we have an Anemometer at work since 1863, from which the direction of wind to sixteen points and the total velocity and mean daily force of wind have been published. A Barograph at work since 1870: mean daily and highest and lowest readings published. Two Pluviometers, one 65 and the other 7 feet above the ground: monthly amount from the one 65 feet high published. At work, one since 1867, the lower one since 1870. Two Tide-gauges, one at Sydney since 1867, the other at Newcastle since 1870; no results published. (2) I cannot state on what terms they could be opened up to men of science until I know what is wanted, for it may be only a fraction of what I have mentioned would be of any use. I may say that if fifteen or twenty sets, such as I will send you next month, will meet the want, I will be glad to send them ; and if a portion only of the individual results are wanted, the Govern- ment here might perhaps grant money to print them if asked to do so by the British Association. Yours faithfully, H. C. Russex1, Govt. Astronomer. Balfour Stewart, Esq., The Owens College. Toronto Observatory. Magnetic Observatory, Toronto, Canada, April 10, 1873. Desr Sir, I am in receipt of your letter of March 6, enclosing copy of resolution of Subcommittee of Scientific Committee of British Association. The individual observations made at Toronto are as follows :— Meteorological, from 1853 onwards.—Six daily observations of the ordinary elements at 6,8 a.m., 2,4, 10,12 p.m.; continuous record of the wind ; and during 1870-71 bihourly observations of the ordinary elements through the 24 hours, on three days in the week. Of the above, the observations at 6 a.m., 2 p.m., 10 p.m., with the means of the s¢v observations and the daily resultants of the wind for the whole day, have been always published in the ‘ Canadian Journal.’ Magnetism—Besides the regular monthly determinations of Declination, Dip, and Horizontal Force, six observations of the Differential Instruments have been taken daily since 1856, at the hours above named. Throughout the series, till recently, the disturbed observations have been separated and grouped in the manner adopted by Sir E. Sabine. Various deductions both from the Meteorological and Magnetical Observa- ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 517 tions have been published in three volumes to 1862, and others subsequently in the Canadian journals. For reasons, chiefly financial, I have been hindered from utilizing as I would wish the results of the Toronto observations, by issuing regular and frequent publications of them. I am now, however, printing a volume which will give the principal results derived from the Toronto observations from their commencement to the end of 1871. This will be followed, I hope, by regular annual volumes giving results of obser~ vations from all the Canadian stations. Though willing to regard it as a duty to do all in my power to meet the wishes of your Committee, I think that it would be better to postpone any decision on the second question in the resolution till the first of the volumes shall have been printed. I am, dear Sir, Very truly yours, G. T. Krneston. Balfour Stewart, Esq. Bombay Observatory. Kolaba Observatory, Bombay, April 18, 1873. Dear Sir, In reply to your letter of the 6th March, I subjoin a list of the unpublished observations in magnetism and meteorology at present in my possession. Magnetic Observations. Hourly readings of Magnetometers (Declination, Horizontal Force, and Vertical Force) from 1865-0 to 1873-0. Photographic traces from Magnetographs :— Declination from 1870°5 to 1873-0. Horizontal Force from 1870-7 to 1873-0. Vertical Force from 1872-1 to 1873:0. Meteorological Observations. Hourly readings of Barometer, Dry and Wet Thermometers, Ground Thermometers, and Rain-Gauges, estimation of wind and cloudiness, and description of weather phenomena, from 1865-0 to 1873-0. Traces from Anemograph, direction and movement, from 1867-5 to 1873-0. Photographic traces from Barograph, from 1871-9 to 1873-0. Photographic traces from Thermograph (Dry and Wet Thermometers), from 1872-0 to 1873-0. 2. There is no present purpose of publishing the above in detatl, but com- pilations of results of meteorological and absolute magnetical observations are published from time to time, the last volume issued including the years 1865 to 1870 and some discussion of special observations. The absolute magnetical observations of Declination, Horizontal Force, and Dip are given in full detail. 3. The reduction and discussion of the whole body of observations, mag- netical and meteorological, collected since 1846, is in progress at the Kolaba Observatory. 518 - REPORT—18758. I should mention too that up to the year 1864 similar hourly observations to those described were printed, forming twenty-one large 4to volumes, and distributed amongst scientific bodies ; but that little use seeming to have been made of them outside this observatory, the expense thus incurred, amounting . to many thousands of pounds, represents, up to the present day, little more than so much waste. This statement I may observe reflects no discredit upon scientific men, seeing that the labour of reduction of such multitudinous ob- servations is utterly beyond the power of any individual. But I think it justifies fully the course which the Government are now pursuing in devoting a part of the funds formerly granted for publication to the eliciting, by the agency of the observatory itself, of some scientific conclusions from the obser- vations. 4, With reference to the Committee’s second inquiry, I beg to inform you that I am permitted by Government to supply copies of observations on the same terms as those on which the Meteorological Committee of London furnish copies of their records, viz. on condition that the applicant pays the expense incurred in producing the copies. Any moderate demands that would not seriously interrupt the regular work of the observatory, I should gladly meet under this sanction. I remain, Dr. Balfour Stewart, .B.S., Yours sincerely, Secretary of the Observational Subcommittee Cuaries CHAMBERS, of the Organization Committee of the British Association. Calcutta Observatory. Meteorological Office, Calcutta, May 26, 1873. Dear Sir, I understand, from the Report of the Proceedings of the Observational Sub- committee of the Science-Organization Committee of the British Association, that the Committee desires information what original meteorological registers exist in this office which have not been published in detail. I append a list, but would remark that many of the registers contain some entries which are evidently erroneous. Copies of any of these that I consider trustworthy can be furnished to the British Association for the cost of copying. It obviously depends on the nature of the inquirer’s object which of these registers he would hold to be most important. In some respects I am inclined to regard Darjeeling as the most important, since it affords, what is rare in most parts of the world, a register (continuous for nearly six years) of a station at an elevation of about-7000 feet. Goalparah, at the embouchure of the Assam valley, is interesting for comparison with Darjeeling. The most complete and detailed register extant in Bengal is that of the Calcutta Observatory at the Surveyor-General’s Office, which consists of hourly observations recorded continuously since 1853. These are very valuable, but are not equal to those of Bombay or Madras. Believe me, dear Sir, Yours faithfully, Heyry F. Bianrorp. Balfour Stewart, Esq. Secretary to Observational Subcommittee, British Association. ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION, Port Blair Vizagapatam Cuttack Saugor Island...... Chittagong ......... MICHSORGysitsssiecage ssi tence eee eeesene Hazaree haugh ... Berhampore Monghyr............ Darjeeling Goalparah ROD WY o-cnhcsex.0 000 Fureedpore ....... = Lin) 9 Seebsaugor ......... Gowhalty Sr, January 1870 » May 1866 ef January 1866 43 June 1867 Bh January 1865 “f June 1867 as Dee. 1868 F January 1868 5 July 1869 7 Nov. 16 1868 5 Noy. 1868 From October 1867 to December 1872. 519 wanting 1-13 June, 1867. May to Dec. 1869 and J: anuary to December 1872. Dec. 1868 to December 1872. Dec. 1868 ‘3 July 1867 +f January 1869 " June 1869 F August 1869 August 1869 to September 1872, wanting February, March, and August 1869 to December 1872, August 1869 to September 1871. 1869 to December 1872, wanting April 1872. Feb. Aug. 1867 ce January 1869 an January 1869 aS January 1869 - January 1869 i August 1867 August 1867 to April August 1867 to January January 1869 to April Hudson’s Bay Company. ” ” ” 1868. 1869. 1869. 1870, July 1869. wanting Jan, and Mar, 1870. wanting July and Sept. 1872. wanting May and Oct. 1870 and Oct. 1872. wanting Oct. 1872. wanting May 1870 and Nov. 1872. wanting Feb. and April 1869, Hudson’s Bay House, 1 Lime Street, London, E.C., March 7, 1873. T have to acknowledge your letter of the 5th inst., and to state that the Hudson’s Bay Company have no unpublished information of the nature to which you refer. I think if you apply to the Bishop of Rupert’s Land, Manitoba, you will likely obtain material assistance in the matter. I am, Sir, Your obedient Servant, Balfour Stewart, Esq., Manchester. W. Armit, Secretary. REPORT—1873. 520 ‘s1OySLIOY oY} WLI Pazovaj}xe yok Jou SUOTFWATOSGO PoySESTIPUN Oy] JUNODIE OFUL OF¥} JOU Soop JUOTIOAe}S STET—"T'N » (eposeg , ‘uoyeortqnd toy peor ATavoyy |pue ‘AoateyT,, ‘SNQIT, ‘SG T'_ pxvoq uo oprut suoneasosqg “hoyzqny pearapy Aq *poysrqnd you ynq ‘poyutad vou0 o10 ita ce “Aoyzynr peareapy Lq payet[o9 “TT “ON ut poysitqnd (vorreury yO Jo 4svo0o qsoa pus utoy odep) uoysod {jeus y “£yuv0s | ‘ koyzyyq pearapy Aq ‘oxy peye1[09 ‘Aoyayny pearapy Aq “07 poyoeT[o) *99})TUI “M09 [worsojoroojoqy Aq ‘orp poqooyjop *poystiqnd you ynq ‘poyurag “kyueos § Aoyzytq pearoapy Lq poyooyjop ‘syeyQ Teorskyg 107 Aqyerrerpy Aq pos "x GEST url paysitqnd o10M 10}1enb yore Jo syyuoUL oppprux or} pus ‘ Loy -241q Tearuapy Aq ouop sea xA1OM stay, “SyIBULOY ‘(804 “SIT 94510) S80] Aqjearuapy pus soyyO-[eo1so[orosjoyy WLoIF ‘sy10AIMO Jo SUOTJOOTTOR ‘SIOISISOY [BOLT ~O[0LOB}OTT UOT “029 ‘91 ‘sores ‘sasessed ofqeyaeutod Jo UOTOOT[OD oe R CeO e eT eee eee cee eee reer er “cc . “cc BELIKC OP ee “"+(f) WHoqT UT 8B STOT}CATESqC “ “cc “ee "SUOIJBATOSGO JO SOTBAIGAB PUL S120} YIM “GJUOUT YOVa 10} sarenbs ,¢ ut podnoad ‘Apep suoyvatesqo yuxysipmba esiyg, ‘eyep eorsopoaoojoyy “qguoU Youe of seaenbs ,G jo efquy, v ui podnoad ‘syueamg srereeees(@) UlaqT 07 SUIPUOdsedtoo “oO” IOJoULOILG JO SUOTZBAIOSGO . eer eee eee Peer sec eceees (qT) MoqT 07 Surpuodseai09 ‘eyep pula “ec “ “e “yyuout qowe toy soavnbs ,[ ur podnoasd suoreadosqo peosozorcojout [Ty “Woy AB[Nge, B ut pednoasd ‘{TuO soy ooO -[ROLsoTOLONJoPY Woay (T) Wo} UT poureyUOD sUOYBAIESGO OUT,» ‘oaenbs .G yous tof syooq-eyeq ur pacnoas “ow ‘Aytavas onto -ods ‘Ioyjvom pus ‘pula “IajeuIOUA.LEY} “e}oUIOAeG JO SUOT}BALOSGCQ ‘sorenbs G Ur ‘SOT 90TYO -[BoIdoTOIOD}OYY WOAF pozovayxo ‘syuedIno pue sornyeaodue}-vog ‘2010 [BosoTOILONJoPY JO osoy} YIM pourquiod suoryvarosqo ate *Y}UOUL Ove 10} GOOF PUB UONOeITG ‘seavnbs ,¢ UI BYep PULA ‘QUOP YAOM JO oye NT ‘8829109 "9"1T |(9T) Pes Saab gts nee cee ose eee (QT) peregteticetesdsesse sees al (om) ss (g1) (Z1) 5 (11) oowpins aouMA —|(OT) 09°70 “ (6) 0990 “ (8) 090 “ td) OLrm0 “ (9 02 940 “ (g) 09 990 “ (F) 09990 “ (g) 09 03 OF “ (Z) g9%Q%T (1) *passnosip Jortqst(y “oULIe IT —'] TIAVy, “90TYO [BSOTOLOg,0TY OY} UI spertoyeu paysyqndun podrouwd oy} JO 4SVT oyoanyuy “ suved0 [TV *svo8 PUR] -UT Joyo pue uReURAIOFIpPo py uvooQ UBIpuy | optong Wnog oplovy TION, “cs it3 orUEyY qyNog “ “ec “ce ii3 onUEpY YON uRa0() 52] ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. ‘ftuo sreok OMT, x “Aypeoeuteyshs pays] -qnd oq [[LM StOT}BArOsqo oseT} MOAT S}[NSEA ‘poyeorpul WoIsnpoU0d ou} 0} 9ut0 emo “LOST 04 yuenbesqns eer renee eer e ere e er eeeseesereessesstesneee seeeee goyep [eo1sojor0ajopy 043 Aq syxodey sty Jo uo} ye gousmt0o pus ‘suoyeys Sutyzodea oydnub -vivdoad oy} 10y [BAoUEH IeaysISey oq} Aq -9]92 OY} 0} MOYIPpe UL sxe SUOT}EIS OSOT], PoeUSTIIMOD Udaq OAT TOT SUOT}RI}OSOU JT “OOO ett “qaodoxy r0y}20 AA ATto}4en% oy Jo spotucayy jo sytodoy yenuuy ut poyroeds pu ‘so[sy oY} SUTIM UL pezi[yn 4Ue}x9 oULOS 03 a18 Ysyitg oy} Jeso paynqraysrp suoiyeys A7105 SUOTZBALOSGO oY} ynq ‘{poystqnd gah ouoyp [| qnoge utoay ATayUOUA posteded stolyBAtesq¢O *£qo100g TROISOTOAONJeP YSI9{O0G ‘foamng Ayearmmpy sump © Nyy oy} 4q paystqnd o10M suvout osaq} Jo eurog |" 5 eee a | ; : Z | a’ [n, 1](6'+a) [n,2](c'4+2b) . . | Z a mVy(o'+ a). «| a’ . . | And if any one of the minors formed from the x upper lines of (5) be represented by F (a, b,..), and the complementary one formed from the » lower ones by F, (a, b'+a,..), and if further we write F, F, for F (a, b,..), F, @, 0, . .) re- spectively, then (5) may be written thus :— mn] ' ' 1) my Vv’ 0=SF (a, 4, PL, o +a, ..)=SFF,|+3vFF,+3,5FF +. -s = (6) thai ag tees ” where V=aq +2b7 +8e5,+ ese eeetteec = CO: The last two terms of (6) offer some peculiarity. In fact it is not difficult to see, : 1 i : by reference to (5) and (7), that the last term, viz. 255," ‘FF, is =a?0, where D is the discriminant of (1). Also if we multiply (G) throughout by 22”, the last term but one divided by the last will be the coefficient of ca” in an equation for determining dz; in other words, it will be = —Sdr=n (2) =" (a o0b—b da). ay a So that sv" FF,=n(a2b—bva)0; BSE Wh gan 1.2..(m—1) and the last two terms of (6) are consequently b Ag Bs =a Ge(n= +2). es l(t), Consider the cases of n=2, and n=3. For the quadratic (a, b,c) (a, 1P?= (6) takes the form 4a? (ac—b*) +8(ac—b*) (ab'—a'b) —4( be! —b'c) (ab'—a'b) +-(ac'—a'e) =0; and if we subject the variability of the coefficients to the single condition ab!—ab =0, the resultant reduces to ae-aC 0 ¢ St ee A eS +2/(b?—ac), a ce whence ove to 7p a0) ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 or integrating and determining the constant by the condition that, when e=0, «=0, we finally obtain the usual solution, nd erred %=— ataN (hae). Next, for the cubic (a, b, c, d) (x, 1)?=0, SFI’, becomes la Sb ae dd". . | = 0; la! 3B! 8c d . a3b 8e ad | i aeblirac ide. . - @ 86 8c oH a’ 3b' 8c! d' | and when written under this form it is seen that it is a cubic function of the determinants | abed | i} a’ bc d' I; or writing ab'—a'b=(ab), &c., FF, becomes 81(ab) (bc) (ed) +18 (ab) (ad) (ed) —27(ab) (bd)? + 9 ac) (ad) (bd)—27 (ed) (ac)?—(ad)*=0. Also V(ab) =a, V (ac) =2ab, V (ad) =Sac, V (bc) =2b?—ace, 7 (bd) = 3be—ad, 7 (ed) =3e°—2bd. By means of these formule vFF, may be easily calculated ; and thence, with the help of (8), the entire value of the resultant for the cxbic will be found. If, how- ever, as in the case of the quadratic, we make (ab)=0, and then reduce by means of the identical equation b(ed) + e(db) +d(be)=0, we find that 2 SFE, = ps {—a(bd)? +9b(bd)*(be)—27 (bd) (be)? +27 (be)*} and 2 VEEF, = 955 {(ac—b*) (bd)*—3(ad be) (bd) (be) + 9(bd—c)"Cbe)*}, so that VSFF, is @ une facteur pres, the Hessian of SFT. In fact the whole equation (6) takes the form V—20H(V)0*+0(V)=9, in which V=a(bd)?—9b(bd)*(be) +27 (bd) (be)? +27 (be)°. If, further, we make a’=0 and b'=0, the above expression retains the same form, only in it d' takes the place of (bd), and ec’ of (4c). Finally, if we also make e'=0, we have ad d? [ 8@—a0)+- 9 +o0=0 : whence, substituting —d'=3(aa*+2bx-+c), cl eee 8dx : V—o V7 {4(62—ae) —(ax+b)2}? W being now regarded as a function of d, the only remaining variable ; so that x may be determined by integration, as in the case of the quadratic. Those who are interested in this subject may compare the foregoing method with that exemplified by the author in his paper entitled “On the Theory of the Transcendental Solution of Algebraic Equations,” Quarterly Journal of Mathe- matics, vol. v. pp. 337-360. 22 REPORT—1873. Remarks on Professor Evans’s Method of solving Cubie and other Trinomial Equations. By the Rey. Ropert Hartey, /.K.S. Sur UIrrationalité de la Base des Logarithmes Hyperboliques. Par Cu. Hermire. On reconnaitra volontiers que dans le domaine mathématique, la possession d’une vérité importante ne devient compléte et définitive qu’autant qu’on a réussi a l’établir par pius d’une méthode. A cet égard, la théorie des fonctions elliptiques offre un example célébre, présent 4 tous les esprits, mais qui est loin d’étre unique dans l’analyse. Je citerai encore le théoréme de Sturm, resté comme enveloppé d’une sorte de mystére jusqu’a la mémorable découverte de M. Sylvester, qui a ouvert pour pénétrer au coeur de la question, une voie plus facile et plus féconde que celle du premier inventeur. Telles sont encore dans |’arithmétique supérieure, les lois de réciprocité entre deux nombres premiers auxquelles est attaché le nom a jamais illustre d’Hisenstein. Mais dans cette méme science et pour des questions du plus haut intérét, comme la détermination du nombre des classes de formes quadratiques de méme invariant, on a été moins heureux, et jusqu’ici le mérite de la premiére découverte est resté sans partage a Dirichlet. Knfin et pour en venir a l’objet de cette note, je citerai encore dans le champ de l’arithmétique, la pro- position de Lambert sur lirrationalité du rapport de la circonférence au diamétre, et des puissances de la base des logarithmes hyperboliques. Ayant éte récemment conduit & m’oceuper de ce dernier nombre, j’ai l’honneur de soumettre @ la réunion de l’Association Britannique une démonstration nouvelle du théoreme de Lambert, ou nintervient plus le calcul intégral, et qui, je l’espére, paraitra entiérement élé- mentaire. Je pars simplement de la série : n x ce ee — —- —_——____——_- C= laa hase |?! et posant pour un instant : 2 eae ak Bayt at TT aw ce qui permet d’écrire : e* — F(z) il x at ssa 58 + +. => ——__ fn i we awepoh SoS Leer il suffira comme on va voir, de prendre les dérivées d’ordre x des deux membres de cette relation. Effectivement, on obtient d’abord : x Dy” hes e*b(x) ‘ tT an+l qen+ 1 ou (x) est un polynome a coefficients entiers du degré z, dont il n’est aucunement nécessaire d’avoir l’expression qu'il serait d’ailleurs aisé de former. Nous remarque- F(x ; rons ensuite, a l’égard du terme Ew), que la differentiation effectuée » fois de Y suite, fait disparaitre les dénominateurs des coefficients, de sorte qu’il vient : Pe 2) ee CD) : aia b © ntl gett D ®,(x) étant un polynome dont tous les coefficients sont des nombres entiers. De la relation proposée, nous tirons donc la suivante : &b(x)—#,(x) _ S (K-41) (K+2)....(h-+n)a* Fate MO, Gam a fate yee oan TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23 ou bien, sous une autre forme: - Aa aS yal aa yee F0(2) 4 (2)=a™ EOE kK+2n+1 oth Sh+DE+2)..h+n)at Deh nn ln 22 hn Or je dis qu’en faisant croitre n, le second membre, qui jamais ne peut s’évanouir, deviendra plus petit que toute grandeur donnée, II en est effectivement ainsi du 2n+1 A ‘ . ke 2 : etn pes, AFL) (A+2). ..(h+0)a facteur prrege h d’autre part, la série infinie tl “HA 2 EEA Di 2 ste & MDs k+n ad i A mise sous la forme > are TE eS a on reconnait qu'elle a ke Div. Fe k+n es et re ea i sreee is § nenads aa a ry ORY ea mB étant est inférieur & l’unité. De 1a résulte qu’en suppcsant 2 un nombre entier, e* ne peut étre une quantité commensurable qi car on aurait F(x) —0,(a) = elas @®,(x) et cette fraction dont le numérateur est essentiellement entier, d’aprés ce qui a été établi a l’égard des polynomes &(#) et (x), ne peut sans étre nulle, descendre au dessous de = ’ : * i ee Seah x 2 L’expression découverte par Lambert: Pause I ts) que j’évite ainsi d’employer, n’en reste pas moins un résultat du plus grand prix et qui ouvre la voie a des recherches curieuses et intéressantes. En supposant par exemple z=2, on peut présumer qu'il restera quelque chose, de la série si simple des fractions intégrantes ayant pour numérateurs le nombre constant 4, dans la fraction con- tinue ordinaire équivalente, dont les numérateurs seraient l’unité. En effet, il parait que de distance en distance, viennent alors s’offrir des quotients incomplets continuellement croissants. C’est du moins ce qu’indique le résultat suivant, di & M. G. Forestier, ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées & Rochefort. Prenant l’expres- sion que nous ayons en vue, & partir du terme ow les fractions intégrantes sont inférieures a 3, c’est-a-dire la quantité 44 aa eh wget M. Forestier a trouvé pour la fraction continue ordinaire équivalente la série suivante, des quotients incomplets, g, q’, g", etc., 4 savoir: 2, 2,1, 20, 1, 10, ma, 1, 2, 11,7, 1, 8, 1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 20, 8, 1, 3, 67, 2, 2, 3,1, 5, 1, 3,3, 4a _Or on y voit figurer les termes 19, 20, 67, 147, qui semblent justifier cette pré- vision. 24. REPORT— 1878. On Modular Equations. By Professor Henry J. Srernun Surry, £.K.S. On Triple Tangent Planes. By W. Srorriswoopr, F/.R.S. On the Calculation of Logarithms. By the Rev. Henry Wace, M.A, Brasenose College, Oxford, Chaplain of Lincoln’s Inn. For the purpose of any further extension of our power of logarithmic computation, the author thinks attention should be recalled to the principle of the method pro- posed in 1845 by Mr. Weddle. An account of this method and of its history may be found in Mr. Peter Gray’s preface to his ‘Tables for the formation of Logarithms and Antilogarithms to twelve places,’ published in 1865. It combines with great directness and simplicity the advantage of increasing in facility of application as the number of places is increased to which the computation is carried. It may be briefly described as a means for expressing all. numbers, of whatever magnitude, in terms of certain factors to any required degree of accuracy. These factorsare of the | form 1+:1".n, where m is any integer and m any simple integer. When tabulated they present the following series :— -9|-99)-999 -9999, 99999) 8-98 -998 -9998)-99998 797 997 9997|-99997 6-96 996 9996-99996 ‘595/995 9995-99995) &e. Ke. “4/-94|-994 -9994)-99994 -3)-93/-993|-9993 -99993 “2'-92/-992/-9992-99992 ‘1-91-991/-9991)-99991 1/1-001)1-0001) 2/1-002!1-0002 3/1-003 1-003 1-004 1-0004 1-005 11-0005 &e, &e. 1-006 1-0006 1-007 1:0007 1-008 1-0008 '1-009'1-0009 He 00 | Or is eeceeoss “IO te CO ONID Ore CO bo led tooo Ko) © Go Os For convenience the author proposes to call these the Constituent Factors, and the former the negative, the latter the positive factors; and the tables of their logarithms may be called positive and negative Constituent Tables. To find the logarithms of numbers we use the negative table ; to find antilogarithms, the pos- itive table. A single example will show how numbers may be expressed in terms of the negative factors and of the integers up to 11. A number on which Borda and Delambre have operated, viz. 543839, working to twelve places of decimals, may be taken as an example. Divide by 10° and 5, and the number becomes 1:087678, Our next object is to destroy the significant figure 8 in the second place of decimals. For this purpose multiply the number by 1—-08 or ‘92. This is the same thing as to subtract from the number eight times itself advanced two places; and the work is as follows :— 1:0|87 67|80'0 87 01/4214 1:0 00 66 37 6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25 By this multiplication we happen to have destroyed the third significant figure as well as the second. To destroy the fourth, multiply again by 1—-0006; in other words, subtract six times the number from itself four places in advance. We should next multiply by 1—-00006 and 1 —-000003 ; and, after what has been said, the process will be intelligible without further explanation : 1-000(6 637/60 00 0 '6.003/98 256 1-000 0/5 3361)74 4 8 0003/80 2 1-000 0 0/3357 94)2 ‘3000 01.0 1-000 00 0357 932 The next factor required would be 1—-0000003; but it is evident that multiplica- tion by this factor would not affect the twelfth place of decimals, and consequently the last six significant figures thus obtained represent, without any further work, the remaining factors required. It is thus shown that psn 028% (1-38) (1-8) (1-8) ( 8) (8) % (35) (ge) * (yon) * (Fy90) * (age) = or that, to the requisite degree of accuracy, 543839 can be expressed as a fraction, the numerator of which is and the denominator O-B)CE)-B)-B)(-WES) «(°F (8) (85) (a) The method of applying the positive table to find antilogarithms is better known, and need not here be explained. It is further evident that we may by similar means express in terms of the nega- tive factors the concluding figures of any number, or any decimal addition made to a given number. Thus, suppose we know the logarithms of 543 to 12 places, and wish to know that of 543:839, we operate on the latter number as follows :— 543'8 3 9/0 00)0 0010) x 999 543830 | | 543 2)9516/10000 x -999,5 27 16 4/75 805, 543 02135 134/195, x ‘999,96 2{1 7 209/405) 5430017924790, x-999,997 16290054 5430001634736 x3 1629000 5736) X°0,1 5 430) 306) 27 2) “B4 x6 x 0,5 26 REPORT—] 873. After working to half the number of figures, we proceed by simple division; and the multipliers corresponding to the successive quotients are -999,999,7, 999,999,999, &c. This process may be regarded as a method of interpolation, and it appears to the author simpler and more direct than that of differences. It enables us, in short, by a direct operation to express differences in terms of a limited number of known factors. The logarithms of these factors are determined with great facility from the fun- damental series, log I+y)=+ty—iy tay’ — ty't ke; for y being of the form -1”, this series converges with great rapidity as m increases, so much so that for the latter half of the number of columns required in a consti- tuent table only the first term of the series is required. Suppose, for instance, we are working to twenty places, then the hyperbolic logarithm of 1—-1"' 7 or of -99999,99999,3= — -00000,00000,7. The determination of hyperbolic logarithms by this method is therefore peculiarly easy, the logarithms of the last half of the factors being written down for inspection without reference to the tables, A fuller development of this method, embodying perhaps some improvement in its working, will be found in a paper contributed by the author to the ‘Cambridge Messenger of Mathematics,’ which will appear in the September and October Numbers of this year. The author has there furnished constituent tables for both hyperbolic and denary logarithms to twenty figures ; and he has discussed the rela- tion of the method to some modifications of it proposed by Mr. Gray and others. It would occupy too much space to enter here on these collateral points; but the author doss not think any modification of the method hitherto proposed retains its elasticity. It affords, at all events, a valuable means of calculating and testing isolated logarithms, and of extending partial tables of logarithms, such as are given in Callet, to a high number of figures. The principle, moreover, of reducing numbers to the form 1:0 ..--or100.... might be athplaged to facilitate the printinz of tables of ten or twelve figures. If the logarithms were tabulated of the integers up to 11 and of the numbers between | and 1:01 or 1-001, a short table of auxiliary constituent factors would furnish the logarithms of all other numbers by very simple calculations. Such a plan would probably be an improvement on that of the partial ten-figure tables published ten years ago by Pineto, Mecuanics anp Puysics. On a Geometrical Solution of the following problem :—A quiescent rigid body possessing three degrees of freedom receives an impulse ; determine the in- stantaneous screw about which the body commences to twist. By Roperr Srawett Batt, LL.D., PRS. I, For an explanation of the language used, and for proof of several theorems, re- ference must be made to ‘‘ Theory of Screws,” Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxv. p. 157. : All the screws about which the body can be twisted form a coordinate-system ; one screw of the coordinate-system can be found parallel to any given direction. An ellipsoid can be found such that the radius vector, from the centre to the surface, is proportional to the twist velocity with which the body must twist about the parallel screw, so that its kinetic energy shall be one unit. This is the ellipsoid of equal kinetic energy. Let s be the screw about which an impulsive wrench, F,, constitutes the given impulse, All the screws belonging to the coordinate-system which are reciprocal TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27 to s lie upon a cylindroid, the principal plane of which is called the reciprocal plane. Then the required instantaneous screw w is determined ; for it is parallel to that diameter of the ellipsoid of equal kinetic energy which is conjugate to the reciprocal plane. he demonstration is as follows:—Any three conjugate diameters of the ellip- soid of equal kinetic energy are parallel to three screws of the system, which are conjugate screws of kinetic energy. The property possessed by three conjugate screws of kinetic energy A, B, C, is that if A', B', C' be three impulsive screws corresponding respectively to A, B, C as instantaneous screws, then A’ is reciprocal to B and C, B' is reciprocal to A and C, C' is reciprocal to A and B. If u be one of three conjugate screws of kinetic energy, the two others must be parallel to the reciprocal plane, and therefore reciprocal to s. Hence an impulsive wrench about s must make the body commence to twist about wu. Ii. The same construction may be arrived at in a different manner. Let g be the screw of the coordinate-system which is normal to the plane reci- procal to s. Let aaa be the impulsive wrench which acts about s for the infinitely small time ¢. Let o, be the twist velocity with which a body must twist uniformly round g in order to do one unit of work against F, in the time ¢. Draw a plane parallel to the reciprocal plane at a distance w, from the kinematic centre. Draw the cone from the kinematic centre to the intersection of this plane with the ellipsoid of equal kinetic energy. Then all the screws of the coordinate-system which are parallel to the gene- rators of this cone possess the following property :—That if the body be constrained to twist about any one of these screws it will, in consequence of the impulsive wrench F’,, move off from rest with the unit of kinetic energy. The screw s being given, F, will vary inversely as ,; consequently when the plane touches the ellipsoid, and when the cone has shrunk to one right line, a smaller impulse about s will give the body the unit of kinetic energy about the screw of the system parallel to that line, than if the body had been constrained about any other screw of the system. Applying Euler’s theorem, that a body will always move off with the maximum kinetic energy, we arrive at the construction already given. Til. Conversely, given the instantaneous screw w, about which the body will com- mence to twist, selected from the general coordinate-system with three degrees of freedom, determine the corresponding impulsive screw s. This problem is really indeterminate ; the conditions to be fulfilled by s are thus proved. Draw the plane in the ellipsoid of equal kinetic energy, conjugate to the direction of w. Construct the cylindroid of screws belonging to the system which are parallel to this plane, then s may be any screw reciprocal to this cylin- droid. For example, through any point a cone of screws can be drawn, any one of which, as an impulsive screw, corresponds to wu as an instantaneous screw. Contributions to the Theory of Screws. By Rozerr Stawert Barr, LL.D., FBS. 1. Coordinates of a Screw.—Six screws, each of which is reciprocal to the re- maining five, are called a group of coreciprocals*. If the unit twist velocity about * A group of six coreciprocals is intimately connected with the group of six funda- mental complexes already introduced into geometry by Dr. Felix Klein (see ‘Math. Ann,’ Band ii. p. 208). 28 REPORT—1873. a screw a be decomposed into six components, «,, &c., a,, about the coreciprocals, then #,, &c., a,, are the coordinates of a. The pitch of a is : 2 25 Prax A where p,, &c., p,, are the pitches of the coreciprocals. The condition that two screws a, 8 are reciprocal is Be Px Bx=0. 2. Impulsive and instantaneous Screws.—By proper selection of the coreciprocal group the relation between an impulsive screw and the corresponding instanta- neous screw is very simple. If «,, &c.,a,, be an instantaneous screw, then p,«,, &e., p,a,, is the corresponding impnlsive screw. Two of the coreciprocals are directed along each of the principal axes through the centre of inertia of the rigid body ; and the corresponding pitches are -- and — the radius of gyration. 3. Conjugate Screws of Kinetic energy.—lf ' D5 Pr7AxPx=9, then the impulsive screw corresponding to a is reciprocal to 8 ; but precisely the same condition expresses that the impulsive screw corresponding to @ is recipro- cal to a. On the Kinematics of a Rigid Body*. By Professor J. D. Evrrrrt, F.R.S.E. The object of the paper is the investigation of the instantaneous movement of a rigid body (having no point fixed). Such investigation has usually been confined to properties depending on the consideration of two consecutive positions; and the investigation is here extended to properties depending on three, and in the case of motion in one plane to four and five consecutive positions. The most general motion of a rigid body may, as is well known, be represented by a succession of small screwings about successive lines called central axes; and these successive central axes generate two ruled surfaces—one in the body, and the other in space—these two surfaces being perfectly determinate in the case of any given motion. Two cones of determinate shape can be constructed by drawing through an arbi- trary point of the body lines parallel to the successive central axes in the body, and by drawing through an arbitrary point of space lines parallel to the successive central axes in space. It is shown in this paper that the most general motion of a rigid body can be represented by giving to the cone in space a motion of pure translation, and causing the cone in the body to roll upon the cone thus translated. Expressions are obtained for the curvatures of the two cones corresponding to a given instantaneous motion, the data being derived from the consideration of four consecutive positions of the body. When only three consecutive positions are given, the curvatures of the two cones are indeterminate, being merely connected by one equation of condition. Hence, so far as regards properties depending on three consecutive positions, the instantaneous motion of a rigid body can always be represented by the rolling of a right circular cone in the body upon a plane which has a movement of translation in space. In this representation the curva- ture of the circular cone is determinate, but its vertex is an arbitrary particle of the body. The Gar of those particles which at the instant considered have straight motion, is investigated, and is found to be in general a cubic curve. The curvatures of the two ruled surfaces at points on their respective lines of striction are investigated ; and it is shown that the tangent plane to either of the ruled surfaces at a point on the line of striction is perpendicular to the correspond- ing tangent plane of the cone. The forms of the two ruled surfaces, at points very * The paper will appear in full in the *‘ Quarterly Journal of Mathematics’ for 1874. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 distant from thé lines of striction, are investigated and shown to be ultimately identical with the forms of the two cones. The condition of intersection of successive central axes is investigated ; and ex- pressions are obtained for the curvatures of the two cuspidal edges which are then generated, one in the body and the other in space. Throughout this investigation the motion is supposed to be specified with refer- ence to rectangular axes fixed in space—the specifying elements being the three component velocities of translation, the three component velocities of rotation, and the differential coeflicients of these six velocities with respect to time. The latter portion of the paper deals with motion in two dimensions. It is shown that, in the most general motion of a plane rigid figure in its own plane, the locus of points which at a given instant have straight motion is a circle traversing the instantaneous centre; but one singular point on this circle is to be excepted from the locus, namely the instantaneous centre itself, which, instead of being (like other points on the circle) at a point of inflection of its path, is ata cusp, and is moving with infinite curvature, whereas all other points on the circle are moving with zero curvature. This startling result is confirmed by a com- — of the cycloid with the trochoid. When a circle rolls along a straight ine, a point just within the circumference describes a trochoid having two points of inflection very near together, and the short connecting arc has a total curvatnre of nearly 180°; whereas in the case of a point on the circumference, these features are replaced by a cusp. . The instantaneous curvatures of the paths traced by the particles of a moving figure depend on three consecutive positions only. Four consecutive positions of the figure are sufficient to determine two consecutive “circles of straight motion.” Those two particles of the body which are situated at the intersections of these two circles might at first sight be deemed to be points of double straight motion— that is, to have straight motion for two consecutive instants; but on examination it turns out that one of these two points is not a point of straight motion at all, being, in fact, the singular point above mentioned. There is therefore in general only one point of double straight motion. The position of this point is investi- gated in the general case of one circle rolling on another, and its connexion with the subject of “apparently neutral” equilibrium of a heavy body is pointed out. On certain connexions between the Molecular Properties of Metals. By Professor G. Fores. On the Final State of a System of Molecules in Motion subject to Forces of any kind. By J. Crurx Maxwett. Since reading Principal Guthrie’s first letter on this subject (‘ Nature,’ May 22, 1873), Ihave thought of several ways of investigating the equilibrium of temperature in a gas acted on by gravity. One of these is to investigate the condition of the column as to density when the temperature is constant, and to show that when this is fulfilled the column also fulfils the condition that there shall be no upward or downward transmission of energy, or, in fact, of any other function of the masses and velocities of the molecules. But afar more direct and general method was peted to me by the investigation of Dr. Ludwig Boltzmann* on the final dis- tribution of energy in a finite system of elastic bodies; and the following isa sketch of this method as applied to the simpler case of a number of molecules so great that it may be treated as infinite. - Principal Guthrie’s second letter is especially valuable as stating his case in the form of distinct propositions, every one of which, except the fifth, is incontrover- tible. Ele has himself pointed out that it is here that we differ, and that this difference may ultimately be traced to a difference in our doctrines as to the distri- * Studien tiber das Gleichgewicht der lebendigen Kraft zwischen bewegten materiellen Punkten, von Dr. Ludwig Boltzmann. Sitzb. d. Akad. d. Wissonsch. October 8, 1863 (Vienna). 30 REPORT—1873. bution of velocity among the molecules of any given portion of the gas. He -assumes, as Clausius (at least in his earlier investigations) did, that the velocities of all the molecules are equal, whereas I hold, as I first stated in the Philosophical Magazine for January 1860, that they are distributed according to the same law as errors of observation are distributed according to the received theory of such errors. It is easy to show that if the velocities are all equal at any instant they will become unequal as soon as encounters of any kind, whether collisions or “ perihelion passages,” take place. The demonstration of the actual law of distribution was given by me in an improved form in my paper on the “ Dynamical Theory of Gases,” Phil. Trans. 1866, and Phil. Mag. 1867; and the far more elaborate investigation of Boltzmann has led him to the same result. I am greatly indebted to Boltzmann for the method used in the latter part of the following sketch of the general investigation. Let perfectly elastic molecules of different kinds be in motion within a vessel with perfectly elastic sides, and let each kind of molecules be acted on by forces which have a potential the form of which may be different for different kinds of molecules. Let z, y, z, be the coordinates of a molecule, M, and &, n, ¢ the components of its velocity, and let it be required to determine the number of molecules of a given kind which, on an average, have their coordinates between x and x+dz, y and yt+dy, z and z+dz, and also their component velocities between & and €+dé, n and n+dn, and ¢and ¢+d¢. This number must depend on the coordinates and the components of velocities and on the differences of the limits of these quantities. We may therefore write it AN=F(@, Yo %, & 75.0).a0 dy dz d& dn dl. ©. site We shall begin by investigating the manner in which this quantity depends on the components of velocity, before we proceed to determine in what way it depends on the coordinates. f we distinguish by suffixes the quantities corresponding to different kinds of molecules, the whole number of molecules of the first and second kind within a given space, which have velocities within given limits, may be written fi (é, My) ¢,) dé, dn, =m, mee OR (2) Fo (Ey May G) dba, Any d= 6 we ee (3) The number of pairs which can be formed by taking one molecule of each kind is n, 2. Let a pair of molecules encounter each other, and after the encounter let their component velocities be €,', n,', ¢' and &', n,', ¢,'.. The nature of the encounter is ‘completely defined when we know €—&, n.—m, &G—G the velocity of the second molecule relative to the first before the encounter, and x,—zx,, y,—y,, 2,—2, the position of the centre of the second molecule relative to the first at the instant of the encounter. When these quantities are given, &,/—&,’, n,/—n,/, and ¢/—G/’, the components of the relative velocity after the encounter, are determinable. Hence, putting a, 8, y for these relative velocities, and a, b, c for the relative positions, we find for the number of molecules of the first kind having velocities between the limits &, and &,+dé&, &c., which encounter molecules of the second kind having velocities between the limits &, and €,+d, &c., in such a way that the relative velocities lie between a and a+da, &c., and the relative positions be- tween a and a+da, &e. Fi (E: my Gr) UE dy dE. f., (Ex May Ca) UE dy dC. ch (abc By) da db de daddy; . (4) and after the encounter the velocity of M, will be between the limits é,' and £,'+dé, &c., and that of M, between the limits &,' and &,'+dé, &e. The differences of the limits of velocity are equal for both kinds of molecules, and that both before and after the encounter. When the state of motion of the system is in its permanent condition, as many pairs of molecules must change their velocities from V,, V, to V,', V,! as from and TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 mh ve to V,, V,; and the circumstances of the encounter in the one case are pre- cisely similar to those in the second. Hence, omitting for the sake of brevity the quantities df &c., and ¢, which have the same values in the two cases, we find ti (é, My Qh, (é., No» ¢,) =f, (E15 715 Cwiha (3% Biss bua) wing 6,15. 5 0 Oy If we now write log f (1, O=F(MV?,,m,n), 2 2. 2. ss @) where /, m, m are the direction cosines of the velocity V of the molecule M, taking the logarithm of both sides of equation (5), F,(M,V7/,m,n,) + F,(M, V3l,m,n,) =F, (M,V320,m',n',) + FM V20ym'n',). (7) _ The only necessary relation between the variables before and after the encounter is WY 2 ee Nee M2 a) on!) <) Siglied ae ee If the right-hand sides of the equations (7) and (8) are constant, the left-hand sides will also be constant; and since /,, m,, , are independent of /,, 1,,,, We must have F=—AM,V?2 and F,=—AM,V2,. . . ss es Q) where A is a quantity independent of the components of velocity, or —AM,Vi Ai(Ey my O)=Cye tab Peer etie e 2 (KG) —AM.V2 Fl E25 Nay G2) = Cre OB, Diths 38) os)” sé od Tag ee This result as to the distribution of the velocities of the molecules at a given place is independent vf the action of finite forces on the molecules during their en- counter ; for such forces do not affect the velocities during the infinitely short time of the encounter. We may therefore write equation (1) dN=Ce AME HP 0¢ dn dtdxdydz, » . . . . (12) where C is a function of xyz, which may be different for different kinds of molecules, while A is the same for every kind of molecule, though it may, for aught we know as ye vary from one place to another. ; et us now suppose that the kind of molecules under consideration are acted on by a force whose potential is ¥. The variations of xyz arising from the motion of the molecules during a time é¢ are Som Edt, Oy—it, Be C8. kus cu ce em and those of &, 7, ¢ in the same time due to the action of the force, are dy dw dy df= — 7, ot, n= — Gy d¢=— 7, ot. rein (2) If we put E=lopiCss NX. Wa Wen ec ek hyn dN : log ae ede dy de =o AMEE +7 +0): gh! this hae The variation of this quantity due to the variations 62, dy,, 5z,, 5&, 67, 8¢ is de de de 2 (e@ tng tha) ot dw dy dy 2AN ae pale —) dt Se r( é du bn dy +e tL) @) ft era eee —M(E+ 77+) ( é*. ace +¢)ar. 32 REPORT—1873. Since the number of the molecules does not vary during their motion, this quantity is zero, whatever the values of &, 7, ¢. Hence we have in virtue of the last term, dA dA dA ae. = =0, —- =O; 5.) Sue Geert dy) da i) or A is constant throughout the whole region traversed by the molecules. Next, comparing the first and second terms, we find. = —2AM(W+B).0 9 2 ic oS Pe We thus obtain as the complete form of dN, dN, =e AMET +05 +67 +21 + Body dy dzdédn dt, . . . (20) where A is an absolute constant, the same for every kind of molecule in the vessel, but B, belongs to the first kind only. ‘fo determine these constants, we must in- tegrate this quantity with respect to the six variabies, and equate the re-ult to the number of molecules of the first kind. We must then, by integrating AN 3M (Ej tnt +0? +2y,), determine the whole energy of the system, and equate it to the original energy. We shall thus obtain a sufficient number of equations to determine the constant A, common to all the molecules, and B,, B,, &c., those belonging to each kind. The value of A determines that of the mean kinetic energy of all the molecules in a given place, which is : = and therefore, according to the kinetic theory, it va also determines the temperature of the medium at that place. Hence, since A,, in the permanent state of the system, is the same for every part of the system, it follows that the temperature is everywhere the same, whatever forces act upon the molecules. The number of molecules of the first kind in the element dz dy dz, (=)? —AMy(2y1+B,) Ay ? The effect of the force whose potential is y, is therefore to cause the molecules of the first kind to accumulate in greater numbers in those parts of the vessel towards which the force acts; and the distribution of each different kind of molecules in the vessel is determined by the forces which act on them in the same way as if no other molecules were present. This agrees with Dalton’s doctrine of the distribution of mixed gases. GO'UY Tite, As, a) ie a fas On the Awis of least Moments in a Rectangular Beam. By Joun Nuytire. —— On certain Phenomena of Impact. By Professor Osporne Reynoxps. On Athereal Friction. By Professor Batrour Stewart, LL.D., PRS. Prof, J. 0. Maxwell has made a series of experiments on the friction of gases. In these experiments a horizontal disk was made to oscillate in an imperfect va- cuum near a similar disk at rest, and it was found that the motion of the oscilla- ting disk was carried away by the residual gas of the vacuum at a rate depending on the chemical character of the gas, and depending also upon its temperature, but nevertheless independent of its density. While the temperature of the arrangement remained constant, it was found by Prof. Maxwell that this fluid friction was rather greater for atmospheric air than for carbonic acid, while for hydrogen it was about half as great as for air. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 30 On the other hand, when the temperatures were made to vary, the result was ” found to be proportional to the absolute temperature, These experiments do not show that there is no such thing as «ethereal friction— that is to say, friction from something which fills all space and is independeat of air; but we may argue from them that such an ethereal friction must either have been nearly insensible in these experiments, or it must, as well as the friction from the gas, have varied with the absolute temperatures, in which case the two frictions would not be separable from one another by the method of the experiment. Prof, Tait and myself have made some experiments upon the heating of a disk by rapid rotation x vacuo. In these experiments we found a mere surtace-heating due to air, which varied not only with the quality but also with the quantity of the residual gas; and we also found a surface-etlect (more deeply seated, however, than the former) which appeared to be a residual effect, and which it is possible may be due to ethereal friction. We made no experiments at varying temperatures; but we made use of various residual gases, and found that the heating-effect for carbonic acid was perhaps a trifle less than for air, while that for hydrogen ap- peared to be about four times less than that for air. Now, comparing Prof. Max- well’s experiments with ours, we have in the former a stoppage of motion, which is rather less for carbonic acid than for air, and about half as large for hydrogen as for air. In the latter, again, we have a heating-eftect rather less for carbonic acid than for air, and only about one fourth as large for hydrogen as for air. Thus it appears that the stopping effect of hydrogen in Prof. Maxwell’s experiments is re- latively greater in comparison with air than is its heating-effect in our experiments when compared with that of air. The effects of these various gases would bear to one another more nearly the same proportion in both experiments if we might suppose that in Prof. Maxwell’s experiments there was mixed up with gaseous friction a very sensible xthereal friction; but in that case it would be necessary to suppose that the ethereal friction was proportional to the absolute temperature. During the Meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh, I brought before the Association reasons for imagining that if we have a body in visible motion in an enclosure of constant temperature the visible motion of the body will gradually be changed into heat. The nature of the argument was such as to render it probable (although not absolutely certain) that in such a case the rapidity of conversion will be greater the higher the temperature of the enclosure. I will now refer to some experiments of Prof. Tait, which formed the subject of the last Rede Lecture. These experiments were suggested to Prof. Tait by an hypothesis derived from the theory of the dissipation of energy, which led him to think that the resistance of a substance to the conduction of electricity, and also of heat, would be found proportional to the absolute temperature. Matthiessen and Von Bose in the case of electricity, and Principal Forbes in the case of heat, had already proved that, as a matter of fact, the law was not very different from that imagined by Prof. Tait. The result of these experiments has been to confirm the truth of this law. _ The following considerations, also connected with the dissipation of energy, point to the same conclusion. Perhaps we may regard the xthereal medium as that medium whose office it is to degrade all directed motion and ultimately convert it into universally diffused heat, and in virtue of which all the visible differential motion of the universe will ultimately be destroyed by some process analogous to friction. Now in order to imagine the way in which «ther may possibly act in bringing about this result, let us imagine some familiar instance of directed motion, as, for instance, a railway-train in motion. The train, let us suppose, and the air in it, are both in rapid motion, while the air outside is at rest. Now as the train pro- ceeds, suppose that a series of cannons loaded with blank cartridges are fired towards the train. A series of violent sounds will go in at the one window and out at the other of each carriage. Each sound will push some air from the stratum of air at rest into the carriage on the one side, and it will push some air from the carriage into the stratum at rest on the other side. Now in this operation it would seem that part of the visible motion of the train must be taken frum it. To make a comparison, it is as if a series of individuals were jumping into the train at the 1873. 34 REPORT—1873. . one side and out of it at the other, the result being that each carries away so much of the motion of the train, and therefore renders it difficult for the engine to drive the train. Each individual comes to the ground with an immense forward impetus and rubs along the ground till this is lost, in fact he carries with him so much motion of the train and conyerts it into heat by friction against the ground. Now something similar to this must happen to a substance in visible motion in an enclosure of constant temperature. The rays of light and heat will play very much the same part as the waves of sound, or as the crowd of people in the above illustration, at least if we except those which fall perpendicularly upon the surface of the moving body. The moving body is like the train, and the rays of light and heat are similar to individuals entering the train from a stratum of ether at rest, and leaving the train into a stratum of ether at rest again, each probably transmu- ting into heat a certain small portion of the visible motion of the train as it were by a species of friction. Of course the intensity of such an influence would depend upon the intensity of the rays of light and heat. Now it matters not what the particular kind of motion be which constitutes this train, and we may assert that all directed motion will suffer from such a cause, and possibly according to the same laws. Visible motion, such as that of a rotating disk or of a meteor is of course one form of such motion; but a current of electricity or of heat may equally represent some form of directed motion. In fine we may perhaps suppose that all forms of directed motion are resisted by this peculiar influence, which evidently depends upon what we may term the temperature of the ether, or at least upon the intensity of those vibrations which the ether transmits. ASTRONOMY. On the Importance and Necessity of continued Systematic Observations on the Moon’s Surface. By W.R. Bret, F.RAS. Note on the Proper Motions of Nebule. By Wittram Hueains, D.C.L., LL.D., PRS. There are three kinds of motion which we may expect to exist in a nebula, which, if sufficiently rapid, might be detected by the spectroscope :— 1. A motion of rotation in the case of the planetary nebule, which might be dis- covered by placing the slit of the spectroscope on opposite limbs of the nebula. 2. A motion of translation in the visual direction of some portions of the nebu- lous matter within the nebula. Such motion might possibly be detected by com- paring, in a See ee of sufficient dispersive power, the spectra of different parts of a large nebula such as that in Orion. 3. A motion of translation in space of the nebula in the line of sight. The observations to be described were undertaken with the view of searching for this last kind of motion, namely that of the whole nebula in the line of sight. For this purpose it is necessary to compare the lines of the nebula with those of a ter- restrial substance which has been found to be in the nebula. Now the coincidence of the third and fourth line of the nebular spectrum with lines of hydrogen was available in the case of a few only of the brightest nebule. I had found that the apparent coincidence of the brightest line of the nebule with the brightest line in the spectrum of nitrogen was not maintained when a more powerful spectroscope was used. The nebular line was then seen to be thin and defined, while the line of*nitrogen appeared double and each of its components nebulous at the edges. The thin line of the nebula coincides very nearly with the less refrangible of the two lines forming the double line of nitrogen. Fortunately I found a line which appears under some conditions of the spark in the spectrum of lead, which is single, defined, and occurs exactly at that part of the spectrum, This line is represented in Thalén’s map by a short line, to indicate TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 that under ordinary conditions of the spark, when the characteristic lines of lead - are strong, this line is seen only in the part of the metal vapour which is close to the electrode. I found, however, that under other conditions of the electric dis- charge this line extends across the spectrum, and becomes bright, at the same time that the principal lines of the lead-spectrum are very faint. A simultaneous comparison of this line with the brightest of the lines of the nebulz showed that, if not truly coincident, it was sufficiently so, under the powers of dispersion which can be applied to the nebulz, to serve as a fiducial line of com- parison in the observations which I had in view. Ineed not say that the coincidence of the lines does not indicate the presence of lead in the nebula. I found that in the spectrum of the great nebula in Orion, at the same time that the third line was seen to be coincident with H, the first line appeared to coincide with the line in the spectrum of lead. There was a very slight apparent excess of breadth in the nebular line, due possibly to its being in a small degree the brighter of the two, which appeared to extend towards the red, so that the more refrangible sides of the lines were in a right line. The lead line could now be used as a fiducial line for the examination of the motion of the nebule which are too faint to permit of direct comparison with hy- drogen. By this method the following nebule have been carefully examined. In all these nebulz the relative position of the first nebular line with the lead line was found to be exactly the same in a spectroscope containing two compound prisms which together give a dispersion about equal to that of four single prisms of dense flint of 60°. The results, though negative, are, however, not without interest, as they show that these nebulz were not moving toward or from the earth with a velocity so great as thirty miles per second. List of Nebula. h. H. No. 1179, 360. M. 42. No. 4234, 1970, 2. 5. No. 4373. IV. 37. No. 4390. 2000. 3. 6. No. 4447. 2073. M. 57. No. 4510. 2047. IV. 51. No. 4964, 2241. IV. 18. The numbers in the above list are from Sir J. Herschel’s ‘General Catalogue of Nebulee.’ On the Application of Photography to show the passage of Venus across the Sun’s Disk. By M. Janssen. Results of some recent Solar Investigations. By J. Norman Locxyer, F.R.S. On the Visibility of the Dark side of the Planet Venus. By Professor A. Scuararrx, Prague. [Ordered to be printed iz extenso among the Reports. | 38* 36 REPORT—18723. Lieut. Experiments on Light with circularly ruled plates of Glass. By Pari Branam, F.C.8. A point of light, viewed at a distance through plates of glass with concentric circles ruled thereon, is seen to be surrounded by rings of brilliant colours. The author tried the experiment of introducing the ruled glass into a beam of sunlight 3 an inch in diameter, and viewing the rings on a screen placed 10 feet from the ruled plate, with the following results :— With 2500 lines to the inch there appear two rings of colour, the diameters of the red rings (which are always outward) being 1 foot 5 inches and 2 feet 10 inches, the width of the rings from the outside of the red to the inside of the violet in each case being respectively 33 inches and 6} inches. With 3500, 1 foot 8 inches and 3 feet 3 inches, width 41” and 8”. With 5000, only one ring 3 feet in diameter, width 8”. With 10,000, one ring 5 feet in diameter, width 11”. There are other rings visible, but they are faint and indefinite. The coloured rings are also seen by reflection from the outer glass, with the same angular dispersion. On some Abnormal Effects of Binocular Vision. By W.S. Davrs. While using a Herapath blowpipe a short time since, and haying my eyes fixed intently on a bead held in the flame, I was suddenly startled by seeing the papered wall, which was about three feet in front of me, make its appearance close up to the point of the flame, the patterns of the paper being at the same time much diminished in size, Casting my eyes from side to side, and upwards and down- wards, the appearance still remained as distinct as in ordinary sight; on moving my eyes beyond the boundary of the wall the appearance immediately vanished. I afterwards succeeded in reproducing the appearance by simply looking at the wall and converging the optic axes of my eyes. It occurred to me that the phenomenon I had seen was due to the erossing of the optic axes of my eyes, the angle being such that each eye received the impression of a precisely similar figure. Under these circumstances a single figure would be seen, as when a single flat object is viewed with both eyes in ordinary sight. In order to satisfy myself that this was the correct explanation I made a geometrical construction, traced the relations which should hold, and verified them by actual measurements. m Continuing my experiments, I succeeded by a further convergence of the optic axes to combine alternate patterns, and pairs still more widely separated, up to twelve or more. It is a very interesting experiment to combine a given pattern with, say, the fifth or sixth from it, and then by a peculiar effort, more easily made than described, to let one pattern slip at a time, the wall retreating by steps as each pattern is slipped. On one occasion, when I had combined two patterns at some distance apart, | happened to shut one eye, when, to my surprise, the combinational figure remained as distinct and at the same distance as before. I can only account for this by sup- posing that the muscles of the eye which was closed were still acting in sympathy with those of the open eye; and subsequent experiments favoured this view. The results of the foregoing experiments led me to think that it would be possible to optically combine two patterns without crossing the optic axes, provided the distance between the centres of the patterns was not greater than that between the centres of the eyes. This I succeeded in doing, and the result was very remarkable : the wall appeared to retreat and take up a fixed position at some distance beyond its actual position; on looking slowly upwards and sideways along the wall the di- mensions of the room appeared to be enormously increased, while on looking down- wards I appeared to be perched on asort of gallery, the wall appearing to be several yards from me, and descending many yards below the floor on which I was standing. This appearance was as vivid and distinct as in the case of ordinary vision. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 With patterns on a horizontal surface, such as a carpet, the results were very curious. On combining pairs of patterns with the optic axes crossed, I appeared to be stand- ing in a hole with the level of the floor up to my waist, while on combining pairs of patterns with the optic axes uncrossed, | was apparently standing on a pedestal with the widely expanded floor far below me ; and so strong was the delusion, that I could scarcely venture to move for fear of falling over. Colours I found could be fairly well combined by painting two patterns different colours and then causing the two to coalesce, with or without crossing the optic axes, : I have also succeeded in combining two solid bodies of the same size and shape, but of different colour, both with the optic axes crossed and with them uncrossed. Perhaps one of the most curious experiments I have made of this kind is to opti- ony combine the heads of two persons, thereby producing a combinational figure of the two. On a Refraction-Spectrum without a Prism. By Professor J. D. Evrergrtr, £.R.S.L£. Tt was pointed out by Wollaston in the Philosophical Transactions for 1800, that triple images can be obtained by looking at real objects through the stratum of intermixture of two liquids of different refractive powers, one of which has been gently poured on the top of the other. Having set up an arrangement of this kind last spring, in a cubical vessel (mea- suring 6 inches each way) with plate-glass sides, a strong solution of common salt being the lower liquid and pure water the upper, I observed such decided colour- effects, that the idea occurred to me of trying whether a spectrum could be obtained. I accordingly placed the vessel of liquid on a high stool in the centre of a dark room, and looked through the stratum of intermixture at a horizontal slit in the window- shutter, which was about 10 feet distant, and was below the level of the said stra- tum. The following were some of the phenomena observed, about a week having elapsed since the liquids were placed in the vessel. When the eye was at any dis- tance less than about 3 feet from the vessel, one image of the slit was seen. It was highly coloured, forming a very impure spectrum, with blue above and red below. Its apparent position was above the real slit, and at about the same distance from the observer. When the eye was at a distance of 33 feet or upwards from the vessel, three images of the slit were visible. At some distances they could all be seen at once. At other distances two could be seen at once, and the third came into view on rais- ing or lowering the eye. All three of them were above the true direction of the slit, and all were highly coloured. The highest and the lowest were virtual images, and were almost precisely alike and similar to the single image above described, They were erect images, and had accordingly blue above and red below. Between them, when the eye was at a proper height, was seen another image with more colour than either, and with the colours in inverted order, that is to say, with red above and blue below. It was in fact a real and inverted image, formed at the distance of about 3 feet from the vessel; and a screen held,there received the image in the form of a horizontal line of light with coloured edges, the action of the liquid being somewhat similar to that of a cylindrical lens. All the images were very impure in colour, being nearly white in their central portions. The colours were improved by lowering the eye so as to make the middle image move up to the highest. Red was the first colour that appeared at the junction ; and it showed extremely well. Violet (or when the light was feeble, blue) was the last colour that was seen before both images became extinct by the descent of the obseryer’s eye. The largest sheets of colour were seen when the eye was exactly at the place where the real image was formed. It was easy to obtain a long vertical strip of blue by holding the eye at the distance of about 3 feet, and a long vertical strip of red by holding the eye at the distance of about 4 feet. A long vertical strip of rich yellow could be obtained at an intermediate distance. The experiment was varied by holding close in front of the eye a card with a 38 REPORT—1873. fine horizontal slit, the observer of course looking through the slit ; and in some of the observations this card was fixed in an adjustable stand, and the slit brought into coincidence with the real image before looking through. The red and blue were not much altered by the introduction of the card; but yellow could with diffi- culty be obtained, the yellow previously obtained having in fact been a highly com- posite colour. The apparatus was left to itself for several days; and its focal length was found to be continually increasing; that is to say, the real image receded further and further from the vessel, the average recess (estimated very roughly) being about a foot per day, till it reached the wall, which was 10 feet distant. The experiment was repeated, first with solution of sugar of lead, and secondly with solution of alum, in place of solution of salt; but the original experiment gave the finest displays of colour. There is no difficulty in explaining the phenomena above described, They are mainly due to the bending of rays towards that side on which the index of refrac- tion is greatest (which in the above instances is the lower side), and to the fact that this bending is greatest for the rays of shortest wave-length. The magnitude, however, of the chromatic effect is very startling; and I am not aware that any such results have been previously recorded. Possibly the increase of focal length in such an arrangement as is above described may be found to furnish a convenient test of the rapidity of liquid diffusion. On Irradiation. By Professor G. Forses. Photographs of Fluorescent Substances. Exhibited by Dr. Guavstonr, F.R.S. These photographs were of the same nature as those exhibited at the Meeting in 1859, to show that the alteration of the refrangibility of the extreme rays of the spectrum by fluorescent substances reduces their chemical activity. But'as it had been objected that the lessened photographic effect might be due to a change of surface through wetting the paper and coating it with a salt, a crucial experiment was made by writing on a piece of white paper with black ink, bisulphate of qui- nine, bisulphate of potash, common salt, and pure water. When this was photo- graphed, the writing in water or in the non-fluorescent salts was not perceptible, but the fluorescent quinine was strongly rendered, though not so strongly as the ink. In another photograph, however, two glasses filled respectively with ink and with a very strong but colourless solution of quinine, came out equally almost black. On the Dresser-Rutherford Diffraction-grating. By J. Norman Locxyzur, F.R.S. On the Relation of Geometrical Optics to other Branches of Mathematics and Physics. By Professor Crunk Maxwett. y ZF: The author said that the elementary part of optics was often set before the student in a form which was at once repulsive to the mathematician, unmeaning to the phy- sical inquirer, and useless to the practical optician. The mathematician looked for precision, and found approximation ; the physicist expected unity in the science, and found a great gulf between geometrical and physical optics; and the optician found that if he had to design a microscope, he was expected to combine the ana- lytical power of a Gauss with the computative skill of a Glaisher before he could make head or tail of the formule. The author maintained that elementary optics might be made attractive to the mathematician by showing that the correlation between the object and the image is not only an example, but the fundamental type of that principle of duality which was the leading idea of modern geometry. The object and image were homographic figures, such that every straight line or ray in the one was represented by a straight line or ray in the other. The relations between TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 pairs of figures of that kind formed an important part of the geometry of position, an excellent treatise on which had been brought out by M. Theodor Reye. To the physicist he would exhibit the unity of the science, by adopting Hamilton’s cha- racteristic function as explained in his papers on systems of rays, and using it in the most elementary form from the very beginning of the subject, leading at once to the undulatory theory of light. At the same time the practical optician would learn what were the cardinal points of an optical instrument, and would be able to determine them without taking the instrument to pieces. Helmholtz and Listing had pointed out the advantages of the method to the oculist; and Beck had recently placed some of the elementary points in a clear light. Casorati had also exemplified some of the advantages of the method of homographic figures in elementary optics; but though Gauss, the modern founder of that method, and several others, had made honourable mention of the name of Roger Cotes, and of that theorem with respect to which Newton said that “if Mr. Cotes had lived we should have known something,” no one seemed to have suspected that it would form the meeting-point of all the three methods of treating the science of optics. On a Natural Limit to the S harpness of the Spectral Lines. By Lord Rayzreten. [Published in extenso in ‘ Nature’ for Oct. 2, 1873.] On the Influence of Temperature and Pressure on the Widening of the Lines in the Spectra of Gases. By Artuur Scuuster, Ph.D. The question has often been discussed whether it is temperature or pressure which causes the widening of the lines in the spectrum of hydrogen. Some spectroscopists are of opinion that this widening of the lines is caused by the clashing together of the gaseous molecules, while others seem to think that the forces which maintain the molecule in vibration are altered by the temperature, and now allow the mole- eule to vibrate in different or less-defined periods. It is difficult to decide the question by experiment. The only means we have to render the gas luminous is to ass an electric current through it. But we know not in what way this current influences the velocity of the molecules, and therefore the number and force of the shocks. Wecannot alter the temperature of the spark without altering the pressure within it; and therefore we cannot decide the question, as has been tried, by merely changing the mode of discharge. The following considerations seem to me to be strongly in favour of the view that each separate molecule would show at all tem- peratures the narrow lines, but that the shocks of the other molecules cause the widening. Frankland and Lockyer have found that if we increase the pressure of hydrogen while an electric current is passing through it, the lines begin to expand, all the spectrum becomes continuous, and, finally, the resistance becomes so large that the electric current will not pass at all. On the other hand, Gassiot and Pliicker have observed that if we diminish the pressure of hydrogen its electric resistance diminishes, attains a minimum, then increases again ; and if we keep on exhausting the tube, it becomes so great again that the current cannot pass. Plicker says that a tube exhausted to its utmost limits shows the lines of hydrogen and silica. He says at one place, “I think that the lines are very fine and distinct.” If there had been any widening, he would have been sure to mention it. Now it is not too much to assume that the resistance of the gas at the moment when the discharge just ceases to pass is the same whether the increase of resistance is pro- duced by too great a pressure or too great an exhaustion. At this moment, there- fore, the current is the same, and the same energy must be converted into heat by resistance. But in the case in which the current does not pass on account of the excessive diminution of pressure, there is only a much smaller quantity of gas to be heated than in the other case; it must consequently be heated up to a much higher temperature; and yet the spectrum is not continuous; the lines are not even widened. We are therefore compelled to accept Frankland and Lockyer’s original conclusion, that pressure, and not heat, is the cause of the widening of the lines. 40 ~ REPORT—18738. On a curious Phenomenon observed on the top of Snowdon. By Axrtnvr Scuuster, Ph.D. This was a short account of a curious phenomenon observed by the author two years ago on the top of Snowdon. He saw his own shadow surrounded by five concentric coloured bows, which seemed to approach as the fog came nearer, until at last he saw the shadow of his head surrounded by a brilliantly coloured ring. Similar phenomena haye often been observed ; but so great a number of bows has never been seen. Hear. On Thermal Conductivity. By Prof. G. Forzers. Notes of some Experiments on the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks. By Prof. A. 8. Hurscart, B.A., ERAS. The paper read was an abstract of the physical portion of that communicated to the Geological Section by Professor Herschel and Mr. G. A. Lebour. It was re- marked that the principal difficulty in determining thermal conductivities from experiments with thin plates, is to ascertain the real temperatures of their faces during the transmission of the heat. The measurements of temperature were made with thermoelectric couples of thin platinum and iron wires connected with a Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer; and it was found that although enclosed between two metallic plates differing as much as 80° or 90° C. from each other in temperature, the corresponding range of temperature between the two surfaces of the half-inch rock plates employed in the experiments only amounted at most to between 3° and 5° C., while the amount of heat transmitted with this range corresponded very nearly to the approximately known thermal conductivities of the rocks. The thermal resistance between the surfaces of solid conductors and air or other fluids in which they are immersed haying been shown by Peclet to arise from an adhering film of the badly conducting fluid with which they are in contact, it is proposed in another series of experiments, by varying the thicknesses of the conducting plates, to ascertain the laws of this resistance, and, if they admit of a convenient interpretation, to arrive at some simple means of eliminating the effects of its influence upon the calculated results of experiments like those to which the various rock-specimens now examined have hitherto been provisionally submitted, and to obtain exact determinations of their real powers of conducting heat. On the Correlation between Specific Weight and Specifie Heat of Chemical Elements. By Prof. Zunenr. Ecrcrriciry anp MAGnetism. On the Molecular Changes that accompany the Magnetization of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt. By W.F¥. Barnerr. On the Relationship of the Magnetic Metals, Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt. By W. F. Barrerr*. * See the Philosophical Magazine for December 1873, p. 478. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Ad On Symmetric Conductors, and the construction of Lightning-conductors. By Prof. Cu. V. Zencur*. It is an experiment very well known in physics, to place two insulated metallic hemispheres in contact with an insulated sphere of brass. If the former be charged with electricity and removed from the inner brass sphere, no trace of electricity is found on its surface. The electricity is shown to be accumulated only on the sur- face of the outer spherical conductor, with equal tension at every point of that surface, _ The author shows that if the outer hemispheres be replaced by two circular wires, no action whatever will be found on the inner conductor. This fact may be best illustrated by the apparatus shown, which consisted of a very sensitive electro- scope placed on a brass plate, supported by a well-insulated stand. If a charged ebonite rod be brought near to the electroscope when protected by two circular wires placed round it, in such a manner as to be in connexion with its gold leaves, or even if it is brought into contact with the ball of the electroscope, there is no action upon the leaves; and if the electrified rod be brought between the two wires and the electroscope itself, only a small action is observed. The author has tried this experiment with a powerful electric machine (a Holtz machine), and finally with a large induction-coil of Ruhmkorff; and the result was, that sparks of 35 centims. length produced no effect on the electroscope. At the request of M. Faye, Ruhmkorff made similar experiments with his largest electric machines, putting a workman in the space between the protecting wires. There was no sensation of electric shocks on using the most powerful electric machine, though a shock was felt on the head of a workman when a large induc- tion-coil was used. The author showed that the effect produced by the action of the pointed needle, though greatly diminished by the wires, is yet sensible, and that in Ruhmkorft’s experiment a discharge produced by the interference of a pointed body may account for the difference observed by him. Tt is easy to see that this experiment may prove useful in regard to the construc- tion of electric apparatus and of lightning-conductors. The author, therefore, has examined the action of other forms of symmetrically-arranged conductors. In the first instance he tried parabolic wires, joined in the same manner to the electroscope to be protected from the action of electricity, with the same effect; next rect- angular wires. If the electroscope is placed exactly in the middle of the rectangular Wire, no action is observed ; placing it excentrically, there is small but increasing action, at least if electric sparks of great intensity are striking the ball of the elec- troscope. If a needle or any other sharp-pointed body is placed between the pro- tecting wire and the electroscope, it is easy to observe the different actions produced by placing the electroscope in an excentrical position. Symmetrical wires placed on buildings or over entire cities in this way, would probably give complete protection from atmospheric electricity ; for if the electric clouds were even to enter between the objects protected and the protecting wires, their activity would be greatly diminished, as shown by the experiments described ; for the wires would become immediately charged, and nearly all the electricity would be accumulated on their surface, without any danger to the protected build- ings of being struck by lightning. MeErTEoroLoay &e. On the Undercurrents of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. By Wi11am B. Carrenter, MD., LL.D., F.R.S. In continuation of his communication last year on the Gibraltar Undercurrent and General Oceanic Circulation, Dr. Carpenter gave the following summary of the results of the experiments recently made, under direction from the Admizalty, by Capt. Wharton of H.M.S. ‘Shearwater,’ to put to the test the correctness of Dy. * Vide Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences Sept. 8, 1872; Le Monde, Sept. 1872. 42 REPORT—1873. Carpenter’s theoretical conclusion that a strong undercurrent must exist between the Aigean and the Black Sea. Although it is commonly supposed that the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus surface-currents are overflow-currents, carrying off the excess of fresh water dis- charged by rivers into the Black Sea, yet it is now clear that they are in great measure wind-currents. During about three quarters of the year the wind blows pretty steadily from the N.E. (that is, down the Straits) ; and, asa rule, the stronger and more continuous the wind, the stronger is the surface out-current. On calm days, the out-current of the Dardanelles is usually slack; and if, as sometimes happens, a strong wind blows from the §8.W., its flow may be entirely checked. It requires a continuance of strong S.W. wind, however, to reverse its direction; and its rate, when reversed, is never equal to that of the out-current. The speed of the Dardanelles current varies at diferent parts of the Strait, according to its breadth—heing usually about one knot per hour at Gallipoli, and three knots in the “ Narrows ” at Chanak Kaleksi, where, with a strong N.E. wind, it is sometimes as much as four and a half knots, the average of the whole being estimated by Capt. Wharton at one and a half knots.—The Bosphorus current has not been as care- fully studied as that of the Dardanelles; but Capt. Wharton states that its rate is greater, averaging about two and a half knots per hour, apparently in consequence of the limitation of its channel, which is scarcely wider at any point than is the Dardanelles at the ‘ Narrows.” It continues to run, though at a reduced rate, when there is no wind; and it is only in winter, after a continued S.W. gale of long duration, that a reversal of the Bosphorus current ever takes place. It might have been supposed that, as the greatest depth of these two Straits does not exceed fifty fathoms, the determination of the question as to the existence of an undercurrent would be a comparatively easy matter. But it is rendered difficult by the very rapidity of the movement, alike in the upper and the lower stratum ; and the results of the earlier experiments made by Capt. Wharton, in which he used the current-drags that had been found to work satisfactorily in the Strait of Gibraltar, were not conclusive. But perceiving from the very oblique direction of the suspending line, that the undercurrent must be acting on the cwrent-drag at a great disadvantage, Capt. Wharton set himself to devise a drag which should hang vertically, even when the suspending line was oblique, so as to expose a large surface to the impact of a current atright angles toit. This worked satisfactorily, and gave the most conclusive evidence of the existence of a powerful undercurrent, by dragging the suspending buoy inwards against the surface-cur- rent; the force of which, aided by wind, was sufficient on several occasions to prevent the row-boats from following the buoy, only the steam cutter being able to keep up with it. The following, which is the most striking of all his results, was obtained in the Bosphorus on the 21st of last August, with a surface-current running outwards at the rate of three and a half knots per hour, and a N.E. wind of force 4. “ When the current-drag was lowered to a depth afterwards assumed to be twenty fathoms, it at once rushed violently away against the surface-stream, the large buoy and a small one being pulled completely under water, the third alone remaining visible. It was a wonderful sight to see this series of floats tearing through the water to windward. The steam cutter had to go full speed to keep pace with it.” It is obvious that the real rate of the undercurrent must be very much greater than that indicated by the actual movement of the float, since the current-drag impelled by it had to draw the large suspending buoys and the upper part of the line against the powerful surface-current running at three and a half knots an hour in the opposite direction, thezr motion through the water therefore being nearly four and a half knots an hour, The difference in the specific gravity of water obtained from different depths was usually found in Capt. Wharton’s investigations (as in the author's) to afford, under ordinary circumstances, a very sure indication of the direction of the move- ment of each stratum; the heavy water of the Augean flowing ¢nwards, and the light water of the Black Sea outwards. And it was indicated alike by both modes of inquiry, that the two strata move in opposite directions, one over the other, with very little intermixture or retardation, the passage from the one to the other being usually very abrupt. In a few instances there was a departure from the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 usual rule—an outward movement being found in the deepest stratum, while the middle stratum was moving inwards, though the water of both these strata had the lensity of the Aigean. These anomalies are considered by Capt. Wharton to pro- ceed from the prevalence of opposite winds at the two ends of the Strait. As a general rule, the strength of the znward undercurrent was proportioned to that of the outward surface-current; and this was very Saakably shown in cases in which, both having been slack during a calm, an increase of wind aug- mented the rates of both currents alike. That a wind blowing outwards should pau the flow of an undercurrent inwards, may at first sight appear anomalous ; ut it is very easily accounted for. Suppose that a moderate S.W. wind, by checking the surface-outflow, keeps the level of the Black Sea just so much above that of the Aigean that the greater weight of the latter column is counterpoised by the greater height of the former; then, as the bottom pressures of the two are equal, their Jateral pressures will also be equal, and there will be no undercurrent so long as this condition lasts. But so soon as, on the cessation of the S.W. wind, the level of the Black Sea is lowered by a surface-outflow, the Hgean column comes to be the heavier, and its excess of lateral pressure produces a deep inflow. And when this outflow is further aided by a N.E. wind, so that the levels of the two seas are equalized, or there is even an excess of elevation at the Aigean end, the greater weight of the Aigean column will produce a greater lateral pres- sure, and will consequently increase the force of the zzward undercurrent. The result of this expertmentum crucis may be fairly considered to have clearly shown that a slight excess of downward presswre—whether arising from difference of specific gravity, or from difference of /evel—is quite adequate to produce move- ment in great bodies of water, which movement may have the rate and force of a current when restricted to a narrow channel. And the “ creeping-flow” of Polar water along the Ocean-bottom, which, on Dr. Carpenter’s theory of Oceanic circulation, brings a glacial temperature into the Intertropical zone, is thus found to have an adequate vera causa in the excess of deep lateral pressure exerted by the Polar column, whose density has been augmented by cold, over that of the Equa- torial column, whose density has been diminished by heat,—the levels of the two columns being assumed to be the same. On the Refraction of Liquid Waves. By W.S. Davis. Lunar Influence on Clouds and Rain. By J. Park Harrison, M.A. On tabulating the mean quantities of cloud at Greenwich in 1871 according to the age of the moon, the results agreed generally with the mean rainfall on certain days of the lunation as ascertained by Mr. Chase, an American savant, and Mr. Hennessy, at Mussoorie, in India. The author pointed out the necessity of obtain- ing special observations, not only of the amount of cloud, but also its height above the earth, before any certain conclusions as to the full extent of lunar influence on the atmosphere, and consequently on air-temperature, can be arrived at. He had shown in former communications that temperature is sensibly affected by the moon. On the Application of Telegraphy to Navigation and Meteorology. By Asrvro pe Marcoarru. On a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity. By C. Metprvum. [Ordered to be printed iz extenso among the Reports. | 44, REPORt—1873. On Experiments on Evaporation and Temperature made at Wisbeach. By 8. B. J. Sxurrcwry. On the Passage of Squalls across the British Isles. By G. M. Wurpprz, B.Sc., PR.AS., of the Kew Observatory. After exhibiting the uncertainty attendant upon investigation of meteorological laws by the aid of observations made over a small part of the earth’s surface like the British Isles, owing to the want of well-marked characteristics which would serve to identify and track out masses of air moving over the country, the author calls attention to squalls which, occurring abruptly and presenting certain definite features, are recorded in a conspicuous manner by self-registering meteorological instruments when they pass over them. The appearance of the instrumental curves at the time of a squall was described and illustrated by means of tracings from the Quarterly Weather Reports of the Meteorological Committee ; and a table was given showing a brief history of twenty- three squalls, registered in the Reports from 1869-73. From this it appeared that their motion is almost invariably in a direction from westward to eastward, with a velocity diminishing as they progress. The velocity of the easterly motion is sometimes as high as 100 miles per hour, and falls as low as 10 miles, the ayerage rate given by the whole series being 38 miles per hour. Referring to other papers which have appeared on these phenomena, the author suggests that use might with advantage be made of a better knowledge of squalls in issuing storm warnings. INSTRUMENTS. On Dynamometers in Absolute Measure. By Roserr Srawet Barr, LL.D., FBS. On an Improvement in the Sextant. By Capt. J. E. Davis, R.N., F.R.GS. This small adaptation to the sextant is intended principally to facilitate the taking observations of heavenly bodies, of course with the view of fixing positions, rating chronometers, &c. It consists of two parts, viz. the micrometer and the indicator. The micrometer is simply a toothed wheel attached to the tangent-screw ; and to the arm of the sextant is attached a pawl or click, adapted to the toothed wheel. Each tooth represents one tenth of the circumference or turn of the tangent-screw ; so that (presuming the tangent-screw to be correct) whatever alteration one turn of the screw makes in the reading on the arc, each click represents exactly one tenth of that movement; thus, if one turn of the screw moves the yernier 20 minutes, each click moves it exactly 2. The indicators are two movable brass slides, one placed before the arm, the other behind the arm of the sextant, and capable of being clamped firmly. By means of these there is no necessity to read off the observations at the time of observing. The micrometer movement can be disconnected at pleasure by means of a small eccentric, which lifts the pawl. In using the sextant, if the heavenly body is rising, the indicator behind the arm is moyed with the arm in bringing the reflected image down; and before it comes into contact either with the horizon or its own reflection in the artificial horizon, the arm is clamped, and the indicator also. The first contact is the first observation. The tangent-screw is then quickly turned one or two clicks; this opens or separates the two images, which, on coming into contact again, form the second observation ; and so on, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 45 - The advantages claimed for this little invention are :— 1. Simplicity in the mode of observing.—The author maintains that observations can be more perfectly made with a sextant by allowing the objects to come into con- tact, and noting the moment of contact, than by bringing them into contact and noting that time; thus the observations of the traveller inexperienced in the use of the instrument will prove of more value by this mode of observing than by that usually followed. 2. In star observations.—Every observer knows full well the difficulty attending taking star observations, the trouble in keeping the lamp trimmed, then that of bring- ing the focus of the light on to the vernier in reading off, and the delay consequent. There is also a physical difficulty ; viz., in observing, the pupil of the eye has to be dilated to take in the greatest possible quantity of light, and suddenly contracted to exclude it in reading off, to be as suddenly changed again. These difficulties, the author believes, are avoided by this simple adaptation. If circummeridian alti- tudes are being observed, all the altitudes before and after crossing the meridian are equal ; and if it be necessary to record the meridian altitude itself (which may occur between the clicks), it can be done by the indicator before the arm; but the meridian altitude is not absolutely necessary. 3. Two sets of star observations can be made by the same sextant without reading off, provided their altitudes are not the same.—Having taken the first set (say the one with the lowest altitude), the indicator behind the arm is left to record it, and the indicator before the arm will record the other. 4. In equal altitudes of the sun, before and after noon, for time.—After taking those in the forenoon, the sextant may be left until the last observation taken comes on in P.M., and the altitudes respectively worked back to the first of the forenoon. 5. In lunar observations.—Every observer of lunar distances on board ship knows the difficulty attending taking these observations. When there is much movement in the vessel it takes some time to get the sextant on; but when once it is got on the proper angle, he can Keep the objects in contact. By means of the micrometer he is not necessitated to remove the sextant from the eye, and can go on taking his distances ad libitum. 6. In thick or cloudy, or even rainy weather, when a heavenly body can only be seen for a short time, the observer is not dependent on one observation, but can take a set in less time than he could one or two by the ordinary process. 7. The check on the time-taker.—A good observer has a difficulty in checking his time-taker. The process to detect error is rather long and complicated ; but the measurements of arc being equal by the micrometer, an error in time is at once detected. ; 8. In nautical surveying.—The indicator attached to the ordinary sounding quin- tant will prove useful by enabling the two angles, to fix a position, being taken without removing the sextant from the eye, and thus avoiding the necessity of having two observers (often necessary), or the use of a double sextant. On an Instrument for the Composition of two Harmonic Curves. By A. E. Donxin, M.A., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Since a simple harmonic curve may be regarded as the curve of pressure on the tympanic membrane when the ear is under the influence of a simple tone, a curve compounded in the ordinary way of two such harmonic curves will be the curve of pressure for the consonance of the two tones which they severally represent. Hence a machine which has for its object the composition of two harmonic “curves, possesses the means for rendering distinctly visible to the eye the effect on the ear of the consonance of any two simple tones, Tf a pencil-point performs rectilinear harmonic vibrations upon a sheet of paper moving uniformly at right angles to the direction of these vibrations, it describes a simple harmonic curve. If there be now given to the paper, in addition to its con- tinuous transverse motion, a vibratory motion similar and parallel to that which the pencil has, a complicated curve will be the-result, whose form will depend on 46 REPORT—1873. the ratio of the numbers of vibrations in a given time of the pencil and paper, and which will be the curve of pressure for the interval corresponding to this ratio. The way in which the machine combines these three motions is as follows. There are two vertical spindles capable of revolving in a horizontal plate. At the lower end of each a crank is fixed; and at the upper end of each a toothed wheel can be screwed on: this pair of wheels can be connected by a third intermediate one. The paper upon which the curve is to be drawn is carried upon a rectangular frame, capable of sliding horizontally up and down. The frame has a pair of hori- zontal rollers at each end, between which the paper passes as the rollers turn; and a uniform motion is given to them by means of a long pinion working into the teeth of a wheel fixed on one of them, and up and down which the frame slides. This long pinion is turned by one of the vertical spindles. A connecting-rod is carried from the crank of this spindle to the frame, a means of which a vibratory motion is communicated to the latter, which motion, though not truly har- monic, is, owing to the length of the connecting-rod and small radius of the crank, quite sufficiently so for practical purposes. A similar and parallel motion is given to a small glass pen by means of a connecting-rod from the other crank. This pen is so arranged as to rest upright with its point upon the paper. If the intermediate wheel be now put into gear with those on the spindles, and either of them turned by a winch provided for the purpose, a curve corresponding to the ratio of the numbers of teeth on the spindle-wheels will immediately be drawn. The general form of equation to the curves which the instrument can produce will evidently be y=a sin (me+a)+6 sin (nt+8). Here a and 0 are the radii of the cranks, which can be altered at pleasure from 0 to half an inch; mand» are limited by the numbers of teeth of the wheels with which the instrument is provided, while a and @ depend on the phases of the cranks, 7. e. the relative position they are in with respect to the vertical plane passing through their axes when the intermediate wheel is brought into gear with them. As an example, by taking m=654, n=27, a=b=half an inch, the curve drawn will be that corresponding to an octave. Substituting a wheel of 55 teeth for that of 54, the curve alters its form to that representing an octave out of tune. Again, the numbers 48 and 45, which have the ratio 1£, would give the curve corresponding to a diatonic semitone. The form of this curve, as of all others where the ratio approaches unity, shows very distinctly the beats which would ensue upon sounding the corresponding consonance. : Since it is possible to vary the radii of the cranks at pleasure, the curves corre- sponding to the consonance of two tones of unequal intensity can also be drawn. The length of paper within which the period of any curve is contained depends on the rate at which the rollers turn. Since this can be regulated at pleasure, by means contrived for the purpose, the curves may be either extended or compressed; that is, the period may be made either long or short. The general form of any curve, however, is better seen in the latter case. The maximum width of contour in any curve is equal to twice the sum of the radii of the cranks. Thus when these are each half an inch, the curve will be two inches wide. The instrument is constructed by Messrs. Tisley and Spiller, of Brompton Road, to whom several improvements on the original model are due. On an Improved Form of Aneroid for determining Heights, with a means of adjusting the Altitude-scale for various Temperatures. By Rogurs Friern, B.A. The author begins by stating that the object aimed at in designing this improved form of aneroid was to simplify the correct determination of altitudes in cases such as ordinarily occur in England, and that the instrument is therefore arranged to suit moderate elevations, say of 2000 feet and under, and is not intended for consi- derable elevations. The table which is adopted in graduating the aneroid described is that given TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 by the Astronomer Royal in the ‘ Proceedings of the Meteorological Society,’ vol. ill. page 406, and gives results which lie between those of other authorities, Aneroids constructed for the determination of elevations by readings from analti- tude-scale consist of two classes—one in which the altitude-scale is fixed and the other in which it is movable. The first class of aneroid, with a fixed scale, is accurate in principle; but the scale only allows for one of the conditions which have to be taken into account, viz. the varying pressure of the atmosphere; and the other condition or temperature of the atmosphere has to be allowed for by calcula- tion. The second class of aneroid, that with a movable scale, is radically wrong in principle as ordinarily used, inasmuch as the movable scale must be graduated for one fixed position of the zero; and when the zero is shifted at random, according to the position of the hand of the instrument, the scale necessarily becomes inac- curate. In the improved aneroid the scale of altitudes is movable, but, instead of being shifted at random according to the position of the hand of the instrument, it is moved into certain fixed positions according to the temperature of the atmosphere ; so that the shifting of the scale answers the same purpose as if the original scale were altered to suit the various temperatures of the atmosphere. The aneroid is graduated for inches in the usual way on the face ; but the graduation only extends from 31 to 27 inches, so as to preserve an open scale. The outer movable scale is graduated in feet for altitudes; and the graduation is laid down by fixing the zero opposite 31 inches. This is the normal position of the scale; and it is then correct for a temperature of 50° Fahr. For temperatures below 50° the zero of the scale is moved below 31 inches; and for temperatures above 50° the zero of the scale is moved above 31 inches: the exact position of the zero for different temperatures has been determined partly by calculation, and partly by trial, and marked on the rim of the aneroid. In order to ensure the altitude-scale not being shifted after it has once been set in its proper position, there is a special contrivance for locking it in the various positions. The altitudes are in all cases determined by taking two readings, one at each station, and then subtracting the reading at the lower station from that at the upper. The movable scale requires to be set for temperatures before taking any obser- vation, and not shifted during the progress of the observations. This will practi- cally not give any inconvenience in the case of moderate altitudes, as small variations of temperature will not appreciably affect the result ; and so long as the temperature does not vary during the course of the observations more than 5° from that at which the instrument is set, the result may be accepted as practically correct. In conclusion the author states that the principle of allowing for the variations of temperature of the atmosphere by shifting the altitude-scale, does not profess to be theoretically accurate, but simply sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. In order to satisfy himself that this was the case, the author carefully compared the readings obtained for different temperatures from the shifted scale with the correct readings as given by calculation from the normal position of the scale, and found that the maximum error was 2 feet and the average error under 1 foot, errors which are perfectly inappreciable. The instrument was constructed by Mr. Casella, of Holborn Bars, London. On Eckhold’s Omnimeter, a new Surveying-Instrument. By G. W. Horr. On Negretti and Zambra’s Test-gauge Solar-Radiation Thermometer. By G. J. Symons. Meteorologists have long been endeavouring to obtain an instrument whereby comparable observations of the amount of solar radiation could be made. Various experiments and observations by the Rey. F. W. Stow, the late F. Nunes, Esq., M.A., and the author have shown that this object is attained by the use of a mer- curial maximum thermometer, of which the bulb and one inch of the stem are 48 REPORT-—1878. coated with dull black, which thermometer is enclosed in a glass jacket, the bulb being in the centre of a sphere of not less than two inches diameter, and from which jacket nearly all the air has been exhausted. To all thermometers thus mounted the title of vacuum thermometer has been applied. It has, however, been found that the amount of exhaustion varies considerably, and that the indications of the thermometer are thereby greatly affected. Yet the instruments hitherto made have been indiscriminately sold and used, and no ready means have been available for determining the amount of air left in. The speciality of the instrument now exhibited is, that a small vacuum-gauge is inserted in the jacket, so that the precise extent to which the exhaustion has been carried can be seen at any time, and strict comparability in this important respect ensured. On a Compound-Pendulum Apparatus. By 8. C. Tistey. This apparatus was originally designed for the purpose of recording the figures shown in Lissajous’s experiments with tuning-forks. The method of obtaining the vibrations is by means of two pendulums, which work upon knife-edges, the supports being secured to two sides of a piece of maho- gany, so that the pendulums swing at right angles to each other. The pendulums are about 3 feet long, and are continued above their supports about 8 inches, finishing at their tops in ball-and-socket joints. Wire arms are screwed into the ball-and-sockets, and connected with a pen or tracer. When at rest, the two pen- dulums and tracer are at three corners #5 square. One pendulum has two sliding pans for holding weights, one above the point of suspension and one below; the other pendulum has two sliding pans, but both below the point of suspension; four weights are generally used, each weighing about 23 lbs. When a single weight is placed on each of the bottom pans and properly ad- justed, the vibrations of the two pendulums being equal, the figure formed by the tracer will be an elliptical spiral, gradually dying out so as to produce a watch- spring-shaped curve. A small sliding weight is attached to the first pendulum ; and by moving this up or down, the vibrations can be brought perfectly into unison, or thrown slightly out of time, thus producing through the tracer a variety of com- plicated and interesting figures. The second pan is used for varying the rates of vibration of the two pendulums in certain ratios, so as to produce curves of different characters. A variety of tracings illustrating this were exhibited. , The use of the pan above the point of suspension is of great value, as it gives a ready means of altering the proportions. Thus by moving the weight (23 lbs.) from a pan below to one above the point of suspension, and placing a balance-weight of 2 lb. on the lower pan, the pendulums having originally been adjusted for unison, the resulting vibrations will be in the ratios of 3 to 1; and if they had been ad- justed to 3 to 2, the result would be 2 to 1, and so on. In the table under the tracer a glass plate is let in, so that, by placing a reflector below and above, a light can be thrown through the object, and a magnified image produced on the screen during its formation; in that case blackened glass and a needle-point for tracer are used. On a new form of Pendulum for exhibiting Superposed Vibrations. By Professor A. 8. Hurscuet, B.A., F.R.A.S. The contrivance exhibited originally presented itself to the author at the Obser- vatory of R. 8, Newall, Esq., Gateshead-upon-Tyne, where the observing-chair is supported by a counterpoise consisting of a horizontal iron bar loaded with weights, and fastened at its two ends to wire ropes, which, passing over two pulleys, support the chair. When the chair-frame was moved, the two ends of this pendulum showed themselves to be capable of three modes of vibration—one longitudinal (in the direction of the bar's length), and two transversal ones proceeding from the bar’s displacement either angularly about its middle point or parallel to itself, The domi miitetion of the first two of these movements together made the end of the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 swinging bar describe compound vibration-curves of the form known as Lissajous’s, of great regularity and distinctness, and was suggested to the author by Mr. Newall as a new means of tracing them. In the new instrument the horizontal bar is hung by four strings forming a W; and the outer pairs are nipped together at equal distances from the rod at whatever height above it gives the desired period of its longitudinal vibrations. Its transversal vibrations are of two kinds, either of bifilar torsion, or of simple lateral oscillation about the three upper points of suspension. The points of attachment on the bar are a little above its axis, which passes through the centre of gravity of a large fixed weight at its middle point; two smaller sliding weights, moved along it, regulate the rate of its angular oscilla- tions. The new pendulum possesses a fourth mode of vibration—of rotation round the line of attachment in the bar, like the rolling of a ship at sea—a condition of oscillation very similar to one which was lately ingeniously employed to illustrate that problem by Sir William Thomson, If the bar “rights” quickly round this axis, these small rolling oscillations do not accumulate very greatly, and soon dis- appear; but if they are nearly of the same period as the principal transverse vibra- tion, they are so large and persistent as entirely to disturb the regularity of the curves. A glass pen fixed to the end of the bar traces Lissajous’s curves by com- bining the longitudinal with either of the two transversal vibrations. When both of the latter act together, wavy moditications of Lissajous’s curves are produced, which present cusps, stationary points, and other interesting varieties of form | of which some illustrations were exhibited]. Their general expression is given by the equations x=A cos (a+at) y=B sin (6+ ft) +C sin (c+ yt), which only differ from those of Lissajous’s curves by the addition of a second in- dependent term at the end of the last equation. On the Influence of Temperature on the Elastic Force of certain forms of Springs. By F, H. Wenn. The author stated that the value of springs in the form of elastic plates or rods subject to deflection or torsion, in the construction of instruments for measuring and regulating force, temperature, and time, depends upon the law that the degrees of motion are equal to the forces, and that this equality of force and motion is identified with the time in which those motions are performed ; for the vibration of certain forms of springs is performed in the same time, whether the degree of motion is great or small: such a spring will give the same musical note at all ranges, and have the important property of isochronism, as illustrated in the balance-springs of chronometers, meaning that the time is the same at all ranges in the are of vibration. The author pointed out that the form of balance-spring commonly used in time- ieces is not strictly isochronal ; for beyond one revolution the forces are unequal, increasing during winding and decreasing in the opposite extreme of uncoiling, but that in the acting range of vibration of these instruments the differences were not appreciable. Instruments for measuring force, temperature, or time, such as aneroid barometers, thermometers, or chronometers, the accuracy of whose indications depends upon the uniform elasticity of springs, require a compensation to counteract the loss of elas- ticity by increase of temperature. A number of experiments were tried and detailed by the author, in order to determine a law to enable the compensations to be effected definitely. The materials experimented upon were steel, hardened and tempered, crown-glass, brass, and german silver highly condensed by hammering. These materials, while under various degrees of compression, were subject:d to temperatures ranging up to 500°; but it was found that the loss of elasticity did not correspond in a regular ratio with the increase of heat; for example, in a steel spring each hundred degrees from 100° to 500° caused deflections in the ratio of 13, 16, 40, and 52; and, in first experiments, when the springs had cooled they did not return to their normal point with the pressure remaining the same, but as acquired 1873. 50 REPoRT— 1873. a permanent set, which was great at first (inan untried material), but became less by repetitions of the experiments. With hard hammered german silver the set at fist much exceeded that of steel, being equal to one-third of the compression, but after four repetitions of the expe- riment amounted to only one twenty-seventh. This metal, unlike steel, indicated equal deflections with equal degrees of heat, showing that, in instruments where it could be used, no secondary compensation would be required, because the ratio is ejual for mean and extreme temperatures. These experiments demonstrate, in regard to any insirument for indicating and registering weight, pressure, temperature, or time by means of the law of elasticity, the importance of subjecting the material (whether steel, glass, or particularly any metal in which this property is obtained by condensation or hammering) to an excess of temperature Feforo the graduations and adjustments are made. On a New Form of Rutherford’s Minimum Thermometer, devised and con- structed by Mr. James Hicks. By G. M. Wurerte, B.Sc., F.R.AS., of the Kew Observatory. Many different kinds of thermometers have been constructed for the purpose of indicating the lowest temperature of the air during a given time; but none has been found to fulfil the desired object so well as the common or Rutherford spirit- thermometer. The chief objection to the use of this instrument is found to be in the fact that the spirit-thermometer cannot follow sudden variations of temperature so quickly as the mercurial thermometer; hence, on occasions when rapid changes occur, the indications of the two instruments are not accordant. In the thermometer exhibited Mr. Hicks has in a great measure succeeded in overcoming this difficulty by the device of largely increasing the surface of the bulb exposed to the air, whilst at the same time he greatly reduces its cubical contents. n 1862 Mr. Beckley suggested the formation of thermometer-bulbs on the pat- tern of certain bottles, in which the bottom is forced up a long way into the body, and Mr. Hicks constructed a mercurial thermometer, which was shown in the In- ternational Exhibition. Practical difficulties, however, obstructing the manufacture of this kind of thermometer, very few have been made. Recently Mr. Hicks endeavoured to make spirit-thermometers upon the same principle, and having succeeded can now construct bulbs in the form of a hollowed-out cylinder, with the film of spirit reduced to any degree of tenuity. In order to determine the relative advantages of the old- and new-pattern ther- mometers, experiments have been made at the Kew Observatory, which show that the time Hicks’s minimum thermometer requires to fall through 25° Fahr. is 55 seconds, whilst a common spherical-bulb minimum takes 2 minutes 25 seconds to fall through the same extent of scale; and Hicks’s rises 25° in 57 seconds, the TE aa ad occupying 2 minutes 24 seconds to rise through the same in- terval. An improved form of the instrument has the bulb in the form of a double tube open at both ends, allowing free passage of the air through it. On a New Electrical Anemograph. By G. M. Wuirrts, B.Sc., F.R.A.S., of the Kew Observatory. Amongst the numerous instruments which have been devised for recording con- tinuously and automatically the velocity and direction of the wind, none has met with more general adoption than the form known as the Beckley or Kew-pattern Anemograph. This instrument was originally constructed in 1857, by a grant from the British Association ; and a detailed description of it, with Plates, is to be found in the Report of the Association for the year 1858. Some minor modifications found necessary having been introduced into the in- strument, it was accepted by the Meteorological Committee ; and it is now employed TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 by them in their observatories, its essential features being identical with the 1858 instrument. Experience has shown that under most circumstances the working of this instru- ment leaves but little to be desired, but that in situations where it is necessary to place the recording-apparatus at a considerable distance from the external driving parts of the instrument its action is subject to irrecularities, due principally to the yielding of the long, light shafts which have then to be employed; and it is to meet such cases that the modification now brought before the Association has been devised by me. No originality is to be found in the adaptation of electricity to the purpose of registering the wind ; numerous arrangements have been made by which it can be accomplished. I need only allude to Secchi, Crossley, Gordon, Hall, and others who have constructed instruments which do it. In my plan for the velocity-recording apparatus, where rotation in one direction only is required, I employ, first, a simple contact-making key, on the shaft car- rying the Robinson’s cups, which transmits a short current every time the cups complete a revolution. This current is then led by means of a wire to the recording-apparatus placed at any distance ; and there, by means of an arrangement of electromagnets and escapement similar to that employed in the step-by-step telegraph instrument, successive currents produce the continuous rotation of a wheel. This wheel being put into connexion with the train of wheelwork at present existing, eventually drives the pencil round and records the wind’s movement upon the paper. The Direction-apparatus.—Registration of the wind’s direction by means of electricity is somewhat difficult of execution by reason of the fact that rotation of the wind-vane occurs sometimes in a positive or right-handed direction, veering from and through E. and §., and sometimes vice versd, or from N. through W. to 8. Various plans have been devised for accomplishing the thing desired, requiring wires varying in number from four to thirty-two. In the instrument now described two only are needed, one of which is employed to transmit the rotary motion of the vane to the recording-pencil, the other determining the direction in which the rotation is to take place. A toothed wheel in electrical communication with a battery is fixed upon the yvane-spindle, and a contact-breaker so arranged that a current is sent to the re- cording-apparatus every time a tooth passes. Kvery current transmitted causes a wheel in the registering-apparatus to rotate through a small are, always of course in the same direction. In order to record backing of the wind, the second wire must be made use of. Above the contact-making wheel on the vane-spindle, and turning loosely in it, a small insulated metallic collar is fitted, immediately over which there is a metal disk fastened to and turning with the shaft; a stud projecting from the underside of this disk plays between two stops on the collar, one of which is a conductor, the other being an insulator. The play of the stud between the two stops is merely sufficient to make and break the electrical contact. The wire from the metallic stop is led to an electromagnet fixed above the recording-apparatus. A lever-clutch, moved by the armature of the magnet, acts upon the driving-spindle of the pencil cylinder, raising it when acurrent passes, and so bringing the lower of two mitre wheels fixed upon the spindle into gear with the mitre wheel turning the cylinder, on its under side, and causing it to rotate when the spindle is turned. When the current is discontinued, a spring draws the spindle downwards, and the top mitre wheel is brought into gear with the upper side of the pencil-wheel, whilst the lower one is set free; continued rotation of the spindle has now the effect of turning the pencil in the reverse direction to that in which it was previously moving. Under ordinary circumstances this will be the position maintained ; the vane-stud being in contact with the insulating stop, no current passes; should, however, the wind veer against the sun, the movement of the vane will make electrical contact, the sliding shaft be lifted, and, the lower wheel coming into gear, the rotation of * 52 REPORT—1873. the shaft under the action of the second wire and contact-breaker will be trans- mitted to the pencil, and cause it to turn in the direction W. through S$. to E. instead of the reverse. It is necessary to make the fittings so exact that no movement of the shaft can occur without a corresponding motion of the pencil; otherwise the orientation of the instrument would be rendered incorrect. The instrument above described has not yet been constructed ; hence no informa- tion can be given as to battery power necessary to work it. Probably very little would suffice; for as the rotation of both shafts is continuous and in the same sense, the whole actual work of moving the pencils over the paper could easily be per- formed by a small weight or spring suitably arranged. On an improved form of Oxyhydrogen Lantern for the use of Lecturers. By C. J. Woopwarp, B.Sc. The author stated that the form of oxyhydrogen lantern generally used by lecturers was merely the old magic lantern, and this was not sufficient for the many requirements of the lecturer of the present day. What was required was a light lantern which would direct a beam in any direction whatever, and which would not only serve to show photographs and slides, but would do also for exhibiting experiments such as electrolysis of liquids, magnetic curves, cohesion-figures, &c. he instrument the author exhibited consists of a small lantern swinging between two uprights. It can be clamped at any angle ; and as the stand is one capable of rotating, the lantern can be made to project a beam of light in any direction. The stool of the Jantern is constructed on the principle of Willis’s apparatus for lecturers on mechanics; and to this is fastened carriers for a table to support a prism or other ea of apparatus. A projecting bar serves to hold the lenses, which slide on the ar and can be turned out of the way ina moment, The lantern was made for the author by Messrs. R. Field & Co., of Birmingham. A description of the Instrument, with woodcuts, will be found in the ‘ Engineer,’ vol. xxxvi. p. 284. CHEMISTRY. Address by W. J. Russrti, Ph.D., F.RS., President of the Section. OF late years it has been the custom of my predecessors in this chair to open the business of the Section with an address, and the subject of this address has almost invariably been a review of the progress of Chemistry during the past year; I purpose, with your leave, to-day to deviate somewhat from this precedent, and to limit my remarks, as far as the progress of Chemistry is concerned, to the his- tory of one chemical substance. The interest and the use of an annual suryey at these meetings of the progress of Chemistry has to a certain extent passed away ; for the admirable abstracts of all important chemical papers now published by the Chemical Society has in a great measure taken its place, and offers to the che- mical student a much more thorough means of learning what progress his science is making than could possibly be done by the study of a presidential address. Doubtless these abstracts of chemical papers are known to others than professional chemists; but I cannot pass them over without recording the great use they have proved to be, how much they have done already in extending in this country an exact knowledge of the progress of science on the Continent, and in helping and in stimulating those who are engaged in scientific pursuits in this country. I believe few grants made by this Association have done more real good than those which have enabled the Chemical Society to publish these abstracts. I dwell for a moment on the doings of the Chemical Society ; for I believe in the progress of this Society we have a most important indication of the progress of TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 chemical science in this country. The number of original papers communicated to the Society during the last year has far exceeded that of previous years; during last year fifty-eight papers were read to the Society, whereas the average number for the last three years is only twenty-nine. Further, I may say there is every appearance of this increased activity not only continuing but even increasing. Another matter connectéd with the Society deserves a passing word: I mean its removal from its old rooms at Burlington House, which afforded it very insufficient accommodation, to its new ones in the same building. This transference, which is now taking place, will give to the Society a great increase of accommodation, and thus admit of larger audiences attending the lectures, of the proper development of the library, and of the full illustration, by experiment, of the communications made to it. "These improvements must act most beneficially on the Society, and stimulate its future development. Even now it numbers some 700 members, and certainly is not one of the least active or least useful of the many scientific societies in London, Since our last Meeting at Brighton we have lost the most renowned of modern chemists, Liebig. His influence on chemistry through a long and most active life has yet to be written. Publishing his first paper fifty years ago, it is difficult for chemists of the present day to realize the changes in chemical thought, in chemical knowledge, and in chemical experiment which he lived through, and was, more than any other chemist, active in promoting. His activity was unwearied; he communicated no less than 317 papers to different scientific journals; and almost every branch of chemistry received some impetus from his hand. Liebig took an active interest in this Association ; and I believe the last paper he wrote was one in answer to a communication made at the last Meeting of this Association. On two occasions he attended Meetings of the British Association, and has communicated many papers to this Section. The Meeting at Liverpool in 1837 was the first at which he was present; he then communicated to this Section a paper on the products of the decomposition of Uric Acid, and, further, gave an account of his most important discovery, made in conjunction with Wohler, of the artificial formation of Urea. At this Meeting Liebig was requested to prepare a report on the state of our knowledge of isomeric bodies. This request, although often repeated, was never complied with. He was also requested to report on the state of Organic Chemistry and Organic Analysis; thus our Section was evidently desirous of giving him full occupation. At the Meeting in 1840, at Glasgow, a paper on Poisons, Contagions, and Miasms, by Liebig, was read; it was, in fact, an abstract of the last chapter in his book on Chemistry in its applications to Agricul- ture and Physiology; and the work itself appeared about the same time, dedicated to this Association. In his dedication Liebig says :—‘‘ At one of the meetings of the Chemical Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the honourable task of preparing a Report upon the State of Organic Chemistry was imposed upon me. In this present work I present the Association with a part of this Report.” At the next Meeting, which was at Plymouth in 1841, there was an interesting letter from Liebig to Dr. Playfair, read to our Section; in it, among other matters, Liebig describes an “excellent method,” devised by Drs. Will and Varrentrapp, for determining the amount of nitrogen in organic bodies: he also says, “we have re- peated all the experiments of Dr. Brown on the production of silicon from paracya- nogen, but we have not been able to confirm one of his results; what our experi- ments poe is, that paracyanogen is decomposed by a strong heat into nitrogen gas and a residue of carbon, which is exceedingly difficult of combustion,” To the next Meeting (which was at Manchester, and Dalton was the President of this Section) Dr. Playfair communicated an abstract of Prof. Liebig’s report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology : this abstract is printed in our ‘ Proceedings ;’ and the complete work is looked upon as the second pait of the _ report on Organic Chemistry. This Association may therefore fairly consider that it exercised some influence on Liebig in the production of the most important works that he wrote. Playfair’s abstract must have been listened to with the greatest interest; and I doubt not the statements made were sharply criticised, especially by the physiologists then at Manchester. Playfair concludes his abstract in these ’ 5b REPORT—18708. words, thus summing up the special objects of these reports :—“ In the opinion of all, Liebig may be considered a benefactor to his species for the interesting dis- coveries in agriculture published by him in the first part of this report. And having in that pointed out means by which the food of the human race may be increased, in the work now before us he follows up the chain in its continuation, and shows how that food may best be adapted to the nutrition of man. Surely there are no two subjects more fitted than these for the contemplation of the phi- losopher ; and by the consummate sagacity with which Liebig has applied to their elucidation the powers of his mind, we are compelled to admit that there is no living philosopher to whom the Chemical Section could have more appropriately entrusted their investigation.” At the Meeting at Glasgow in 1855 Liebig was also present; but he then only communicated to this Section a short paper on fulminuric acid, and some remarks on the use of lime-water in the Point tai of bread. Such, I believe, is the history of the direct relationship which has existed between Liebig and this Association. Indirectly we can hardly recognize how much we owe to him. Interested as he ever was in the work of this Association, I could not but to-day record the instances of direct aid and support which this Section has received from him. { pass on now to the special subject to which I wish to ask your attention. It is the history of the vegetable colouring-matter found in madder: it has been in use from time immemorial, and is still one of the commonest and most important of dyes; it is obtained from a plant largely cultivated in many parts of the world for the sake of the colour it yields ; and the special interest which now attaches to it is that the chemist has lately shown how this natural colouring-matter can be made in the laboratory us well as in the fields—how by using a by-product which for- merly was without value, thousands of acres can be liberated for the cultivation of other crops, and the colouring-matter which they formerly produced be cheaper and better prepared in the laboratory or in the manufactory. That a certain colouring-matter could be obtained from the roots of the Rubia tinctorum and other species of the same plaut has been so long known that apparently no record of its discovery remains. Pliny and Dioscorides evidently allude to it. The former, re- ferring to its value as a dyeing material, says :—“ It is a plant little known, except to the sordid and avaricious—and this because of the large profits obtained from it, owing to its employment in dyeing wool and leather.” He further says :—“The imadder of Italy is the most esteemed, and especially that grown in the neighbour- hood of Rome, where and in other places it is produced in great abundance.” He further describes it as being grown among the olive-trees, or in fields devoted _especially to its growth. The madder of Ravenna, according to Dioscorides, was the most esteemed. Its cultivation in Italy has been continued till the present time ; and in 1863 the Neapolitan provinces alone exported it to the value of more than a quarter of a million sterling. At the present day we are all very familiar with this colouring-matter as the commonest that is applied to calicoes; it is capable of yielding many colours, such as red, pink, purple, chocolate, and black. The plant which is the source of this colouring-matter is nearly allied, botanically and in appearance, to the ordinary Galiums or Bedstraws. It is a native pro- bably of Southern Europe as well as Asia. It is a perennial, with herbaceous stem, which dies down every year; its square-jointed stalk creeps along the ground to a considerable distance ; and the stem and leaves are rough, with sharp prickles. The root, which is cylindrical, fleshy, and of a pale yellow colour, extends down- wards to a considerable depth ; it is from this root (which, when dried, is known as madder) that the colouring-matter is obtained. The plant is propagated from suckers or shoots; these require some two or three years to come to full maturity and yield the finest colours, although in France the crop is often gathered after only eighteen months’ growth. From its taking so long to develop, it is evidently a crop not adapted to any ordinary series of rotation of crops. The plant thrives best in a warm climate, but has been grown in this country and in the north of Europe. In Andia it has been grown from the earliest times, and, as before stated, has been abundantly cultivated in Italy certainly since the time of Pliny; he also TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 mentions its cultivation in Galilee. In this country its culture has often been attempted, and has been carried on for a short time, but never with permanent success. The madder now used in England is imported from France, Italy, Hol- land, South Germany, Turkey, and India. In 1857 the total amount imported into this country was 434,056 cwt., having an estimated value of £1,284,989; and the ayerage annual amount imported during the last seventeen years is 310,042 ewt., while the amount imported last year (1872) was_283,274 cwt., valued at £922,244. In 1861 it was estimated that in the South Lancashire dis- trict alone 150 tons of madder were used weekly, exclusive of that required for reparing garancine. I quote these figures as showing the magnitude of the industry that we are dealing with. Another point of much interest is the amount of land required for the cultivation of this plant: in England it was found that an acre yielded only from 10 to 20 ewt. of the dried roots; but in South Germany and in France the same amount of land yields about twice that quantity. The madder- cultivator digs up the roots in autumn, dries them, in some cases peels them by beating them with a flail, and exports them in the form of powder, whole root, or after treatment with sulphuric acid, when it is known as Garancine. The quality of the root varies much; that from the Levant, and known as Tur- key-root, is most valued. According, however, to the colour to be produced is the madder from one source or another preferred. To obtain the colouring-matter (which is but very slightly soluble in water) from these roots, they are mixed, after being ground, with water in the dye-vessel, and sometimes a little chalk is added. The fabric to be dyed is introduced, and the whole slowly heated; the colouring- matter gradually passes from the root to the water, and from the water to the mordanted fabric, giving to it a colour dependent of course on the nature of the mordant. To trace the chemical history of this colouring-matter we have to go back to the year 1790, when a chemist of the name of Watt precipitated the colouring- matter of madder by alum from neutral, alkaline, and acid solutions ; he obtained two different colouring-matters, but could not isolate them, and many different shades of colour. Charles Batholdi asserted that madder contained much magnesic sulphate; and Hausmann observed the good effect produced on madder by the addition of calcic carbonate. In 1823 F. Kuhlmann made evidently a careful analysis of the madder-root, and describes a red and a fawn colouring-matter. But the first really important advance made in our knowledge of the chemical consti- tution of this colouring-matter was by Colin and Robiquet in 1827; they obtained what they believed to be, and what has since really proved to be, the true colour- ing principle of madder, and obtained it in a state of tolerable purity. Their process for preparing it was very simple: they took Alsace madder in powder, digested it with water, obtained thus a gelatinous mass, which they treated with boiling alcohol, then evaporated off 4 of the alcohol, and treated the residue with a little sulphuric acid to diminish its solubility ; then, after washing it with several litres of water, they got a yellowish substance remaining. Lastly, they found that, on moderately heating this product in a glass tube, they obtained a yellowish vapour formed of brilliant particles, which condensed, giving a distinct zone of brilliant needles reflecting a colour similar to that from the native lead chromate. They named this substance alizarin, from the Levant name for madder, alizari, the name by which it is still known there. A few years later we find other chemists attacking this same subject. In 1831 Gaultier de Claubry and J. Persoz published the account of a long research on the subject. They describe two colouring-matters, a red and a rose one: the red one was alizarin; and the rose one was another body nearly allied to it, and now well known as purpurin. Runge also made an elaborate examination of the madder- root; he found no less than five different colouring-matters in it—madder-red, madder-purple, madder-orange, madder-yellow, and madder-brown. The first three he considers to be suited for dyeing-purposes, but not so the last two. Runge’s madder-red is essentially impure alizarin, and his madder-purple impure purpu- rin. He does not give any analysis of these substances. During the next ten years this subject seems to have attracted but little atten- tion from chemists ; but in 1846 Shiel prepared the madder-red and madder-purple 56 : REPORT—1873. of Runge by processes very similar to those employed by Runge, and analyzed these substances: for madder-red he gives the formula C,,H,,0O,, which differs only by H, O from the formula now adopted ; for the madder-purple he gives the formula C,,H,,O,;, and for the same substance after being sublimed C,H,O,. The chemist who has worked most on this subject, and to whom we are principally indebted for what we know with regard to the different constituents contained in the madder-root, is Dr. Schunck, of Manchester. In Liebig’s ‘Annalen’ for 1848 he gives a long and interesting account of his examination of madder; he isolates and identifies several new substances, which are most important constituents of the root, and has since that time added much to our knowledge of the chemical constitu- tion of madder. In the paper above alluded to he confirms the presence of the alizarin, and gives to it the formula C,,H,,O0,. The principal properties of this body may best be sketched in here. Its volatility and brilliant crystalline appearance have already been mentioned ; it is but slightly soluble in cold water, but much more so in alcohol, in ether, and in boiling water. The colour of its solution is yellow; and when it separates out from a liquid it has a yellow flocculent appearance, differing thus greatly from the red, brilliant, crystalline substance before described. In order to obtain this latter body, heat had always been used; so, until the ela- borate experiments of Schunck, it was a question whether the heat did not produce a radical change in the substance, whether, in a word, these two bodies were really identical. Schunck’s experiments proved that they were, and consequently that this beautiful colouring-matter, alizarin, existed as such in madder. If, how- ever, we go one step further back and examine the fresh root of the Rubia tinc- torum (that is, as soon as it is drawn from the ground), we shall find no trace of alizarin there. On slicing the root it is seen to be of a light carroty colour, and an almost colourless liquid can be squeezed out of it; but this is entirely free from the colouring-matters of madder. Let the roots, however, be kept, if only for a short time, and then they will give abundant evidence of the presence of alizarin; if simply heated, alizarin may be volatilized from them. It appears, then, that the whole of the tinctorial power of this root is developed after the death of the plant. Schunck explains this curious phenomenon as follows:—In the cells of the living plant there is a substance which he has isolated and has named Rubian ; it is easily soluble in water and in alcohol: the solution is of a yellow colour, and has an intensely bitter taste; when dry it is a hard brown gum-like body. It has none of the properties of a dye-stuff; but if we take a solution of it, add some sulphuric or hydrochloric acid to it, and boil, a yellow flocculent sub- stance will slowly separate out, and on filtering it off and washing it, it will be found to have the tinctorial properties of madder, and to contain alizarin. In the liquid filtered from it there 1s, with the acid added, an uncrystallizable sugar; so that in this way the original product in the root, the rubian, has apparently been ng up into alizarin and into sugar. To apply this reaction to what goes on in the root after its removal from the ground, we have to find if any other substances can take the place of the boiling dilute acid ; and Schunck has shown there exists in the root itself a substance which is eminently fitted to produce this splitting-up of the rubian. He obtained this decomposing agent from madder simply by digest- ing it in cold water and adding alcohol to the liquid; this threw down a reddish flocculent substance ; and if only a small portion of this was added to an aqueous solution of the rubian and allowed to stand for a few hours in a warm place, it was found that the rubian was gone, and in place of it there was a thick tenacious jelly ; this, treated with cold water, gave to it no colour, no bitter taste, but much sugar. From the jelly remaining insoluble, alizarin could be extracted ; in fact, of all known substances this very one found in the madder itself is best suited for effecting this decomposition of the rubian. It has long been known to dyers that the amount of colouring-matter in madder will increase on keeping it; even for years it will go on improving in quality: and an experiment of Schunck’s shows that the ordinary madder, as used by the dyer, has not all the rubian converted into colouring-matter ; for on taking a sample of it and extracting with cold water, he got an acid solution devoid of dyeing proper- ties; but on allowing this solution to stand some time it gelatinized, and then possessed dyeing properties. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 It “5 ar then, that there must exist in the root two substances kept apart during the life of the plant in some way of which we know nothing; but as soon as it dies they begin slowly to act on one another, developing thus the colouring- matters in madder. Coincident with the appearance of Schunck’s first paper was one by Debus on the same subject. He looked upon alizarin as a true acid, and gave it the name of lizaric acid ; but, as far as the composition of it was concerned, the percentage num- bers he obtained agreed closely with those given by Schunck. One other investi- gation concludes all that is important in the history of alizarin as obtained from madder, This last investigation is of great interest; it was by Julius Wolff and Adolphe Strecker, and published in 1850. They confirm the results of others so far, that there are in the madder-root two distinct colouring-substances, this important one alizarin, and the other one purpurin. They prepare these colouring-matters much in the same way that Schunck did, and very carefully purify and analyze them. The formule which they give for them differ, however, from Schunck’s : for alizarin they give the formula HO, and for purpurin C,,H,,O,; further, they suggest that, by the process of fermentation, the former is converted into the latter ; and they show that by oxidation they both yielded phthalic acid. Since the pub- lication of this research, until the last year or two, this formula for alizarin has been generally adopted by chemists; and in most modern books we find it given as ex- pressing the true composition of that body. It was not only the careful and elaborate work which they devoted to the subject, but also the ingenious and apparently well-founded theory on the subject. which carried conviction with it. Laurent had shown, not many years before, that when naphthalin, that beautiful and white crystalline substance obtained from coal-tar, was acted on by chlorine and then treated with nitric acid, a body known as chlornaphthalic acid, and having the composition C,,H,,Cl,O,, was obtained; and on comparing this formula with the one they had obtained for alizarin, Wolff and Strecker at once concluded that it really was alizarin, only containing two atoms of chlorine in place of two of hydrogen ; make this replacement, an operation generally easily performed, and from naphthalin they had prepared alizarin. Further, this relationship between chlornaphthalic acid and alizarin is borne out in many ways: it, like alizarin, has the ha of combining with different basic substances, has a yellow colour, is insolu- le in water, melts at about the same temperature, is volatile, and when acted on by alkalies gives a strongly coloured solution. Taking, then, all these facts into con- sideration, can we wonder that these chemists feel convinced that they have esta- blished the composition of alizarin, and have shown the source from which it is to be obtained artificially ? Apparently but one very simple step remains to crown their work with success, that of replacing the chlorine by hydrogen. Melsens had only shortly before shown how this substitution could easily be made in the case of chloracetic acid, by acting on it with potassium amalgam ; and Kolbe had used the battery for the same purpos?: both these processes, and doubtless all others that the authors can think of, are tried upon the chlornaphthalic acid; but chlornaphthalic acid it remains, and they are obliged to confess they are unable to make this sub- stitution ; still they are strong in the belief that it is to be done and will be done, and conclude the account of their researches by pointing out the great technical advantage will be the getting alizarin from a worthless substance such as naphthalin, » One cannot help even now sympathizing with these chemists in their not being able to confirm what they had really the strongest evidence for believing must prove to be a 7 discovery. We now know, however, that had they succeeded in effect- ing this substitution, or had they in any other way obtained this chlornaphthalic acid without the chlorine, if I may so speak of it, which since their time has been done by Martius and Griess, alizarin would not have been obtained ; but a body having a remarkable parallelism in properties to it would have been. This body, like alizarin, is of a yellowish colour, but slightly soluble in water, easily in alcohol and in ether, is volatile, and on oxidation yields the same products; it is, in fact, an analogous body but belonging to another group. We also now know that the formula roposed by Wolff and Strecker, and so long in use, is not the correct one. But ittle more remains to be added with regard to the history of alizarin, as gathered ro m the study of the natural substance. Schiitzenberger and Paraf suggested 58 REPORT—1873. doubling Wolff and Strecker’s formula for alizarin; and Bolley suggested the formula C,,,H,, O,, which, owing to the uneven number of hydrogen atoms, was soon rejected. If we compare our present knowledge of alizarin with what it was when these re- searches on the natural product were completed, it is as light compared with darkness ; and we may well ask, whence has come this influx of knowledge? The answer, I hope to show you, is undoubtedly that it has come from the careful and accurate study of abstract chemistry. I know of no history in the whole of chemistry which more strikingly illustrates how the prosecution of abstract science oo the foundation for great practical improvements than the history of alizarin oes. My object now is, then, to show you, as shortly as I can, how by indirect means the composition of alizarin was discovered, how it has been built up artificially, and how it is superseding for manufacturing-purposes the long-used natural roduct. “ To trace this history from its source we must go back to 1785, when an apothe- cary of the name of Hofmann obtained the calcium salt of an acid called quinic acid from Cinchona-bark. This acid is now known to be of common occurrence in plants; it exists in the bilberry and in coffee, in holly-, ivy-, oak-, elm-, and ash-leaves, and probably many other leaves. Liebig also prepared the calcium salt, and was the first to give a complete analysis of it; the formula he gave for it was C,, H,, O,,. Baup, on repeating Liebig’s experiments, arrived at a somewhat different conclu- sion, and gave the formula C,, H,,0,,. In 18365, at Liebig’s suggestion to determine which formula was correct, Alexander Woskrensky, from St. Petersburg, then a student at Giessen, undertook the further investigation of this subject, and esta- blished the formula C,, H,,O,,, the one in fact now in use. In the course of this investigation, which he carried further than merely settling the percentage composi- tion of this acid, he describes what to us now is of most interest, a new substance having peculiar and very marked properties. He says that when a salt of quinic acid is burnt at a gentle heat he gets aqueous vapour, the vapour of formic acid, and a deposit of golden needles, which are easily sublimed. Afterwards he describes how this same golden substance may be obtained from any salt of quinic acid by heating it with manganic dioxide and dilute sulphuric acid; it then distils over, condensing in golden-yellow needles on the sides of the receiver, and may be rendered pure by resublimation. The composition of this body he finds to be C,H, 0, and names it quinoyl, a name strongly objected to by Berzelius, as conveying a wrong impression of the nature of the body ; he proposed in place of it the name quinone, by which it is still known. Far as this body would seem to be removed from alizavin, yet it is the study of its properties which led to the arti- ficial production of alizarin. Some years afterwards Wéhler also examined the decomposition of quinic acid; he prepares again this quinone, and follows exactly the process described by Woskrensky : he states that, with regard to the properties of this remarkable body, he has nothing particular to add ; however, he proposes a different formula for it, and discovers and describes other bodies allied to it; among these is hydroquinone, C,H,0,. Laurent afterwards shows that the formula proposed by Wéhler is incon- sistent with his and Gerhardt’s views, and by experiment confirms the former formula for this body. Although many other chemists devoted much attention to this substance, still its real constitution and relation to other compounds re- mained long unknown. Thus Wéhler, Laurent, Hofmann, Stiideler, and Hesse all had worked at it; and much experimental knowledge with regard to it had been acquired, One important point in its history was, first, the discovery of chloranil by Erdmann in 1841, and then Hofmann showing that, by heating quinone with potassic chlorate and hydrochloric acid, chloranil could be obtained from it— that, in fact, chloranil was quinone in which all the hydrogen had been replaced by chlorine. Perhaps the most general impression among chemists was, that in constitution it was a kind of aldehyde; certainly its definite place among chemical compounds was not known. Kekulé suggests a rational formula for it ; but it is to Carl Graebe that we owe our knowledge of its true constitution. In 1868 he published a remarkable and very able paper on the quinone group of com- pounds, and then first brought forward the view that quinone was a substitution- VRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 derivative of the hydrocarbon benzol (C,H,). On comparing the composition of these two bodies, it is seen that the quinone contains two atoms of oxygen more and two atoms of hydrogen less than benzol; and Graebe, from the study of the decomposition of quinone and from the compounds it forms, suggested that the two atoms of oxygen form in themselves a group which is divalent, and thus replace the two atoms of hydrogen ; this supposition he very forcibly advocates, and shows its simple and satisfactory application to all the then known reactions of this body. This suggestion really proved to be the key, not only to the explanation of the aaa. constitution of quinone and its derivatives, but to much important discovery esides. At this time quinone seemed to stand alone ; no other similarly constituted body was known to exist ; but what strikingly confirms the correctness of Graebe’s views, and indicates their great value, is that immediately he is able to apply his lately gained knowledge, and to show how really other analogous bodies, other quinones in fact, already exist. He studied with great care this quinone series of com- pounds and the relation they bore to one another—the relation the hydrocarbon benzol bore to its oxidized derivative quinone, and its relation to the chlorine substitution-products derivable from it. At once this seems to have led Graebe to the conclusion that another such series already existed ready formed, and that its members were well known to chemists—that, in fact, naphthalin(C,, H,) was the parent hydrocarbon, and that the chloroxynaphthalin chloride (C,, H, ci, O,) and the perchloroxynaphthalin chloride (C,,Cl,O,) were really chlorine substitution- compounds of the quinone of this series, corresponding to the bichloroquinone and to chloranil—that the chloroxynaphthalic acid, C,, H, Cl (HO) 0,, and the per- chloroxynaphthalic acid, C,, Cl, (HO) O,, all compounds previously discovered by Laurent, were really bodies belonging to this series—and, further, that the sup- osed isomer of alizarin discovered by Martius and Griess was really related to this ast compound, having the composition C,,H,(HO)O,. Further, he was able to confirm this by obtaining the quinone itself of this series, the body having the formula C,,H,(O,)", containing also two atoms less of hydrogen and two atoms more of oxygen than the hydrocarbon naphthalin; and to this body he gave the characteristic name of naphthoquinone. The chlorine compounds just named are, then, chlornaphthoquinones or chloroxynaphthoquinones, and correspond to the former chloroquinones ; and Martius and Griess’s compound will be an oxynaphtho- quinone : many other compounds of this series are also known. Another step confir- matory of this existence of a series of quinones was made by Graebe and Bergmann : as the chloranil could be found by treating phenol with potassic chlorate and hydro- chloric acid, and quinone derived from it, they showed that in the next higher series to the phenol series, viz. with cresol, the same reaction held good; and by bine | 3 ing it in the same way, they obtained a di- and a trichlorotoluquinone, C, (2)! zi CH C, (0,)"; which in physical properties very closely resembled the corresponding 3 . . compounds in the lower series: other compounds have also been prepared. In the next step we have the application which connects these series of disco- _ veries with alizarin. Following the clue of a certain analogy which they believed to exist between the chloranilic acid (C, Cl, GiB) ) and the chloroxynaphthalic 2 acid (C. H,Cl Co which they had proved to be quinone compounds and alizarin, believing that a certain similarity of properties indicated a certain similarity of consti- tution, Graebe and Liebermann were led to suppose that alizarin must also be a deri- vative from a quinone, and have the formula (C, fiat id} ). This theory they were able afterwards to prove. The first thing was to find the hydrocarbon from which the quinone might be derived. This was done by taking alizarin itself and heating it with a very large excess of zinc powder in a long tube, closed at one end. A pro- 60 REPORT—1873. duct distilled over, and condensed in the cool part of the tube. On collecting it and purifying it by recrystallization, they found they had not a new substance, but a hydrocarbon discovered as long ago as 1832 by Dumas and Laurent, and obtained by them from tar. They had given it the formula C,,H,,; and as apparently it thus contained once and a half as many atoms of carbon and hydrogen as naph- thalin did, they named it Paranaphthalin. Afterwards Laurent changed its name to Anthracene, by which it is still known. Fritzsche, in 1857, probably obtained the same body, but gave it the formula C,,H,,. Anderson also met with it in his re- searches, established its composition, and formed some derivatives from it. Limprich in 1866 showed it could be formed synthetically by heating benzol chloride (C,H,Cl) with water; and Berthelot has since proved that it is formed by the action of heat on many hydrocarbons. This first step was then complete and most satisfactory : from alizarin they had obtained its hydrocarbon ; and this hydrocarbon was a body already known, and with such marked properties that it was easy to identify it. But would the next requirement be fulfilled ? would it, like benzol and naphthalin, yield a quinone? The experiment had not to be tried; for when they found that anthracene was the hydrocarbon formed, they recognized in a body already known the quinone derivable from it. It had been prepared by Laurent by the action of nitric acid on anthracene, and called by him Anthracenuse; and the same substance was also discovered by Anderson, and called by him Oxanthracene. The composition of this body was proved by Anderson and Laurent to be C,, H, O,, and thus bears the same relation to its hydrocarbon anthracene that quinone and naphthaquinone do to their hydrocarbons. Graebe gave to it the systematic name of Anthraquinone. We have, then, now three hydrocarbons (C, H,, C,, H,, and C,, H,,) differing by C, H,, and all forming starting-points for these different quinone series. Anthra- quinone, acted upon by chlorine, gave substitution-products such as might have been foretold. It is an exceedingly stable compound, not acted upon even by fusion with potassic hydrate. Bromine does not act upon it in the cold; but at 100° it forms a bibromanthraquinone. Other bromine compounds have also been formed. Now, if the analogies which have guided them so far still hold good, they would seem to have the means of forming alizarin artificially. Their theory is that it is dioxyanthraquinone (c, pilates (re) ) , and if so, judging from what is known to take 2 place with other quinone derivatives, should be formed from this dibromanthra- quinone on boiling it with potash or soda and then acidulating the solution. They try the experiment, and describe how, contrary at first to their expectation, on boil- ing dibromanthraquinone with potash no change occurred; but afterwards, on using stronger potash and a higher temperature, they had the satisfaction of seeing the liquid little by little become of a violet colour. This shows the formation of alizarin. Afterwards, on acidifying this solution, the alizarin separated out in yellowish flocks. On volatilizing it they get it in crystals like those obtained from madder; on oxidizing it with nitric acid, they get phthalic acid; and on precipitating it with the ordinary mordants or other metallic solutions, they get compounds exactly comparable to those from the natural product. Every trial confirms their success ; so, by following purely theoretical considerations, they have been led to the discovery of the means of artificially forming this important organic colouring-matter. A special interest must always attach itself to this discovery ; for it is the first instance in which a natural organic colouring-matter has been built up by artificial means. Now the chemist can compete with nature in its giant tion. Although the first, it is a safe prediction that it will not long be the only one. Which colouring-matter will follow next it is impossible to say ; but, sooner or later, that most interesting one, scientifically and practically, indigo, will have to yield to the scientific chemist the history of its production. Returning for a moment to the percentage composition of alizarin, now that we know its constitution, its formula is established; and on comparing it (C,, H, O,) with all the different formule which have been proposed, we see that the one advo- eated by Schunck was most nearly correct—in fact that it differs from it only by two atoms of hydrogen. It is not without interest to note that the next most im- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 portant colouring-matter in madder, purpurin, which so pertinaciously follows ali- zarin, is in constitution very nearly allied to it, and is also an anthracene derivative. Scientifically, then, the artificial production of this natural product was complete ; but the practical question, Can it be made in the laboratory cheaper than it can be obtained from the root ? had yet to be dealt with. The raw material, the anthracene, a by-product in the manufacture of coal-gas, had as yet only been obtained as a chemical curiosity ; it had no market value; its cost would depend on the labour of separating it from the tar and the amount obtainable. But with regard to the bromine necessary to form the bibromanthraquinone it was different; the use of such an expensive reagent would preclude the process becoming a manufacturing one. But could no cheaper reagent be used in place of the bromine, and thus crown this discovery by utilizing it as a manufacturing process? It was our countryman Mr. Perkin who first showed how this could be done, and has since proved the very practical and important nature of his discovery by carrying it out on the manufac- turing scale. The nature of Perkin’s discovery was the forming, in place of a bibromanthraquinone, a disulphoanthraquinone ; in a word, he used sulphuric acid in place of bromine, obtaining thus a sulpho-acid in place of a bromine substitution- compound. The property of these sulpho-acids, containing the monovalent group HSO,, which is the equivalent to the atom of bromine, is that on being boiled with an alkali they are decomposed, and a corresponding alkaline salt formed. Thus the change from the anthraquinone to the alizarin was effected by boiling it with sul- phuric 0) At a high temperature it dissolves, becoming a sulpho-acid, (O,)" Cie, a a ; and then the further changes follow, as they did with the bromine 3 compound. The sulpho-acid boiled with potash is decomposed, and a potash salt of alizarin and potassic sulphite are formed; acid then precipitates the alizarin as a bright yellow substance. While Perkin was carrying on these researches in this country, Caro, Graebe, and Liebermann were carrying on somewhat similar ones in Germany; and in both countries have the scientific experiments developed into manufacturing industries. My knowledge extends only to the English manufactory ; and if any excuse be ne- cessary for having asked your attention to-day to this long history of a single sub- stance, I think I must plead the existence of that manufactory as my excuse ; for it is not often that purely scientific research so rapidly culminates in great practical undertakings, Already has the artificial become a most formidable opponent to the natural product; and in this struggle, already begun, there can be no doubt which will come off victorious. In the manufactory is rigidly carried out the exact process I have already described to you. In tar there is about one per cent. of anthracene; this, ina crude impure state, is obtained from it by the tar-distiller and sent by him to the colour-works. Here it is purified by pressure, by dissolving from it many of its impurities, and, lastly, by volatilizing it. Then comes the conversion of it into the anthraquinone by oxidizing agents, nitric or chromic acid being used, then the formation of the sulpho-compound by heating it with sulphuric acid to a tempera- ture of about 260°C. The excess of acid present is then neutralized by the addi- tion of lime, and the insoluble calcic sulphate is filtered off. To the filtered liquid sodic carbonate is added, and thus the calcic salt of the sulpho-acid is changed into 2 the sodic salt, C,, H, ne ape This is afterwards heated to about 180°C. with Ya SO caustic soda, thus decomposing the sulpho-acid and forming the soda salt of alizarin and the sodic sulphite. The alizarin salt so formed remains in solution, giving to the liquid a beautiful violet colour. rom this solution sulphuric acid precipitates the alizarin as an orange-yellow substance. It is allowed to settle in arge tanks, and then is run, in the form of a yellowish mud, which contains either 10 or 15 per cent. of dry alizarin, into barrels, and is in this form sent to the Baiit-warks, and used much in the same way as the original ground madder was used. This alizarin mud, as I have called it, containing but 10 per cent, of dry alizarin, * 62 REPORT—1873. is equal in dyeing-power to about 8 times its weight of the best madder, and is the pure substance required for the dyeing, in place of a complicated mixture containing certain constituents which have a positively injurious effect on the colours produced. The scientific knowledge and energy which Mr. Perkin has brought to bear on the manufacture of this colouring-matter seem already to have worked wonders. The demand and supply for artificial alizarin are increasing at a most rapid rate ; and yet the manufacture of it seems hardly to have commenced. The value of madder has much decreased ; and in fact, judging by what occurred in the year of revolution and commercial depression (1848), when the price of madder fell for a time to a point at which it was considered it would no longer remunerate the growers to produce it, that point has now been again reached, but certainly from very different reasons. Last year * artificial alizarin equal in value to about one fourth of the madder imported into England was manufactured in this country. This year the amount will be much larger. Thus is growing up a great industry, which, far and wide, must exercise most important effects. Old and cumbrous processes must give way to better, cheaper, newer ones; and, lastly, thousands of acres of land in many different parts of the world will be relieved from the necessity of growing madder, and be ready to receive some new crop. In this sense may the theoretical chemist be said even to have increased the boundaries of the globe. On the Detection of Adulteration of Tea. By Atrrep H. Atten, 7.0.8. On Alpha- and Beta-Naphthylic Sulphide. By Houyry E. Armsrrone, Ph.D., FCS. Whereas in the fatty series of organic compounds two classes of bodies of the form R'(SCN) are known, viz. the sulphocyanates and the so-called mustard-oils or isosulphocyanates, in the aromatic series the compounds of the latter class alone have been obtained. Thus all attempts to prepare phenylic sulphocyanate, for example, by distilling a salt of benzenesulphonic acid with potassic sulphocyanate have been unsuccessful. It appeared possible that the desired compound, although formed in the first instance, was produced at a temperature so high that it at once underwent decomposition, and that better results might be hoped for from the employment of sulpho-salts more easily acted upon than the benzenesulphonates. A dry mixture of the potassic salt of alpha-naphthalenesulphonic acid and potassic sulphocyanate was therefore submitted to distillation; and a semisolid: product was thus obtained, which could be purified by recrystallization from a solution of carbonic disulphide in alcohol. On analysis numbers were obtained which show that the product is a naphthylic sulphide, (C,,H,),S. A mixture of the potassic salt of beta-naphthelenesulphonic acid and potassic sulphocyanate behaved similarly on distillation ; the product appears to consist of beta-naphthylic sulphide. Alpha-naphthylic ae crystallizes in long white needles, melting at about 100° ; it is scarcely soluble in alcohol, but dissolves readily in carbonic disulphide and glacial acetic acid. The beta-compound has a higher melting-point, and is also less soluble in a mixture of carbonic disulphide and alcohol. On distilling the potassic salt of either alpha- or beta-naphthalenesulphonic acid much naphthalene is formed, but apparently no naphthylic sulphide. On the Action of Sulphuric acid on Ethylaniline and Dimethylaniline. By Henry E. Armsrrone; Ph.D., F.C.S. On heating ethylaniline with an excess of Nordhausen sulphuric acid until sul- phurous hydride is evolved, and subsequently mixing the product with water, a * On the Ist of this month (September) the value of madder-roots in France was 24 to 26 francs per 50 kilogrammes. The average price in 1848 was 27, but in June and July of that year it was 22 francs. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 crystalline mass is obtained, which is readily recognized as sulphanilic acid. The reaction probably occurs thus : {Cal 4.211,80,=N jC (HSO,)+C,H,.HS0O,+0H,,. ciel H Dimethylaniline similarly treated behaves differently, however, being converted into a monosulphonic acid. C,H C,H, (HSO T,. N ) Gip'+H,80,=N oH 3) +OH, CH, CH, Note on Cresol Derivatives. By Henry E. Armstrone, Ph.D., F.C.S. The author briefly referred to the results of the preliminary examination of coal- tar cresylic acid, which he had commenced in conjunction with Mr. C. L. Field, and stated that the dinitrocresol described by them in a communication to the Chemical Society had since been identified with dinitroparacresol. On the Action of Sulphide of Methyl on Bromacetic Acid. By Professor Dr. Crum Brown, /.R.S.Z. On Black Deposits of Metals. By Dr. J. H. Guapsronn, F.R.S. Tf one metal be thrown down from solution by means of another metal, it does not always present itself of the same colour as it exhibits when in mass; in fact most metals that are capable of being precipitated by substitution may be obtained in a black condition. The allied metals platinum, palladium, and iridium are enerally, if not always, black when thus prepared ; and bismuth and antimony form ipa fringes, and little else. Similar fringes are also formed by gold; but it also yields green, yellow, or lilac metal according to circumstances. Copper when first deposited on zinc, whether from a weak or a stroug solution, is black; but in the latter case it becomes chocolate-coloured as it advances, or red if the action be more rapid. Lead in like manner is always deposited black in the first instance, though the growing crystals soon become of the well-known dull grey. Silver and thallium appear as little bushes of black metal on the decomposing plate, if the solution be very weak, otherwise they grow of their proper colour. Zine and cadmium give a black coating, quickly passing into dark grey, when their weak solutions are decomposed by magnesium. The general result may be stated thus :—If a piece of metal be immersed in the solution of another metal which it can displace, the latter metal immediately makes its appearance at myriads of points in a condition that does not reflect light; but as the most favourably circumstanced crystals grow they acquire the optical properties of the massive metal, the period at which the change takes place depending partly on the nature of the metal, and partly on the rapidity of its growth. In the production of the black deposit of the copper-zine couple lately employed by the author and Mr. Tribe to break up various compound bodies, there are several stages that may be noted. At first an outgrowth of copper forms on the zinc; then while this action is still proceeding the couple itself acts upon the water or the sulphate of zinc in solution, the metallic zinc being oxidized, and hydrogen gas or black zinc being formed against the copper branches. This deposit of zinc was originally observed by Dr. Russell. The arrangement of the particles between the two metals in connexion is supposed to be somewhat thus :— Cu | ZnSO, | ZnSO, | H,O | H,O | Zn, which by the conjoint polar and chemical force becomes Cu | Zn | ZnSO, | H, SO, | H,O | ZnO. 64 _ REPORT—1873. If there is still copper sulphate in the solution, this deposited zinc may in its turn become coated with copper ; but if it remain exposed to water it is sure to become oxidized. The black deposit often assumes a rowaiel colour when this is the case. The copper on which zinc has been deposited gives a brassy streak when rubbed in a mortar; but the presence of oxides tend to prevent the sticking together of the detached pieces of metal, and thus the formation of a streak on pressure. If, however, the oxide be removed by acetic acid, the clean ramifications of metal, whether black or otherwise, conglomerate of their own accord in a re- markable way, and little pressure is required to obtain a yellowish metallic streak ; while, if hydrochloric acid be used, the zinc itself also dissolves with effervescence, and the conglomerating pieces of metal when rubbed give a coppery streak. On a Continuous Process for Purifying OCoal-gas and obtaining Sulphur and Ammonium Sulphate. By A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., and F. W. Fison, £.C.S. On the Spectra of certain Boric and Phosphoric Acid Blowpipe Beads, By Cuartes Horner. This memoir is intended to show the importance of studying coloured phosphoric and boric acid beads with the spectroscope, and that much valuable fneoiaies may be derived from a careful observation of the various spectra, since certain constituents in complex minerals may be often recognized in the same bead. The author then explains how in phosphoric acid beads didymium, uranium, cobalt, chromium, &c. may be detected in fractional quantities by their characteristic absorption-bands and lines in the presence of other substances like iron, nickel, &c., which give no such positive spectra. The author also furnishes new tests for tungsten, molybdenum, and cadmium, by which the two former more especially may be determined in infinitesimal quantities of at least 0-0001 of a grain by means of their remarkable absorption- spectra. To produce these results the author adopts the somewhat novel method of fusing the substance along with boric acid simultaneously, at a very gentle heat, until the bead is tolerably clear. Tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and titanium oxides all yield brown beads when cold, nickel reddish purple, and cadmium a bright yellow by reflected light. The subjoined Table gives the positions of the bands and lines according to Mr. Sorby’s scale and notation. TABLE OF SPECTRA. Phosphoric acid beads. Red end. 5) aA) kite Comma Direagm Oxide... peas) -uits vecid es 1 I}, 12, 23, 88, 51, 63, 78. Ohrominm 4) cies = « banda # 12, 13, 23. 4 — Didymium j, .-sseeseeseeeteens 35 44 6, 63, Tungsten 5, sseeeeeeeeee seen rates Molybdenum oxide ...........--. Seepcanl OS Borie acid beads. 5 Tungsten Oxide .....+..sss.sseeee ae Denon gy NYA: BOOS 5a 6552s meee 8 soca, 2 ly 38 5j...... Molybdenum oxide ...........4.. 1p 25 bf....0- | Cadmium PA SAO OLS CANT GE. oaths TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 Note on the Elements in the Sun.. By J. Norman Locxyer, F.R.S. The Sewage of Manufacturing Towns. By W.T. McGowen. The subject one of greatest difficulty in the management of large manufacturing towns ; importance of having it considered before the Association. Sketch of the stages by which the question has attained its present magnitude. Absurd position of local authorities consequent on conflicting decisions to which they are exposed. Endeavours on the part of Government to arrive at satisfactory result by means of Commissions ; their result. Proceedings of Government by bill in the Commons; review of the measure; renewed bill in the Lords ; review thereof. Result of both bills. Return by Local Government Board as to steps taken in towns to deal with sewage. Review of the document. Measures adopted by the Bradford Corporation for defecating their sewage. However successful, will be comparatively inappreciable as affecting the state of the Aire and Calder. Combined efforts of Bradford and neighbouring Corporations to deal with those rivers on a broad and liberal principle by means of an elective Conservancy Board for the rivers, and by means of the Local Authority in every district of the Water- shed ; subject to appeal to the Local Government Board. Defeat of the measure, though supported by the Government recommendation that the leading feature of that scheme be adopted as the basis of general legislation. Difficulty of establishing sewage-farms in this and similar districts. Possibility of failure of all remedies yet tried. Outline of scheme for such an emergency. On the Valuation of Commercial Crude Anthracene. By Dr. Pavt and A. D. Cowntey, FCS. On several Homologues of Oxaluric Acid. By W.H. Prue. The anhydrides of the dibasic acids add themselves to urea, and ,to sulpho- carbamide to form acids which are homologous with oxaluric acid. Thus, by heating a mixture of succinic anhydride and urea in the proportion of their mole- cular weights to 130° C., the succino-carbaminic acid is produced, as expressed by the equation CH,—CO NH, CH,—CO—NH—CO—NH, (Ne a CH,—CO NH, CH,—COOH. This acid, crystallized from water, forms pearly scales which fuse at 203-204° C, It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and bisulphide of carbon, but soluble in glacial acetic acid and boiling water, as also in concentrated sulphuric acid. The salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths are easily soluble ; those of lead and silver form white precipitates. If sulpho-carbamide be substituted for urea in the above reaction, the succino- sulphocarbaminic acid is formed. This acid resembles the preceding in all its P peariice. It forms a crystalline powder, which fuses at 2105-211°C, Its ormula is CH,—CO—NH—CO—NH, CH,—COOH { “ie anhydride does not combine with urea; carbonic acid is liberated, and 873. . 5 a 66 REPORT—1873. citraconamide produced. However, citraconic anhydride treated with sulpho- carbamide yields the citraconsulpho-carbaminic acid : /CO—NH—CO—NH, \COOrL This body has similar properties to those of the foregoing acids. It fuses at 222-223°C. No such combination could be obtained between lactide and urea, or between lactide and sulphocarbamide. In the first case lactamide and carbonic acid were produced; in the second, lactamide and oxysulphide of carbon. On Horn Silver. By W. Cuanpirr Rozzrts, F.C.S. On the Constitution of some Silicates. By Professor Scuararix, Prague. On Artificial Magnetite. By Joun Spruumr, F.C.S. The object of this communication was to point out an error in the statement of a chemical reaction occurring in several standard works of reference, and, in the second place, to indicate the formation of crystallized magnetic oxide of iron (magnetite) in the ordinary process of manufacturing aniline from nitrobenzol by the reducing action of metallic iron. Reference was made to Reimann’s ‘ Aniline and its Derivatives,’ and to Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology,’ where the action of iron upon nitrobenzol in the presence of acid (Béchamp’s process) is stated to give ferric oxide or a “hydrated oxide of iron.” The author pointed to the fact that the ordinary residual product in this operation was black, and could be so far purified by washing and elutriation from the excess of iron usually remaining in admixture as to give a fine black pigment, which appeared under the microscope as minute octahedra, and was strongly magnetic. Chemical analysis showed this to consist almost entirely of magnetic oxide of iron, with such impurities as were inherent to the process or previously existed in the cast iron. The physical properties of this form of oxide were further described, and its analogy to the native varieties of magnetic ore (Cornish as Dannemora) shown by the following analysis of the substance dried at 110° C. :— INGTTIC OFIGO . ssscsslecere age .... 67:00 Herrons oxide! <....... «2 ee einen ates 80°05 (OTTO UICC Be acc ch oinpss Aicehu ly trrssisis’ ashe 1:25 ell 2 Reine ae geymereerili Fonerialie ee 8 ‘78 Phosphoriciacideiaey. sce eats vice 62 Sulphur and manganese .......... traces 99°68 Metallic iron (total)..........604 ~ 10°27 On a form of Gas-generator. By C. J. Woopwarp, B.Sc. What are required in a gas-generator are a ready means of bringing the acid into contact with the zinc, marble, &c., and, what is of even greater importance, a ready means of remoying it when the supply of gas is no longer wanted. The generator devised by Dobereiner is theoretically perfect; but, owing to slight leakage, it will not remain in action for any length of time. Two forms of generator were described. The tirst consists of a stoneware vessel somewhat similar to a Woulfe’s bottle. To one of the tubulures is fastened a glass cylinder containing the zinc, marble, &c.; to the other tubulure is attached a tube through which a plug of wood passes loosely. To bring the apparatus into action s TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 the wooden plunger is depressed, when, from displacement, the acid rises and is thus brought into contact with the zinc. When the plug is down the supply of gas is self-regulating, just as in the apparatus of Dobereiner. The other form of generator, and the one which the author generally uses, is made from a wide-mouthed bottle containing acid. Into the mouth of this bottle fits a glass cylinder containing the materials for generating the gas. At the shoulder of the bottle is a hole admitting a small india-rubber tube, on which is placed a pinch-tap. Supposing the apparatus is wanted in action, the pinch-tap is opened and air forced into the bottle by means of the mouth. The pressure of air forces acid up the cylinder, when immediately the gas is given off. ‘The apparatus is put out of action in a moment by opening the pinch-tap, when the confined air escapes and the acid falls. Instead of using the mouth to compress the air, a small india- rubber ball may be used. New Derivatives from Codeine and Morphine. By 0. R. A. Wrieut, D.Sc. Lond., Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital, London. Since the last Meeting of the Association the following further results have been obtained, partly in conjunction with Mr. E. L. Mayer, of Glasgow. Some of the polymerides of morphine corresponding to the di-, tri-, and tetra- codeine described in last year’s paper are obtainable by the action of sulphuric acid diluted with its own bulk of water on morphine at 100°. Although dicodeine is readily obtainable from codeine in this way, dimorphine does not appear to result in any appreciable quantity ; trimorphine and tetramorphine, on the other hand, are readily producible, the physical properties of these two bases and their derivatives corresponding exactly with those of tricodeine and tetracodeine respectively. The derivatives of the four series of polymerides may be thus characterized :— Mono-series (non-polymerized). Bases crystalline ; salts crystalline. Di-series (polymerized). Bases amorphous and soluble in ether ; salts crystalline. Tri-series (polymerized). Bases amorphous and soluble in ether; salts amorphous, Tetra-series (polymerized). Bases amorphous and insoluble in ether; salts amorphous. On account of their physical properties, the bases hitherto provisionally termed “apomorphine,” “ deoxycodeine,” and “deoxymorphine”’ are viewed as being derivatives of (hypothetical) dimorphine or of dicodeine respectively. ; Trimorphine, when administered subcutaneously to cats, produces excitement and salivation, with slight hypnotesia, but no vomiting; tetramorphine, on the other hand, is a most energetic emetic, its action being (so far as cats are con- cerned) much more marked than even that of “ apomorphine.” : ‘ Trimorphine is acted on by hydrochloric acid, producing a chlorinated base ; in this respect trimorphine is not analogous to tricodeine, which only loses the elements of water by this treatment; thus, Tricodeine........ (oe =6H, 0+ (G,—6H, 0), Trimorphine...... M,+2HCl1=2H, 0+(M,+2HCl—2H, 0). The occurrence of this reaction proves that the base termed trimorphine (and hence also by analogy tricodeine) is actually the ¢reble polymeride of morphine— a conclusion hitherto only deduced from the physical properties of the series of polymerides. Ted Tetramorphine, like tetracodeine, is not acted on by hydrochloric acid. The so-called “sulphomorphide” of Arppe and of Laurent and Gerhardt, snpposed by the latter to be a kind of amide, is found to be nothing but the sulphate of tetramorphine; its formation is accompanied by the production of minute quantities of ‘‘ apomorphine.” ; ‘ E The action of hydrochloric acid on morphine appears to give rise, first, to chlorinated bases derived from non-polymerized morphine—a mixture of sub- stances of compositions (M+HCl), (M+HClI—H, 0), and (M+ 2HCl—2H, 0) being produced,—and secondly, by the further alteration of these just formed substances, to “apomorphine ” and a chlorinated tetra-base (Mra OD ee 68 REPORT—1873. The action of hydrochloric acid on codeine is in some respects analogous to, in others different from, that on morphine; the first products formed are derived from non-polymerized codeine, and are (C-+HCl) and (C+ 2HCl—2H, 0), the latter being the ‘ chlorocodide ” of Matthiessen and the author. As “chlorocodide” regenerates ordinary codeine by the action of water in sealed tubes, the production of this base, preceded by that of (C+HCl), proves, first, that these substances (and hence by analogy the corresponding morphine derivatives) really belong to the mono-series, and, secondly, that monocodeine has the formula C,, H,, N, O,, and not (as usually supposed) the half of this, viz. C,, H,, NO, (and hence by analogy that monomorphine is C,,H,,N,0,, and not C,,H,,NO;). | og. In just the same way the first action of hydrobromic acid on codeine is found to give rise to (C+HBr), (C+2HBr—2H, 0) or “ bromocodide” being subsequently roduced. a "The further action of hydrochloric acid on ‘ chlorocodide ” has been shown by Matthiessen and the author to consist in the elimination of methyl as chloride, and the abstraction of the elements of water, forming ‘‘ apomorphine,” the reaction taking place at 140-150° in sealed tubes. When the action is allowed to take place at 100°, however, it follows a slightly different course; methyl chloride is formed and water is eliminated, but the resulting substance is not “ apomorphine,” but a body which may be regarded as standing intermediate between dimorphine and “apomorphine” (tetrapodimorphine); its physical characters are those of a di- derivative, and it much resembles apomorphine in all respects save composition and physiological action; the recrystallized pure hydrochloride gave numbers leading to the formula (M.—2H, O), “apomorphine” being (M,—4H20); and hence the name diapodimorphine is given to this substance. Simultaneously with diapodimorphine, a base isomeric therewith, but belonging to the tetra-series, is produced ; this, being indicated by the formula (M,—4H, O), may be termed tetrapotetramorphine. The alteration in the physiological action (on cats) of the morphine polymerides produced by successive abstraction of the elements of water is well exemplified by the following Table. The last-mentioned base, octapotetramorphine, is obtained as the final product of the joint action of concentrated zinc chloride and hydrochloric acid on morphine; its formation is preceded by that of “apomorphine,” the base (M+HCl —II, 0), and a tetra-base (M,+HCl1—4H, O), the one or the other being formed according to the temperature employed and other circumstances. Di-Series, Name of base. Relation to morphine. Physiological action. Observer. Dimorphine (hypothetical).. M, ? 2 = Produces profuse Diapodimorphine .......... M,—2H, 0 { salivation butno} Dr. J, G. Blackley. vomiting (cats). Moderately -pow- Tetrapodimorphine(apomor-| 7 erfulemetic(cats).{ Drs. Gee and ain) ofa sas CP pint M,—4H, 0 Very powerful Stocker. emetic (man). Tetra-Series. a4 i : Tetramorphine......... .... M, %% Ne Tse Dr. Stocker. Diapotetramorphine,....... M,—2H,0 emer ial Serge ” 1 (cats and dogs). Produces profuse salivation but no vomiting (cats). Produces neither salivation nor vomiting (cats). Tetrapotetramorphine ...... M,—4H,0 Dr. Blackley, Octapotetramorphine ...... M,—8H,0 ” TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 It hence appears that the emetic action (on cats) of di-derivatives becomes much increased as the abstraction of the elements of water goes on, whilst the oppo- site holds in the case of the tetra-derivatives. Isomerides in different series may or may not have the same kind of physiological action; thus diapodimorphine and its isomeride tetrapotetramorphine are not far apart in their effects, whilst tetrapodimorphine and its isomeride octapotetramorphine are very dissimilar—just as morphine, trimorphine, and tetramorphine, or codeine, dicodeine, tricodeine, and tetracodeine are diflerent in physiological action. The differences in chemical reactions-between the four series of polymerides and their derivatives are as well marked as are their physiological properties; thus when either “apomorphine,” diapomorphine, or “ deoxymorphine ” (all of which are di-derivatives) is dissolved in caustic potash solution, a liquid is obtained which rapidly absorbs oxygen from the air: on acidifying this liquid with hydrochloric acid and agitating with ether, a substance is dissolved out which communicates to the ether a magnificent purple tint. This colouring-matter is possessed of the some- what remarkable property of giving solutions of very different colours and shades with various solvents, the same quantity being dissolved to the same bulk in each case: thus alkalies dissolve it, forming a bright green liquid; water containing ammoniacal salts, a beautiful blue ; whilst alcohol, chloroform, bisulphide of carbon, ether, and benzene dissolve it, forming liquids of shades varying trom violet-blue to red-purple, but differing in each case. The pure substance is indicated by the formula C,,H,,N,0O,. It is insoluble in acids, and forms an indigo-blue powder exhibiting traces of crystallization. Only di-derivatives are capable of giving rise to this colouring-matter ; mono-, tri-, and tetra-derivatives of morphine and codeine do not yield a trace of it, provided the substances used are perfectly free from all admixture of di-derivatives. Again, the action of heat (150°-180°) on the hydrochlorides of monomorphine de- rivatives causes them to decompose; and on distilling with potash the resulting substance, a mixture of methylamine and pyridine is obtained. On subjecting tetra-~ morphine derivatives to the same treatment, methylamine only is produced ; whilst “ apomorphine ” (the only di-derivative available in sufficient quantity for the ex- periment) yields xo volatile base at all by this treatment. It would hence seem probable that the relations of the nitrogen to the other ele- ments present are different in the different series of polymerides. Experiments are contemplated with a view to estimating the different amounts of “ Intrinsic Chemi- eal Energy ” present in equal weights of isomerides in the different series. (Vide “ Report on Essential Oils.” The derivatives of morphine and codeine (upwards of forty in number) that have been obtained during the last few yearsmay, with only one ortwo inconsiderable excep- tions, be all regarded as derived from one or other of the polymerides, M, M,, M,, My, or G, C,, C,, Cy, by addition or subtraction of hydrogen, addition of the elements of hydrochloric (hydrobromic or hydriodic) acid, and elimination of the elements of water ; all consequently are expressible by the general formule (C+Hp)z+mHX—nH, O, or (M+Hp)c+mHX—nH, O, where p has values varying from 0 to 8 ; v=l, 2, 3, or 4, giving rise to the mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-series respectively ; m varies from 0 to 4; n varies from 0 to 12; and X stands for either Cl, Br, or I. Thus the base provisionally termed bromotetracodeine may be written {(C—H),+2HBr}, deoxymorphine as {(M+H,),—4H, O}, and so on. Tables giving the composition of these derivatives, formulated and arranged on this principle, are given in the ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society,’ 1873, 70 REPORT—1873. p. 228, and the ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxvii. p. 287, or in the ‘Berichte der Deut. Chem. Ges,,’ vol. v. p. 1111, and vol. vi. p. 268. The author again desires to express his thanks to Messrs. Macfarlane and Co., of Edinburgh, for their great kindness and liberality in presenting him with the alka- loids necessary for these researches, GEOLOGY. Address by Joun Putturrs, M.A., D.C.L. Oxon., LLD. Cambridge and Dublin, P.BRS., F.GLS. More than half the life of an octogenarian separates us from the birthday of the British Association in Yorkshire ; and few of those who then helped to inaugurate a new scientific power can be here to-day to estimate the work which it accom- plished, and judge of the plans which it proposes to follow in future. Would that we might still have with us the wise leading of Harcourt, and the intrepid adyo- cacy of Sedgwick, names dear to Geology and always to be honoured in York- shire ! The natural sciences in general, and Geology in particular, have derived from the British Association some at least of the advantages so boldly claimed at its origin : some impediments have been removed from their path ; society looks with approba- tion on their efforts; their progress is hailed among national triumphs, though achieved for the most part by voluntary labour; and the results of their discoveries are written in the prosperous annals of our native industry. In most cases scientific truth is established before that practical application is posi! which constitutes a commercial revolution and is welcomed with applause y the community. What a change has happened within forty, nay, twenty years, in the ironworks of this country! But long before the foundations of furnaces were laid at Middlesborough, the ferruginous bands in the Yorkshire cliffs had been often explored by geologists, and waited only for the railway to yield millions of tons of ore. The occurrence of good ironstone in the Liassic strata of England is a source of profit as far to the south as Oxfordshire ; Northamptonshire yields it in abundance at the base of the Oolites, and Lincolnshire above them; while on the Yorkshire coast, in addition, we have smaller beds in the midst of the Oolites, through nearly the whele range, associated with poor and thin coal. To determine the extent of the British coal-fields, and the probable duration of the treasures which they yield, and to discover, if possible, other fields quite un- dreamed of by practical colliers, are problems which geology has been invited to solve ; and much progress has been made in these important inquiries by private re- search and the ad of a public Commission. The questions most interesting to the community—the extent to which known coal-fields spread beneath superior strata, and the situation of other fields having no outcrop to the surface—can often be an- swered on purely geological grounds, within not very wide limits of probability. If, for example, we ask how far to the eastward the known coal-strata may extend under the Vale of York, a reasonable answer is furnished by Mr. Hull and the Govern- ment Commission. The whole great coal deposit, extending from Bradford to Nottingham, passes under the Magnesian Limestone, and may be found for at least a few miles in breadth within attainable depths. It passes under a part of the Vale of York, probably south of the city. But before attempting to give a practical value to this opinion, it may be well to remember that, fully tried, the experiment would be too costly for individual enterprise, while if successful it would benefit more than a county, and that not only a large outlay must be provided for it, but arrangements made for persevering through several years in the face of many diffi- culties and perhaps eventual disappointment. Still, sooner or later, the trial must be made; and geology must direct the operation. Considerations of this kind invest with more than momentary interest the great t TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 undertaking to which Mr. Godwin-Austen called attention in his address to the Geological Section at Brighton. Not to dig gypsum, not to open a new supply of salt, not to discover coal in Sussex, but to find out what is below the Wealden, and thus contribute to solve a great practical problem for London and all the south of England, have geologists undertaken the deep boring near Hastings. What is below the Wealden? Do the oolitie rocks continue beneath it with their usual characters and thickness? or do they suffer that remarkable diminution which is observed in their eastward declination through the midland counties? Do they occur at all there? may they lie only in separate patches amidst older rocks? may these older rocks, continued from Belgium, appear at once or at no great depth below the Wealden, and bring with them, if not coal, some sure knowledge of the way in which the great subterranean anticlinal passes from the Rhineland through Belgium to Somerset, South Wales, and Ireland? Such an experiment must not be allowed to come to a premature end. Turning, however, from these topics, which involve industrial interests, to other lines of geological research, we remark how firmly since 1831 the great facts of rock- stratification, succession of life, earth-movement, and changes of oceanic areas have been established and reduced to Jaws—laws, indeed, of phenomena at present, but gradually acquiring the character of laws of causation. Among the important discoveries by which our knowledge of the earth’s structure and history has been greatly enlarged within forty years, place must be given to the results of the labours of Sedgwick and Murchison, who established the Cambro-Silurian systems, and thus penetrated into ancient time-relics very far toward the shadowy limit of paleontological research. Stimulated by this success, the early strata of the globe have been explored with unremitting industry in every corner of the earth ; and thus the classification and the nomenclature which were suggested in Wales and Cumberland are found to be applicable in Russia and India, America and Australia, so as to serve as a basis for the general scale of geological time, founded on organic remains of the successive ages, This great principle, the gift of William Smith, is also employed with success in a fuller study of the deposits which stand among the latest in our history and involve a vast variety of phenomena, touching a long succession of life on the land, changes of depth in the sea, and alterations of climate. Among these evidences of physical revolution, which, if modern as geological events, are very ancient if estimated in centuries, the earliest monuments of man find place—not buildings, not inhabited caves or dwellings in dry earth-pits, not pottery or fabricated metal, but mere stones shaped in rude fashion to constitute apparently the one tool and one weapon with which, according to Prestwich, and Evans, and Lubbock, the poor inhabitant of northern climes had to sustain and defend his life. Nothing in my day has had such a decided influence on the public mind in favour of geological research, nothing has so clearly brought out the purpose and scope of our science, as these two great lines of inquiry, one directed to the beginning, the other to the end of the accessible scale of earthly time; for thus has it been made clear that our purpose can be nothing less than to discover the history of the land, sea, and air, and the long sequence of life, and to marshal the results: in a settled chronology—not, indeed, a scale of years to be measured by the rotations or revolutions of planets, but a series of ages slowly succeeding one another through an immensity of time. There is no question of the truth of this history. The facts observed are found in yariable combinations from time to time, and the interpretations of these facts are modified in different directions; but the facts are all natural phenomena, and the interpretations are all derived from real laws of those phenomena—some certified by mathematical and mechanical research, others based on chemical: discovery, others due to the scalpel of the anatomist, or the microscopic scrutiny of the botanist. The grandest of early geological phenomena haye their representa- tives, however feeble, in the changes which are now happening around us; the forms of ancient life most surprising by their magnitude or singular adaptations can be explained by analogous though often rare and abnormal productions of to-day. Biology is the contemporary index of Paleontology, just as the events of the nine- teenth century furnish explanations of the course of human history in the older times. 72 REPORT—1873. To forget, in referring to this subject, the name of our great and veteran leader, Sir Charles Lyell, would be difficult for any who have profited by the perusal of his masterly works, is impossible for those who, like me, have been witnesses of that life-long zeal and energy which carried him to explore distant regions and make friends for English Geology in every quarter of the globe. Keeping our attention on Pleistocene Geology, we may remark that the famous cavern of Kirkdale, with the equally celebrated rock den of bears and hyzenas at Torquay, receive no small help toward clearing up the history of mammalia in Britain from the explorations now going on in the limestone cliffs not far from this pines of meeting. In Kirkdale Cave no trace of human art appeared; Kent’s Hole as given proofs of the presence of man from the earliest period characterized by the remains of the great bear; and both there and in the Victoria Cave near Settle, at much later periods, domestic occupation is fully established. It will be readily conceded that for gathering good information regarding the aborigines of our land the British Association has wisely appropriated some por- tion of its funds; probably we shall agree in thinking that the additional data which may be expected are worthy of further expenditure and the employment of valuable labour. And this leads me to remark how real is the obligation of this Association to some of its members who have directed these researches, and how large a debt of gratitude is due to one in particular, who, not content with turning every day his intelligent eyes on the remarkable phenomena disclosed by excava- tion in the Torquay caverns, has with his own hands cleared and washed thousands of bones and teeth, studied, labelled, and arranged them, and year by year has de- lighted this Section with careful narratives of what he and Mr. Vivian, followin the steps of MacKnery, have surely observed and recorded. Labour of this kin the Association cannot purchase; nor would the generous spirit of my friend con- sent to such a treaty. I may, however, use the privilege of my temporary office, and suggest to you to consider whether the time is not come for the friends of the Association, and especially the members of this Section, to unite in a general effort, and present to Mr. Pengelly a substantial proof that they highly appreciate his disin- terested labours in their service, and the ample store of new knowledge which he has had so large a share in producing. During the long course of geological time the climates of the earth have changed. In many regions evidence of such change is furnished by the forms of contemporary life. Warm climates have had their influence on the land, and favoured the growth of abundant vegetations as far north as within the arctic circle; the sea has nourished reef-making corals in Northern Europe during Paleozoic and Mesozoic ages; crocodiles and turtles were swimming round the coasts of Britain, among islands clothed with Zamie and haunted by marsupial quadrupeds. How have we lost this primseval warmth? Does the earth contribute less heat from its interior stores? does the atmosphere obstruct more of the solar rays or permit more free radiation from the land and sea? has the sun lost through immensity of time a sensible portion of his beneficent influence ? or, finally, is it only a question of the elevation of mountains, the course of oceanic currents, and the distribution of land: and sea? The problems thus suggested are not of easy solution, though in each branch of the subject some real progress is made. The globe is slowly changing its dimen- sions by cooling; thus inequalities and movements of magnitude have arisen and are still in progress on its surface: the effect of internal pressure, when not resulting in mass-movement, is expressed in the molecular action of heat which Mallet applies to the theory of volcanoes. The sun has no recuperative auxiliary known to Thomson for replay his decaying radiation; the earth, under his influence, as was shown by Herschel and Adhemar, is subject to periods of greater and less warmth, alternately in the two hemispheres and generally over the whole surface ; and finally, as Hopkins.has shown, by change of local physical conditions the climate of northern zones might be greatly cooled in some regions and greatly warmed in others, One is almost frozen to silence in presence of the vast sheets of ice which some of my friends (followers of Agassiz) believe themselves to have traced over the moun- tains and vales of a great part of the United Kingdom, as well as over the kindred TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 73 regions of Scandinavia. One shudders at the thought of the innumerable icebergs with their loads of rock, which floated in the once deeper North Sea, and above the hills of the three Ridings of Yorkshire, and lifted countless blocks of Silurian stone ae lower levels, to rest on the precipitous limestones round the sources of the ibble. Those who, with Professor Ramsay, adopt the glacial hypothesis in its full extent, and are familiar with the descent of ice in Alpine valleys where it grinds and polishes the hardest rocks and winds like a slow river round projecting cliffs, are easily conducted to the further thought that such valleys have been excavated by such ice-rubbers, and that even great lakes on the course of the rivers have been dug out by ancient glaciers which once extended far beyond their actual limits. That they did so extend is in several instances well ascertained and proved ; that they did in the manner suggested plough out the valleys and lakes is a proposition which cannot be accepted until we possess more knowledge than has yet been attained regarding the resistance offered by ice to a crushing force, its tensile strength, the measure of its resistance to shearing, and other data required for a just estimate of the problem. At present it would appear that, under a column of its own substance 1000 ft. high, ice would not retain its solidity ; if so, it could not propagate a greater pressure in any direction. This question of the excavating effect of glaciers is distinctly a mechanical problem, requiring a knowledge of certain data; and till these are supplied, calculations and conjectures are equally vain. A distinguishing feature of modern geology is the great development of the doc- trine that the earth contains in its burial-vaults, in chronological order, forms of life characteristic of the several successive periods when stratified rocks were depo- sited in the sea, This idea has been so thoroughly worked upon in all countries, that we are warranted to believe in something like one universal order of appear- ance in time, not only of large groups but even of many genera and species. The Tnilobitic ages, the Ammonitic, Megalosaurian, and Paleeotherian periods are familiar to every geologist. What closed the career of the several races of plants and ani- mals on the land and in the sea, is a question easily answered for particular parts of the earth’s surface by reference to “ physical change ;” for this is a main cause of the Reece or absence, and in general of the unequal distribution of life. But what rought the succession of different races in something like a constant order, not in one tract only, but, one may say, generally in oceanic areas over a large portion of the globe ? Life unfolds itself, in every living thing, from an obscure, often undistinguishable cell germ, in which resides a potential of both physical and organic change—a change which, whether continual or interrupted, gradual or critical, culminates in the production of similar germs, capable under favourable conditions of assuming the energy of life. How true to their prototypes are all the forms with which we are familiar, how correctly they follow the family pattern for centuries, and even thousands of years, is known to all students of ancient art and explorers of ancient catacombs. But much more than this is known. Very small differences separate the elephant of India from the mammoth of Yorkshire, the Waldhetmia of the Australian shore from the Terebratula of the Cotswold oolite, the dragonfly of our rivers from the . Tibellula of the Lias, and even the Rhynchonelle and Lingule of the modern sea from the old species which swarm in the Paleozoic rocks. But concurrently with this apparent perpetuity of similar forms and ways of life, another general idea comes into notice. No two plants are more than alike; no two men have more than the family resemblance; the offspring is not in all respects an exact copy of the parent. A general reference to some earlier type, accompanied by special diversity in every case (“descent with modification”), is recognized in the case of every living being. Similitude, not identity, is the effect of natural agencies in the continuation of life-forms, the small differences from identity being due to limited physical con- ditions, in harmony with the general law that organic structures are adapted to the exigencies of being. Moreover the structures are adaptable to new conditions; if the conditions change, the structures change also, but not suddenly; the plant or animal may survive in presence of slowly altered circumstances, but must perish 74 REPORT—1873. under critical inversions. These adaptations, so necessary to the preservation of a race, are they restricted within narrow limits? or is it possible that in the course of long-enduring time, step by step and grain by grain, one form of life can be changed and has been changed to another, and adapted to fulfil quite different functions? Is it thus that the innumerable forms of plants and animals have been “developed ” in the course of ages upon ages from a few original types ? This question of development might be safely left to the prudent researches of Physiology and Anatomy, were it not the case that Paleeontology furnishes a vast range of evidence on the real succession in time of organic structures, which on the whole indicate more and more variety and adaptation, and in certain aspects a growing advance in the energies of life. Thus at first only invertebrate animals appear in the catalogues of the inhabitants of the sea; then fishes are added, and reptiles and the higher vertebrata succeed ; man comes at last, to contemplate and in some degree to govern the whole. The various hypothetical threads by which many good naturalists hoped to unite the countless facts of biological change into an harmonious system have culminated in Darwinism, which tales for its basis the facts already stated, and proposes to explain the analogies of organic structures by reference to a common origin, and their differences to small, mostly congenital, modifications which are integrated in particular directions by external physical conditions, involying a “ struggle for existence.’ Geology is interested in the question of development, and in the particular exposition of it by the great naturalist whose name it bears, be- cause it alone possesses the history of the development 7 time, and it is to incon- ceivably long periods of time, and to the accumulated effect of small but almost infinitely numerous changes in certain directions, that the full effect of the transfor- mations is attributed. For us, therefore, at present it is to collect with fidelity the evidence which our researches must certainly yield, to trace the relation of forms to time generally and physical conditions locally, to determine the life-periods of species, genera, and families in different regions, to consider the cases of temporary interruption and occasional recurrence of races, and how far by uniting the results obtained in dif- ferent regions the alleged “imperfection of the geological record ” can be remedied. The share which the British Association has taken in this great work of actually reconstructing the broken forms of ancient life, of repeopling the old land and older sea, of mentally reviving, one may almost say, the long-forgotten past,is considerable, and might with advantage be increased. We ask, and wisely, from time to time, for the combined labour of naturalists and geologists in the preparation of reports on particular classes or families of fossil plants and animals, their true structure and affinities, and their distribution in geological time and geographical space. Some examples of this useful work will, I hope, be presented to this Meeting. Thus have we obtained the aid of Agassiz and Owen, and have welcomed the labours of Forbes, and Morris and Lycett, and Huxley, of Dawkins and Egerton, of Davidson, Duncan, and Wright, of Williamson and Carruthers and Woodward, and many other emi- nent persons, whose valuable results have for the most part appeared in other volumes than our own. Among these volumes let me in a special manner recall to your attention the price- less gift to Geology which is annually offered by the Paleontographical Society, a gift which might become even richer than it is, if the literary and scientific part of our community were fortunate enough to know what a perpetual treasure they might possess in return for a small annual tribute, The excellent example set and the good work recorded in the Memoirs of the Society referred to have not been without influence on foreign men of science. We shall soon haye such Memoirs from France and Italy, Switzerland and Germany, America and Australia; and I trust the effect of such generous rivalry will be to maintain and increase the spirit of learned research and of original observation which it is our privilege and our duty to foster, to stimulate, and to combine. On all the matters, indeed, which have now been brought to your thoughts the one duty of geologists is to collect more and more accurate information; the one fault to be avoided is the supposition that our work is in any department complete. We should speak modestly of what has been done ; for we have completed nothing, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 except the extinction of a crowd of errors, and the discovery of right methods of pro- ceeding toward the acquisition of truth. We may speak hopefully of what is to be accomplished ; for the right road is before us. We have taken some steps along it; others will go beyond us and stand on higher levels. But it will be long before any one can reach the height from which he may be able to survey the whole field of research and collect the results of ages of labour, fae pee Ob primaque ab origine mundi Ad sua perpetuum deducere tempora carmen. Additional Remains of Pleistocene Mammals in Yorkshire. By the Rev. J. F. Buaxz. The bones referred to were discovered in the recent working of an old marl-pit at Bielbecks near North Cliff, whence mammalian remains have been previously obtained. The first discovery was recorded by the Rev. W. V. Vernon Harcourt in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for 1829. More remains were deposited in the York Museum when the excavations were renewed about twenty years later ; and this last summer many more have been exhumed. These latter were exhibited. The com- lete list of the hitherto discovered bones is as follows :—(1) mentioned by Vernon “ arcourt ; (2) in York Museum ; (8) recently found, and now also deposited in York useum. Mammoth. 3 teeth, lower jaw (1) (3); 3 teeth, upper jaw (3); 1 symphysis of lower jaw (8); 2 tusk ends, and portions of tusk (8); atlas (3); axis (2); pelvic (2); cervical vertebra (8); head of femur (3); broken ditto (1)(epiphyses); 2 shafts of femur (3); 1 distal end of femur (3); 1 tibia (?) (8); 2 distal ends, ditto (3) (a pair); 2 astragali (8) (2); 1 os semilunare (2); 1 cuboid? (3); 1 third metacarpal (3). : Elephas antiquus. 1 molar, 1 ditto unused. Rhinoceros. 2 teeth and jaw (1); 8 tibia (1) (8); 1 rib (1); vert. (2); distal end of femur (?) (2). Bos, 1 occipital bone (1) ; 2 horns (1); 2 vertebrae (1); 1 left radius (1); 1 ulna (8); 1 distal end of femur (8); 8 iliac bones (3); 1 right tibia (3); 1 metacarpal (3); 1 metatarsal (1); 1 astragalus (1); 2 calcanea (1) (3); 3 phalangeal bones (3). (Some of these may be Bison.) ~ Stag. Small portions of horn (1) (8). Red Deer. Metacarpal (3). Horse. 1 distal end of femur (3); metatarsus, phalanges, and hoof in situ (2); right scapula (2); 1 radius and ulna (joined) (2); ? vertebrae and (epiphy- ses); 1 coronary (1); 1 metacarpal (1). Bear. 1 tibia (8). Lion? (Felis). Upper jaw with two molars (1); lower jaw, several molars, 6-inch long symphysis (1); 1 head of femur (1); 1 radius (1); 3 metacarpals (1); 1 rib (1). Wolf. Right lower jaw (2); ulna (2); radius (2); humerus (2). Unknown. Ruminant? metacarpal; shaft of long bone; ditto of metacarpals, &c. Duck, Ulna (2); clavicle (2); tibia (2). The deposit in which these occur is covered with a bed of flint gravel; but no human weapons have been found in it; all the associated shells are recent, and belong to river or marsh species. The bones were mostly found in one spot, but some of the mammoth at a little distance away. It is noteworthy that no Hippo- potamus bones have yet been found. The age is probably later Pleistocene, though there is little to indicate it in the fossils; but it is in all probability postglacial, being a tranquil deposit; and there are glacial beds at nearly the same level in the neighbourhood, so that if it had been preglacial it would probably have been carried away. 76 REPORT—1873. On some Evidence of Glacial Action in Tropical India in Paleozoic (or the oldest Mesozoic) times. By W.T. Buanvorn, F.G.S., C.M.ZS. The author in the year 1856, when describing some rocks in Orissa, suggested that a very peculiar association of large boulders with fine shales might have been due to the transport of the boulders by ground-ice. A similar deposit has been traced throughout a very large areain Bengal and the Central Provinces in India, and is always characteristic of the base of the Talchir group, the lowest member of the great series of plant-bearing rocks, for which the name of Gondwana series has recently been suggested. Quite recently Dr. Oldham, the Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India, has found scored and striated blocks in this Talchir boulder bed, the surface upon which the bed rests being also polished and rooved, othe theory (of boulders, sand, and clay slipping downwards on low slopes during the gradual elevation of land above the sea) put forward by Mr. Mallet to account for similar phenomena, and which was considered by General Portlock in 1857 to explain the peculiar association of large boulders and fine silt, does not appear satisfactory ; for, amongst other difficulties, it leaves the fact of many of the boulders having come from a distance entirely unexplained. Mr. Blanford, whilst aware of the apparent incongruity involved in invoking the aid of ice to explain pheno- mena occurring in a tropical country, can suggest no other explanation of the facts. The exact age of the Talchir is still doubtful; but there can be but little doubt of their being pre-Triassic. On Archeediscus Karreri, a New Type of Carboniferous Foraminifera. By Henry B. Brany, F.L.S., F.GS. This paper contained a detailed description of certain minute unsymmetrical lenticular fossils ~~ of an inch in diameter and 3; of an inch in thickness, from the “Main Limestone ” of the Lower Carboniferous Limestone series of Lanarkshire, and the Mountain Limestone of Great Orme’s Head, Caernarvonshire. They were shown to be Foraminifera closely allied to Nwmmutlina, and differing primarily from that genus in being composed of a non-septate tube coiled on itself in varying directions, and thickened on the exterior (especially near the centre of the disk) by the deposit of shell-substance, instead of the symmetrical, regularly coiled spiral line of chambers characteristic of the more highly developed type. The par- ticulars entered into concerning the minute structure of the type would be unin- telligible without the figures by which the paper was illustrated *. The generic term Archediscus was proposed for the new type. On such of the Industries of Bradford as relate to its Geological Position. By Joun Briee. After briefly pointing out the geological position of Bradford, the author pro- ceeded to notice the excellent quality of the building-materials of the district, drawing special attention to the rough sandstone rocks which are technically termed Grits. The extreme durability of this stone was pointed out, also the appropriateness of its use for engine-beds, floors of dock-gates, and the base- ments of large buildings. Its power of withstanding the injurious effects of constant exposure to water was also mentioned. The laminated rocks which underlie some parts of the town of Bradford were next dwelt upon, and their suit- ability for roofing-slates, flags, and payving-stones, as well as for ordinary building stones, was described. The New Town Hall, and particularly the Statues of the Kings, which form its chief architectural ornament, were instanced as examples of the finest sandstone that can be used for public buildings. The author then spoke of the Calliard or Gannister beds in the Grit and Coal series, pointing out their position as being the * The paper is published in full in the ‘Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ for October 1873. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 same, and containing the same fossils as the fireclay which is the usual seat of the coal. The use of Calliard for producing the fine sand used in the moulding of iron and brass was explained, as also the process by which the stone is reduced. The manufacture of firebricks, sanitary tubes, and domestic pottery from the fireclay of the Halifax coal-seam was explained, as also the process by which sulphate of iron is made from the pyrites contained in the same seam. The author proceeded at some length to describe the position and quality of the irregular seams of coal which are found beneath the Rough Rock, and also pointed out the peculiarities of the two seams of coal called the Halifax Hard and Soft beds, which are usually classed as the lowest of the true Coal-measures. The line of their outcrop was also pointed out. The paper also contained a short description of the ancient bloomeries in the district, and concluded with a notice of the seams of iron and coal found at Bowling and Low Moor. On the Discovery of a Species of Starfish in Devonian Beds of South Devon. By A. CHAMPERNOWNE. The only record hitherto, so far as I know, of the occurrence of Starfish in British Devonian rocks, is that given by Mr. Etheridge in his list of Devonian Fossils (Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 619), viz. Protaster, sp., and Paleaster, sp., from the Pilton beds of North Devon; therefore the discovery of a species in South- Devon rocks may not be without interest. The locality which yielded the few specimens in question is & small quarry at Inglebourne House near Harbertonford (about three miles $.S.W. of Totnes), in slates with one or two thin gritty layers, on one of which, forming part of the floor of the quarry, were the impressions. The dip is about 8.E. (20° east of south magnetic) at 15°, crossed by cleavage at a higher angle towards the south. Viewed in connexion with the Harbertonford limestone, and the slate-quarry at Roster Bridge, the beds would appear to belong to the Upper South-Deyon series. In the old quarries at Harbertonford the limestone and shale dip north at 10°, the angle heightening to 26° close to the Vicarage ; and in the adjoining cutting of the Kingsbridge road, the slates, rising to the south with undulations, are apparently below the limestone. This would seem to produce the line of the lime- stone to the north of the Harber at Woodcourt, and probably to the north of Roster-Bridge slate-quarry (where Spirifers and other fossils are numerous), and hence to trough some slates in the neighbourhood of Inglebourne which contain the Starfish *, At Roster-Bridge quarry the cleavage is the predominant feature, the bedding being at variance with the S.S.E. dip shown on the map north of Dolling, half a mile to the west. [The impression of the body-plates is unfortunately wanting in the specimens of Starfish which were intrusted to my friend Mr. Lee ; but I venture to hope they may be described by some more experienced paleontologist than myself, the object ad this ihe being merely to record the fact of their occurrence, and to describe the ocality. Note by Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., on A. CoampERNowner’s Paper. Two Devonian Starfishes have been noted+ by Mr. Etheridge, F.R.S., in the Deyonian of North Devon, which he refers to the genera Protaster, sp., and Pale- aster, sp., from Middle and Upper Devonian of Pilton tf. Prof. Ferd. Roemer records four genera (namely, Aspidosoma Tischbeinianum, * I revisited the spot in company with Mr. J. E. Lee and Mr. Paige-Browne, of Inglebourne House, and owner of the quarry; and this was the view taken by the latter, . who considered the roofing-slates of Roster-Bridge quarry deeper in the series than the slates around his house, and the last nearly on the horizon of the limestone of Harbertonford. Our search for Starfish, however, was fruitless. + See ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ 1867, vol. xxiii. pp. 619, 670. { Mr. E. Etheridge informs me that these Starfishes are both of Upper Devonian age, and that the reference to Middle Devonian, on p. 670, op. cit., is a typographical error. 78 REPORT—1873. Asterias asperula, A. spinosissima, Helianthaster rhenanus) from the Devonian of Bundenbach bei Birkenfeld*. Prof. Morris informs me he has no Imowledge of any other species from these beds. Fifteen genera and fifty species of Starfishes have been recorded from the Silurian. Of these various forms the Helianthaster rhenanus, Birkenfeld Devonian, and the Lepidaster Grayi, from the Wenlock Limestone, Dudley, offer the nearest analogy with the fossil Starfish found by Mr. Champernowne in South Devon. All three forms belong to the family of the Solasterie, or many-rayed sun stars. Bearing in mind that the Asteriadz were preceded in point of time, as also in point of development by the Crinoidea, the discovery of so many additional forms of Paleozoic Starfishes, shows us how far we are from the beginning of this group in time. Only lately Dr. Henry Hicks, F.G.8., has discovered a new Crinoid in the Lower Cambrian Rocks of St. David’s, carrying back the class to an extremely distant point in paleeozoic time. On the Geology of part of Craven. By J. R. Daxrns, M.A. The type of millstone-grit prevalent in Derbyshire undergoes considerable changes north of Bradfield; the second grit becomes merely a basement-bed to the Rough Rock; the third grit loses its massive character; and other beds of sandstone begin to show themselves in the shales overlying the Kinder-Scout grit. In the valleys of the Colne and Calder there are four separate sandstones he- tween the Rough Rock and the Kinder-Scout grit. In the basin of the Aire the series consists in descending order :—first, of the Rough Rock, which maintains its usual marked character throughout ; secondly, of a very variable basement-bed to the last, consisting, when well developed, of valuable flagstones. These are extensively quarried at Nab, above Oxenhope Moor, and also in an outlier at the Penistone quarries near Haworth. Below this bed comes a series of variable sandstones and shales. There may be in places as many as fifteen or sixteen distinct sandstones between the basement of the Rough Rock and the Kinder-Scout grit. But this set of beds may conveniently be divided into two by means of a conspi- cuous grit, which is continuous with the third grit of Lancashire. This grit forms the bold escarpment of Hallan hill and Earl crag. We may conveniently speak of it as the middle grit. It generally has three grits between it and the base of the Rough Rock; and these four beds are presumably the four grits of the Calder and Colne valleys. The general run of the rocks in the basin of the Aire is as follows :—The Rough Rock runs in a nearly unbroken manner from the latitude of Penistone, and enters the basin of the Aire above Oxenhope Moor: its basement flags form the Nab escarpment. A large fault, crossing Thornton Moor in W.N.W. direction, throws down the Coal-measures of Denholme on the north, from beneath which the Rough Rock rises to form Black and Brow moors. Another W.N.W. fault throws the beds up again near Cullingworth, so that Harden Moor, between Bingley and Keighley, consists of an outlier of Rough Rock, while various members of the third grit series form the flanks of the hill. West of the river Worth a dip slope of Rough Rock forms Keighley Moor; but at Exley Head another W.N.W. fault throws up the beds to the north, so that an outlier of Rough Rock forms the hill on which is situated Keighley Tarn. Going N.W. from the tarn one passes suc- cessively over the various members of the third grit series, The middle grit, clearly marked by its massive character, rams down to the valley south of Hawk-_ cliff cottage ; it ascends on the north side of the Aire, somewhat broken by faults, and forms Brunthwaite and White crags, and the escarpment of Addingham Moor. It is this rock which forms the Brimham rocks near Pateley Bridge. Below the * Paleontographica, Bd. ix. (1862-64) pp. 143-152, pls. 23-29. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 middle grit there is no conspicuous rock south of the Aire; but north of that river several beds of sandstone appear, one of which becomes important further north as the hard siliceous “ homestone” grit with gannister, which forms the top of Great Whernside. The Kinder-Scout grit is brought in south of the Aire by a W.N.W. fault containing galena. North of the Aire it rises up regularly from beneath the overlying beds at Kildwick. Near Cononley the beds are repeated by a N.E. fault throwing down on the N.W. The Kinder-Scout grit is imme- diately underlain by a variable set of sandstones with shale partings, usually called Yoredale grit. Below these are found, at Skipton, shales and limestones. The strike of the beds hitherto described is N.E. and 8.W.; but about the latitude of Skipton the strike changes to H. and W., with a dip of 20° to the south along Skipton Moor. The whole country, in fact, between the latitudes of Skipton and Grassington has been much disturbed and thrown into a series of east and west rolls. Thus a strong anticlinal ranges up the Skibeden valley from Skipton to Bolton Abvey. A mass of mountain-limestone, forming Haw Park, is thus brought up in the Skibeden valley between two ranges of millstone-grit hills, viz. the Skipton Moor and Embsay Moor. The mountain-limestone here is a dark thin- bedded limestone. It is much quarried for road material at Haw Bank and at Thornton. The beds are much contorted along the south side of Skibeden. Two limestones are seen on the north side above the mountain-limestone. On the south side of the Skibeden anticlinal the Kinder-Scout grit strikes E. and W. along Skip- ton and Draughton moors, and descends to the Wharfe north of Addingham. The southerly dip carries it up the slopé of Langhar Moor, its base running below Beamsley Beacon ; it then plunges down northward to Kex beck, where the beds bend up again and rise northward to Hazlewood Moor and Bolton Park: here the beds bend over northward and recross the Wharfe below Laund House. South of this, as far as Bolton Abbey, limestones and shales of the Yoredale series are seen along the river. These beds are cut off opposite Bolton Abbey by a N.E. fault bringing in the upper beds. The Yoredale grits run along the slopes of Skipton Moor to Fairfield Hall, and east of the Wharfe are found about Beamsley and Storriths. They have not been everywhere identified north of Skibeden. A set of bold crags marks the escarpment of the Kinder-Scout grit along Halton and Embsay moors, Rilstone, Burnsall, and Thorpe fells. Beneath the western escarp- ment of the Kinder-Scout grit the Yoredale grit is found, forming at intervals promontories on the side of the fell. It has not been traced further east than the northern extremity of Burnsall Fell. The Kinder-Scout grits lie in the shape of a synclinal trough dipping east, and thus occupy the whole extent of Burnsall Fell and Barden and Embsay moors. On the east of the Wharfe these grits rise up in a sort of broken dome, with a quaquaversal dip to form the summit of Barden Fell marked by the crags of Simon’s Seat, near which some pot-holes indicate the pre- sence of limestone at no great depth. In Howgill and in Fell Plantation the beds are dipping steeply to the N.W. into the valley; but north of Skyreholme beck they dip steeply to the S.E., underlain by shales, from beneath which massive white scar limestone rises regularly with a similar strike, as far as the Ordnance Station, 1350 feet above sea-level, where the beds are cut off by the Craven fault. The position of this fault is also shown by the abrupt termination of Fancarl crags, and by disturbance of beds at Thruskell Well, Hebden, and by disturbed beds on the banks of Wharfe near Lyth House; thence the fault runs by Skirethorns to the cliffs which mark the line of the fault from Malham to Settle. East of the river Dibb we have north of the Craven fault massive white limestone dipping north at 19°, closely overlain by the grits of Grimwith Fell, the upper part of the limestone containing a band of eee shales, limestones, and calcareous sandstones. Between the Dibb and Grassington the millstone-grits seem to be separated from the limestone by a great thickness of shales, with but poor limestone bands. At Grassington the limestones swell out; and, with the exception of a band of hard sandstones (the Dirt-Pot grits), there is solid limestone from the grits of Gras- sington Moor to the Wharfe. Northwards the limestone gradually breaks up, and finally takes on the Yoredale type. 80 REPORT—1873. Observation on the Rate at which Stalagmite is heing accumulated im the Ingleborough Cave*. By W. Boy Dawxtns, M.A., BRS. GS. The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the accumulation of stalagmite in caverns in this country, is that made by Mr. James Farrer in the Ingleborough Cave, in the years 1839 and 1845, and published by Professor Phillips in ‘The Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of Yorkshire ’ (second edition, 1855, pp. 34, 35). The stalagmite, called “the Jockey Cap,” rises from a crystal- line pavement to a height of about 23 feet, and is the result of the deposit of carbonate of lime. For the sake of ensuring accuracy, three holes were bored at the base of the stalagmite, and three gauges of brass wire (gilt) inserted, to mark the points where the measurements were taken. The following is an abstract of the Table of measurements :— Increase | Rate of in- ee 3) 1839. oF Be since | crease per ; : 1845. | annum. in. in. in. in. in. Roof to apex of Jockey Cap ............ STi bees oo 95°25 8:25 ‘2946 Roof to\tip of stalactite s........s.seecces| | cases | | seesee 10 Stalactite to apex of Jockey Cap ......) sseeee | veeeee 85:25 The only possible ground of error is the erosion of the general surface of the solid limestone, of which the roof is composed, by carbonic acid, since the year 1845 ; and this is so small as to be practically inappreciable. There is therefore evidence that the “ Jockey Cap” is growing at the rate of :2946 of an inch per annum, and that, if the present rate of growth be continued, it will finally arrive at the roof in about 295 years. This comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by the growth of a pendent stalactite ane that is now being formed in place of that which measured 10 inches in 1845, and has since been accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that the “ Jockey Cap” may be the result, not of the continuous, but of the intermittent drip of water containing a variable quantity of carbonate of lime, and, therefore, that the present rate of growth is not a measure of its past or future condition. Allthe stalagmites and stalactites in the Ingleborough Cave, at this rate, may not be older than the time of Edward Il. From this it follows that the thickness of layers of stalagmite cannot be used as an argument in support of the remote age of the strata which they cover in the caverns, such as Kent’s Hole and Bruniquel. At the rate of a quarter of an inch per annum, 20 feet of stalagmite might be formed in 1000 years. Note on the Stump-Cross Caverns at Greenhow near Pately Bridge. By J.-W. Etuts. These caverns were discovered in 1860 by miners who were searching for lead, and who cut into them at a depth of 9 fathoms from the surface. The paper gave a description of the caverns, which are chiefly remarkable for the great beauty of the stalactites which they contain. The Round Boulder Hills of Craven. By W. GOMERSALL. The author described some hills of Boulder-clay which lie between the rivers Aire and Ribble; their elevation, above the base on which they stand, varies from 100 to 300 feet. The hizhest hills are to the north and west of the group, whilst they gradually diminish in size to the south and east. The author supposed the Boulder-clay to have been brought by icebergs, and deposited in what was then a bay of the sea. * See Proc. of Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc. Feb. 1873. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 On the Probability of finding Coal in the Eastern Counties. By the Rey. Joun Gunn. This paper was cod niente to one read at the Brighton Meeting upon the same subject, in which the author dwelt principally on the evidence of repeated successive elevations and depressions in the Anglo-Belgian basin since the Car- boniferous epoch ; and he thence inferred that similar depressions may be ex- pected to have occurred during it, when the coal may have been deposited in troughs and hollows, and have escaped subsequent denudations. The author dwelt upon the westerly upheaval of the beds-which has brought the whole of the Cretaceous rocks to the surface and has exposed the Kimmeridge clay near Lynn and Hunstanton; he therefore thought that the Coal-measures, if present at all, of which he felt very sanguine, would be reached at a less depth there than else- where. The author would not propose to press the boring in the west of Norfolk in preference to that proposed by Mr. Godwin-Austen in the south of Essex; but when the latter is completed, he will have no doubt of raising the necessary funds if the site which he proposes be approved by geologists, On the Occurrence of Faults in the Permian Rocks of the lower portion of the Vale of the Eden, Cumberland. By Professor Harxnuss, F.R.S., F.GLS. The Permian rocks occupying the vale of the Eden have their southern limit at Kirkby Stephen in Westmoreland; thence they extend, over the more level country throuzh which the river flows, to near Carlisle. The strike of these Permian rocks from Kirkby Stephen to near Armathwaite is nearly N.N.W. and 8.8.E. They consist of :—first and lowest, light red-coloured sandstones very false-bedded (Penrith sandstones); second, red clays having gypsum frequently associated with them—and in one instance, near Hilton in estmoreland, light drab shales with piant-remains (marl slate), and a limestone at their base; the third member of the series is composed of fine-grained dark red sandstones, very regularly bedded with red clays intercalated in them. Had these Permian rocks followed their ordinary strike along the whole of the yale of the Eden, the gypsiferous red clays would have crossed the river a short distance above Armathwaite Bridge. They do not, however, occur in the bed of the river near this spot, although rocks are here abundantly exposed— the last spot where they have been recognized with their ordinary strike being at Cross House near Ruckcroft, about three miles south of Armathwaite. The area where they might have been expected to occur in the neighbour- hood of Armathwaite, is occupied by the underlying Penrith sandstones; and these spread themselves eastwards into the parish of Ainstable, into a district in which the Upper Permian rocks (the Corby sandstones) would have been seen had the range of these rocks been such as is exhibited in the vale of the Eden south of Armathwaite. The great development of the Penrith sandstones at Armathwaite and Ain- stable, and the absence here of the gypsiferous clays and overlying Corby sand- stones, the author regards as resulting from a fault having a nearly 8. W. and N.E, course, with an upthrow on the N.W., side. Still further down the Eden there are seen, in consequence of a cutting re- cently made at Eden Brows on the Carlisle and Settle Railway, exposing the rocks, strata of purplish white sandstones having interbedded grey shales. These sand- stones and shales appertain to the Carboniferous formation; and their occurrence here appears to result from another fault, which has also an upthrow on the N.W. side. The position of these sandstones and shales in the Carboniferous series can- not be well made out at Eden Brows, There are, however, exposures of Carboni- ferous rocks (which seem to result from the influence of the same fault) a few miles te the west ; and these Carboniferous rocks belong to the lower portion of the group. Immediately north of Eden Brows the Permian rocks are again seen. As they bat ua the east side of the river, in Fishgard Wood, they consist of the higher . 6 82 REPORT—1873. members (the Corby sandstones) ; and on the west side of the Eden the gypsiferous red clays have been extensively worked. Another fault gives rise to the presence of these strata, which have a strike nearly E. and W. This latter fault, having a direction nearly parallel to the strike of the strata, can be well seen in Shalk beck near Curthwaite Station, on the Maryport and Carlisle Railway, where it exhibits a downthrow on the north side. On the Arenig and Llandeilo Rocks of St. David's. By Henry Hicxs, 2.G.S¢ The author mentioned that the object intended in the paper was to follow out the succession of the rocks in the neighbourhood of St. David’s, commenced in pre- vious papers communicated at various times to the British Association. By the present paper the section was completed to the top of the Llandeilo series. The author divided the Arenig group into an upper and lower series, and the Llandeilo group also in the same manner, believing that in each case there was sufficient evidence to enable him to do so. The Lower Arenig Series, it was stated, occur as black slates and flags, about 1000 feet in thickness, and exposed at the north end of Ramsey Island and at Whitesand Bay, resting conformably in the former place on Tremadoc rocks, but separated from them in the latter by a fault. They are characterized by a large number of species of dendroid Graptolites, as well as by numerous species of trilo- bites entirely restricted to the series. The Upper Arenig Series occur as fine-grained, soft, black shales, also about 1000 feet in thickness. They are found at the south end of Ramsey Island and at White- sand Bay, where they rest conformably on the Lower Arenig series, and again on the north coast of Pembrokeshire, where they support the Lower Llandeilo rocks of Aberiddy Bay. The Graptolites of this series are totally distinct from those found in the lower beds, as are also all the other fossils. Didymograptus bifidus, geminus, and affinis are characteristic of this zone. The Lower Llandeilo Series, the lowest rocks recognized by Sir R. Murchison in the typical Llandeilo district, and hence called by him Lower Llandeilo, occur at St. David’s as black slates and hard grey flaggy sandstones with siliceous schist and beds of felspathic ash at the lower part, and as dark slates and flags, with nume- rous calcareous bands in the upper. They are about 1500 feet in thickness, and are chiefly found on the south coast of Aberiddy Bay, resting conformably on the upper Arenig rocks. The most characteristic fossils of these beds are Didymograptus Murchisoni, Diplograptus pristis, Asaphus tyrannus, Calymene cambrensis, and IMenus perovals. The Upper Llandeilo Series occur as black slates and flags several thousand feet in thickness, forming several folds of strata in a direction north of Aberiddy Bay, at which place they rest conformably on the Lower Llandeilo series. The ty- pical fossils are Ogygia Buchit, Barrandia Cordayi, Calymene duplicata, Cheirwrus Sedgwicku, Trinucleus fimbriatus, Ampyx nudus, and Lingula Ramsayt. The author doubted whether any other spot hitherto examined in Britain could show so continuous a section of these rocks ; still he believed that there was ample evidence to prove, from researches made in other parts of Wales and Shropshire, that the succession here made out was in most of its important details capable of. being applied to many other districts. On some Graptolites from the Upper Arenig Rocks of Ramsey Island, St. David's. By Joun Horxinson, /.GS., FRALS. At the Meeting of the British Association at Brighton last year the author had announced the discovery of a considerable number of Graptolites in the Arenig rocks of Ramsey Island and Whitesand Bay, near St. David’s, and had shown that these rocks were more nearly allied by their Graptolites to the Quebec rocks of Canada than to their British representatives, the Skiddaw slates of Cumberland and the Arenig rocks of Shelve. Since then a new series of fossiliferous beds had been discovered on Ramsey Island; and the Graptolites collected in them had been intrusted to the author for TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 determination. Owing to their fragmentary condition the following species only could ‘be determined :— on oD Didymograptus affinis, Nich, Diplograptus dentatus, Brong. sp. '— pifidus, Hall. (=D. pristiniformis, Hall): ° er geminus, His. sp. — mucronatus, Hall,” patulus, Hail. Climacoeraptus scalaris, Linn. sp. The evidence afforded by these species was considered to be decidedly in favour of the view that these new Ramsey-Island beds were of Upper Arenig age, and ~ therefore higher than those previously known. ~ Comparing the Graptolites of the Skiddaw slates of Cumberland and the Arenig rocks of Shelve with those of the Lower and ue Arenig rocks of Ramsey Island, there appeared upon the whole to be a parallel succession of species in the Shelve and Ramsey-Island rocks; while the Skiddaw series seemed to be more nearly re- lated to the upper than to the lower Ramsey-Island beds; and it was inferred that the Skiddaw slates, which have hitherto been considered our oldest graptolite- ene rocks, are of more recent age than the lowest graptolitiferous rocks of St. avid’s, On the Occurrence of numerous Species of Graptolites in the Ludlow Rocks of Shropshire. By Joun Horxinson, F.GS., /RALS- Until recently only two species of Graptolites, Monogruptus (Graptolithus) priodon and M. colonus, were believed to occur in the Ludlow rocks of Shropshire. In 1868 Dr. Nicholson added to these a new species of Ptilograptus, and mentioned the pre= sence of an additional species of Monograptus. These had been collected by Mr, Lightbody of Ludlow, who had also found a few other species in these rocks. n the course of an excursion of the Geologists’ Association to the Silurian rocks of Shropshire in July 1872, and during a subsequent visit which the author had paid to Ludlow and its neighbourhood, several other species had been found, and some information on the distribution of the species had been elicited. While, however, the number of species known to occur in the Ludlow rocks has been greatly augmented by these researches, one or two forms, hitherto supposed to be characteristic of one or the other division of these rocks, had not been found in them. Not a single specimen of Monograptus priodon had been seen in the Ludlow rocks, all that were found being from the Wenlock shale; and not a single Grap- tolite had been detected in the Upper Ludlow rocks, although two species, MZ. co- lonusand M. priodon, had been stated to be of common occurrence in both the Lower and Upper Ludlow. The Graptolites, with the exception of a species or two of the Dendroidea, appeared to have died out for ever in the Aymestry limestone, in which a few indeterminable fragments only have been found. The following species had been determined :— Rhabdophora. Monograptus bohemicus, Bary’. Monograptus incurvus, sp. noy. — capula, sp. noy. leintwardensis, sp. nov. chimeera, Barr. — Nilssoni, Barr. clavicula, sp. nov. — Salweyi, sp. nov. — colonus, Barr. —— selva, sp, noy. Dendroidea, Ptilograptus anglicus, Nich, Ptilograptus (vel Dendrograp- elegans, sp. noy. : tus) Nicholsoni, sp. noy. These species were found to be restricted in their range in time, and to charac- terize the same zones at distances wide apart. Some progress had been made to- wards working out this interesting question ; but a more lengthened investigation of the Lower Ludlow rocks in the Ludlow area was considered to be necessary before any definite conclusion could be arrived at. 6* Sk REPORT—1873. On the Occwrrence in the Yoredale Rocks of Wensleydale of Fish and Am- phibian Remains. By W, Horne, The remains occurred in thin limestones above and contiguous to the main lime- stone, Among the fossils were teeth of Cladodus and Plewrodus, and bones of the limbs of a Labyrinthodont Amphibian. On the British Paleozoic Arcade. By J. Logan Lonny, F.G.S. In this paper the results of an examination of the described species of Lamelli- branchiata attributed to the family Arcade, and occurring in British Paleozoic. rocks, were given. After proposing that the sinupallial genera which haye hitherto been included in Arcadw should be removed from that family and constitute a separate group, the author discussed the claims of the various generic distinctions which authors had sought to establish, and thought the following genera might be admitted as having representatives in the Paleozoic strata of the British Islands:—Arca (L.), Cucullea (Lam.), Macrodon (Lycett), Nucula (Lam.), Ctenodonta (Salter), Cu- cullella (M*Coy), Glyptarca (Hicks), Palearca (Hall. )—the species of Arcadze which had been assigned by various authors to Byssoarca, Cleidophorus, Cypricarditis, Cyrtodonta, Megambonia, Pullastra, Tellinomya, Vanuxemia, &e. being given to one or other of the before-mentioned genera. The following summary gives the number of species admitted in each genus, with its stratigraphical range in the Paleozoic rocks :— Areca, 9 species.........5 Ludlow, Carboniferous Limestone. Cucullea, 10 species .,.. Middle Devonian, Upper Devonian, Carboniferous Limestone. Macrodon, 1 species ..., Permian. Nucula, 1 species........ Permian. Ctenodonta, 41 species.,.. Tremadoc, Llandeilo, Caradoc, Lower Llandovery, Upper Llandovery, Wenlock, Ludlow, Lower De- vonian, Middle Devonian, Upper Devonian, Car- boniferous Limestone, Coal-measures, Cucullella, 4 species...,.. Caradoc, Upper Llandovery, Ludlow. Glyptarca, 2 species .... Tyremadoc. Palearca, 14 species .... Tremadoc, Llandeilo, Caradoc, Upper Llandovery, Ludlow, Total 82 species, having the following distribution :—Tremadoe, 6; Llandeilo, 3 ; Caradoc, 17; Lower Llandovery, 2; Upper Llandovery, 11; Wenlock, 2; Lud- low, 7; Lower Devonian, 1; Middle Devonian, 2; Upper Devonian, 11; Carho- niferous Limestone, 29; Coal-measures, 2; Permian, 2. On a Hora and Bones found in a Cutting in a Street in Maidenhead, Berks. By T. Morrat, M.D., F.GLS, ; The horn and bones were found imbedded in flint gravel about six feet from the surface, They appeared to be much mineralized. There are cuts upon the horn, apparently made when it was fresh and for the purpose of separating it from the skull. -The cuts seem to haye been made with an edged metallic tool. On Geological Systems and Endemic Diseases. By T. Morrat, M.D., F.G.S. The author stated that the results given in this confirmed what he had stated in his former papers, viz. that goitre and anzmia are endemic on the Carboniferous system, while they are absent on Cheshire or New Red Sandstone. He wished it to be understood, however, that the observations were made only in the district in which he resided, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 Referring to a suggestion made by Mr. Lebour, of the Geological Survey, in a paper “On the Geological distribution of goitre in England and Wales,” that the cause of goitre “is the metallic impurities in the water,” and a statement “that it prevailed most where ferruginous water occurred,” the author states that iron medicinally administered produces beneficial etfects, but when ferruginous water is taken daily it produces a low state of health, and in that way might predispose to the formation of goitre; but such water would not cause anemia. He observes that it is very doubtful, however, if water containing iron is ever used as a potable water or for culinary purposes, one grain per gallon rendering it unfit for making an infusion of tea. In the neighbourhood in which he lives such water is avoided. In the per- formance of his duties as Medical Officer of Health, he had chemically examined ten public wells in his district ; and he did not detect a trace of iron in one of them, from which he concludes that goitre, which is very prevalent in the locality, can- not be caused by ferruginous water. As anemia is a state of the system in which oxide of iron is deficient in the blood, and as goitre appears at a time of life and under conditions of the system when a maximum quantity of nutritious food is required, he concludes that where there is a deficiency of iron and phosphates, or nutritive salts in the food, these forms of disease will prevail. Ry chemical analysis he has shown that iron and the phosphates are deficient in wheat grown upon the Carboniferous system compared with that grown upon the New Red Sandstone. Soils, he observes, are formed by the disintegration of the rocks or formations upon which they lie, and consequently they consist of the same in- predients. The colouring-matter of the Cheshire sandstone is oxide of iron; and the soil upon it is thoroughly impregnated with that oxide. The Carboniferous system is not impregnated with it; oxide of iron is not so thoroughly diffused throughout this system as it is in the New Red Sandstone; so, compared with the latter, there is a deficiency of iron in the soil upon the former. : To the above rule he states there are, however, exceptions, as soils do not always consist of the disintegrated rocks upon which they rest. In a district with which he is well acquainted the geological formation is Millstone-grit, yet the soil upon it is as highly coloured with oxide of iron as that upon New Red Sandstone at no great distance from it. In this district goitre and anemia are unknown. He concludes that goitre and anemia do not occur in a district having a soil con- taining a maximum quantity of oxide of iron and phosphates, no matter what the system is upon which it rests. On the Ammonitic Spiral in reference to the power of Flotation attributed to the Animal. By Joun Puiturs, W.A., PRS., D.C.L. Oxvon., LL.D. Cambr. and Dublin, Professor of Geology, Oxford. The author, while considering the subject in connexion with the recent Nautilus pompilius and Spirula and with many fossil genera, found a deficiency of data as to the proportion of the supposed air-chambers to the whole volume of the shell and the part of it occupied in life by the animal. To obtain such data he examined the spiral structure by means of principal sections on the plane of volution, and found that, omitting the earliest small volutions, the growth of the ammonite shell was in many species uniform, so that the proportion of the last chamber to the sum of all the preceding ones was nearly uniform; but among different species the character of the spiral differed. In one group the breadths of the volutions measured on a radius vector increased in geometrical proportion ; in another the increase was in arithmetical proportion ; between these two forms all ammonitic spirals appeared to be contained. ‘The author then showed how, in the former group, the power of flotation, if it existed, would be uniform through life, but in the latter continual increasing. In order to see the exact bearing of this on the question of flotation, 1t would be necessary to determine some other points as to the thickness of shell and number of septa. _ With respect to the further function attributed to these animals, that cf rising and falling at pleasure in the sea, the author showed, by measuring the 86 “REPORT—1873. siphuncle, that such a power of adapting the specific gravity of the shell must have been very limited; and he was disposed, on the whole, to believe that the old Cephalopods, in rising and falling, trusted more to their strong arms than to the filling and emptying of the pipe which connected the chambers, The subject is under investigation, On the Ammonitie Sepia in relation to Geological Time. By Joun Purnxzs, MA., PRS, DCL, Owvon., LL.D. Cambridge and Dublin, Professor of Geology, Oxford. The author, viewing the Ammonitide as a family extending in time from the Devonian to the Cretaceous period, proposed to examine into the genealogy of the proper genus called Ammonites. He showed that from a supposed ancestral origin in Goniatites, two lines of real or imaginary descent might be traced—one serugh Ceratites of the Muschelkalk to the Cassianic ammonites, another through the Arietes and other species of Lower Lias to the Upper Oolite and Cretaceous Se In neither case is the genealogy proved between the Carboniferous and later families ; but in each case the change of septal outline (or “ suture’’) is from simple undulations to very complicated foliations. Such change, then, is only indicative of successive time as it is characteristic of successive physiological change. Instead of one development from Goniatites, the most convenient form of hypothesis, at present, would be to assume separate systems of development, each limited in time to different periods, but following the same course of physiological change. The same order of change occurs in the embryonic, young, and old shell of each species, (The author hopes to make a further communication,) The Loess of Northern China, and its Relation to the Salt-basins of Central Asia. By Baron von Ricurnoren, Ph.D. (Berlin). Northern China is covered with a yellow earth which resembles the Loess of the yalley of the Rhine in all essential properties. It is fine-grained and fusible, yet so solid as to form vertical cliffs and bluffs several hundred feet high, and dis- tinguished by the complete absence of planes of stratification as well as a marked tendency to vertical cleavage. It resembles loam in composition (its chief ingre- dients being an argillaceous and ferruginous basis which contains very fine sand and carbonate of lime in varying proportions), but differs from that earth by possessing a highly porous and tubular structure. The tubes, which are very thin and usually incrusted with a fine calcareous film, occupy in general a vertical posi- tion, and ramify like the roots of grass. ‘They cause the Loess to absorb water like a sponge, and prevent the existence of) any lakes on its surface, or the issuing of springs from the body of the formation, although these are copious where the © earth rests on rocks or stratified soil. The Loess encloses bones of land-animals and an abundance of well-preserved shells of terrestrial mollusca, but no marine or freshwater fossils. Calcareous concretions are always disseminated through it, and mostly arranged in well-defined layers, in‘which, as a rule, the longer axis of each nodule occupies a vertical position. ee The Loess is peculiar to Northern China, no trace of it occurring in the southern rovinces; it is observable on the side of Mongolia and Central Asia, just to the imit of the headwaters of those rivers which flow towards the sea, covering altogether an area of about 240,000 square miles.’ Within this area it spreads alike over low and high ground, from the level of the sea to altitudes of 8000 feet, its thickness varying from very little to upwards of 1500 feet. It smooths off the irregularities of the surface, and; by connecting with each other the crests of distant mountain-ranges, creates between them large trough-like basins with gent] inclined slopes, the bottom of each’of which is made up of stratified earth whic otherwise resembles “Loess in appearance and is strongly impregnated with alkaline'salts.. The sides of each basin are furrowed by innumerable and infinitely ramified pullies, which frequently attain the depth of 1500 feet. With the exception of the great alluvial plain adjoining the lower Hwangho, human habitations and TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 agriculture are confined in Northern China to the Loess, millions of people living in caves dug in that earth. As regards the mode of origin of the Loess of China, it can neither be a fresh- water deposit, which Pumpelly supposed it to be, nor a marine formation, which Kingsmill attempted to make it—not so much on account of the absence from it of either freshwater or marine fossils and the want of stratification, as because lacus- trine strata could not possibly be deposited on the crests of the highest mountain- ranges and the most elevated portions of plateaux, while the theory of a marine origin would force us to presuppose Eastern Asia to have been submerged at least 8000 feet beneath the present sea-level in very recent. time, an assumption against which there exists a great deal of direct evidence. The author next attempted to prove that the Loess is a subaérial deposit, and drew attention to the close similarity in the character of the surface between the Loess-basins of Northern China and the salt-basins of the steppes of Central Asia. From Pamir and the Karakorom to the headwaters of the large rivers ttowing towards the seas which surround Asia on the north-east and south-east, a vast extent of country (exhibiting differences of altitude as great as any which occur in Europe) is made up of numerous basins without outward drainage, the surface of each of which slopes gently down from the crests or declivities of the surrounding mountain-ranges towards the lowest portion, which is filled with a salt lake or marsh. Each basin exhibits now the surface of an accumulation of débris, which smooths off the inequalities of the rocks below, but is unknown equally as to composition, structure, and thickness, because no portion below the smooth surface is exposed to view. Everywhere the soil is impregnated with salts, and therefore allows only of the growth of a steppe vegetation. Neither the salt lakes nor the steppe deposits have originated (as has been suggested) in the former submergence of the whole area beneath the sea, but are of subaérial origin. The products of decom- aaage of the mountain-ranges which constitute the skeleton of Central Asia, not eing able to make their way to the sea, are deposited in the adjoining basins, partly by rain-water, which washes them off the rocks and distributes them equally over the gentle slopes, and partly by winds which carry large amounts of them away and, in the present time, frequently obscure for many days the atmosphere by the ingredients they carry in suspension, depositing them finally as fine dust over the surface, The substances which are thus mechanically distributed over the soil by either agency are retained there by the vegetation, and cause, in the course of centuries, the gradual raising of the surface; while the soluble products of decomposition are mainly collected in the central pool, where the evaporation of the water causes the gradual concentration of the solution ; and at the same time stratified soil, similar in composition to the soil of the steppes, is deposited. Ifnow in any one basin the rains, in consequence of slight climatal changes, cause a greater increase in the quantity of water than is lost by evaporation, the basin will pradually be filled and the water finally seek an outlet at the lowest place of the margin. With the gradual deepening of the channel the basin will be drained, and the affluents converging towards its lowest portion will cut deep gullies into the soil of the previous Steppe, thus exposing its nature, and at the same time carrying off the salts with which it was impregnated. A short sketch was then given of the evidence collected to show that the Loess- basins of Northern China have formerly been basins without outward drainage, and ‘were provided, each of them, with a salt lake in its lowest portion, that they were gradually drained, one by one, towards the sea, and that this process, consequent on slow climatal changes, is still going on along the eastern limit of the salt-lake plateaux. In the Loess of Northern China is therefore exhibited the nature of the subaérial deposits which fill the salt basins of Central Asia; but, the salts being extracted from it, it yields all the conditions required for agriculture and the exist- ence of civilized man. Baron von Richthofen finally wished it to be distinctly understood as his opinion that Loess may have originated in different ways, and that he does not believe the theory which he has advanced as to the origin of the Loess of Northern China to be applicable in every case where Loess occurs. 28. : _ REPORT—1873. Geology of the Country round Bradford, Yorkshire. By Rk. Russery, CL, F.GS., A.M. Geological Survey*. Lithological Description. . The country which the author described lies between the river Wharfe and Calder on the north and south, the towns of Leeds and Halifax on the east and west, having Bradford in the centre. _ The measures included within this area belong to the Carboniferous series, together with a few patches of drift clay, and gravel, and the alluvial deposits in the river-valleys. The Carboniferous rocks may be divided as follows :— feet, Middle Coal-measures ......2+0.e005 & sidioys aha hgert 850 Lower Coal-measures ..........55 ebpragt nite cite 1226 Upper Grit, or Rough Rock, with flags at base,... 180 SSCS cere iriaee tates iis wlnusa" ciel Bicorehe'w ss onslsve td taietetniatohe 110 Middle Grit in several beds ........ececevaees .. 1400 Beginning with the lower beds, the author shortly described the lithological cha- racter of each group in chronological order. The lower partof the Middle Grits consists of shale alternating with bands of sandstone. The upper portion is principally sandstone with thin bands of shale ; and the lowest bed of this division is the thick and massive rock which forms Ilkley Crags and Otley Chevin. The flags at the base of the Upper Grit are fine-grained and regularly bedded ; but they are not always present. The Upper Grit itself isa coarse-grained massive sandstone, varying from 8&0 to 180 feet inthickness. It generally occurs in one bed; but northwards it lies in two or three distinct beds. The Lower Coal-measures contain five workable seams of coal, ten thin coals which occasionally attain a thickness of 1 ft. 2 in. and 1 ft. 8 in., and several beds of sandstone, the principal of which are known under the names of the Elland Flagstone and the Oakenshaw rock. . The five principal coals and two sandstones may be described thus :— The Halifax Soft-bed coal maintains a very constant thickness of 1 ft. 4in., to 1 ft. 8 in. from Halifax northwards, but eastwards it diminshes to a band a few inches thick. ° The Halifax Hard-bed coal varies from 2 ft. 3 in. in the south to 1 ft, 4in. in the north, and like the Soft Bed thins out eastwards to a thin band. The Fireclay below the Gannister, on which the coal lies, is often worked along with the coal, being from 3 to 6 ft. thick. The Elland Flagstone includes a group of sandstones, which, being in general thin- bedded and flagey, give the name to the rock. It forms large spreads on the higher ground around Northowram ; and west and north of Bradford the 60-yards rock of Thornton seems to unite with it and form the thick sandstone at Gaisby Hill. The Better-bed coal is one of the most important and valuable coals in the neighbourhood, attaining a thickness of 3 feet at Horton ; but the average thickness is about 1 ft.8 in. ; much value is set on this coal by the Iron Companies in the district. The Black-bed coal is of a softer nature and inferior quality, 2 ft. 4in. to 2 ft. 6 in. thick at Low Moor; but at Farnley and Beeston the lower part of the seam is converted into an impure stone coal. The value of this coal is enhanced by the jronstone-bearing shale which overlies it. The layers of ironstone are imbedded in a carbonaceous shale ; and the average thickness of good ironstone will be about 5 or 6 inches, that portion of it known as the “ middle balls” being the richest in metallic iron. The Oakenshaw rock is a well-marked and distinct sandstone over the whole * See ‘Tron,’ Nos. 39 & 40, vol. xi.. New Series, pp. 458 & 491; also Geological Surrey Memoir on the Yorkshire Coalfield. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 district from Mirfield to Hunsworth, coarse in grain, thick, and in many cases false- bedded. The Beeston-bed coal is the representative of an interesting series of coals, which occur in the south as the Shertcliffe-bed coal and two coal bands, and then as the Churwell Thick and Thin coals, and finally as the Beeston bed, uniting the qualities as well as the thickness in one seam. The Middle Coal-measures contain eleven principal coal seams and two sandstone rocks, which are worthy of notice. The Blocking coal, the horizon of which indicates the division between the Lower and Middle Coal-measures, is a coal which has been most extensively worked over a great portion of this area ; it varies in thickness from 1 ft. Sin. to 1 ft. 8in., and is of a very good quality. The Three-quarters or Middleton 11-yards coal is a constant coal, but it is thin and of an inferior quality within our present limits. The Cromwell or Middleton Main coal is a valuable coal, and is generally a soft coal, but at Birstall part of the seam is converted into Cannel coal. The thickness is from 1 ft. 73 in. to 4 ft. 6 in. The Green-Lane or Middleton Little coal, near Dewsbury, is only about 9 inches or 1 foot thick ; but northwards it improves both in quality and thickness, being as much as 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. in the district around Morley, and contains a band of semi- anthracitic coal which is used as a steam coal. The Brown-metal coals, three in number, continue constant, though the manner of their occurrence is varied. At Dewsbury we have the series complete, while at White Lee the two upper beds unite and form the 2-yards coal, a parting of about 1 ft. 6 in. intervening be- tween the two seams. These two coals are again separated at Bruntcliffe by about 28 feet of shales, while the lowest seam is represented by a band of black shale. The Birstall Rock is contained in the measures which lie between these coals and the Flockton Thin coal. It is a very irregular sandstone, but is largely deyeloped at Batley Carr, Carlinghow, and Birstall, where it attains a thickness of 100 feet. Much good building-stone is obtained from this rock. i The Flockton Thin or Adwalton Black bed is about 3 feet thick, and contains a layer of clay from 2 to 4 inches thick a few inches from the top of the seam. The seam is very regular, and the quality of an average kind; and it is used as a soft coal for gas-making. The Adwalton Stone coal: the upper portion of this seam is a good cannel coal 6 to 10 inches thick, the total thickness of the bed being from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in, The roof shale of this coal is recognizable throughout the whole of the Yorkshire coal-field, being a black shale containing ironstone nodules which are one mass of Anthracosia, and is locally known in this district as the “ Cockle-shell bed.” The Joan coal varies from 2 ft. 3 in. to 1 ft. in thickness, but has not been much worked, though it is of good quality. The measures which lie between this coal and the Haigh-Moor coals contain the sandstone known as the Thornhill rock. This sandstone is regular and uniform in occurrence and thickness, and will compare in this respect with the sandstones of the Lower Coal-measures. Good and durable building-stone is obtained from it. The Low and Top Haigh-Moor coals are separated from each other at Pildacre by about 30 feet of shales; northwards the Low coal becomes deteriorated and the Top coal continues as the Haigh-Moor coal of the country to the north and north- west. The Warren-house or Gawthorpe coal is only present over a very small area near Chidswell, and is from 7 to 8 feet thick. The Lie of the Measures, By the aid of certain natural lines which occur within this area, such as the lines of faults and features of the country, we are enabled the more easily to describe the lie of these beds. Beginning with the country on the south-west of the fault from Clifton Common through Bailiff Bridge to Denholme Clough, the Rough rock stretches awa westwards from under the Coal-measures, while between the top line of that mek 90 REPORT—1873. and the fault we have measures as high as the Crow coal, the coals above the Elland Flagstone putting in a little way west of the fault. This area is broken up by a number of smaller faults. The Bailiff-Bridge fault begins at Clifton Common, Antes to 62 yards at Norwood Green, and to 150 or 200 yards at Denholme ough. On the north-east side of the Bailifi-Bridge fault and south of the Bradford southerly and Harper-Gate faults to the river Calder, there is a tract of country which is crossed by a number of large faults running nearly north-east and south- west and north-west and south-east, and a set of smaller faults the direction of which is approximately east and west. Between the Bradford southerly and Tong faults and one of these north-east and south-west faults, viz. the Birkenshaw fault, all the beds crop out from the Better-bed to the Middleton Main coal which caps the top of Westgate Hill. On the downcast or south-east side of this fault we have mea- sures up to the base of the Thornhill rock; and this is again thrown down on the south-east by the Bruntcliffe fault, the amount of throw being about 80 yards; and the Haigh-Moor coal is brought in at Soothill by the Upper-Batley fault, but is thrown out again at Hanging Heaton on the upcast side of the Staincliffe fault, once more occurring over the Thornhill rock at Pildacre Hill east of Dewsbury. On the north side of the Bradford southerly and Harper-Gate faults, the country is also intersected by many faults, which would require too much space to describe in any detail; but between these faults and the top line of the Upper Grit from Wilsden to Thackley we have the beds from the Better-bed coal to the Halifax Soft coal, while measures nearly as high as the Shertcliffe bed occur in the trian- gular space between the Egypt, Fairweather-Green and Leventhorpe-Mill faults, and in the trough between the Bradford northerly and the Throstle-nest faults, ex~- tending from Chellon Dean to Fagley. The Upper Grit, rising from under the northern edge of the Coal-measures, stretches away over the high ground to Yeadon and Rumbles moors, surmounted at Baildon Common and Rawdon by outliers of the Lower Coal-measures, while the Middle Grits, consisting of alternating bands of sandstone and shale, run along the lower slopes of the valleys. The outlier at Baildon contains beds up to the base of the flagstone group, which lie in regular succession over the Rough rock at Baildon Bank, and are brought against the grit on the north by the continuation of the Row fault. The Rawdon outlier is connected with the main portion of the coal-field by the extension to the north-east of the belt between the Bradford northerly and southerly faults, the beds cropping out on the east and west sides of this belt above the Upper Grit, and bounded on the north by a fault running westward through Rawdon Common. The Middle Grits rise to the surface north of Yeadon and Rumbles moors, form the magnificent on from Addingham Crag by Ilkley Crags and Otley Chevin to Bramhope Bank, giving a grandeur to this portion of the Wharte valley which, in scenery of this kind, is hardly to be surpassed. Boulder-beds.—These deposits consist of Boulder-clay and gravels—the gravels being of two kinds, those found on the high grounds, and those found in the valleys—together with a stiffish clay containing fragments of local stones and which is probably lacustrine in its origin. The Boulder-clay is composed of blackish, bluish, and yellowish clay containing fragments and blocks of sandstone, grit, limestone, and shale, the blocks of limestone being in many cases scratched, polished, and angular, though in other cases they are well rounded as well as striated; but it is hardly possible to separate the one from the other. The drift in the Aire basin contains no fragments which may not have come from the rocks within the watershed—with one exception so far as the author is aware ; and that is in the valley at and just south of Bradford, where he found a few pebbles of trap and ash rock as far up towards the watershed between the Aire and Calder as Rooley and Great Horton, and one block of coarse granite sae of the drift clay on the east side of Bowling Lane between Bowling House and e Oaks. The normal condition of the Boulder-clay in the valleys of the Aire and Wharfe being as previously described, would lead us to infer that it has been formed by TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 91 some cause acting locally, though it might probably he due to a universal ice- sheet. The fact of these beds being thickest in the main valleys and extending into the tributary valleys, the high land being usually free from them, shows the general contour of the country to have been much the same in preglacial times as it is now. The long ridges of gravel which extend in a somewhat broken and curved line from Burley Moor to Hawkesworth, are composed of limestone gravel, forming a bank about 60 yards wide and 10 to 20 feet high, being at the north end 1150 feet and at the south 600 feet above the sea-level, thus running across the ground irrespective of contour, and seem to be undoubted Eskers, The mounds of gravel which occur in the valley of the Aire at Bingley are composed of limestone gravel and boulders, the greatest proportion of which are well-rounded pebbles with faint traces of striz upon them; this would point to re- arranged drift, or drift which was subjected to tides and currents during deposition. This is further exemplified by the stratification being both up and down the valley, and might have been formed when the land stood 300 or 400 feet below its present level, the valley of the Aire being then an inlet of the sea up which the tide ebbed and flowed, and by its action formed these mounds from previously existing material. River Deposits Gravel occurs at Exley Hall and Kirklees Park, 150 feet above the present river, and is supposed to be of river formation. The river-terraces consist of sand, gravel, and clay, and occur in many places along the course of the main rivers, as at Thornhill Lees in the valley of the Calder, Calverley in the valley of the Aire, and in the valley of the Wharfe almost continuously from Burley to Poole. The recent alluvium is composed of fine loamy clay, sand, and gravel. Man large trees have been found imbedded in this alluvium in the vailey of the Calder, some of them being from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, and 60 feet in length. On the Occurrence of Elephant-remains in the Basement Beds of the Red Crag. By J. E, Taynor, V.LS., F.GS. The author exhibited a tooth from the basement bed of the Red Crag, where Mastodon and other early Pliocene or late Miocene mammalia are met with. It had been contended that the elephant-teeth did not come from this bed; but the author denied this from personal experience. The tooth in question was very peculiar, from the width between the ridges, and its singular resemblance to the Mastodon type. On the Correspondence between some Areas of apparent Upheaval and the Thickening of subjacent Beds. By W.Toruny, F.G.S., Geological Survey of England. The author first referred to some known facts as to the thinning of strata in certain directions, and he drew attention to the coincidence between the direction of this thinning and the direction of the general dip. The south-easterly attenua- tion of the Oolites of Central England (long since proved by Prof. Hull) and the thinning-out of the Lower Cretaceous rocks under London, were the cases most fully dwelt upon. Illustrations were also drawn from the Carboniferous rocks of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and the Lower Cretaceous rocks on the west of the Paris basin. It was shown, as regards the areas described, that the rise of the beds is in that direction in which the underlying beds obtained their greatest thickness. It has hitherto been assumed that the rise and dip of strata is due to movements of the earth’s crust; but the author pointed out that, in the instances alluded to, this is an erroneous conclusion. Only a small portion of the apparent upheaval could be due to this cause, whilst in some cases it seemed that the whole of it could be ex- plained by the thickening of subjacent beds. The author concluded by pointing out the important bearing of these facts upon some current geological theories, re- ferring especially to the supposed connexion between the “upheaval” of the Weald and the existing valley-systems of that area, 92 REPORT—1873. On the Whin Sill of Northumberland. By W. Torrey, F.G.S., and G. A. Lesovr, F.G.S. _ This paper gave the results of work by the authors during the progress of the Geological Survey, and it was communicated to the Section by permission of the Director-General of the Survey. The Whinstone or Basalt of the north of England occurs in two forms, either as dykes cutting through the rocks, or as beds lying amongst them. The intrusive character of the former is undisputed; but there has always been considerable un- certainty as to the character of the latter. The authors affirmed that in Northum- berland there could be no doubt whatever that the sheet or sheets of basalt known as the “ Whin Sill” were intrusive, and that the trap had been forced through the rocks long after their deposition and consolidation. The evidence of this was found in the altered nature of the rocks above the whin, especially when they consist of shales, and in the fact that the whin does not lie at one uniform level amongst the sedimentary strata, but frequently comes up in bosses, cutting through the rocks, and shifting its relative position amongst them to the extent of 1000 feet or more in short distances. An account of the literature of the subject was given; and reference was parti- cularly made to a paper by Sir W. C. Trevelyan, published in 1823 in the ‘ Werne- rian Transactions,’ in which the intrusive nature of the basalt of North Northum- berland was clearly shown. F A note by Mr. S. Allport, F.G.S., was appended to the paper, giving an account of the microscopic structure of the basalt, showing it to be precisely similar in character to the intrusive sheets of trap which occur in the coal-field of the midland counties, Note on the Occurrence of Thanet Sand and of Crag in the S.W. part of Suffolk (Sudbury). By W. Wuiraxer, B.A. (Lond.), of the Geological Survey. The author had observed near Sudbury some sections proving the existence of Thanet Sand in that district. None had previously been observed on the northern outcrop of the London basin. The sand is fine and loamy, just like that of West Kent. The author also noticed the occurrence of Crag at Sudbury, at many miles from, and at a higher level than, any previously known. On some Specimens of Dithyrocaris from the Carboniferous Limestone Series, East Kilbride, and from the Old Red Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire ; with . Notes on their Geological Position fe. By Hrxry Woopwarp, F.2.S., F.G.S., and Rosert Eruerines, jun., F£.G.S. The authors described nine specimens of Phyllopodous Crustaceans, eight of which are from the Carboniferous series of East Kilbride, and the remaining form from the Old Red Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire. They are all referable to the genus Dithyrocaris; and the authors described four new species, namely :— Dithyrocaris granulata, W.& E. Carboniferous Limestone series, East Kilbride, . ovalis, W. & E. Carboniferous Limestone series, East Kilbride. glabra, W. & E, Carboniferous Limestone series, East Kilbride. striata, W. §& E. Old Red Sandstone, Lanark. The other examples are referred to Dr. Scouler’s Dithyrocaris tricornis and D, testudinea, both of which were also obtained from the Carboniferous Limestone series of East Kilbride. With regard to D. tricornis, one of the authors (Mr. Woodward) had made the ‘interesting discovery that the carapace in Dr. Scouler’s specimen was folded -together, and that Dr. Scouler had mistaken the true anterior border of the cara- -pace—the three spines, on which the specific diagnosis was founded, being really at the posterior end of the carapace—the body-segments having been twisted out of TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 as constantly happens in Cerativearis papilio, Salter, from the Upper Silurian of esmahagow (see ‘Siluria,’ 4th edit. 1867, p. 236, Fossils (66), fig. 1, and footnote thereon). The maxille, which are preserved in situ in Dr. Scouler’s specimen, indicate the true anterior end of the carapace. New Facts bearing on the Inquiry concerning Forms intermediate between Birds and Reptiles. By Henry Woopwaro, F.R.S., F.G.S., of the British Museum. In this paper the author drew attention to the great hiatus existing at the present day between Birds and Reptiles, and referred to the researches of Prof. Huxley and others in order to show that both the Ornithic and Reptilian types were super- structures raised on the same ground-plan, and that the Chelonia, Ichthyosauria, Plesiosauria, Pterosauria, and Lacertilia differ fully as much from one another as they do from the class Aves. 0 associate all these forms together under one great Class, the Savropstpa, as proposed by Prof. Huxley, is therefore fully justified by the common structural affinities which they present. Among existing birds the Zatite or Struthious birds come nearer to Reptilia than any other group ; and their wide distribution attests their great antiquity, whilst their fossil forms occur as low down as the Eocene. The author pointed out that the Pterosauria only presented an adaptive modification of Avian structures, but did not help to bridge over the gap which exists between these two divisions. He cited the remarkable Mesozoic bird (the Archeopteryzx) as affording a more generalized type of structure than any other known genus of Aves, the tail being et of twenty free vertebra, and the digits of the wings being armed with claws. Two birds had also been described by Prof. O.C. Marsh from the Cretaceous shales of Kansas, remarkable for possessing numerous teeth in both jaws, implanted in distinct sockets, and also biconcave vertebre. Lastly, Prof. Owen had just described a new and remarkable bird from the Lon- don Clay of Sheppey, the Odontopteryx toliapicus, having very prominent denticu- lations of the alveolar margins of the jaws, which, although not true teeth, no doubt subserved the function of those prehensile organs. From the extreme rarity of all terrestrial-animal remains preserved in a fossil state, it may be justly concluded that many more such archaic birds with reptilian modifications actually existed in the Mesozoic epoch, although they may never be discovered by geologists. The author then referred to the instances of fossil Reptilia which show remark- able ornithic modifications—as, for example, the singular Compsognathus longipes from Solenhofen, a lizard which, from its peculiar conformation, must have hopped or walked in an erect position, after the manner of a bird, to which its long neck, small head, short and diminutive anterior limbs gave it an extraordinary resem- blance. From the researches of Mantell, Owen, Phillips, Huxley, and Hulke in England, Cope, Leidy, and other anatomists in America, it would appear that the huge Dinosauria, the Iguanodon, Megalosaurus, &c., had also diminutive fore limbs and ~ largely developed hind limbs, whilst from the form of the pelvic bones and the anchylosis of the sacral vertebre, there can be little doubt they walked in an almost erect position—a conclusion which the bipedal tracks discovered by Mr. S. H. Beckles tend to confirm. The author then described a remarkable lizard, the Chlamydosaurus Kingii from Australia, which habitually runs upon its hind legs, a mode of progression which its disproportionately short fore limbs at once suggest as its natural position; and as its habits are known to have been observed by Mr. Gerard Krefft and other naturalists, it affords a most valuable living illustration of a Mesozoic type ap- proaching birds on the Reptilian side, as the Struthious Birds approach reptiles on the Avian side. Some singular tracks from Solenhofen were referred to, which must haye been 94, REPORT—1873. made by a bipedal reptile, like Compsognathus, or by a reptilian-like bird, such as Archeopteryx, having a long rat-like tail. aiNes : Mr. Woodward thinks the bipedal tracks on the Connecticut sandstones are to, be satisfactorily explained by the conclusion which we are now justified in forming, that they were left by Avian-like Reptiles, although we have not as yet discovered their fossil remains. BIOLOGY. Address by Guorcr J. Attman, V.D., LLD., PRS. PRS.E., M.R.LA., LLS., President of the Section. For some years it has been the practice at the Meetings of this Association for the special Presidents to open the work of their respective Sections with an Address, which is supposed to differ, in the greater generality of its subject, from the ordi- nary communications to the Sections. Finding that during the present Meeting this duty would devolve on myself, I thought over the available topics, and con- cluded that a few words on the Present Aspect of Biology and thn Method of Biological Study would best satisfy the conditions imposed. T shall endeavour to be as little technical as my subject will allow; and though I know that there are here present many to whom I cannot expect to convey any truths with which they are not already familiar, yet in an Address of this kind the speaker has no right to take for granted any large amount of scientific know- ledge in his audience. Indeed one of the chief advantages which result from these Meetings of the British Association consists in the stimulus they give to inquiry, in the opportunity they afford to many of becoming acquainted for the first time with the established truths of science, and the initiation among them of new lines of thought. And this is undoubtedly no small gain; for how many are there who, though they may have reaped all the advantages which our established educational systems can bestow, are yet sadly deficient in a knowledge of the world of life which surrounds them. It is a fair and wonderful world, this earth on which we have our dwelling-place ; and yet how many wander over it unheedingly! by how many have its lessons of wisdom never been read! how many have never spared a thought on the beauty of its forms, the harmony of its relations, the deep meaning of its laws! And with all this there is assuredly implanted in man an undying love of such Imowledge. From his unshaken faith in causation he yearns to deduce the unknown from the known, to look beyond what is at hand and obvious to what is remote and unseen, Conception of Biology and Function of the Scientific Method. Under the head of Biology are included all those departments of scientific research which have as their object the investigation of the living beings, the lants and the animals, which tenant the surface of our earth, or have tenanted it - in past time. t admits of being studied under two grand heads—Morphology, which treats of Form, and Physiology, which treats of Function ; and besides these there are certain departments of biological study to which both Morphology and Physiology contribute, such as Classification, Distribution, and that department of research which is concerned with the origin and causes of living and extinct forms. By the aid of observation and experiment we obtain the elements which are to be combined and developed into a science of living beings; and it is the function of the scientific method to indicate the mode in which the combinations are to be effected, and the path which the development must pursue. Without it the results gained would be but a confused assemblage of isolated facts and dis- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 connected phenomena; but, aided by a philosophic method, the observed facts become scientific propositions, what was apparently insignificant becomes full of meaning, and we get glimpses of the consummate laws which govern the whole. I shall leaye the consideration of Biology in its purely physiological aspect to the President of the Physiological Subsection, and shall here confine myself to those departments which are more or less controlled by morphological laws, Importance of Anatomy. The first step in our morphological study of living beings is to obtain an accurate and adequate knowledge of the forms of the individual objects which vesent themselves to us in our contemplation of the animal and vegetable inedoms. For such knowledge, however, much more is needed than an acquaint- ance with their external figure. We must subject them to a searching scrutiny ; we must make ourselves familiar with their anatomy, which inyolves not only a knowledge of the forms and disposition of their organs, internal as well as external, but of their histology or the microscopic structure of the tissues of which these organs are composed. Histology is nothing more than anatomy carried to its extreme term, to that point where it meets with the morphological unit, the ulti- mate element of form, and the simplest combinations of this out of which all the organs in the living body are built up. Among the higher animals Anatomy, in the ordinary sense of the word, is sufficiently distinct from Histology to admit of separate study; but in the lower animals and in plants the two become confounded at so many points as to render their separate study often impracticable. Now the great prominence given to Anatomy is one of the points which most eminently distinguish the modern schools of Biology. Development. ; Another order of morphological facts of no less importance than those ob- tained from anatomical study is derived from that of the changes of form which the individual experiences during the course of its life. We know that every organized being commences existence as a simple sphere of protoplasm, and that from this condition of extreme generalization all but the very lowest pass through phases of higher and higher specialization, acquiring new parts and differentiating ' new tissues. The sum of these changes constitute the development of the organism ; and no series of facts is more full of significance in their bearing on biological science than that which is derived from the philosophic study of Development, Classification an Expression of Affinities. Hitherto we have been considering the individual organism without any direct reference to others; but the requirements of the biological method can be satisfied only by a comparison of the various organisms one with the other. Now the grounds of such comparison may be various ; but what we are at present con- cerned with will be found in anatomical structure and in developmental: changes ; and in each of these directions facts of the highest order and of great significance become apparent. By a carefully instituted comparison of one organism with another, we discover the resemblances as well as the differences between them. If these resemblances be strong and occur in important points of structure or development, we assert that there is an affinity between the compared organisms, and we assume that the closeness of the affinity varies directly with the closeness of the resemblance. Tt is on the determination of these affinities that all philosophic classification of animals and plants must be based. A philosophic classification of organized beings aims at theing a succinct statement of the affinities between the objects so classified, these affinities being at the same time so set forth as to have their various degrees of closeness and remoteness indicated in the classification. Affinities have long been recognized as the grounds of a natural biological classification ; but it is only quite lately that a new significance has been given to them by the assumption that they may indicate something more than simple 96 : REPORT—1873. agreement with a common plan—that they may be derived by inheritance from a common ancestral form, and that they therefore afford evidence of a true blood- relationship between the organisms presenting them. The recognition of this relationship is the basis of what is known as the Descent Theory. No one doubts that the resemblances we notice among the members of such small groups as those we name species are derived by inheritance from a common ancestor; and the Descent Theory is simply the extension to the larger groups of this same idea of relationship. If this be a true principle, then biological classification becomes an exposition of family relationship—a genealogical tree in which the stem and branches indi- cate various degrees of kinship and direct and collateral lines of descent. It is this conception which takes classification out of the domain of the purely morphological. Affinity determined by the study of Anatomy and Development. From what has just been said, it follows that it is mainly by a comparison of organisms in their anatomical and developmental characters that their affinities are discoverable. The structure of an organism will, in by far the greater number of cases, be sufficient to indicate its true affinity ; but it sometimes happens that certain members of a group depart in their structure so widely from the characters of the type to which they belong, that without some other evidence of their affi- nities no one would think of assigning them to it. This evidence is afforded by development. An example or two will serve to make the subject clear; and we shall first take one from a case where, without a knowledge of anatomical structure, we should easily go astray in our attempts to assign to the forms under examination their true place in the classification. If we search our coasts at low water we shall be sure to meet with certain plant-like animals spreading over the rocks or rooted to the fronds of sea-weeds, all of which present so close a resemblance to one another as to have led to their being brought together by the zoologists of a few years ago into a single group, to which, under the name of “ Polypes,” a definite place was assigned in the classification of the animal kingdom. They are all composite animals, consisting of an association of buds or zooids which remain organically united to one another and give to the whole assemblage the appearance, in many cases, of a little . branching tree. Every bud carries a delicate transparent cup, within which is contained the principal part of the animal, and from which this has the power of spontaneously pene itself; and when thus protruded it will be seen to pre- sent a beautiful crown of tentacles surrounding a mouth, through which’ food is taken into a stomach. As long as no danger threatens, the little animal will continue displayed with its beautiful coronal of tentacles expanded ; but touch it eyer so lightly, and it will instantly close up its tentacles, retract its whole body, and take refuge in the recesses of its protecting cup. So far, then, there is a complete agreement between the animals which have been thus associated under the designation of Polypes; and in all that concerns their external form no one point can be adduced in opposition to the justice of this association. When, however, we pass below the surface and bring the micro- scope and dissecting-needle to bear on their internal organization, we find that among the animals thus formed so apparently alike we have two totally distinct types of structure :—that while in one the mouth leads into a simple excavation of the body on which devolves the whole of the functions which represent digestion, in the other there is a complete alimentary tract entirely shut off from the proper cavity of the body and consisting of distinctly differentiated cesophagus, stomach, and intestine; while in the one the muscular system consists of an indistinct layer of fibres intimately united in its whole extent with the body-walls, in the other there are distinctly differentiated free bundles of muscles for the purpose of effecting special motions in the economy of the animal; while in the one no dif- ferentiated nervous system can be detected, in the other there is a distinct nervous ganglion with nervous filaments. In fact the two forms are shown, by a study of their anatomical structure, to belong to two entirely different primary divisions TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 of the animal kingdom; for while the one has a close affinity with the little freshwater Hydra, and is therefore referred to the Hydroida among the sub- kingdom Ccelenterata, the other is referable to the group of the Polyzoa, has its immediate affinities with the Ascidians, and belongs to the great division of the Molluscoida. We shall next take an example in which the study of development, rather than of anatomy, affords the clue to the true affinities of the organism. Attached to the abdomen of various crabs may often be seen certain soft fleshy sacs, to which the name of Sacculina has been given. They hold their place by means of a branching root-like extension, which penetrates the abdomen of the crab and winds itself round its intestine or dives into its liver, within which its fibres ramify like the roots of a tree. Now the question at once presents itself, What position in the animal kingdom are we to assign to this immovably-rooted sac, destitute of mouth and of almost every other organ with which we are in the habit of associating the structure of an animal ? Anatomy will here be powerless in helping us to arrive at a conclusion ; for the dissecting-knife shows us little more than a closed sac filled with eggs, and fixed by its tenacious roots in the viscera of its victim. Let us see, however, what we learn from development. If some of the eggs with which the Sacculina is filled be placed in conditions suited to their development, they give origin to a form as different as can well be imagined from the Sacculina. It is an active, somewhat oval-shaped little creature, covered with a broad dorsal shield or carapace, and furnished with two pairs of strong swimming-feet, which carry long bristles, and also with a pair of anterior limbs or antenne. It is, in fact, identical with a form known to zoologists by the name of “ Nauplius,” and which has been proved to be one of the young states of the Barnacle and of other lower Crustacea ; while even some of the higher Crustacea have been observed to pass through a similar stage. ‘After a short time the Nauplius of our Sacculina changes its form; the carapace folds down on each side and assumes the shape of a little bivalve shell, while six new pairs of swimming-feet are developed. The little animal continues its active natatory life, and in this stage it is again identical in all essential points with one of the young stages of the Barnacle. In the mean time a remarkable change takes place in the two antenne ; they become curiously branched and conyerted into prehensile organs. The young Sacculina now looks out for the crab on which it is to spend parasitically the rest of its life; it loses its bivalve shell; the prehensile antenne take hold of its victim, and Soagewe the soft skin of its abdomen, in order to seek within it the nutriment which is there so plentifully present ; locomotion is gone for ever, and the active and symmetrical Nauplius becomes converted into the inert and shape- less Sacculina. The nearest affinities of Sacculina are thus undoubtedly with the Barnacles, which have been proved, both on anatomical and developmental grounds, to belong to the great division of the Crustacea. A philosophical classification cannot form a single rectilineal series. A comparison of animals with one another having thus resulted in establishing their affinities, we may arrange them into groups, some more nearly, others more remotely related to one another. The various degrees and directions of affinity will be expressed in every philosophical arrangement; and as these affinities ex- tend in various directions, it becomes at once apparent that no arrangement of organized beings in a straight line, ascending like the steps of a ladder from lower to higher forms, can give a true idea of the relations of such beings to one another. These relations, on the contrary, can be expressed only by a ramified and complex figure, which we have already compared to that of a genealogical tree. The following diagram will approximately express the aflinities of the leading groups of the animal kingdom :— ‘i 1873. “I 98 REPORT—1873. (Verreprata. ) Amphioxys. aS ( Mouwvsca. ) Conchifera. \ | X Ne Tunicata. (Ecumyopermara. ) (Arrnropopa. ) (Morzuscoma. ) Asteridee. Crustacea, Polyzoa. Bs) ae Annelida. (Vermes. ) Ca:ceNTERATA, ) Platoidea. Hydroida. oes / Infusoria. Rhiz6poda. (Protozoa. ) Homology. In the comparison of organized beings with one another, certain relations of great interest and significance become apparent between various organs. These are known by the name of Homologies; and organs are said to be homologous with one another when they can be proved to be constructed on the same funda- mental plan, no matter how different they may be in form and in the functions which they may be destined to execute. Organs not constructed on the same fun- damental plan may yet execute similar functions; and then, whether they do or do not resemble one another in form, they are said to be merely analogous; and some of the most important steps in modern Biology have resulted from attention to the distinction between Homology and Analogy, a distinction which was entirely disregarded by the earlier schools. The nature of Homology and its distinction from Analogy will be best under- stood by a few examples. Compare the wing of a bird with that of an insect; there is a resemblance be- tween them in external form; there is also an identity of function, both organs being constructed for the purposes of flight: and yet they are in no respect homo- logous; for they are formed on two distinct plans, which have nothing whatever in common. The relation between them is simply that of analogy. On the other hand, no finer illustrations of Homology can be adduced than those which are afforded by a comparison with one another of the anterior limbs of the various members of the Vertebrata. Let us compare, for example, the anterior limb of man with the wing of a bird. Here we have two organs between which the ordinary observer would fail to recognize any resemblance—organs, too, whose functions are entirely different, one being formed for prehension, and the other for flight. When, however, they are compared in the light which a philosophic ana- tomy is capable of throwing on them, we find between the two a parallelism which points to one fundamental type on which they are both constructed. There is, first, the shoulder-girdle, or system of bones by which in each case the limb is connected with the rest of the skeleton. Now this part of the skeleton in man is very different in form from the same part in the bird; and yet a comparison TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 of the two shows us that the difference mainly consists in the fact that the coracoid, which in man is a mere process of the scapula, is in the bird developed as an inde- pendent bone, and in the further fact that the two clavicles in man are in the bird united into a single V-shaped bone or “furcula.” Then, if we compare the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand in the human skeleton with the various parts which follow one another in the same order in the skeleten of the bird’s wing, we shall find between the two series a correspondence which the adaptation to special func- tions may in some regions mask, but never to such an extent as to render the fundamental unity of plan undiscoverable by the method of the higher anatomy. As far as regards the arm and forearm, these in the bird are nearly repetitions of their condition in the human skeleton ; but the parts which follow appear at first sight so different in the two cases as to have but little relation to one another; and yet a common type can be traced with great distinctness through the two. Thus the wrist is present in the bird’s wing as well as in the anterior limb of man; but while in man it is composed of eight small irregularly shaped bones, arranged in two rows, in the wing it has become greatly modified, the two rows being reduced to one, and the eight bones to two. Lastly, the hand is also represented in the wing, where it constitutes a very important part of the organ of flight, but where it has undergone such great modification as to be recognizable only after a critical comparison ; for the five metacarpal bones of the human hand are reduced to two, consolidated with one another at their proximal and distal ends; and then the five fingers of the hand are in the wing reduced to three, which represent the middle finger, fore finger, and thumb. The fore finger in the bird consists of only one phalanx, the middle of two, and the thumb forms a small stylet-like bone spring- ing from the proximal end of the united metacarpals. the case now adduced we have an example of the way in which the same organ in two different animals may become very differently modified in form, so as to fit it for the performance of two entirely different functions, and yet retain suffi- cient conformity to a common plan to indicate a fundamental unity of structure. Let us take another example; and this I shall adduce from the Vegetable King- dom, which is full of beautiful instances of the relations with which we are now occupied. There are the parts known as tendrils, thread-like organs, usually rolling them- selves into spirals, and destined, by twining round some fixed support, to sustain climbing plants in their efforts to raise themselves from the ground. We shall take two examples of these beautiful appendages, and endeavour to determine their homological significance. There is the genus Smilax, one species of which adorns the hedges of the south of Europe, where it takes the place of the Bryony and TYamus of our English country lanes. From the point where the stalks of its leaves spring from the stem there is given off a pair of tendrils, by means of which the Smilax clings to the surrounding vegetation in an inextricable entanglement of flexile branches and bright glossy green foliage. With the tendrils of the Smilax let us compare those of the Lathyrus aphaca, a little vetch occasionally met with in waste places and the margins of corn-fields. The leaves are represented by arrow-shaped leaf-like appendages, which are placed opposite to one another in pairs upon the stem; but instead of each of these carrying two tendrils at its origin, like the leaves of the Smilax, a single tendril springs from the middle point between every pair. The tendrils in the two cases, though similar in appearance and in function, differ thus in number and arrangement ; and the questions occur :—Are they homo- logous with one another, or are they only analogous? and if they are only analo- gous, can we trace between them and any other organ homologous relations ? To enable us to decide this point, we must bear in mind that a leaf, when typi- cally developed, consists of three portions—the lamina or blade, the petiole or leaf- stalk, and a pair of foliaceous appendages or stipules placed at the base of the leaf- stalk. Now this typical leaf affords the key to the homologies of the tendrils in the two cases under examination. Take the Smilaz. In this case there are no stipules of the ordinary form; but the two tendrils hold exactly the position of-the stipules in our type sir, and must f 100 REPORT—1873. be regarded as representing them. We have only to imagine these stipules so modified in their form as to become reduced to two long spiral threads, and we shall at once have the tendrils of the Smilax. On the other hand, let the stipules in our type remain as leaf-like organs, and let the rest of the leaf (the lamina and petiole) lose its normal character and become changed into a spiral thread, and we shall then have the stipules of our type leaf retained in the two opposite leaf-like organs of the Lathyrus, while the remainder of the type leaf will present itself in the con- dition of the Lathyrus-tendril which springs from the central point between them. The tendrils of the Smz/ax and of the Lathyrus aphaca are thus not homologous with one another, but only analogous; while those of the Smzlax are homologous with a pair of stipules, and those of the Lathyrus homologous with the lamina and petiole of a leaf. Besides the homology discoverable between the organs of different animals and plants, a similar relation can be traced between organs in the same animal or plant, as, for example, that between the different segments of the vertebral column (which can be shown to repeat one another homologically), and that between the parts composing the various verticils of the flower and leaves in the plant. The existence of homological relations such as have been just illustrated admits of an easy explanation by the application of the doctrine of Descent, according to which the two organs compared would originate from a common ancestral form, In accordance with this hypothesis, Homology would mean an identity of genesis in two organs, as Analogy would mean an identity of function. Distribution and Evolution. Another very important department of biological science is that of the distribu- tion of organized beings. ‘This may be either Distribution in Space (Geographical Distribution) or Distribution in Time (Paleontological Distribution). Both of these have of late years acquired increased significance ; for we have begun to get more distinct glimpses of the laws by which they are controlled, of the origin of Faunas and Floras, and of the causes which regulate the sequence of life upon the earth. Time, however. will not allow to enter upon this subject as fully as its interest and importance would deserve; and a few words on paleontological distribution is all that I can now venture on. The distribution of organized beings in time has lately come before us ina new light, by the application to it of the hypothesis of Evolution. According to this hypothesis, the higher groups of organized beings now existing on the earth’s sur- face have come down to us, with gradually increasing complexity of structure, by a continuous descent from forms of extreme simplicity which constituted the earliest life of our planet. In almost every group of the animal kingdom the members which compose it admit of being arranged in a continuous series, passing down from more specialized or higher to more generalized or lower forms ; and if we have any record of ex- tinct members of the group, the series may be carried on through these. Now, while the Descent hypothesis obliges us to regard the various terms of the series as descended from one another, the most generalized forms will be found among the extinct ones; and the further back in time we go the simpler do the forms become. By a comparison of the forms so arranged we obtain, as it were, the law of the series, and can thus form a conception of the missing terms, and continue the series backwards through time, even where no record of the lost forms can be found, until from simpler to still simpler terms we at last arrive at the conception of a term so generalized that we may regard it as the primordial stock, the ances- tral form from which all the others have been derived by descent. This root form is thus not actually observed, but is rather obtained by a process of deduction, and is therefore hypothetical. We shall strengthen, however, its claims to acceptance by the application of another principle. The study of En- bryology shows that the higher animals, in the course of their development, pass through transitory phases which have much in common with the permanent con- dition of lower members of the type to which they belong, and therefore with ite a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 10] extinct representatives. We are thus enabled to lay down the further principle, that the individual, in the course of its own development from the egg to the fully formed state, recapitulates within that short period of time the various forms which its ancestry presented in consecutive epochs of the world’s history; so that if we knew all the stages of its individual development, we should have a key to the long line of its descent. Through the hypothesis of Evolution, paleontology and embryology are thus brought into mutual bearing on one another. Let us take an example in which these two principles seem to be illustrated. In rocks of the Silurian age there exist in great profusion the remarkable fossils known as Graptolites. These consist of a series of little cups or cells arranged along the sides a common tube; and the whole fossil presents so close a resem- blance to one of the Sertularian hydroids which inhabit the waters of our present seas as to justify the suspicion that the Graptolites constitute an ancient and long since extinct group of the Hydroida. It is not, however, with the proper cells, or hydrothecz, of the Sertularians that the cells of the Graptolite most closely agree, but rather with the little receptacles which in certain Sertularine belonging to the family of the Plumularidé we find associated with the hydrothecs, and which are known as “ nematophores.” A comparison of structure, then, shows that the Grap- tolite may, with considerable probability, be regarded as representing a Plumu- laria in which the hydrothecz had never been developed, and in which their place had been taken by the nematophores. Now it can be shown that the nematophores of the living Plumularide are filled with masses of protoplasm which have the power of throwing out pseudopodia, or long processes of their substance, and that they thus resemble the Rhizopoda, whose soft parts consist entirely of a similar protoplasm, and which stand among the Protozoa, or lowest group of the animal kingdom. If we suppose the hydro- thecze suppressed in a Plumularian, we should thus nearly convert it into a colony of Rhizopoda, from which it would differ only in the somewhat higher morpho- logical differentiation of its ccenosarc, or common living bond by which the indi- viduals of the colony are organically connected. And just such a colony would, under this view, a Graptolite be, waiting only for the development of hydrothecs to raise it into the condition of a Plumularian. Bringing, now, the Evolution hypothesis to bear upon the question, it would follow that the Graptolite may be viewed as an ancestral form of the Sertularian hydroids, a form having the most intimate relations with the Rhizopoda, that hydranths and hydrothece became developed in its descendants, and that the Rhizopodal Graptolite became thus converted in the lapse of ages into the hy- droidal Sertularian. é This hypothesis would be strengthened if we found it agreeing with the pheno- mena of individual development. Now such Plumularide as have been followed in their development from the one to the adult state do actually present well- developed metamorphoses before they show a trace of hydrothecz, thus passing in the course of their embryological development through the condition of a Grapto- lite, and recapitulating within a few days stages which it took incalculable ages to bring about in the paleontological development of the tribe. I have thus dwelt at some length on the doctrine of Evolution because it has given a new direction to biological study, and must powerfully influence all future researches. Evolution is the highest expression of the fundamental principles established by Mr. Darwin, and depends on the two admitted faculties of living beings—heredity, or the transmission of characters from the parent to the offspring, and. adaptivity, or the capacity of having these characters more or less modified in the offspring by external agencies or, it may be, by spontaneous tendency to variation. The hypothesis of Evolution may not, it is true, be yet established on so sure a basis as to command instantaneous acceptance ; and for a generalization of such vast significance no one can be blamed in demanding a broad and indisputable foundation of facts. Whether, however, we do or do not accept it as a necessary deduction from established facts, it is at all events certain that it embraces a greater number of phenomena and suggests a more satisfactory explanation of them than any other hypothesis which has yet been proposed. 102 REPORT—1873. With all our admiration, however, for the doctrine of Evolution, as one of the most fertile and comprehensive of philosophic hypotheses, we cannot shut our eyes to the difficulties which lie in the way of accepting it to the full extent which has been sometimes claimed for it. It must be borne in mind that though among some of the higher Vertebrata we can trace back for some distance in geological time a continuous series of forms which may safely be regarded as derived from one another by gradual modification (as has been done, for example, so success- fully by Prof. Huxley in the case of the Horse), yet the instances are very few in which such a sequence has been actually established; while the first appearance on the earth’s crust of the various classes presents itself in forms which by no means belong to the lowest or most generalized of their living representatives. On this fact, however, I do not lay much stress; for it will admit of explanation by referring it to the deficiency of the geological record, and then demanding a lapse of time (of enormous length, it is true) during which the necessary modifications would be in progress before the earliest phase of which we have any knowledge could have been reached. Again, we must not lose sight of the hypothetical nature of those primordial forms in which we regard the branches of our genealogical tree as taking their origin ; and while the doctrine of the recapitulation of ancestral forms has much probability, and harmonizes with the other aspects of the Evolution doctrine into a beautifully symmetrical system, it is one for which a sufficient number of actually observed facts have not yet been adduced to remove it altogether from the region of hypothesis. Even the case of the Graptolites already adduced is an illustration rather than a proof; for the difficulty of determining the true nature of such obscure fossils is so Se that we may be altogether mistaken in our views of their structure and affinities, To me, however, one of the chief difficulties in the way of the doctrine of evolu- tion, when carried to the extreme length for which some of its advocates contend, appears to be the unbroken continuity of inherited life which it necessarily requires through a period of time whose vastness is such that the mind of man is utterly incapable of comprehending it. Vast periods, it is true, are necessary in order to render the phenomena of evolution possible ; but the vastness which the antiquity of life, as shown by its remains in the oldest fossiliferous strata, requires us to give to these periods may be even greater than is compatible with continuity. We have no reason to suppose that the reproductive faculty in organized beings is endowed with unlimited power of extension ; and yet, to go no further back than the Silurian period (though the seas which bore the Eozoon were probably as far anterior to those of the Silurian as these are anterior to our own), the hypothesis of evolution, when carried to the extreme length of which it seems susceptible, requires that in that same Silurian period the ancestors of the present living forms must have existed, and that their life had continued by inheritance through all the ramifications of a single genealogical tree down to our own time—the branches of the tree, it is true, here and there falling away, with the extinction of whole genera and families and tribes, but still some always remaining to carry on the life of the base through a period of time to all intents and purposes infinite. It is true that in a few cases a continuous series of forms, regularly passing from lower to higher degrees of specialization, and very probably connected with one another by direct descent, may be followed through long geological periods—as, for example, the gra- duated series, already alluded to, which may be traced between certain mammals of the Kocene and others living in our own time, as well as the very low forms which have come down to us, apparently unmodified, from the epoch of the Chalk; but incalculably great as are these periods, they are but as the swing of the pendulum in a millennium, when compared with the time which has elapsed since the first animalization of our globe. Is the faculty of reproduction so wonderfully tenacious as all this, that through periods of inconceivable duration, and exposed to influences the most intense and the most varied, it has still come down to us in an unbroken stream? Have the strongest, which had survived in the struggle for existence, necessarily handed down to the strongest which should follow them the power of continuing, as a per- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 etual heirloom, the life which they had themselves inherited? Or have there here many total extinctions and many renewals of life—a succession of genealo- gical trees, the earlier ones becoming old and decayed and dying out, and their place taken by new ones which have no kinship with the others? Or, finally, is the doctrine of evolution only a working hypothesis, which, like certain algebraic fictions, may yet be of inestimable value as an instrument of research P For as the higher calculus becomes to the physical inquirer a power by which he unfolds the laws of the inorganic world, so may the hypothesis of evolution, though only an hy- pothesis, furnish the biologist with a key to the order and hidden forces of the world of life ; and what Leibnitz, and Newton, and Hamilton have been to the physicist, is it not that which Darwin has been to the biologist ? But even accepting as a great truth the doctrine of evolution, let us not attribute to it more than it can justly claim. No valid evidence has yet been adduced to lead us to believe that inorganic matter has become transformed into living other- wise than through the agency of a preexisting organism; and there remains a residual phenomenon still entirely unaccounted for. No physical hypothesis, founded on any indisputable fact, has yet explained the origin of the primordial Peppa, and, above all, of its marvellous properties, which render evolution ossible. ' Accepting, then, the doctrine of evolution in all freedom, and with all its legiti- mate consequences, there remains, I say, a great residuum unexplained by physical theories. Natural selection, the struggle for existence, the survival of the fittest, will explain much, but they will not explain all. They may offer a beautiful and conyincing theory of the present order and fitness of the organic universe, as the laws of attraction do of the inorganic ; but the properties with which the primordial protoplasm is endowed (its heredity and its adaptivity) remain unexplained by them ; for these properties are their cause, and not their effect, For the cause of this cause we have sought in vain among the physical forces which surround us, until we are at last compelled to rest upon an independent voli- tion, a far-seeing intelligent design. Science may yet discover, even among the laws of physics, the cause it looks for; it may be that even now we have glimpses of it—that those forces among which recent physical research has demonstrated so grand a unity (light, heat, electricity, magnetism), when manifesting themselves through the organizable protoplasm, become converted into the phenomena of life— and that the poet has unconsciously enunciated a great scientific truth when he tells us of * Gay lizards glittering on the walls Of ruined shrines, busy and bright, As though they were alive with light.” But all this is only carrying us one step back in the grand generalization. All science is but the intercalation of causes, each more comprehensive than that which it endeavours to explain, between the great primal cause and the ultimate effect. I have thus endeavoured to sketch for you, in a few broad outlines, the leading aspects of biological science, and to indicate the directions which biological studies must take. Our science is one of grand and solemn import; for it embraces man himself, and is the exponent of the laws which he must obey. Its subject is vast ; for it is life, and life stretches back into the illimitable past, and forward into the illimitable future. Life, too,is everywhere. Over all this wide earth of ours, from the equator to the poles, there is scarcely a spot which has not its animal or its vegetable denizens—dwellers on the mountain and on the plain, in the lake and on the prairie, in the arid desert and the swampy fen—from the tropical forest, with its strange forms and gorgeous colours and myriad voices, to the ice-fields of polar latitudes and those silent seas which lie beneath them, where living things un- Imown to warmer climes congregate in unimaginable multitudes. There is life all over the solid earth; there is life throughout the vast ocean, from its surface down to its great depths, deeper still than the lead of sounding-line has reached. And it is with these living hosts, unbounded in their variety, infinite in their numbers, that the student of biology must make himself acquainted. Itis no light 104. REPORT—1873. task which lies before him—no mere pastime on which he may enter with trivial purpose, as though it were but the amusement of an hour; it is a great and solemn mission, to which he must devote himself with earnest mind and with loving heart, remembering the noble words of Bacon :— : an “Knowledge is not a couch whereon to rest a searching and restless spirit ; nor a terrace for a wandering and variable mind to walk up and down with a fair prospect; nor a tower of state for a proud mind to raise itself upon ; nor a fort or commanding ground for strife and contention ; nor a shop for profit and sale; but a rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man’s estate.” Botany. On Parasitic Alge. By W. AncuEr. On a Tree-Aloe from South-East Africa. By T. Barnus. On the Plants collected in Bermuda by Mr. H. N. Moseley. By Professor. Tutserron Dynr, B.A. On the Crystals in the Testa and Pericarp of certain Plants*, By Professor Gurrriver, F.R.S. The author, remarking how much microscopists have of late been interested by the diverse appearances on the surface of certain seeds, expresses his opinion that the value of observations of this kind might be much increased if they were carried a little deeper into the texture of the seed-coat and pericarp. In one or other of these parts he finds short prismatic crystals,apparently of oxalate of lime, constantly present in many plants, and as constantly absent from the same parts of other plants; and, as regards the frequent and true remark that such crystals occur in numberless plants, he submits that this is no answer to the rational question as to the orders or species which are or are not characterized by certain saline crystals in the testa or other part of the plant. Illustrative drawings were exhibited of the crystals in Geranium and Ribes ; and of the crystals in Ulmus and Compositie engravings had been pub- lished in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ July 1873, and ‘Science Gossip,’ May 1873. In the present paper he describes the crystals in Tiliaceze, Ace- racez, Geraniaceze, Grossulariaceze, Composite, Primulacez, and Dioscoreacez. The crystals occur regularly studded in plainly defined cells and, though, very variable in size, have an average diameter of about 5,',5 of an inch, and in form are square, oblong, lozenge-shaped, commonly belong to one or other of the pris- matic systems, but often are merely granular or otherwise irregular like certain starch- granules, though easily distinguishable therefrom by the iodine test. The author, in conclusion, expressed the hope that both neophytes and experts would pay more attention to this branch of phytotomy, especially as such observations, and the minute structure of plants generally, have been and still are sadly neglected in even the most comprehensive books of descriptive. botany and micrography. On the Mosses of the West Riding of Yorkshire. By Cuartes P, Hopxrrx, President of Huddersfield Naturalists’ Society;t. The list of West-Riding Mosses at the end of this paper, numbering nearly 300, chiefly made up from the author’s own observations and those of his friends, was * Printed in extenso with additions and a plate in the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal ’ for December 1873. + Published in extenso in the ‘Journal of Botany,’ New Series, vol. ti. p. 527 ef seq. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105 prefaced by a short introduction, descriptive of the principal geological features of the district. He then showed the course of the various riversheds, and the work which has been done in each. The Wharfe, Upper Aire, and Calder are the best worked for mosses, the others haying been scarcely touched upon yet. Many rarities have already been found; and when the other more southern dis- tricts haye been thoroughly examined, the author was of opinion that the list of Mosses would be largely increased. He then described a few of the principal new and rarer species, and concluded by recommending the West-Riding botanists to direct their studies to the Mosses. 2 ee On the Subalpine Vegetation of Kilimanjaro, E. Africa*. By Dr. J. D. Hooxrr, C.B., F.B.S. Remarks on Plants collected by the Voyager Dampier. By Professor Lawson, M.A. __ On a Course of Practical Instruction in Botany. By Professor Lawson, M.A. _—_—_————— On the Vegetation of Bermuda. By H. N. Mosetzy, On some of the Changes going on in the South-African Vegetation through the Introduction of the Merino Sheep. By Joun Suaw. The author commenced by referring to the fact that civilization and Merino sheep had introduced one obnoxious plant (the Xanthiwm spinosum) into the sheep-walks of South Africa. As its achenes get into the wool and seriously injure its value, the Government have legislated for its compulsory destruction. In the Orange-River Free State, where there was no legislation on the weed until lately, wool had become so filled with these that its value was deteriorated nearly 50 percent. Sheep also, in consequence of the overstocking of farms in the inland districts of the Cape, are doing very serious injury directly by eating down the better and more agreeable plants, giving range to poisonous and bitter ones, and even so changing the climate as to make the country better suited to the plants of the neighbouring regions, which march into the sheep-walks to aid the sheep in thrusting out and extirpating the indigenous flora. After sketching the distribution of plants in South Africa, the author went on to particularize the character of the prairie-like midlands of the Cape, with their luxuriant grass and vegetation. Since sheep have been introduced the grass has fast disappeared, the ground (by the hurried march of the sheep for food amongst a Sakic bush) has become beaten and hardened, and the seasonable rains which do come are accordingly allowed to run off the surface without soaking into the ground to the extent formerly the case. The country is thus drying up, the foun- tains becoming smaller and smaller, and the prospect is very clear that the midland regions will turn into a semi-desert. Indeed the plants of the singular regions known as the Karoo, in the south-west of the Cape peek from its position is locked in to the north and south by mountains, and is favoured little by rain), are travelling northwards rapidly and occupying this now similar dry tract of country. The herbage is essentially a Karoo one already. It contains most prominently Karoo plants, such as the Chrysocomas and the Elytropappi. The author further referred to the great increase of poisonous and bitter herbage. It is dangerous to have stock in many farms, which formerly were free from any in- jurious herbs. Long stretches of the colony are abundantly occupied by Melice, which are eaten by the oxen and cause intoxication, to the serious hindrance of transport. * Printed in extenso in the Journal of the Linnean Society. 1873. 106 REPORT—1873. On Fern-stems and Petioles of the Coal-measures, By Professor W. C. Wrrxzamson, F.2.S. The author described the structure of several stems of Calamites and Lycopodia- ceous plants from the Coal-measures, in which a thick vascular zone intervened between a central pith and an outer bark, and which zone increased in thickness by successive additions made to its external surface through the genetic agency of the innermost layer of the bark. Adopting these plants as typical representatives of a condition wholly unknown amongst living Cryptogams, he called attention to a series of stems from the Coal-measures which bore the appearance of being the petioles and rhizomes of ferns. One of these, to which he had previously assigned the provisional name of Edrarylon, he now showed to be an undoubted fern, since he has obtained it with leaflets attached to it. This plant proves to be one of the species of Pecopteris in which the rachis and petiole is covered with minute tubercles, as in some recent Cyatheas. After examining a series of other stems, including the Stauropteris of Binney and the Zygopteris Lacatti recently described by M. Renault, he examined the Palmacites carbonigenus of Corda, and which latter has generally been regarded as a palm. The author rejected this view, and came to the conclu- sion that the plant was a fern allied to the Marattiacez of the present day. In none of the above plants was the slightest trace of the exogenous growth so common amongst the Lycopods and Calamites to be found. But the author thought it pro- bable that the Heterangium Grievii, recently described by himself in a memoir now being printed by the Royal Society, and in which a very feeble attempt at the development of such a growth was observable, might prove to be a fern. But even in that case the instance was such an isolated one, so far as our present knowledge extends, and the growth was so feebly developed, that it merely appeared like one of those exceptions which prove the rule. It only indicated the absence in nature of those sharply defined boundary lines which the systematist is ever seeking to establish, but within which nature refuses to be restrained. On the Flora of the Environs of Bradford, By Dr, Wix1s. Zoouoay, On some Recent Resulis with the Towing-net on the South Coast of Ireland. By Professor Arrmay, FES. 1, Mitraria Only asingle specimen was obtained of the little Mitraria which formed the subject of the present communication; and neither its structure nor development was made out as completely as could have been wished. From the Mediterranean species described in a former communication (British Association Report for 1872), it differs in some points of structure and in the mode of annulation of the developing woim. It possesses the usual Mitraria-form—that of a hemispherical dome, having its base encircled by a band of long vibratile cilia. In the side of the dome, a little above the ciliated band, is the mouth, which leads into a rather wide pharynx clothed with a ciliated epithelium. The pharynx runs through the dome parallel to its base, and opens into a capacious stomach, which continues in the same direc- tion until it joins the intestine. This then turns down abruptly at right angles to the previous portion of the alimentary canal, and then projects for a short distance beyond the base of the dome, carrying with it, hernia-like, the walls of the base. The true body-walls of the future worm, of which the Mtraria is the larva, seem as yet confined to the intestinal segment of the alimentary canal. They already present the commencement of annulation, which, however, exists only on the dorsal and ventral sides; while two broad bands of very distinct fibres may be seen, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 one on the right and the other on the left side, extending transversely from the dorsal to the ventral surface. The ciliated band which runs round the base of the dome possesses a rather complex structure. It consists of two concentric rings—an outer one composed of i oval, distinctly nucleated cells; and an inner one of a granular structure and yellowish colour, in which no distinct cells could be demonstrated, The cilia form two concentric wreaths borne by the underside of the band—an outer wreath con- sisting of very long cilia, and borne by the inner edge of the outer portion of the band; and an inner wreath of much shorter cilia, borne by the inner edge of the inner portion. The band, with its cilia, is interrupted for a very short space at the aboral side of the dome. There is probably at this spot an entrance into a water- vascular system. No such system, however, was observed in the specimen, though the author had described in another species of Mitraria a system of sinuses which appear to exist in the walls of the dome, and which he regarded as representing a water-vascular system (Brit. Assoc. Report for 1872). Occupying the very summit of the dome is a large, somewhat quadrilateral ganglion, from which two distinct filaments are sent down, one on each side of the alimentary canal; but he was not able to follow these filaments to their destina- tion. The bilateral symmetry of the ganglion suggests its formation out of two lateral halves. Though its very superficial position gives it the appearance of being a mere thickening of the walls, the view here taken of its being a nervous ganglion seems to be the only one consistent with its relations to the surrounding parts, On each side of the pharynx, a little behind the mouth, is a small oval ganglion- like body, from which a filament runs to the ciliated band. Some delicate filaments may also be seen lying between the pharynx and the walls of the dome on which they seem to be distributed; but the author could not trace them to any distinct ganglionic centre, The great apical ganglion carries two very obvious black ocelliform spots, and, besides these, two clear vesicles enclosing each a clear spherical corpuscle. The two vesicles may probably be regarded as auditory capsules, The further development of this larval form has not been observed. It probably consists chiefly in the continued prolongation of the alimentary canal beyond the base of the hemispherical dome, the completion of the annulation by its extension to the right and left sides, and the gradual contraction of the dome and final absorption of the ciliated band. 2. Tornaria. Two specimens of the larval form originally discovered by Johann Miiller, and described by him under the name of Tornaria, were obtained ; but these unfortu- nately perished before a sufficiently exhaustive examination of them could be made. On the whole, their structure agrees closely with what has been pointed out by Alex. Agassiz, in his valuable and elaborate memoir on Zornaria and Balanoglossus, The species appears to be different from those hitherto described, The gills had not begun to show themselves, and there were but traces of the “appets” described in other species as appended to the posterior extremity of the stomach, The author believed that he could distinguish a minute ganglion on each side of the cesophagus ; filaments were sent off from it to the neighbouring parts, and the two were connected to one another by a subcesophageal commissure. The water- vascular chamber was very distinct, but the so-called heart was not observed ; while within the body-cavity, lying close to the dorsal pore and over the canal by which the great water-sac communicates with the external medium, was a small, closed, rather thick-walled vesicle, containing numerous oval corpuscles, Of the nature of this vesicle the author could not offer any opinion. _ The cushion-like body which occupies the summit of the larva, exactly as in Mitraria, and supports the two ocelliform yer was very distinct; and so also was the contractile chord which extends from this to the walls of the water-sac. The author, however, could not here, any more than in Miraria, regard the cushion-like body as a mere thickening of the walls; he believed it to he a er and 108 REPORT—1873. thought he could trace two fine filaments proceeding from it and running down, one towards the right and the other towards the left side of the alimentary canal; but he was not able to follow them for any distance, and he does not regard their existence as confirmed. The extremely superficial situation of this body, which makes it resemble a mere thickness of the walls, is paralleled by that of the great ventral nerve-mass in Sagitta. The contractile chord which runs to the water-sac is probably attached to a capsular covering of the ganglion, rather than directly to the ganglion itself. This chord, though showing strong contractions by which the summit of the larva is drawn down towards the water-sac, is of a homogeneous structure, presenting no appearance of distinct fibrille or of other contractile elements. The author instituted a comparison between Tornaria and Mitraria. We have “in both the external transparent pyramidal or dome-shaped body, with a lateral oral orifice and a basal anal orifice, enclosing an alimentary canal which is divisible into three regions, and takes a partly horizontal and partly vertical direction in its course from one orifice to the other*; we have in both, near the base of the body, ‘the circular band which carries long vibratile cilia, accompanied by a row of pig- ment spots, and in both the cushion-like ganglion-carrying ocelli. From Mitraria, Tornaria chiefly differs in the presence of the thick sinuous and convoluted bands which give it so close a resemblance to certain Echinoderm larvee, and which are entirely absent from Mttraria, and in its water-vascular system, with the contractile chord which extends from this to the apical ganglion. If a water-vascular system is present in Mitraria, it consists there of a system of sinuses excavated in the walls of the dome, but without any representative of the great central sac, In Mitraria the great apical ganglion carries not only the two ocelli, but also two capsules, probably auditory; these capsules do not exist in Tornaria. In Mitraria the two nerve-chords which the apical ganglion sends down one on each side of the alimentary canal are very distinct; in Zornaria, if they exist at all, they are by no means obvious. Finally, the ciliary circlet is simple in Tornaria, while in Mitraria it is double. According to Alexander Agassiz’s account of the development of Tornaria into Balanoglossus, the great transverse circlet of cilia becomes, by the elongation of the body, gradually pushed backwards, so as to form the anal ciliated ring of the young worm. In Mtraria the great ciliary circlet remains unchanged in position, and is probably ultimately absorbed, the worm during its development acquiring a new anal wreath of cilia, 3. Ametrangia hemispherica (nov. gen. et sp.). Among the most abundant products of the towing-net was a little hydroid Medusa, remarkable for the want of symmetry in the distribution of its gastro- vascular canals, It is of a hemispherical form, with the base about half an inch in diameter, and proyided with very numerous (more than 100) marginal tentacles, which are very extensile, and may at one time be seen floating to a length of three or four inches, and at another coiled into a close spiral against the margin of the umbrella. Each tentacle originates in a bulbous base with a distinct ocellus. No lithocysts are visible on the margin. The velum is of moderate width. The manwprium forms a small projection from the summit of the umbrella, and terminates in four rather indistinct lips. From the base of the manubrium three rather wide offsets are sent off at equal intervals into the walls of the umbrella. These gradually contract in diameter, and then, as three narrow tubes of uniform diameter, run towards the margin, where they open into the circular canal. ‘The symmetry of the radiating canals is confined to these three primary trunks. From their wide proximal ends each sends off branches, some of which may be traced to the margin, where, like the three primary canals, they enter the circular canal ; while others can be followed for various distances in the umbrella-walls, in which they terminate by blind extremities without ever reaching the margin. These branches are very irregular in the number sent off from each primary canal as well as in their length and directions. * In the species of Mitraria described by J. Miller and by Mecznikoff, both oral and anal orifices are basal, and the alimentary canal presents a U-shaped curvature. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 The generative elements are formed in oyal sporosacs, developed one on each of the three primary canals at the spot where the wider base passes into its narrower continuation. The ova may be seen within them in yarious stages of development ; they increase considerably in size before the commencement of segmentation, always showing up to that period a large and distinct germinal vesicle with germinal spot, and with a distinct nucleolus in the interior of the germinal spot, The development of the ovum proceeds within the sporosac to the segmentation of the vitellus and the formation of the planula, which now breaks through the outer walls of the sporosac and remains bor some time adhering to their external surface. The planula differs remarkably from the typical hydroid planula. It remains of a nearly sphe- vical form, never acquiring cilia, and possesses little or no power of locomotion. The gastric cavity, however, is fully formed, The author was unable to follow the ova in their further development. The little Medusa now described departs in several important points from the typical hydroid Medusa. From this it differs in the ternary disposition of the pri- mary radiating canals, and in the irregular non-symmetrical arrangement of those which are subsequently formed. Among the very many specimens examined, the author never found any in which the canals had become regular in their disposi- tion, even in those which had discharged the contents of their sporosacs, and had evidently attained the term of their existence. It differs also from the typical Medusa in the form and non-ciliated condition of the planula; and still further in the fact that while the generative elements are borne on sporosacs, developed on the radiating canals, the marginal bodies are ocelli and not lithocysts. 4, Circe invertens (nov. sp.). Among the hydroid Meduse captured in the towing-net were two or three spe- cimens of a species referable to the genus Circe of Mertens. It measures about half an inch in its vertical diameter and about a quarter of an inch transversely. It is cylindrical from its base upwards for about two thirds of its height, and then contracts abruptly and arches dome-like towards the truncated summit, which is surmounted by a solid cone of the gelatinous umbrella substance. From the summit of the umbrella-cavity, a solid somewhat fusiform extension of the roof hangs down in the axis of its cavity for about two thirds of its depth, and at its free end carries the manubrium, which extends nearly to the codonostome, The margin of the umbrella carried eighty very short and but slightly extensile tentacles, which were connected at their bases by a yery narrow membranous extension of the margin, ‘with rather irregular free edge. Lithocysts are situated at irregular intervals upon the margin. There are about sixteen of them ; they consist each of a minute spherical vesicle with a single large spherical concretion. There are no ocelli, There is a moderately wide velum. The radiating canals are eight in number. They spring from the base of the manubrium, run up the sides of the solid process which hangs from the summit of the umbrella, pass from this to the walls of the umbrella, and then run down to- wards the margin in order to open into the circular canal. ‘ ‘The generative elements are borne in pendent sporosacs, which spring from the radiating canals close to the summit of the umbrella-cavity. : The motion of the Medusa takes place by means of sudden jerks, reminding us of the way in which certain Diphyide dart through the water. ’ The Medusa possesses also a very singular habit of partial inversion. This takes lace along the line which separates the dome-like portion of the umbrella-cavity from the lower cylindrical portion, and consists in the withdrawal of this dome-like summit and the lower portion of the cavity. When thus inverted, the little animal presents a drum-shaped form, with the manubrium hanging far out of the codonostome. Alexander Agassiz considers the genus Circe of Mertens synonymous with Trachynema, Gegenbaur, and points out that the name of Circe has been already used for a genus of Mollusca. He further removes it from among the true hydroid Medusee, and, regarding it as closely allied to the 4yinide, places it along with those in the Huplostome, Agassiz, a suborder of the Discophora. 110 REPORT—1873. The author, however, could not see sufficient grounds for the removal of Mertens’s genus from the true Hydroida, with which the Medusa now described agrees in all essential points, including the form and disposition of the gastrovascular and generative systems and the structure of the marginal lithocysts. Neither could he agree with Alexander Agassiz in identifying it with Trachynema. The greatly developed solid peduncle by which the manubrium in Cerce is suspended from the summit of the umbrella-cavity (in a way, however, which has its parallel in Zima among others), is of itself a character of generic importance by which Circe must be kept apart from Zrachynema, It is true that Gegenbaur’s Trachynema has the character of a young form; and until we have further evidence of its adult state its affinities cannot be regarded as established. Gegenbaur believes that he has established the direct development of T'rachy- nema from the egg without the intervention of a hydriform trophosome ; but unfortunately we have no data by which to compare in this respect Circe with Trachynema. K ; Tt must be admitted, too, that in the imperfect contractility of the marginal ten- tacles and in the somewhat greater firmness of the umbrella-walls the little medusa described in the present communication possesses characters which look towards the A‘ginide ; but these are by no means sufficiently strong to justify its separation from the ordinary hydroid Meduse. 5. Tomopteris. A few young specimens of this beautiful little worm were obtained ; and the author was enabled to confirm the statements of Grube and of Keferstein, who describe in it a double ventral nerve-chord, though other observers have failed to discover this part of the nervous system, and throw doubt upon its existence. In adult specimens examined some years previously by the author no ventral chord could be detected. The ventral portion of the nervous system consists of two flat ribbon-shaped chords, which are given off from the inferior side of the nerve-ring which surrounds the pharynx just behind the mouth. These run parallel to one another, separated by a narrow interval; they lie on the ventral walls of the animal, and may be traced through the narrow tail-like termination of the body as far as its extremity. They present no ganglionic swellings ; but opposite to every pair of feet each sends off a filament which passes to the foot of its own side, in which it is distributed. Dr. Anton Dohrn has just informed the author that he, too, has distinctly seen the ventral chord of Tomopteris. On the Distribution of the Antelopes in Southern and Western Asia. By W. T. Branrorp. On the Fauna of Persia. By W.T. Buanvorn, F.G.S., C.ILZS. Persia being situated on the limit of the region occupied by the Palzarctic fauna, presents in different parts of the country several peculiarities, in consequence of types belonging to the Indian and desert faune being largely intermixed with each other, and with those pees to the Palearctic province. In the extreme north the animals are identical with those of the neighbouring parts of Europe and Asia, the steppe fauna of Southern Russia being met with in the open parts of the country ; whilst the dense forests of the shores of the Caspian are chiefly inhabited by the same animals as occur in the woods of South-eastern Europe and Asia Minor, mixed, however, with a few Asiatic types, as the tiger, the common pheasant, and a crotaline snake (Halys). Throughout the greater portion of the Persian territory the fauna is of the desert type, marked by the prevalence of such forms as Equus hemionus, Gazella, Gerbillus, Buteo ferox, Gyps fulvus, Buca- netes githagineus, Pterocles, and Houbara, Eremias, Psammophis, Eryx, &c. ; whilstin the south the purely Paleearctic forms either disappear entirely, or are represented by winter migrants only, and several Indian forms make their appearance, e. g. Gazella YRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. lll bennett, Sciurus palmarum, Athene brama, Coracias indica, Pratincola caprata, Passer (Gymnoris) flavicollis, P. indicus, Ortygornis pondiceriana, Acanthodactylus cantoris, and Calotes versicolor. Several of these extend as far west as the head of the Persian Gulf, but they rarely occur above elevations of 3000 feet above the sea. With the above are associated some animals hitherto only found in Baluchistan and Sind, and a few forms previously only known from North-eastern Africa or Arabia, The whole of Persia may thus be divided into three principal regions,—the forest countries of Ghilan and Mazendaran on the Caspian, and Be the wooded slopes on the eastern border of Mesopotamia, extending south to the neighbourhood of Shi- rz, the fauna of which is essentially European; the plateau of Persia, which is occupied by a mixture of Palwarctic and desert forms ; and Southern Persia with Baluchistan, inhabited chiefly by Indian and desert types. Some Remarks on the Mollusca of the Mediterranean, By J. Gwyn Jurrreys, /.R.S. After noticing the numerous writers on this subject, from Aristotle to modern authors, Mr. Jeffreys remarked that the Mediterranean had long been debatable ground with respect to the division of the European seas into zoological pro- vinces. He referred to ‘ The Natural History of the European Seas,’ by the late Professor Edward Forbes and Mr. Godwin-Austen, and said that he agreed with the latter in his view that the Mediterranean is “a vast lateral expansion of the Atlantic,” and not only in its physical aspects, but in most of its natural-history productions; and he believed that the missing links would sooner or later be discovered. The newest and most complete list of the Testaceous Mollusca of the Mediterranean is that by the Marquis de Monterosato, which gives 758 species. Mr. Jeffreys proposed to deduct 31 of these species for probable varieties, and to add 39 species from the ‘ Porcupine’ and ‘Shearwater’ expe- ditions, making altogether 766 Testaceous or shell-bearing species. The Nudi- branchs and other naked or shell-less Mollusca described by Philippi (33 species), as well as the Cephalopoda described and figured by Verany (43 species), being added to the Testaceous species, there results a total number of 842 Mediterranean species. Of these no less than 622 species inhabit also the North Atlantic, so that only 222 species are at present supposed to be peculiar to the Mediterranean. Lists of the 39 and 222 species are subjoined; and the author fully expected that most if not all of those in the latter category would be hereafter found in the North Atlantic, According to the author’s work on ‘ British Conchology,’ there are 562 species in our own seas, exclusive of those dredged beyond the line of soundings in the ‘ Lightning’ and ‘ Porcupine’ expeditions. One of the most interesting results of the ‘ Porcupine’ expeditions consisted in the discovery at considerable depths of living species of Mollusca which had been previously known as fossils only and were regarded as extinct. Many of these species occur in the newer Tertiary beds of Sicily, and a list of them is likewise subjoined. The author said in conclusion :—“ We all profess to study the great book of Nature. But before we study we must be able to read; and who can say that he has read a single page, much less a whole chapter, of this mysterious volume? The sole knowledge we possess of the decence Motives of the Mediterranean (those which inhabit depths exceeding 500 fathoms) is derived from a few casts of the dredge mace in the é Porcupine’ expedition of 1870. The space thus partially explored was not much larger than this room, while the area of the Mediterranean contains many hundred thousands of square miles. Let us therefore compare the extent of our researches in this small nook or offset of the Atlantic with that of the work yet to be under- taken throughout the almost boundless area of the mighty ocean ; and having made the comparison let us reflect, and then humbly confess our ignorance.” In replying to questions, Mr. Jeffreys said that the Suez Canal might hereafter lead to an interchange of the Mollusca; but he was not satisfied that more than oe ene (Ringicula auriculata) was common to the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. a 112 ; REPORT—18783. Additions to the Marquis de Monterosato’s Catalgue of Mediterranean Shells. From the ‘ Porcupine’ and ‘Shearwater’ expeditions. CoNCHIFERA. P. Pleuronectia levis, Jetfr. MS. A single valve only. Off Rasel Amoush, coast of Tunis, 45 fathoms. ; 5 P. Mytilus incurvatus, Philippi (Modiola), Station 56a; 152f. Fossil at Piagga in Sicily. P. Nucula tumidula, Malm. St. 55; 1456 f. Atlantic also. P. conveca, Jeflr. MS. 40-1456 f. Allied to. tenzis, but more convex and square, with a straight cartilage-pit. P. Solenella cuneata, Jettr. MS. St. 51; 1415 f. Very distinct from S. obtusa, Sars. P. Leda lucida, Lovén. St.55; 1456 f. Atlantic. 16 oblonga, Jeffry. MS. St, 55; 1456 f. PR. subrotunda, Jefir. MS. St. 55; 1456 f. P. Limopsis aurita, Brocchi. Adventure Bank, 92 f. Atlantic also. N.B Gouldia bipartita of Monterosato’s Catalogue has a conspicuous external ligament, and is a true Astarte. Specimens of Astarte triangularis, of the same size and apparently of the same age, have the inside of the margin indifferently notched or quite smooth; some are notched, while others twice the size are smooth, All these specimens were dredged in the same spot. S. Cardita incurva, Jeffr. MS. Fossil in Sicily (Monterosato) ! P. Lyonsia formosa, Jeffr, MS. St.55; 1456f. Atlantic also. P, Neera obesa, Loy. St. 55; 1456 f.: Adventure Bank, 92 f. Atlantic also, from Norway to the coast of Portugal. P. Pecchiolia insculpta, Jefir. MS. Off Jijeli, 40-80 f. P. Pholadomya Loveni, Jeffry, MS. St. 55; 1456 f. A fragment only, but unmistakable, Atlantic also. SOLENOCONCHIA, P, Dentalium incertum, Ph., =D, agile, Sars, Adventure Bank, 92f, Atlantic also, GASTROPODA, . Tectura fulva, Miiller. Atlantic also. . Propilidium scabrum, Jefir. MS, Adventure Bank, 92 f. Resembling the young of Gadinia Garnoti, but having the internal septum of Propilidium. . Trochus aerate Eichwald, = 7. ditropis, 8. Wood. Off Algesiras, 1-16 f.: St. 50; Sif, —— suturalis, Ph. St. 45; 207f.: off Rasel Amoush, 45 f. Atlantic also, scabrosus, Jeflr. MS. St. 55; 1456 f. Turbo Romettensis, Seguenza, MS. St.45; 207 f. Rissoa subsoluta, Avadas. St, 50; 61f.: St.55; 1456 f. Adventure Bank, 92 f. Atlantic also. Cont analy Jeffry, MS, St.53; 112f.; Adventure Bank, 92f. Atlantic also. Odostomia flexuosa, Jefir. MS. St.50; 51 f.: St.55; 1456f. Adventure Bank, 92f. Atlantic also. pulchra, Jeflr, MS., =O. canaliculata, Ph.? Adventure Bank, 92 f, Tagh i ice acutecostata, Jeflr, MS, St. 45; 207f.: off Rasel Amoush, hn Wm Ae —— (Chemmitzia) paucistriata, Jeffr. MS. Benzert Road, 40-65 f. Atlantic also. » —— (Lulimella) prelonga, Jetty. MS, St. 50; 51f.: St. 55; 1450 f, Adven- ture Bank, 92f. Atlantic also, —— (Lulimella) unifasciata, Jeffr. MS., P = Lulima unifasciata, Forbes. Adyen- ture Bank, 92 f. Triforis aspera, Jeffry. MS, Adventure Bank, 92f. Atlantic also, WHR WH OW . CEs sag Wi ow oY ~ Fe eg rgieg TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 1138 . Cerithiopsis horrida, Jeffry, MS. Off Rasel Amoush, 45f. Smyrna also (M‘Andrew) ! . —— fibula, Jettr, MS. St. 45; 207 f.: Benzert Road, 40-65 f: off Rasel Amoush, 45 f,: Adventure Bank, 92f. Canaries also (M‘Andrew) ! Defrancia tenera, Jeflr. MS. Off Rasel Amoush, 46 f. ‘ gibbera, Jefir. MS. St. 50; 51 f.: Adventure Bank, 92 f. . Pleurotoma nodulosa, Jeffry. MS. St. 55; 1456 f. Utriculus striatulus, Jetty, MS. St. 45; 207 f. . Acteon globulinus, Forb. Adventure Bank, 92f. Aigean (Forbes), Atlantic also, . Bulla subrotunda, Seffr. MS. Off Jijeli, 40-80 f. Atlantic also. . Philine flecuosa, Sars, St. 45; 207f, Norwegian also, 39 species, Mediterranean Species which have not yet been noticed as Atlantic, M. Monterosato’s catalogue. P, ‘Porcupine’ expedition. S, ‘Shearwater’ expedition. BRACHIOPODA. M. Chiton rubicundus, O. G, Costa, M. Argiope cordata, Risso, M ieee Pie ie mH =N. Neapolitana, Scacchi. a we eh M. Thecidinm Mediterraneum, Risso 4 ssa eg aoe = Pie Xs : M. Patella ferruginea, Gmelin. reg P. Propilidium scabrum, Jeff. MS. Se See: M. Tinareanatl Adriatica, é G, Costa, M. Pecten hyalinus, Poli. M. Huzardi, Payr. P. Pleuronectia levis, Jeff. MS. M. solidula, O. G. Costa. M. Pinna nobilis, Zinn. M. Fissurella costaria, Basterot. M. Mytilus minimus, Pol. M. Schismope striatula, Ph. ip. incurvatus, Dh. M. Cyclostrema exilissimum, Ph. M. Lithodomus lithophagus, L. M. —— Jeflreysi, Monter. MS. M. Crenella arenaria, Martin, MS. M. Trochus fanulum, Gm. P. Nutula convexa, Jeffr. MS, M. —— Guttadauri, Ph. P. Leda oblonga, Jeff. MS. M. Adansoni, Payr. lid subrotunda, Jeffr. MS. M. —— Spratti, Forbes. P. Solenella cuneata, Jeffr. MS. M. —— pyemeeus, Ph. M. Montacuta semirubra, Donterosato. M. —— divaricatus, Z. M. Scacchia ovata, Ph. M. —— unidentatus, Ph. S. Cardita incurva, Jeff. ILS, P. biangulatus, Eich. M. Cardium hians, Procchi. 1 seabrosus, Jeffr. MS. M. —— erinaceus, L. M. Clanculus cruciatus,Z., =Monodonta M oblongum, Chemnitz. _ Vieilloti, Pay. M. Crassatella planata, Calcara, M. —— glomus, PA. =Gouldia modesta, H, Adams, M. Jussieu, Payr. M. Venus cygnus, Lamarck, M. Phasianella speciosa, Miihifeld. M. eflossa, Bivona, M. Turbo sanguineus, LZ, M. Tellina nitida, Poli. P. —— Romettensis, Sey. ALS. M. Venerupis Lajonkairi, Payraudeau, MM. Fossarus costatus, Bre. P. Pecchiolia insculpta, Jeff. MS. M. Ervilia Mediterranea, Monier, M. Clavagella Melitensis, Broderip, M. Rissoa auriscalpium, LZ, M. angulata, Ph. M, —— cingulata, Ph. M, Teredo minima, De Blainville, M, —— Lancie, Cale., =R.Philippiana, Jeffr., =Alvania tessellata, SoLENOCONCHIA. x Schwart. . .— Caribea, D’Orbigny, = Al- M. Dentalium rubescens, Deshayes, . y gy; MG ails ovultn, PA. y yania subareolata, Monter, ’ - -—— aspera, Ph, : é . — scabra, Ph, GASTROPODA, M, —— mutabilis, Schw., = Canariensis, M. Chiton olivaceus, Spengler, =C, Si- D’ Orb? culus, Gray, M. —— tenera, Ph, 114 M. M. Rissoa rudis, Ph. M. —— Maderensis, Jeffr. MS. . — fusca, Ph. contorta, Jeff. . Jeffreysia inflata, Jeff. MS. -Alleryana, Benoit, MS. . — cylindrica, Jeffr. . Ceecum Chiereghinianum, Brusina. . Vermetus arenarius, triqueter, Biv. . —— glomeratus, Biv. subcancellatus, Biv. . Siliquaria anguina, L. . Turritella subangulata, Bre. . Scalaria Cantrainei, Weinkauff, =S. muricata, Tiberi. . —— frondicula, S. Wood. hispidula, Monter. ILS. pulcherrima, Monter. MS. Monterosati, De Stefanis, MS. . Odostomia polita, Liv., =Odonto- stoma Sicula, Ph. vitrea, Brus., =O. negiecta, Tib., =O. elegans, Monter. . ——canaliculata, Ph., =O. interme- dia, Brus. obliquata, Ph. . — tricincta, Jeff. . —— internodula, S. Wood. striatula,Z., =O.varicosa, Ford., =O. pallida, Ph. . —— unifasciata (Eulima), Ford. acutecostata, Jeffr. MS. . Eulima microstoma, Brus. Jeffreysiana, Brus. . Natica Dillwynii, Payr. marmorata, H. Adams. . — Guillemini, Payr. . —— Josephinia, Rzsso, =N. olla (De Serres), Ph. . Solarium pseudoperspectivum, Bre., =S. discus, Ph. . Gyriscus Jeffreysianus, 7%. Architea catenulata, 4. Costa, =Cy- clostoma delicatum, Ph. ? . Xenophora Mediterranea, 7%. . Sigaretus striatus, De Serv., =S. ha- liotoideus, Ph. . Cancellaria coronata, Sc. . Cerithium conicum, De Bl, =C. Sar- doum and C, Peloritanum, Can- traine. costatum, Da Costa, =C. am- biguum, C. B. Adams, =C. La- fondi, Michaud. Pe cua De Bi., =C. lacteum, h. . Cerithiopsis horrida, Jeffr. IS. . Triton Seguenzze, Aradas & Benoit, =T. variegatus, Ph, M. M. M. M. M. M. REPORT—1873. Ranella reticulata, De Bi, =R. lan< ceolata, Ph. Typhis tetrapterus, Bronn. Trophon pulchellus, Ph. —— Syracusanus, LZ. — craticulatus, Z., =T. Brocchii, Monter. Murex scalaroides, De Bl., =M. di- stinctus (De Cristofori § Jan), Ph . Lachesis granulata, 77%, lineolata, 7d. Folineze (Delle Chiaje), Ph., = L. areolata, Tb. . Pisania picta, Se., = Buccinum Scac- chianum, Ph. leucozona, Ph. . Cassidaria echinophora, Z. - Doliopsis Cresseana, Monter. . Nassa gibbosula, Z. .-— granum, Lam. (Buccinum erana). . Columbella columbellaria, Se., =C. Greci, Ph. . Defrancia tenera, Jeffr. IS. gibbera, Jeffr. ALS. ? hystrix (Jun), Bellard. . Pleurotoma clathrata, De Serr, = P. rude and P. granum, Ph. multilineolata, Deshayes. pusilla, Se,, =P. multilineolata, var, P . . —— teeniata, Desh. — Kieneri, Maravigna, =P. pli- cata, Ph., =RaphitomaPhilippii, Weinkauff. nodulosa, Jeffr. MS. . Mitra zonata, Marryat, =M. Santan- geli, Maravigna. ’ Mitra tricolor, Gmelin, =M.Savignyi, Payr., =M. granum, orb. Cyprea physis, Bre, . Ovula carnea, Gm. . —— Adriatica, G. B. Sowerby. . Cylichna Jeffreysi, Weink. . Utriculus striatulus, Jeffr. IS. . Akera fragilis, Jeffr. . Scaphander turgidulus, Forb., = Bulla diaphana, Aradas, =8, gibbulus, Jeffr. . Philine vestita, Ph. . Smaragdinella Algiree (Hanley), M. M. M. Weink. Doridium Meckelii, Delle Ch. coriaceum, Meckel, =P. aply- sizforme, D. Ch. Oxynoe olivacea, Rajinesque, = Bulla Gargotte, Cale, =Lophocercus Sieboldi, Krohn, =IcarusGravesi, Forb, ae TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIGNS. 115 M. Lobiger Serradifalci, Cale., =L, Phi- PTEROPODA. lippii Krohn. : ae as: M. Aplysia longicornis, Rang. i Capnbulis ee ee a ; y virescens, Risso, =A. unguifera ~~ COR Sopher and A. petalifera, Rang. M. Umbrella Mediterranea, Zam. CEPHALOPODA. M. Tylodina Rafinesquii, Ph, M. Argonauta Argo, L. M. Gadinia Garnoti, Puyr. i M. Melampus Firminii, Payr. 162 species. To these may be added the following Nudibranchs and other shell-less Mollusca which are not in Monterosato’s Catalog ue. Ph, Philippi’s work on the Mollusca of the Two Sicilies. Ph. Eolis limacina, Ph. Ph. Doris luteo-rosea, Rapp. Ph. Scacchiana, Ph. Ph. verrucosa, LZ. Ph. —— peregrina, Gm. Ph. elegans, Cantr. Ph minima, Forski. Ph. —— Villafrancana, Risso. Ph. Tritonia quadrilatera, Schultz. Ph. cerulea, Risso. h. Tethys leporina, Z. Ph. —— Rappi, Centr. Ph, Idalia crocea, Ph. Ph. pustulosa, Canty. Phi ramosa, Canty. Ph. Gasteropteron Meckelii, Kosse. Ph cirrigera, Ph. Ph. Diphyllidia lineata, Otto. Ph. Doris Argo, lis Bh: pustulosa, Sc. Ph. pseudo- argus, Rapp. Ph. Notarchus punctatus, DP. Ph, —— limbata, Cuv. Ph. Elysia fusca, PA. Ph tomentosa, Cuv. Ph. Neapolitana, D. Ch. Ph albescens, Sch. 92 Ph, —— elegantula, Ph. 28 species. And the following Cephalopods, which are also wanting in Monterosato’s Catalogue. V. Verany’s Mollusques Méditerranéens. le Partie, Céphalopodes. Defillippii, Ver. ies — Koellikerii, Ver. Totaly. a: « .. 222 species, V. Eledone Aldrovandi, De Ch. V. Octopus macropus, Rrsso. V. moschata, Leach. V. Salutii, Ver. V. Histioteuthis Bonelliana, D’ Ord. Vv tetracirrhus, D. Ch. V. Ruppelli, Ver. V. violaceus, D. Ch, (besides ten V. Loligo Alessandrinii, Ver. doubtful species of Octopus). Vi - gequipoda, Rapp. V. Onychoteuthis Lichtensteinii, Fér. V. Berthelotit, Ver. V. Krohnii, Ver. We Bianconi, Ver. V. —— margaritifera, Rapp. V. —— Coindetii, Ver. V. —— Owenii, Ver. V. —— Marmore, Ver. V. —— Veranyi, Rapp. V. — Meneghinii, Ver. © V. sicula, Ar. Ne Pille, Ver. V. Rossia dispar, Rapp. V. Loligopsis Veranyi, Férussac. V. ee ge Rapp. V. -— vermicularis, Kapp. 2 species. V. gigana, Ver. V. Octopus Alderii, Ver. Testaceous ........ 162 V. catenulatus, Fér. Nudibranchs ...... 28 V. —— Carena, Ver. Cephalopods ...... 382 Ve Mis 116 REPORT—1873. Fossil in Sicily and lately found by me living in the North Atlantic, P. ‘Porcupine’ expeditions. P. Terebratula sphenoidea, Ph. P. Trochus gemmulatus, Ph. P. —— septata, Ph. P. —— reticulatus, Ph. (Solarium). P. Rhynchonella Sicula, Sey. MS. P. Gen, ined. (fam. Trochidz) monocin- P. Leda acuminata, Jeffr.. =L. Messa- gulatus, Seg. (Trochus). nensis, Seg. ILS. P. Turbo glabratus, Ph. (Trochus), and P. pusio, Ph. var., =Trochus filosus, Ph. P. Limopsis minuta, Ph. (Pectunculus). P. Trachysma delicatum, Ph. (Cyclo- P. Pecchiolia acutecostata, Ph. (Hip- stoma), =Architea catenulata, pagus). «4. Costa? P, eranulata, Seg. (Verticordia). P. Rissoa subsoluta, Ar. P. Dentalium incertum, Ph. P. Odostomia plicatula, Bre. (Turbo), P. Siphonodentalium, sp. zed. P. Solarium moniliferum, Bronn. P. Fissurisepta papillosa, Seg. P. Mitra Marini, Lebass?. iP; rostrata, Seq. BP: obesa, Foresti (not of Reeve), P, Trochus minimus, Seg. MS. (Marga- P. Pedicularia Deshayesiana, Seg. rita). 26 species, P. —— Ottoi, Ph. Pp suturalis, Ph. On a Peach-colowred Bacterium. By KE. Ray Lanxester, MA. Imbryological Observations bearing on the Genealogy of the Mollusca. By HK, Ray Lanxusrrr, J.A. On Birds obserucd in the West Riding of Yorkshire in former and recent years. By T. Lister, Barnsley. The numbers observed are given, and a few of the rarest are placed in connexion with each family, Order I. Raprores. Family. Species. Rarest. Falconidie, 15 Osprey, Peregrine Falcon, Kite, Red-footed Falcon, Hen Harrier, Montagu’s Harrier, Goshawk, Common Buzzard, Rough-legged Buzzard, Honey Buzzard, Marsh Har- rier, Swallow-tailed Kite. Strigidee. 8 Eagle Owl, Snowy Owl, Scops Eared Owl, American Mottled Owl. Order II, INsESSoREsS. Laniide. 3 Red-backed Shrike, Woodchat, Muscicapidee. 2 Pied Flycatcher (local). Cinclide. 1 Turdide. 6 Sylviidee. 20 ~=Black Redstart, Firecrest, Reed Warbler, Nightingale (the last sweet warbler in South Yorkshire yearly ; instances as far north as York and Ripon), Troglodytide. 1 Certhiide, 1 Sittidee, 1 Paride. 7 Crested Tit, Bearded Tit. Ampelide. 1 Bohemian Waxwing (1873, and former instances). Motacillide. 3 Family. Anthide. Alaudidee. Emberizide. Fringillidie. Loxiide. Sturnide. Corvidee. Picide. Upupide. Cuculida. Alcedinidx, Meropide. Coraciide. Hirundinide. Cypselidee. Caprimulgide. Columbide. Phasianid, Tetraonidx, Otididee. Charadriids. Scolopacidie. Plataleide. Ciconiide. Ardeidee. Rallidee. Matias, Colymbide. Podicipide. Alcide, Pelecanidse, Laride. Procellaride, Species. = A Ome Ole ROO eh OO LO bY OT NO bo = © Rr Nore TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117 Rarest. Snow-Bunting (in severe winters), Cirl Bunting (rare). Siskin, Twite (in winter, from the Moorland Hills). Crossbill (many instances). Rose-coloured Pastor (several instances). Raven (nearly extinct), Chough. Black Woodpecker, Barred Woodpecker. Hoopoe (near Barnsley, 1847; instances from other parts of the Riding). Bee-eater (1849). Roller (several instances). Order IIT. Rasones. Turtledove (rare), Stockdove (local). Black Grouse (a few naturalized), Red-legged Partridge. Order IV. GRALLATORES. Little Bustard (rare instance). Cream-coloured Courser (2 or 3 instances), Dotterel, Oyster- catcher, Turnstone. Greenshank, Redshank, Little Stint, Grey Phalarope, Black and Bar-tailed Godwit, Curlew, Whimbrel, Curlew Sand- piper, Knot, Purple Sandpiper, Avocet, Wood Sandpiper, Reeve (female of Ruff, near Barnsley, 1872). The last four very rare instances, the rest occurring occasionally, Spoonbill (supposed escape). White Stork (3 or 4 instances). Squacco Heron, Little Egret, Great and Little Bittern, Purple Heron (the last three in recent years). Spotted Crake, Little Crake (rare instance, recently). Order V. NATATOREs, Hooper (flocks, winter 1871-72), Garganey, Harlequin Duck, Gadwall, Long-tailed Duck, Pink-footed Goose, Velvet and Common Scoter (both as recently as winter of 1872-78), All 5 Divers in recent years. All the Grebes in recent years. Puflin, Little Auk (caught near Barnsley, 1854, in my pos- session ; many instances in West Riding). Gannet, Cormorant. Sandwich Tern, Roseate Tern, Glaucous Gull, Greater Shear- water, Richardson’s Skua, Pomerine Skua. Fork-tailed Petrel, Bulwer’s Petrel, Stormy Petrel (one brought to me picked up in Barnsley, 1846; instances in other parts of the West Riding). This brief summary of birds observed in West and South Yorkshire is drawn up from personal observation of myself and members of the West-Riding Naturalist Societies, and the ‘Monthly Recorder,’ the organ of their communications. Many species are recorded on the authority of our late neighbour, Charles Waterton of Walton Hall, whose protection of all birds gaye him superior opportunities of 118 REPORT—1878. studying them; their tameness in the absence of firearms brought them readilywithin the range of the eye or-telescope. A list prepared in 1844 by Dr. Farrar, late of Bradford, formerly of Barnsley, was placed in my hands, also an account of York- shire birds, drawn up in the same year by Thomas Allis, of York, including notices from Hugh Reid, Bird-stuffer, Doncaster ; Henry Denny, late Curator of the Philo- sophical Hall, Leeds; William Eddison, Huddersfield ; John Heppenstall (father and son), of Sheffield; A.H. Strickland; R. Leyland, Halifax ; 8. Gibson, Hebden Bridge; and the Rey. F. O. Morris, who has observed in all the three Ridings of York. The Rey. F. O. Morris and T. Allis are the only survivors of these pains- _ taking naturalists. From the above sources of information we may get an idea of the birds noticed in the West Riding within the recollection of living observers and in present times. ‘We may form an estimate of them thus. Taking the ‘ Zoologist’s’ List, compiled from Yarrell, of resident birds, migrants, and occasional visitants—out of 29 raptorial birds on that list, we have had 25 recorded; of 135 insessorial birds, 91; of 18 raso- rial birds, 10 have been recorded: thus of 177 generally designated Land Birds, we have had 124; of 64 grallatorial birds, 43; of 90 natatorial birds, 57 have been re- corded: thus of 154 wading or swimming birds we have a total of 100. Another mode of showing the comparative numbers strikes us. Take the List in Mr. Harting’s excellent ‘Ornithological Handbook of Residents and Migrants,’ separated by him from the List of rare and accidental visitors to Great Britain, The species there enumerated are :—of raptorial birds 20, of insessorial 105, of raso- rial 12, of grallatorial 64, of natatorial 90—making totals of land birds 187, of water birds 124, totals of both divisions 261. Here is shown a greater proportion for the West Riding, 224 (including a few on the List of rare or accidental visitors) having been recorded out of the 261 considered as British birds. This is a large number considering the wanton extermination to which many of the feathered tribes are doomed. It shows the capabilities this Riding possesses to gratify the field ornithologist, which would be greatly increased if half the care were taken in preserving our persecuted birds, after the manner of Waterton and other landowners following to some extent in his steps, as there is excess of zeal manifested to capture or destroy every rare bird that visits or resides within the limits of this extensive Riding. Our county presents great variety in physical formation, from the Pennine rance of Mountain-limestone and Millstone-grit west, over the Coal-formation with undulating slopes, valleys, streams, canals, pools, fine woodlands, and noble parks, over the Magnesian limestone to the Lias, Oolite, and Chalk clifis of the Hast and North Riding, which (though not within the limits to which this paper is confined) afford suitable breeding-haunts and places of resort to many birds hich frequently favour the inland parts of Yorkshire with their presence, On a new Insect belonging to the Family Ephemeride, with Notes on the Natural History of that Family. By R. MacLacutan, F.LS. The author gaye an account of a new species of the family recently received from Canterbury, New Zealand, remarkable for its abdomen, which was very robust, and the seventh to the ninth segments had broad, horny, acute, wing-like expansions on each side, so that this part of the body resembled that of some Myriopod or Crustacean. He proposed for it the name Oniseigaster Wakefieldi, after its captor, Mr. C. M. Wakefield. Although the earlier stages were unknown, he considered it probable that the abdominal formation was reproduced in the imago; and hence the latter might be looked upon as a degraded form. A somewhat analogous ab- dominal structure was to be seen in the immature condition of the American Betisea obesa, as demonstrated by Walsh, though this latter possessed an enormous thoracic development, forming a carapace under which the rudimentary wings were concealed. And in connexion with this, the author alluded to the so-called erustaceous genus Prosopistoma of Latreille, which the French entomologists MM. Joly, father and son, had recently asserted, with much appearance of truth, is the immature condition of an insect of this group, they having found decided indications of tracheal respiration in it. i i TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 ANATOMY AND Puysronoay. Address to the Department of Anatomy and Physiology. By Professor RurnErrorp, /.R.S.2. In addressing you upon the subjects of anatomy and physiology, I would invite your attention to some of the features which characterize these departments of biology at this present time, and to some recent advances in physiology, the con- sideration of which you will find to be possessed of deep interest and importance. State of Anatomy. Anatomy, dealing as it does merely with the structure of living things, is a far simpler subject than physiology, whose province it is to ascertain and explain their actions. It was not a difficult thing to handle such instruments as a knife and forceps, and with their aid to ascertain the coarser structure of the body. Accord- ingly, the naked-eye anatomy of man has been fully investigated ; and although the same cannot be said of that of many of the lower animals, it is nevertheless, as far as this kind of inquiry is concerned, a mere question of time as regards its comple- tion. But minute or microscopic anatomy is in a different position. Requiring, as it does, the microscope for its pursuit, it could not make satisfactory progress until this instrument had been brought to some degree of perfection. Doubtless much advantage is still to be derived from improvements in the construction of this instrument; but probably most of the future advances in our knowledge of the structure of the tissues and organs of the body may be expected to result from the application of new methods of preparing the tissues for examination with such microscopes as we now have at our disposal. This expectation naturally arises from what has been accomplished in this direction during the last fifteen years. For example, what valuable information has been gained regarding the structure of such soft tissues as the brain and spinal cord by hardening them with such an agent as chromic acid, in order that these tissues may be cut into thin slices for micro- scopical study. How greatly has the employment of such pigments as carmine, aniline, and logwood facilitated the microscopical recognition of certain elements of the tissues. Whata deal we have learned regarding the structure of the capil- laries and the origin of ag en eae by the effect which nitrate of silver has of rendering distinctly visible the outlines of epithelial cells. What signal service chloride of gold has rendered in tracing the distribution of nerves by the property which it possesses of staining nerve-fibrils, and thereby greatly facilitating their recognition amidst the textures. Moreover of what value osmic acid has been in enabling us to study the structure of the retina. In the hands of Lockhart Clarke, Recklinghausen, Cohnheim, Schultze, and others, these agents have furnished us with information of infinite value; and those who would advance microscopical anatomy may do so most rapidly by working in the directions indicated by these investigators. In human microscopical anatomy, indeed, there only remain for investigation things which are profoundly difficult—such as, for example, the struec- ture of the brain, the peripheral terminations of nerves, the development of nerve- tissue, and other subjects equally recondite. But in the field of comparative anatomy there is far greater scope for the histological investigator. He has only to avail himself of those reagents and methods which have recently proved so useful in the microscopical anatomy of the vertebrates; he has only to apply those more fully than has yet been done to the invertebrates, and he will scarcely fail to make discoveries. For the lover of microscopical research there is, moreover, a wide field of inquiry in the study of comparative embryoloey—that is to say, in the study of the development of the lower animals. Since it has become clear that a knowledge of the precise relations of living things one to another can only be arrived at by watching the changes through which they pass in the course of their development, research has been vigorously turned in this direction; and although an immense mass of facts has long since been accumulated regarding this question, Parker’s brilliant researches on the development of the skull give an indication of the great things which we may yet anticipate from this kind of research, Speaking of micro- 120 REPORT—1873. scopical study before this audience, I cannot but remember that in this country more than in any other we have a number of learned gentlemen who, as amateurs, eagerly pursue investigations in this department. I confess that I am always sorry to witness the enthusiastic perseverance with which they apply themselves to the prolonged study of markings upon diatoms, important though these be in many respects, seeing that they might direct their efforts to subjects which would repay them for their labours far more gratefully. I would venture to suggest to such workers that it is now more than ever necessary to abandon all aims at haphazard discoveries, and to approach microscopy by the only legitimate method, of under- oing a thorough preliminary training in the various methods of microscopical investigation by competent teachers, of whom there are now plenty throughout the country. State of Physiology. With regard to physiology, the present standpoint is not so high as in the case of anatomy. Physiology, resting as it does upon a tripod consisting of anatomy, physics or mechanics, and chemistry, is many-sided. The most minute anatomy, the most recondite physics, and the most complex chemistry have all to be taken into account in the study of the physiology of living things; so that it is not sur- prising that it should, in its development, lag behind the comparatively elementary subject anatomy. Until not so very long ago anatomy and physiology were, in most of our medical schools, taught by the same professor, who, although professing to teach both subjects, was generally more of an anatomist than a physiologist. This arrangement gave to physiology a bias which was eminently anatomical; and this bias continued in many quarters, notwithstanding the separation of the physio- logical from the anatomical tuition, I am aware that there are still some distin- guished anatomists who intermingle physiological with anatomical teaching. Iam not questioning the usefulness of the practice when carried to a moderate extent. I wish merely to point out what appears to me to have been a result of the practice, and I believe that the result was to give to physiology an anatomical tendency. It was natural for the anatomist who dealt with visible structure to constantly refer to this in explaining physiological action or function, The physiologist with the anatomical tendency always tried to explain a difference in the action or function of a part by a difference in its evident structure ; and when his microscope failed to show any structural difference between the cells which form saliva and those which produce pancreatic fluid, between the egg of a rabbit and that of a dog, he, bafiled on the side of anatomy, was too ready to adopt the conclusion that, inasmuch as the microscope reveals no difference in the structure, there is really no structural differ- ence between them, and that the only way in which the difference in action can he explained is by having recourse to the old hypothesis, that the metamorphoses of matter and the actions of force are in the living world regulated by a metaphysical entity termed a vital principle, and that dissimilar actions by similarly constructed arts are only to be explained by referring them to the operations of this principle. After alluding further to the hypothesis of the vital principle and its supposed actions, and after stating that he did not follow the teaching of those who still adhere to this doctrine, the author said that, viewed from the physical side, there appears to be no reason for supposing that two particles of protoplasm, which pos- sess a similar microscopic structure, must act in the same way; for the physicist knows that molecular structure and action are beyond the ken of the microscopist, and that within apparently homogeneous jelly-like particles of protoplasm there may be differences of molecular composition and arrangement which determine widely different properties. | A great change is now taking place in physiological tuition in this country—a superabundance of physiological anatomy and an almost entire absence of experi- ment are no longer its characteristic features. The study of physics, too much neglected, is happily now being more and more regarded as important in the pre- liminary training of the physiologist as the study of anatomy and of chemistry ; and I trust that the day is not far distant when in our medical schools the thorough education of our students in mathematics and physics will be insisted upon as abso- lutely essential elements in their preliminary education, Until this is done phy- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 siology will not advance in this country so rapidly as we could wish. I would not in this place have alluded to a question concerning medical education, but for the fact that the progress of physiology will always greatly depend upon the education of medical men; for only those who are conversant with physics and chemistry, and who, in addition, are acquainted with the phenomena of disease (that is to say with abnormal physiological conditions) can handle physiology in all its branches. Phy- siology owes not a little to a study of pathology—that is, of abnormal physiological states. The study of a diseased condition has on several occasions given a clue to the discovery of the function of an organ. Nothing was known regarding the function of the spleen until the pathologist observed that an increase in the number of white corpuscles in the blood is commonly associated with an enlargement of this organ. eds arose the now accepted doctrine that the spleen is concerned in the formation of blood-corpuscles. The key to our knowledge of the functions of certain parts of the brain has also been supplied by a study of the diseased condi- tions of that organ. The very singular fact that the right side of the body is governed by the left, and not by the right, side of the brain, was ascertained by observing that palsy of the right side of the body is associated with certain diseased conditions of the left side of the brain; that the corpus striatum is concerned in motion, while the optic thalamus is concerned in sensation, and that intellectual operations are manifested specially through the cerebral hemispheres, are conclusions which were indicated by the study of diseased conditions. Moreover, by the pur- suit of the same line of inquiry, the key has been given to the discovery of many other facts regarding the brain functions. Some years ago M. Broca made the remarkable observation that, when a certain portion in the front part of the left side of the brain becomes disorganized by disease, the person loses the power of expressing his thoughts by words, either spoken or written. He can comprehend what is said to him, his organs of articulate speech are not paralyzed, and he retains his power of writing, for he can copy words when told to do so; but when he is asked to give expression to his thoughts by speaking or by writing, or even to tell his name, he is helpless. With a palsy of a portion of his brain, he has lost his power of finding words; but although he has lost this power, his intelligent perception of what passes around him and what is said to him is not lost. It is true that this condition of aphasia, as it is termed, has been found to exist when various parts of the brain have been diseased ; for example, it has been found to co- exist with a diseased state of the posterior instead of the anterior part of the cere- brum. This fact renders it very difficult as yet to assign a precise locality to the faculty of speech. It is not, however, my intention to discuss this question, for my object is merely to show how the study of disease has given a clue to the physio- logist. Broca’s observation led to the thought that, after all, the dreams of the phrenologists would be realized, in so far as they supposed that the various mental operations are made manifest through certain definite territories of the brain. It has until lately been supposed that the convolutions of the cerebrum are entirely concerned in purely intellectual operations ; but this idea is now rendered doubtful. It is probable, from recent researches, that in the cerebral conyolutions (that is, in the part of the brain which was believed to minister merely to intel- Jectual manifestations) there are nerve-centres for the production of voluntary muscular movements in various parts of the body. It has always been taught that the convolutions of the brain, unlike nerves in general, cannot be stimulated by - means of electricity. This, although true as regards the brains of pigeons, fowls, and perhaps other birds, has been shown by Fritsch and Hitzig to be untrue as regards mammals. These observers removed the upper portion of the skull in the dog, and stimulated small portions of the exposed surface of the cerebrum by means of weak galvanic currents; and they found that when they stimulated certain definite portions of the surface of the conyolutions in the anterior part of the cerebrum, movements are produced in certain definite groups of muscles on the opposite side of the body. By this new method of exploring the functions of the conyolutions of the brain, these investigators showed that, in certain cerebral conyvolutions, there are centres for the nerves presiding over the muscles of the neck, the extensor and adductor muscles of the forearm, for the flexor and ro- acy muscles of the arm, the muscles of the foot, and those of the face. They, 1873, 9 122 REPORT—1873. moreover, removed the portion of the convolution on the left side of the cerebrum, which they had ascertained to be the centre for certain movements of the right fore limb, and they found that after the injury thus inflicted, the animal had only an imperfect control over the movements of the part of the limb in question. Re- cently, Dr, Hughlings Jackson, from the observation of various diseased conditions in which peculiar movements occur in distinct groups of muscles, has adduced evidence in support of the conclusion that in the cerebral convolutions are loca- lized the centres for the production of various muscular movements. Within the last few months these observations have been greatly extended by the elaborate experiments of my late pupil and assistant, and now able colleague in King’s Col- lege, Prof. Ferrier. Adopting the method of Fritsch and Hitzig (but instead of using galvanic he has employed Faradaic electricity, with which, strange to say, the investigators just mentioned obtained no very definite results), he has explored the brain in the fish, frog, dog, cat, rabbit, and guineapig, and lately in the monkey. The results of this investigation are of great importance. He has explored the convolutions of the cerebrum far more fully than the German experimenters, and has investigated the cerebellum, corpora quadrigemina, and several other portions of the brain not touched upon by them, There is perhaps no part of the brain whose function has been more obscure than the cerebellum. Dr, Ferrier has discovered that this ganglion is a great centre for the movements of the muscles of the eyeballs. He has also very carefully mapped out in the dog, cat, &c. the various centres in the convolutions of the cerebrum which are concerned in the production of movements in the muscles of the eyelids, face, mouth, tongue, ear, neck, fore and hind feet, and tail. He confirms the doctrine that the corpus striatum is concerned in motion, while the optic thalamus is probably concerned in sensation, as are also the hippocampus major and its neighbouring conyolutions. He has also found that in the case of the higher brain of the monkey there is what is not found in the dog or cat—to wit, a portion in the front part of the brain, whose stimulation produces no muscular movement. What may be the function of this part, whether or not it specially ministers to intellectual operations, remains to be seen. These re- searches mark the commencement of a new era in our knowledge of brain function. Of all the studies in comparative physiology there will be none more interesting, and few so important, as tne in which the various centres will be mapped out in the brains throughout the vertebrate series. A new, but this time a true, system of phrenology will probably.be founded upon them: by this, however, I do not mean that it will be possible to tell a man’s faculties by the configuration of his skull; but merely this, that the various mental faculties will be assigned to definite territories of the brain, as Gall and Spurzheim long ago maintained, although their geography of the brain was erroneous. T have alluded to this subject, not only because it affords an illustration of the service which a sttdy ef diseased conditions has rendered to physiology, but also because these investigations constitute the most important work which has been accomplished in physiology for a very considerable time past. : Revival of Physiology in England. We may, I think, term this the renaissance period of English physiology. It seems strange that the country of Harvey, John Hunter, Charles Bell, Marshall . Hall, and John Reid sheuld not always have been in the front rank as regards physiology. The neglect of physics must be admitted as a cause of this; it is also to be attributed to the, until a few years ago, almost entire absence of experimental teaching ; but it would be unjust not to attribute it, in great measure, to the limited appliances possessed by our physiologists. It is to be remembered that physiology could not be ig! cultivated without proper laboratories, with a supply of expensive apparatus. ithout endowments from public or private resources, how can such institutions be properly fitted up and maintained by men who can, for the most part, only turn to physiological research in moments snatched from the busy toil of a profession so laborious as that of medicine ? In defiance of these diffi- culties we are now striving to hold our place in the physiological world. A new TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 system of physiological tuition is rapidly extending over the country. In the London schools, in Edinburgh, Cambridge, Manchester, and elsewhere, earnest efforts are being made to give a thoroughly practical aspect to the tuition of our science; and, notwithstanding the imperfect results which must necessarily ensue in the absence of suitable endowment, we can nevertheless point to the fact that the effect of these efforts has been to awaken a love for physiological research in the mind of many a student; and the results of this awakening are already apparent in the archives of the Royal Societies, in the ‘ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ and elsewhere. But physiological research is most expensive and laborious, and it is, moreover, unremunerative. The labours of the physiologist are entirely philan- thropic; all his researches do nothing but contribute to the increase of human happiness by the prevention of disease and the amelioration of suffering; and I would venture to suggest to those who are possessed of wealth and of a desire to apply it for the benefit of society, that, in view of the wholly unselfish and philan- thropie character of physiological labours, they could not do better than endow laboratories for the prosecution of physiological research. We anticipate great benefit to the community not only from an advance of physiology, but from a diffusion of a knowledge of its leading facts amongst the people. This is now being carried out in our schools on a scale which is annually increasing. Thanks to the efforts of Huxley, the principles of physiology are now presented in a singularly palatable form to the minds of the young, The instruc- tion communicated does not consist of technical terms and numbers, but in the elucidation of the principal events which happen within our bodies, together with an explanation of the treatment which they must receive in order to be maintained in health. Considering how much may he accomplished by these bodies of ours if they be properly attended to and rightly used, it seems to be a most desirable thing that the possessor of the body should know something about its mechanism, not only because such knowledge affords him much material for suggestive thought—not only because it is excellent mental training to endeayour to understand the why and the wherefore of the bodily actions—but also because he may greatly profit from a Imowledge of the conditions of health. A thorough adoption of hygienic measures (in other words, of measures which are necessary to preserve individuals in the highest state of health) cannot be hoped for until a knowledge of fundamental physiological principles finds its way into every family. This country has taken the lead in the attempt to diffuse a sound knowledge of physiological facts and principles among the people, and we may fairly anticipate that this will contribute not a little to enable her to maintain her high rank amongst nations; for every step which is calculated to improve the physiological state of the individual must inevitably contribute to make the nation successful in the general struggle for existence, « On the Movements of the Glands of Drosera*, _ By Aurrep W, Brynert, LS. The glands which fringe the margin of the leaf and cover the upperside of the leaf of Drosera haye been shown by previous observers not to be hairs in the true sense of the term, 7. e. mere cellular expansions of the epidermis, but to be integral parts of the leaf, with a fibro-vascular bundle containing spiral threads (in other words, ‘a vein or nerve of the leaf) running through them, and even to be furnished with stomata. The glands excrete at all times, when in a healthy condition, a white viscous gluten, which quickly entraps any small insect that settles upon the leaf, gradually holding it down more and more as it struggles, till escape is hopeless. The glands soon begin to move towards the imprisoned insect ; but this movement is not very conspicuous at first, and is yery much more decided after the insect has almost completely ceased to struggle, thus appearing not to be due to any “contractile tissue” in the leaf which is irritated by the movements of the insect, After the lapse of some time the whole of the glands of the leaf, even those which are at a considerable * Quart. Journ. Mier, Soe., Oct. 1878, Q* 124 REPORT—1875. distance from the insect, are found to be bending over towards it, and to be almost in contact with it. After a time the insect is to all appearance digested, actually supplying the tissue of the leaf with nourishment. Very nearly the same effect was produced by substituting for the fly a piece of raw meat, the movements of the glands being somewhat slower, but ultimately almost as complete, the meat being apparently digested in the same manner. On other leaves were placed a minute piece of wood and a small piece of worsted; and in neither of these cases was the least change perceptible, after a considerable time, in the posi- tion of the glands nor of the object itself. On the Action of Alcohol on Warm-blooded Animals. By Dr. Binz, of Bonn. Physiological Researches on the Nature of Cholera. By Dr. Lavprr Brunton. The search after a true remedy for cholera, the author thought, had hitherto been fruitless. The cause of the disease was now generally admitted to be a poison of some sort which could be transmitted from one person to another; but there must also be a proper soil for the development of the poison—in other words, the blood and tissues must be in such a state that it can act upon them. In the state of collapse there was constant vomiting and purging, and the intestinal canal was speedily washed clean out, the stools consisting of the secretion alone ; the blood stagnated in the great veins of the thorax and abdomen, and left the skin shrunken, pale, and cold, the interior of the body being hotter even than in a state of high fever. That blood which filled the small cutaneous veins being no longer driven forward by fresh supplies from the arteries, became completely deoxidized and black, imparting to the surface a livid hue. _It still retained its power to take up oxygen and give off carbonic acid; but, notwithstanding this, it passed so slowly through the pulmonary vessels that only about one third of the usual quantity of carbonic acid was given off from the lungs; and little oxygen being taken in, there was a distressing feeling of want of breath. At the same time the voice was hoarse, low, and weak; but this seemed to be simply a consequence of the general exhaus- tion of the patient. The symptoms of cholera all arose from disturbance of the circulation and altera- tion of the intestinal secretion ; and it might be thought that the only means of re- moving those conditions would be to eliminate from the body that poison which was producing these effects, and that so long as it was still circulating in the blood, any remedy which was simply intended to counteract it would be administered in vain. But the researches of Fraser and others on antagonism had shown that the elimination of a poison was not required in order to prevent ita injurious or fatal action ; the administration of an antidote would deprive it of its hurtful power ; and as it was with other poisons so might it be with that of cholera. It occurred to Dr. Brunton that if any poison should possess actions similar to those of cholera-poison, an antidote to it might possibly prove to be a remedy for cholera. He therefore. began to look for a drug which would produce the same changes in the circulation which occurred in cholera. These were, he believed, first attributed by Dr. Parkes to spasmodic contraction of the pulmonary vessels, which prevented the blood from passing through them; and this opinion had found a warm supporter in Dr. George Johnson. Most of the symptoms, though not all, could be explained on this hypothesis. Professor Schmiedeberg, in investigating the physiological action of a poisonous mushroom the (Amanita muscaria or Agaricus muscarius), noticed that when given to animals it caused great dyspnoea, and at the same time the arteries became empty, so that when cut across hardly a drop of blood issued from them—the very condition which existed in cholera. Administering atropia to the warm-blooded animals suffering from these symptoms, Professor Schmiedeberg found that they at once recovered. He had not thought at all, however, of contraction of the pulmo- nary vessels as a cause of dyspncea. He attributed it rather to excitement of the neryous centre in the medulla oblongata, which regulates the respiratory moye- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 ments; but as the effect of atropia itself is to excite the nervous centre, it ought, according to his supposition, to have increased instead of removing the breathlessness. When the idea that the dyspnoea was due to contraction of the pulmonary capil- laries suggested itself to Dr. Brunton, he proceeded to test it by experiment. He first gave a rabbit such a dose of chloral hydrate as to deprive it of all sensibi- lity, then put a tube into the windpipe and connected it with a pair of bellows. He was thus able to inflate the animal’s lungs at regular intervals and keep up respira- tion artificially when the animal could no longer breathe itself. He next opened the thoracic cavity so as to observe the slightest change in the lungs or heart. Ie injected a little muscarin into the jugular vein, when the lungs which had been pri- viously rosy became blanched, the right side of the heart swelled up, the veins passing to it became enormously distended, and the left side of the heart almost empty. Shortly afterwards he injected a little atropia into the jugular vein. At once the effects of the muscarin disappeared, and every thing assumed its normal appearance. From the want of muscarin he had not pursued his investigations, but hoped shortly to do so. Hitherto he had proceeded on the assumption that Drs. Parkes’s and Johnson's theory of cholera was correct, and that the stoppage of the circulation in cholera was due to contractions of the arterioles of the lungs, as it was in muscarin-poisoning. In poisoning hy muscarin the great veins of the thorax and abdomen and the right side of the heart seemed to be almost equally distended, and exactly the same condition was found in persons who had died of cholera. But it was not certain that the right side of the heart was always so much distended during life, even when the symptoms of cholera were present in their most pronounced form. It would almost seem that the veins dilated still more in cholera-collapse than they did in muscarin-poisoning. Nitrite of amy] has the power of dilating the arterioles throughout the body, and in those of the lungs also ; but it was found practically to be of no use in cholera. The pulse might become a little stronger and the surface a little warmer, but the improve- ment was so slight that it is hardly worth mentioning, and the patient felt no better for the medicine either when inhaled or when injected subcutaneously. If the weak- ness of the pulse depended only on contraction of the vessels in the lungs, this result would be astonishing ; butif they supposed it to be caused by dilatation of the great veins, it was just what they would expect. From these and other facts, Dr. Brunton concluded that the veins were dilated, and that therefore some remedy must be em- ployed which would make them contract. There were very few experiments on the contractility of the veins; but in the condition of depression or shock following severe injuries, in which the veins were much dilated, digitalis had been found useful, and it might prove useful in cholera also. Atropia had been lately tried in cholera by an American practitioner with considerable success, and it seemed deserving of a more extensive trial. It would not do, however, to consider the action of any proposed remedy for cholera on the circulation alone, and to leave out of account its effect upon the in- testinal secretion. He therefore set to work to discover the action of atropia upon the intestinal secretion. Since the effect of cholera upon the intestine was the same as that of division of its nerves, which was one cause of secretion, they were justified in believing that if any drug could stop the secretion in Moreau’s experiment of dividing the intestinal nerves it was likely to have a similar effect on cholera. Now atropia had remarkable power to stop secretion from the salivating and sweat glands when their nerves are irritated, rendering the mouth and skin quite dry. What its effect on paralytic secretion in the salivating glands might be he did not know; but thinking that it might arrest the flow of fluid into the intestine, he repeated Moreau’s experiment and injected some solution of atropia into the vein of the animal. On killing it some hours afterwards, he found that there was fluid in that part of the intestine the nerves of which had been divided. The dose, however, was not large; and he comforted himself with the hope that a large dose might do, though a small one would not. He afterwards tested the power of atropia to check the secretion induced by injection of sulphate of magnesia into the intestine, both by injecting a mixture of sulphate of magnesia and atropia into the intestine and by injecting sulphate of magnesia alone into the bowel, and a solution of atropia into the veins. In both cases he used very large doses of atropia, but 126 REPORT—1873. they had not the slightest effect upon the secretion. The result was dispgpointing , and rendered the use of atropia in cholera somewhat doubtful. It was, however, difficult to foretell the effect of any drug under particular circumstances, and he should therefore continue his experiments. The points to which he wished to direct particular attention were these :— (1) That, assuming Parkes’s and Johnson’s theory to be correct, and the impeded circulation in cholera to be due to obstruction in the pulmonary vessels, atropia was likely to prove beneficial to a certain extent; and since it had been empirically found to be useful in the disease, it ought to receive a fair trial at the hands of the medical profession. (2) The fact that the right side of the heart was not dilated during life in cholera patients, as well as the uselessness of nitrite of amyl, which dilated the pulmonary vessels, showed that Parkes’s and Johnson’s theory was imperfect, and that one of the most important pathological conditions in cholera-collapse consisted in an active dilatation of the thoracic and abdominal veins. Any remedy, to be useful in cholera, must have the power of counteracting this condition; and the adminis- tration of digitalis in cholera-collapse might be useful. 3) The profuse secretion from the bowels in cholera was due to paralysis of some of the intestinal nerves; and a remedy which will arrest it was still a desideratum, On some Abnormal Eifects of Binocular Vision. By A. 8. Davis. On the Action of Light on the Retina and other Tissues. By Dr, Duwar and Dr. MacKunpnrtcx. On the Motion of Protoplasm in the Fucaceous Alyce. By Professor P, Martiy Duncan, PLS, The Localization of Function inthe Brain. By Daviy Frrrmr, WD, Professor of Forensic Medicine, King’s College, London. In his paper on this subject, Dr. Ferrier alluded to the various theories at present held in regard to the possibility of localizing specific functions in definite regions of the brain—mentioning especially the various facts of disease, such as extensive abscesses, which appear to negative the idea of localization; and, on the other hand, those in favour of localization, such as the facts of aphasia, and the peculiar localized and unilateral epileptic and clonic spasms, which the researches of Hughlings Jackson seemed to connect with irritation of definite regions of the brain-centre. The great difficulty had hitherto been the want of a method which would lead to positive results, instead of the usual negative phenomena resulting from the ordi- nary methods of investigating the functions of the brain by means of mechanical or similar destruction of the brain-substance. The researches of Fritsch and Hitzig and the theory of discharging lesions, advocated by Hughlings Jackson as the cause of the different epilepsies, formed the starting-point of the investigations which Dr. Ferrier communicated to the Association. The results at which he arrived, from experimentation on the brains of rabbits, cats, and dogs, have already been partly published in the West-Riding Lunatic Asylum Report for 1873 ; but the experiments on monkeys and other animals, which were likewise brought before the Association, as well as the further elucidation of the experiments already published in the West-Riding Reports, are reserved for the Royal Society, under whose auspices the late experiments have been con- ducted. The following was the general scope of the paper The author, after a general sketch of the surface and convolutions of the brain in animals experimented on, pointed out on a series of diagrams the centres in the different convolutions, stimulation of which caused certain and unvarying combined movements of the paws and tail, of the facial muscles, and of the muscles concerned in articulation, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 The homologous parts were pointed out in the brains of the rat, guineapig, rabbit, cat, dog, jackal, and monkey, and indicated in the human brain according to the convolutional homology existing between it and the simian brain. In particular the complex movements of the hands and feet were described, and the situation of the centres of these various movements definitely localized. In addition to these centres for movements, which the author described as ° evidently volitional, purposive, or expressive, other regions of the brain, the posterior, were pointed out as probably the cerebral centres in connexion with some of the special senses, such as sight, hearing, and smell. On the same plan as before, the homologous parts and convolutions were indicated in the human brain. Certain anterior regions at the frontal extremity of the cerebral hemispheres in the monkey, and also the posterior or occipital lobes of the monkey’s brain, yielded no results which could yet be laid hold of. A comparison was instituted between the corresponding parts in the brains of the lower animals and of man, and some speculations were offered as to the sig- nification of the development of these parts in their relation to intelligence. Several facts in relation to combined expressional movements, such as the mouth and hand, were shown to be dependent on the close cerebral relation of the centres for these movements, with powerful stimulation, one gradually radiating into the other. The key to the psychological aspect of the facts presented by the experiment was indicated to be the condition of aphasia, which is usually found associated with disease of the posterior part of the inferior frontal convolution on the left side. This region Dr. Ferrier showed, in the brain of the monkey, to be that part which governed the movements concerned in articulation; and the homology was also pointed out in the brains of the cat, dog, jackal, and other animals. Stimulation of this region in cats and dogs frequently elicited vocal speech in the form of mewing and barking ; and it was the homologue of this part in the brain of man, " of which was followed by the loss of articulate speech and the memory of words. The two hemispheres of the brain, however, were shown to be symmetrical ; and, in regard to the mouth, the action of the brain was also bilateral, and not, as usually the case, crossed and unilateral. The explanation adopted was that the loss of the power of voluntarily recalling words was due to the fact of the left hemisphere being the leading side, just as in most people the right hand is most commonly used. ‘The loss of speech was there- fore due to the inability of the other side of the brain all at once to get at the proper word, even though they existed, as shown by the fact that the individual can recognize the word when mentioned. The results of experiments on the hemispheres and optic lobes of fishes, frogs, and. birds were also alluded to, but not entered into fully. The corpora striata were shown to be motor, and the optic thalami evidently sensory. Curious effects were described as resulting m rritation of the corpora quadrigemina. The cerebellum was shown to have a function not hitherto allotted to it, viz. the coordination of the ocular muscles. In the rabbit the various lobules were described as moving the eyes in different directions; and similar experiments with similar results had been obtained in the case of cats, dogs, and monkeys. The relation of the cerebellum as an oculo-motorial and general equilibrium coordinating centre was slightly discussed, and their mutual interdependence indicated. These latter subjects, however, are under investigation, as well as many other points in connexion with the cerebral hemispheres, and therefore the author con- tented himself with only a general sketch of the results. Heartand Brain. By J. Mutyer Forumrerty, W.D., M.R.C.P. The qualities of endurance are rather cardiac than cerebral. Ability and deter- mination bear no relation to each other; but the expressions “ faint-hearted”’ and “ stout-hearted” fall in with some of our most modern physiological views. When the blood-pressure on the brain is too great and the roots of the yagus (the restraining 128 REPORT—1873. nerve) are flooded with blood, the inhibitory fibres are thrown into action and the heart’s contractions lowered. In hypertrophy of the heart the overgrown organ is not so readily reined in, and so apoplexy is commonly found along with this heart-change. In other cases, again, the blood-supply of the brain is defective, and then the brain is crippled. This was well seen in the case of a youth with congenital heart-disease, ‘ who came under the writer’s notice, where the horizontal posture, so as to fill the head with blood, was necessary in order that the youth might learn or repeat his pieces of poetry. In medical practice the intimate association of heart and brain is well known, and in a large proportion of the cases of insanity distinct changes in the circulatory system are found. Where there is great cerebral hyperzemia, the ordeal bean of Calabar, which stimulates the inhibitory fibres of the vagus, and so holds back the heart, is found to be the most effective agent in controlling the violent mania of high cerebral vascularity. On the other hand, in cases of heart- disease the character commonly becomes altered, the resolute person becoming yacillating and capricious, the even-tempered person growing irritable and sus- ae The effect of heart-disease on character is well seen in old Peter eatherstone in Middlemarch; and the vacillation of that obstinate old man betwixt his two wills shows how the brain halts and lacks its wonted determination when its arterial blood-supply is defective. The sensations of a patient in the great hospital of Vienna, whose heart stood still at intervals from the pressure of a tumour on the inhibitory nerve (the vagus), were described. Such is a part of the negative evidence of the relation of heart and brain; for the positive evidence we must turn to the records of the sporting world. Eclipse, the famous racer, and Master Magrath, the noted courser, two animals renowned for their tremendous enduranee even more than for their speed, were both examined after death to see if any thing could be found to explain their peculiar prowess. In each an unusually large heart was found; and to this were attributed, and rightly so, their extra- ordinary powers. Wemay say, then, without hesitation, thata brain can no more give out efficient manifestations of force without a sufficient blood-supply, than an army can fight or manceuyre effectively without a proper commissariat, or an engine work up to its full power without a liberal supply of coal and water. Finally, we may conclude that the waves of nerve-force, which resolve themselves into either psychical resolution or sustained muscular effort, are dependent in their turn upon a well-maintained succession of blood-waves supplied by a firm and vigorous heart. ; On the Physiological Action of Crystalline Aconitia and pseudo-Aconitia, By Dr. Tuomas R. Fraser. The experiments were made with the nitrates of crystalline aconitia and pseudo- aconitia, prepared by Mr. Groves, F.C.8., who first separated aconitia in a erystal- line form in 1864. Both alkaloids powerfully influence the cardiac contractions and respiratory movements. Their toxic power is very great, entitling them probably to be regarded as the most active poisons as yet known. A very re- markable and exceptional difference of toxicity for different species of animals was found to exist ; for while aconitia is for frogs about five times more powerful as a toxic agent than pseudo-aconitia, the latter substance is for rabbits about twice as powerful as the former. It was ascertained that this difference depends on aconitia possessing a more energetic action on the heart, and a less energetic action on the respiratory moyements, than pseudo-aconitia. The Vocal Organs in Living Centenarians. By Sir G. Duncan Ginn, Bart., M.D., LL.D. The condition of the larynx and other vocal organs in persons who have reached the age of 100 years is of especial interest when determined during life, and presented some new facts necessitating a modification of the views generally enter- tained. The author’s observations were founded upon an examination of nine living centenarians, whom he had personally visited in various parts of the country. Their nemes, residences, dates of examination, and authentic records of their births TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129 were given, two being males and seven females; and although examined on but one occasion, the results were satisfactory, and less difficulty was experienced than was at first anticipated. The thyroid cartilage was more distinctly prominent in the two males than the females; in all nine it was freely movable, and not hard and unyielding, as is sometimes seen in persons of the age of 60 and 70. On slight compression there was a resiliency that pointed to cartilaginous flexi- bility, and lateral movements gave the sensation of cartilage gliding upon car- tilage, showing absence of calcareous transformation in the articulating surfaces, The hyotd bone, readily felt in all, gave no enlargement or other alteration of the thyro-hyoid ligaments ; nor were the pulsations of the carotids unduly felt, as occurs when their coats have become thickened by calcareous or other deposits. The ericotd cartilage on rotation gave the cartilaginous gliding already mentioned, and the rings of the trachea were compressible in any direction. The laryngeal mirror had to be used with expedition, and revealed a vertical epiglottis in all, with its leaf-like expansion and light yellow colour, being thin towards the tip and sides, affording a ready view of the interior of the larynx. The vocal cords mostly formed a triangular glottis ; they were longer in the males and in one of the females than in the others, whilst their colour in the latter was mostly of a greyish white: in one of the males it was yellow. The voice varied, being mostly smooth, soft, clear, and melodious; in the female with the long cords it was louder and more masculine than in the others, and so was it in one of the males, being at the same time somewhat cracked in tone. The chest capacity was fairly good in all, and the breathing of the most healthy character; the cartilages of the ribs were not ossified in any, for the movement of the ribs and their car- tilages was wholly unimpeded, thus resembling persons of 25 or 30. Every organ in the body was normal, and the special senses as a rule were perfect. The con- clusions arrived at were that there was an absence of those changes that are usually looked upon as senile, such as calcification of the laryngeal cartilages or of the coats of the blood-vessels, and ossification of the costal cartilages; and as all the organs and tissues of the body had undergone comparatively little or no change, persons over 95, or who reach the age of 100 years, must henceforth be considered to be free from such changes as are believed usually to bring life to a close between 70 and 80. As relates, however, to the epiglottis, its vertical position (the normal one) is common to all persons over the age of 70, as the author's researches have proved in an examination of 5000 healthy persons of both sexes and all ages; but the perfection of the cartilage is to be seen in centenarians. Whate Corpuscles, their Nature and Origin in the Animal Organism. By Dr. J. Goopman. In the prosecution of his experiments upon the development of fibrin by the action of water upon albuminous substance, the author discovered that sometimes instead of fibrin thousands of corpuscles presented themselves *. The development of corpuscles was ultimately discovered to be the result of the employment of old eggs or of long-drawn serum, or, in other words, of albumen of low vital power, that from fresh albumen developing fibrin, that from old albumen corpuscles. A low temperature just above the freezing-point, even with fresh eges, produced the same effect, and the substance thus formed was of lighter spe- cific gravity than that which developed fibrin. The exterior of the substance produced was discovered to form, generally under the influence of cold, a coating of a dark and coagulum-like material, sometimes enclosing well-formed fibrin, which, seen under the microscope by the reflected solar ray, was found to be constituted entirely of corpuscles. Thus corpuscles were seen to be produced in like manner with fibrin. hen separate these little bodies always evinced a tendency to coalesce and unite together, and, like fibrin, thus to manifest a force of attraction, particle for particle, but in a minor degree, This power was greater or less in proportion to the degree of vital energy of the albumen employed. * See a paper upon the origin of Fibrin in the Animal Organism, Proceedings of Sections, 1870, p. 139, and 1871, p. 72. 130 BEPoRt—1675. It was also proved, by frequently repeated experiment, that corpuscles by coalescing and uniting together develop fibrinous rods and other structures of this material. The substance thus formed, when subjected to compression between two plates of glass under the microscope, actually had its cohesive power over- come, and became resolved into corpuscles; and when the pressure was removed sometimes these again united, and developed fibrinous rods and other structures. Moreover corpuscles were the last products witnessed during the decomposition and disintegration of fibrin. It was therefore rendered evident that corpuscles are identical in their nature with fibrinous substance, corpuscles and fibrin being mutually convertible into each other. These two great coagulable and structure-forming components of the blood are thus seen to derive their origin from like substances, conditions, and agencies—viz. the subjection of albuminous material to the agency of water, both which ingre- dients are discovered in abundance in the lacteals and absorbents of the body. As shown by some of our most eminent physiologists, excess of fibrin or of corpuscles in the human frame indicates a healthy or morbid state of the organism —the preponderance of fibrin being held by them as the symbol of the highest con- dition of health, whilst the predominance of corpuscles is equally maintained as indicative of a cachectic or otherwise unhealthy state of body; so in these experi- ments the corroborative voice of Nature declares that a high state of vitality in the albumen is associated with the development of fibrin, whilst a low vital energy in the substance employed has always a tendency to produce corpuscular products. On the Mode of Formation of Renal Caleuli. By Guorcs Haney, ID., PRS, PBC. In this communication the author laid down several general laws as being applicable to all kinds of caleuli, a few of which are the following :— ist. Caleuli may occur at every period of life from the cradle to the grave. 2nd. In all cases of constitutional concretions the amount of renal solids must be disproportionate to the amount of liquids excreted. 3rd. That the deposition of a calculus in any part of the renal system is in every case due to some special local cause. The cause may be trifling and temporary ; but still it must exist.. Once, however, the concretion has begun to form the original exciting cause is soon lost sight of, and the calculus goes on forming round its nucleus, quite independent of the local condition which called it into existence, 4th. The vast majority of constitutional calculi, be their nature what it may (oxalate of lime, phosphate of lime, uric acid, xanthin, or cystin), have their origin in the kidneys. 5th. The colour of the concretion does not always depend upon the nature of the substance which is composed, but upon the presence of other colouring-matiers in the renal secretion. Uric acid calculi, for example, vary in depth of colour according as the quantity of urohzmatin is small or great; just as crystals of sugar- candy owe their pink, yellow, or other tints to the pigment present in the water out of which they are crystallized. Phosphatic and cystinic calculi form an exception to this rule by refusing to combine with extraneous pigments. Gth. There are three perfectly distinct modes in which crystalloid material is deposited in the formation of calculi. The first and rarest form of calculi are those which consist of a monster crystal, or an aggregation of monster crystals, and are only to be met with in the case of triple phosphates, oxalate of lime, and uric acid. The second is that in which a certain amount of colloid is united with the crystalloid material; one in which it may be said that small crystals separating from the supersaturated renal secretion become entangled in mucus, tube casts, epithelium scales, or other colloid material, and by fresh aggregations around them gradually become closer and closer packed together, until they assume the appearance and properties of a compact concretion, The last mode of formation is by the aggregation of molecular atoms, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 131 on the principle of molecular coalescence from the union of viscid or colloid material with earthy or organic crystalloid matter, in the manner of the formation of the dental tissues and shell-structures described by Mr. George Rainey. To these three different modes of constitutional calculus formation the author gives the respective names of Crystalline, Crystallo-colloid, and Molecular coales- cence. Inconcluding, the author remarked that the calculi he had been describing must not be confounded with those which, for the sake of distinction, might be termed “ accidentally acquired,” such as vesical, which frequently have for their nucleus foreign substances, such as a pea, a barleycorn, a piece of bone, hair, wire, a fragment of sealing-wax, or a portion of catheter, the irritation of which excites the presence of tenacious mucus, blood, or even pus, with which the foreign body itself becomes coated, and in and around which crystalloid molecules and actual crystals are deposited and form the calculus, Lastly. Calculi are not always of uniform composition throughout. Their com- osition varies at different times with the different states of health of the patient. he centre of the concretion may be composed of uric acid, then may come a layer of oxalate of lime, and over that another layer of uric acid or of phosphate, so that in a section of a calculus the clinical phases through which a patient has past may be read as truthfully as the geologist can read the earth’s history in the strata forming its crust. On the Siructure of the Hyg, and the early Development of the Cephalopod Loligo, By E. Ray Lanxusrer, M.A., Ewcter College, Oxford. The author discussed some points as to the nature and mode of formation of eggs, in connexion with his observations on the egg of the cuttlefish, Loliyo. Every egg is originally a small corpuscle of protoplasm, like those which build up the tissues of animals; but it acquires additional substance, and in some animals (for instance, birds) becomes very large before it is laid. The additional substance differs in its character in different animals. In Apws four original egg-corpuscles fuse and form one egg, from which one embryo develops. In most cases the egg grows in the ovary by receiving nutrition from the blood; but in many cases (in birds, fishes, and in cuttlefish) the egg is contained in a capsule, which is lined with living corpuscles, and these are continually multiplying by division, and pass from the capsule into the egg to increase its bulk. This Mr, Lankestér had demonstrated by sections in the case of Zoliyo. So far he agreed with Prof. His; but he did not find that these corpuscles remained alive and helped to form the embryo cuttle fish. The ege of Loliyo when laid was a perfectly homogeneous mixture of albuminous matters of (a) the original egg-corpuscle, (d) the corpuscles from the capsule, and (c) the male spermatozoa. From this mixture there segre- gated at first to one pole plastic matter, which broke up into corpuscles (“klasto- plasts’’) forming a cap (yelk-cleavage). Outside this cap of cleavage-corpuscles other large corpuscles (“autoplasts”) then made their appearance by a new and independent process of segregation (free cell-formation); and these became branched, forming a deep or middle layer in the embryo, whilst the cleavage-corpuscles spread _ oyer them at a higher level, Microzymes as partial Bionta. By Dr. Joun Ross. Note on Huizinga’s Lxperiments on Abiogenesis. By Dr. Burpon SanpErson. g Pp J MW] Under the title of a “Contribution to the question of Abiogenesis,” Prof, Huizinga has very recently published (Pfliiger’s Archiv, vol. vii. p. 549) a series of experiments which deserve notice, as constituting a new and carefully worked out - attempt to support the doctrine of spontaneous generation. Prof. Huizinga begins his paper with the words “ Multa renascentur que jam cecidere,” using them as an expression of the recurring nature of this question. He then proceeds to say that he was induced to undertake his inquiry by the publication of the well-known work by Dr, Bastian (whom he compliments as 132 REPORT—1873. haying awakened the exhausted interest of physiologists in the subject), his special object being to repeat the much-discussed turnip-cheese experiment. Every one knows what Dr. Bastian’s observation is. It is simply this, viz. that if a glass flask is charged with a slightly alkaline infusion of turnip of sp. gr. 1015, to which a trace of cheese has been added, and is then subjected to ebullition for ten minutes and closed hermetically while boiling, and finally kept at fermentation temperature, Bacteria develop in it in the course of a few days. This experiment has been repeated by Huizinga with great care, and the accuracy of Dr. Bastian’s statement of fact confirmed by him in every particular ; yet, notwithstanding this, he thinks that the evidence afforded by these results in support of the doctrine so inadequate, that he, desiring to find such evidence, has thought it necessary to repeat the observation under what he regards as conditions of greater exactitude. Huizinga’s objections to Bastian’s ore are two. First, that when a flask is boiled and closed hermetically in ebullition, its contents are almost entirely deprived of air; and, secondly, that cheese is a substance of mixed and uncertain composition. To obviate the first of these objections he closes his flasks, after ten minutes’ boiling, not by hermetically sealing them, but by placing over the mouth of each, while in ebullition, a porous porcelain plate which has first been removed from the flame of a Bunsen’s lamp. The hot porcelain plate is made to adhere to the edge or lip of the flask by a layer of asphalt, with which the edge has been previously covered. The purpose of this arrangement is to allow air to enter the flask at the same time that all germinal matter is excluded. It is not necessary to discuss whether this is so or not. To obviate the second objection he alters the composition of the liquid used ; he substitutes for cheese, peptone ; and for turnip-infusion, a mixture of the fol- lowing composition in 1000 parts :— Grape-sugar ...... ss... 25 grammes, Potassium nitrate........ 2 FS Magnesium sulphate .... 2 9 Calcium phosphate ...... 0-4 gramme. The phosphate is prepared by precipitating a solution of calcium chloride with ordinary sodium phosphate, taking care that the chloride is in excess. The preci- pitate of neutral phosphate so obtained is washed and then added to the saline solution in the proportion given. On boiling it is converted into soluble acid phosphate and insoluble basic salt, of which the latter is removed by infiltration ; consequently the proportion of phosphate in solution is less than that above indi- cated. To the filtrate, peptone is added in the proportion of 0-4 per cent. The peptone is obtained by digesting egg-albumen at the temperature of the body in artificial gastric juice, made by adding the proper quantity of glycerine extract of pepsin to water acidulated with hydrochloric acid. The liquid so ob- tained is first rendered alkaline by the addition of liquor sodx, then slightly acidulated with acetic acid and boiled. The syntonin thus precipitated is sepa- rated by infiltration from the clear liquid, which is then evaporated to a sirup and poured in a thin stream into strong alcohol with constant agitation. The preci- pitated peptone is separated after some hours and washed with alcohol, and re- dissolved in a small quantity of water. The solution is again precipitated by pouring it into alcohol in the same way as before, and the precipitate washed and dried. Flasks having been half filled with the liquid thus prepared (in 1000, two each of nitre and Epsom salts, a trace of phosphate of lime, twenty-five parts of grape- sugar, and four parts of peptone), each is boiled for ten minutes, closed while boil- ing with the earthenware plate as above described, and placed as soon as it is cool in the warm chamber at 30° C. The experiment so made gave, without any exception, a positive result in every case. After two or three days the fluid was crowded with actively moving Bacterium termo. In June last I published in ‘ Nature’ a repetition of Dr. Bastian’s experiments, with a variation not of the liquid, but of the mode of heating. Instead of boiling the flasks for ten minutes over the open flame and closing them in ebullition, I boiled them, closed them hermetically, and then placed them in a digester, in TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 which they were subjected to ebullition under a pressure of 2 inches or more of mercury. The result was negative. There was no development of Bacteria. Since the publication of these experiments Huizinga’s have appeared. His result, regarded as a proof of spontaneous generation, is clearly not superior to Bastian’s. His substitution of a soluble immediate principle for an insoluble mixed product like cheese, and the use of a definite solution of sugar and salts, are not material improvements. The question is not whether the germinal matter of Bacteria is present, but whether it is destroyed by the process of heating. Conse- quently what is necessary is not to alter the liquid, but to make the conditions of the experiment, as regards temperature, as exact as possible. In this respect Huizinga’s experiment is a confirmation of Bastian’s, and nothing more. I have recently repeated Huizinga’s experiments with the same modifications as regards temperature as those employed in my repetition of the turnip-cheese experi- ments. The result has been the same. In all essential respects 1 have followed the method described by him in his paper. I have prepared the solution of salts, grape-sugar, and oar in exact accordance with his directions. To obviate his objection as to the absence of air, I have introduced the liquid, not into flasks, but into strong glass tubes closed hermetically at each end and only half filled with liquid, the remainder of the tube containing air at the ordinary tension. Each of these tubes, after having been subjected to the temperature of ebullition under 2 inches of mercury for half an hour, has been kept since September 10 at the tem- peeeare of fermentation (82° C.). Up to the time of my leaving London for radford no change whatever had taken place in the liquid. As a control experiment I opened one of the tubes immediately after boiling, and introduced a drop of distilled water. It became opalescent in twenty-four hours. On the Electrical Phenomena which accompany the Contractions of the Leaf of Dionxa muscipula. By Dr. Borpon SanpErson. It is well known that in those structures in the higher animals which are endowed with the property of contracting when stimulated, viz. nerve and muscle, this property is associated with the existence of voltaic currents which have defi- nite directions in the tissue. These currents have been the subject of very careful observation by physiologists. They require delicate instruments for their investi- gation, but the phenomena dependent on them admit of the application of the most exact measurements. The constant current which can be shown to exist in a muscle is called the normal current. The most important fact with reference to it is that it exists only so long as the muscle is alive, and that it ceases during the moment that the muscle is thrown into action. Other characteristics of the muscle-currents were referred to, which we have not space to meution. In certain plants said to possess the property of irritability, contractions of cer- tain organs on irritation occur which strikingly suggest a correspondence of func- tion between them and the motor organs of animals. Among the most remarkable are those of Drosera and some other plants belonging to the same natural order, particularly the well-known Venus’s Flytrap (Dionea muscipula). The sensitive plant, the common monkey flower, the rock Cistus, afford other examples. Strange as it may seem, the question whether these contractile movements are accompanied with the same electrical changes as those which occur in the con- traction of muscle and in the functional excitation of nerve has never yet been investigated by vegetable physiologists. Mr. Darwin, who for many years has devoted much attention to the animal-like functions of Dionea and Drosera, kindly furnished plants for the purpose of the necessary experiments, which have been made by Dr. Sanderson in the laboratory of University College, London. The result has been that the anticipations he had formed have been confirmed as to the existence of voltaic currents in these parts, and particularly in the leaf of Dionea. By a most remarkable series of experiments, made with the aid of Sir W. Thomson’s galvanometer, he has shown that these currents are subject, in all respects in which they have been as yet investigated, to the same laws as those of muscle and nerve. nee 134 rEPORT—1873. On the Diverticulum of the Small Intestine in Man, considered as a Rudimentary Structure. By Professor C. A, Srrurumrs. On the Development of the Armadillo’s Teeth. By C. 8. Tomns, Notes on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Indian Elephant. By Dr, Morrison WATSON. [Printed in extenso in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology’ for Noy, 1873.] ANTHROPOLOGY. Address to the Department of Anthropology. By Joun Brppor, M.D., FR. The position of Anthropology in the British Association, as a permanent depart- ment of the Section of Biology, being now fully assured, and its relations to the allied and contributory sciences beginning to be well understood and acknowledged, I have not thought it necessary, in opening the business of the department, to follow the example of my predecessors, Professor Turner and Colonel Lane Fox. The former of these gentlemen, at our Edinburgh Meeting, devoted his opening address to the definition, history, and boundaries of our science; the latter, at Brighton, in the elaborate essay which many of you must have listened to, not only discussed its relations to other sciences, but gave an illustrative survey of a great portion of its field and of several of its problems, But while, on the one hand, I feel myself incompetent to follow these prece- dents with success, on the other I am encouraged to take a different line by the consideration that if, as we are fond of saying in this department, “the proper study of mankind is man’’—if, that is, anthropology ought to interest every body, then assuredly the anthropology of Yorkshire ought to interest a Yorkshire audience. Large as the county is, and sharply marked off into districts by striking diversities of geological structure, of climate, and of surface, there is an approach to unity in its political and ethnological history which could scarcely have been looked for. Nevertheless we must bear in mind the threefold division of the shire—not that into ridings, but that pointed out by nature. We have, first, the western third, the region of Carboniferous limestone and Millstone-grit, of narrow valleys and cold rainy moorlands; secondly, the great plain of York, the region roughly speaking, of the Trias, monotonously fertile, and having no natura defence except its numerous rivers, which, indeed, have sometimes served rather as a gateway to the invader than as a bulwark against him; to this plain Holderness and the Vale of Pickering may be regarded as eastern adjuncts. Thirdly, we have the elevated region of the east, in the two yery dissimilar divisions of the moor- lands and the wolds; these are the most important parts of Yorkshire to the prehistoric archeologist, but to the modern ethnologist they are comparatively of little interest. The relics of the paleolithic period, so abundant in the south of England, are, I believe, almost wholly wanting in Yorkshire, where archeology begins with the neolithic age, and owes its foundations to Canon Greenwell of Durham, Mr, Mortimer of Driffield, Mr. Atkinson of Danby, and their predecessors in the ex- ploration of the barrows of Cleveland and the Wolds, whose results figure largel im the ‘Crania Britannica’ of Davis and Thurnam, themselves, by the way, bot ~atives of the city of York. The earliest inhabitants we can distinctly recognize were the builders of certain TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 long barrows, such as that of Scamridge in Cleveland. There is still, I believe, some difference of opinion among the anthropologists of East Yorkshire (where, by the way, in the town of Hull, the science flourishes under the auspices of a local Anthropological Society)—still, I say, some difference of opinion as to whether the long-barrow folk were racially diverse from those who succeeded them and who buried their dead in round barrows. But Canon Greenwell at least adheres to Thurnam’s doctrine, and holds that Yorkshire, or part of it, was occupied at the period in question, perhaps 3000 years ago, by a people of moderate or rather short stature, with remarkably long and narrow heads, who were ignorant of metallurgy, who buried their dead under long ovoid barrows, with sanguinary rites, and who labour under strongly founded suspicions of cannibalism. Of the subsequent period, generally known as the bronze age, the remains in Yorkshire, as elsewhere, are vastly more plentiful. The Wolds especially, and the Cleveland hills, abound with round barrows, in which either burnt or unburnt bodies have been interred, accompanied sometimes with weapons or ornaments of bronze, and still more often with flint arrow-heads. Where bones are found, the skull presents what Barnard Davis considers the typical British form; 7. e. it is generally rather short and broad, of considerable capacity and development, with features harsh and bony. The bodily frame is usually tall and stalwart, the stature often exceeding 6 feet, as in the well-known instance of the noble savage of Gristhorpe, whose skeleton is preserved in the Scarborough Museum. Though certain facts, such as the known use of iron in Britain before Cexsar’s time and its extreme rarity in these barrows, and some little difference in pro- portion between the skulls just described and the type most common among our modern British Kelts, do certainly leave room for doubt, I have little hesitation in referring these round barrows to the Brigantes and Parisii*, the known occupants of Yorkshire before the Roman conquest. Both what I will term provisionally the pure long-barrow and the pure round- barrow types of cranium are represented among our modern countrymen. But the former is extremely rare, while the latter is not uncommon. It is probable enough that the older type may, in amalgamating with the newer and more powerful one, have bequeathed to the Kelts of our own time the rather elongated form which prevails among them. Whether this same older type was really Iberian is a point of great interest, not yet ripe for determination. _ Another moot point is the extent to which the population of modern England is derived from the colonists introduced under the Roman occupation. It is my own impression that the extent, or rather the intensity of such colonization, has been overestimated by my friend Mr. Thomas Wright and his disciples. I take it that, in this respect, the Roman occupation of Britain was somewhere between our own occupations of India and of South Africa, or perhaps still more nearly like that of Algeria by the French, who have their roads, villas, and military esta- blishments, and even considerable communities in some of the towns, but who constitute but a very small percentage of the population, and whose traces would almost disappear in a few generations, could the communication with the mother country be cut off. ‘ If, however, any traces of the blood of the lordly Romans themselves, or of that more numerous and heterogeneous mass of people whom they introduced as legionaries, auxiliaries, or colonists, are yet recognizable anywhere in this county, it may probably be in the city of York, or in the neighbourhood of Catterick. The size and splendour of ancient Eburacum, its occupation at various times as a sort of military capital by the hse sag Severus and others, its continued existence through the Anghan and Anglo-Danish periods, and its subsequent comparative freedom from such great calamities} or vicissitudes as are apt to cause great and sudden changes of population, might almost induce us to expect to find such vestiges, If Greek and Gothic blood still assert themselves in the features and figures of the pon of Arles, if Spanish characteristics are still recognizable in Bruges, why not talian ones in York? It may be so; but I must confess that I have not seen * It has been conjectured that the Parisii were Frisians; but I think it very unlikely. + Unless, indeed, York was the “ municipal town” occupied by Cadwalla, and besieged by his Anglian adversaries, 136 REPORT—1873. them, or have failed to recognize them. Catterick, the site of ancient Cataracto- nium, I have not visited. Of the Anglian conquest of Yorkshire we know very little, except that it was accomplished gradually by successive efforts, that the little district of Elmet, in the neighbourhood of Leeds, continued British for a while, and that Carnoban (which is almost certainly Craven) is spoken of by a Welsh writer as British after all the rest of the country had ceased to be so—a statement probable enough in itself, and apparently corroborated by the survival of a larger number of Keltic words in the dialect of Craven than in the speech of other parts of Yorkshire. Certain regulations and expressions in the Northumbrian laws (among others the less value of a churl’s life as compared with that of a thane) have been thought to indicate that the proportion of the British population that remained attached to the soil, under Anglian lords, was larger in the north than in some other parts of England. The premises are, however, insufficient to support the conclusion ; and, on the other hand, we are told positively by Bede that Ethelfrith Fleisawr drove out the British inhabitants of extensive districts. The singular discoveries of Boyd Dawkins and his coadjutors in the Settle Cave, where elaborate orna- ments and enamels of Romano-British type are found in conjunction with indica- tions of a squalid and miserable mode of life long endured, attest clearly the calamities of the natives about that period (the early part of the seventh century), and show that even the remote dales of Craven, the least Anglian part of York- shire, afforded no secure refuge to the Britons of the plains, the unfortunate heirs of Roman civilization and Roman weakness. The evidence yielded by local names does not differ much from that of the same kind in other parts of England. It proves that enow of Welshmen survived to transmit their names of the principal natural features (as Ouse, Derwent, Wharfe, Dun, Roseberry, Pen-y-gent), and of certain towns and villages (as York, Catterick, Beverley, and Ilkley), but not enow to hinder the speedy adoption of the new language, the renaming of many settlements, and the formation of more new ones with Anglian names. The sub- sequent Danish invasion slightly complicated this matter; but I think it is pretty safe to say that the changes in Yorkshire were more nearly universal than in counties like Devonshire, where we know that the descendants of the Welsh con- stitute the majority. If the names of the rivers Swale and Hull be really Teutonic, as Greta undoubtedly is, the fact is significant; for no stream of equal magnitude with the Swale, in the south of England, has lost its Keltic appellation. We do not know much of the Anglian type, as distinguished from the Scandi- nayian one which ultimately overlaid it almost everywhere to a greater or less depth. ‘The cranial form, if one may judge of it by the skulls found in the ancient cemetery of Lamel Hill near York, was not remarkably fine, certainly not superior to the ancient British type as known to us, to which, moreover, it was rather in- ferior in capacity. There is some resemblance between these Lamel-Hill crania and the Belair or Burgundian type of Switzerland; while the Sion or Helvetian type of that country bears some hkeness to our own Keltic form. The group of tumuli called the Danes’ Graves, lying near Driffield, and described by Canon Greenwell in the ‘ Archeological Journal’, have yielded contents which are a puzzle for anthropologists. Their date is subsequent to the introduction of the use of iron. Their tenants were evidently not Christians; but they belonged to a settled population. The mode of interment resembles nothing Scandinavian ; and the form of the crania is narrower than usual, at least in modern times, in Norway and Denmark. It is hazardous to conjecture any thing about them ; but I should be more disposed to refer them to an early Anglian or Frisian settlement than to a Danish one. We come now to the Danish invasions and conquest, which, as well as the Norman one that followed, was of more ethnological importance in Yorkshire than in most other parts of England. The political history of Deira from the ninth century to the eleventh, the great number of Scandinavian local names (not greater, however, in Yorkshire than in Lincolnshire), and the peculiarities of the local dialect, indicate that Danes and Norwegians arrived and settled, from time to time, in considerable numbers. But in estimating those numbers we must make allowance for their energy and audacity, as well as for the yery near kinship TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137 between the Danes and the Northumbrian Angles, which, though it did not pre- vent sanguinary struggles between them at first and great destruction of life, must have made amalgamation easy, and led the natives readily to adopt some of the characteristics of the invaders. Whatever the Danish element in Yorkshire was, it was common to Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire and to the north-eastern part of Norfolk, and it was com- paratively weak in Northumberland and even in Durham. In Yorkshire itself it was irregularly distributed, the local names in by, toft, and thwaite and the like being scattered in a more or less patchy manner, as may be seen on Mr, Taylor’s map. They are very prevalent in Cleveland, as has been shown by Mr. Atkinson. Again, the long list of the landowners of the county under Edward the Confessor, given in Domesday book, contains a mixture of Anglian with Scandinavian names, the latter not everywhere ‘preponderating. Here, again, Cleveland comes out very Danish. I am inclined to believe that the Anglian opulation was, in the first fury of the invasion, to some extent pushed westwards into the hill-country of the West Riding, though even here distinctly Danish names, such as Sowerby, are quite common. Beverley and Holderness perhaps remained mainly Anglian. The Norman conquest fell upon Yorkshire, and parts of Lancashire and Durham, with unexampled severity, It would seem that the statement of William of Malmesbury, that the land lay waste for many years through the length of 60 miles, was hardly, if at all, exaggerated. The thoroughness and the fatal effects of this frightful devastation were due, no doubt, partly to the character of William, who, having once conceived the design, carried it out with as much completeness and regularity as ferocity, and partly to the nature of the country, the most populous portion of which was level and devoid of natural fastnesses or refuge—but also, in some desree to the fact that the Northumbrians had arrived at a stage of material civilization at which such a mode of warfare would be much more formidable than while they were in a more barbarous condition, always prepared for fire and sword, and living, as it were, from hand to mouth. Long ages afterwards the Scots told Froissart’s informants that they could afford to despise the incursions of the English, who could do them little harm beyond burning their houses, which they could soon build up again with sticks and turf; but the unhappy Northumbrians were already beyond that stage. In all Yorkshire, including parts of Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, Domesday numbers only about 500 freemen, and not 10,000 men altogether. This great destruction, or rather loss of population (for it was due in some measure to the free or forced emigration to Scotland of the vanquished), did not necessarily imply ethnological change. Let us examine the evidence of Domesday on this oint, It agrees with that of William of Malmesbury, that the void created by Eeaastation remained a void, either entirely or to a great extent. Whole parishes and districts are returned as “waste.” In one instance 116 freemen (sockmanni) are recorded to have held land in King Edward’s time, of whom not one remained; in another, of 108 sokemen only 7 remained. But foreigners did settle in the county to some extent, either as military retainers of the new Norman lords, as their tenants, or as yon eene in the city of York, where 145 francigenze (Frenchmen) are recorded as inhabiting houses, Of the number maintained by way of garrisons by the new nobility, one can form no estimate ; but considering the impoverished and helpless condition of the surviving natives, such garrisons would probably not be large. But from the enumeration of mesne tenants, or middlemen, some inferences may perhaps be drawn. On six great estates, comprising the larger part of Eastern and Central Yorkshire, sixty-eight of these tenants are mentioned by name, besides 11 milites, or men-at-arms. Only 11 of the 68 bear names undoubtedly English; and none of them have large holdings, as is the case with some of those bearing Norman names, On the lands of Drogo de Bevrere, about Holderness, several of the new settlers were apparently Flemings. The western part of the county, however, or the greater part of it, had been granted to two lords who pursued a more generous policy. Alan, count of Bretagne, the founder of Richmond, had twenty-three tenants, besides twelve le men- 1 138 REPORT—1878. at-arms with very small holdings. Of the twenty-three, nine were Englishmen, in several instances holding as dependents the whole or part of what had been their own freeholds. The Breton ballads and traditions seem to favour the supposition that Count Alan’s Breton followers mostly returned home; and Count Hersart de la Villemarquée, the well-known Breton archeologist, informed me that his ancestors returned to Bretagne from Yorkshire in the twelfth century, On the whole, I do not think it probable that the Breton colony was numerous enough to leave distinct and permanent vestiges; but if any such there are, they may be looked for in the modern inhabitants of Richmond and Gilling. Ibert de Lacy, again, had a great domain, including most part of the wapentakes of Morley, Agbrigg, Skyrack, and Staincross—extending, that is, far to the north and south of our present place of meeting. Bradford, by the way, was then hardly so important and wealthy as at the present day. A thane named Gamel had held it in the time of Edward the Confessor, when it was valued at four pounds yearly ; but at the time of the survey it was waste and worth nothing. Sixty-seven mesne tenants under Ibert de Lacy are mentioned, of whom no less than forty-one bore English names, and only twenty-six foreign ones. It is pro- bable therefore that in this important part of the county the ethnological change wrought by the Conquest was not greater, if so great as in England generally, but that in the centre, east, and north-east it was of some moment, and that the Scandinavian element of population suffered and lost more than the Anglian. It might be a matter of some interest to a minute ethnologist or antiquarian to trace out fully the local history after the Conquest from an ethnological point of view, investigating particularly the manner and source of the repeopling of the great plain of York. After this had been completed, no further change of ethnological importance took place during several centuries. The Flemings and Frisians, who, in considerable numbers, settled at various times in Leeds, Halifax, and Wakefield, whether drawn hither by the course and opportunities of trade, or driven by the persecutions of Philip II. and the Roman Catholics, brought in no new element, and readily amalgamated with the kindred race they found here. The more recent immigrations into the West Riding and Cleveland from all parts of Britain, and even from the continent of Europe, have interest of other kinds. Vast as they have been, they have not yet obscured in any great degree the local types, physical or moral, which still predominate almost everywhere, though tending of course to assimilate themselves to those of the mixed population of England in general. In describing these types I prefer to use the words of Professor Phillips, who, in his ‘ Rivers of Yorkshire,’ has drawn them in true and vivid colows. He speaks of three natural groups :— “First. Tall, large-boned, muscular persons ; visage long, angular ; complexion fair or florid; eyes blue or grey; hair light, brown or reddish. Such personsin all parts of the county form a considerable part of the population. In the North Riding, from the eastern coast to the western mountains, they are plentiful. “Second. Person robust; visage oval, full and rounded; nose often slightly aquiline; complexion somewhat embrowned, florid; eyes brown or grey; hair brown or reddish. In the West Riding, especially in the elevated districts, very powerful men have these characters. “Third. Person of lower stature and smaller proportions ; visage short, rounded ; complexion embrowned ; eyes very dark, elongated; hair very dark. Individuals having these characters occur in the lower grounds of Yorkshire, as in the valley of the Aire below Leeds, in the vale of the Derwent, and the level regions south - of York. I have chosen to quote from Professor Phillips rather than to give descriptions of my own, both because his acquaintance with the facts is more extensive than mine, and bacause I desire to pay my small tribute to the genius and insight of the author of a work so unique and so admirable as his upon Yorkshire. He ascribes the first and second of these types mainly to a Scandinavian, the last to a Romano-British, or possibly Iberian origin; and appears to think that the first, the tall, fair, long-faced breed, resembles the Swedes, and that the second, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139 the brown burly breed of the West Riding, is more Norwegian in character. He probably selects the Swedes as the purest or most typical of the Scandinavian nations. For my own part, Iam disposed to treat the first as Norwegian more than Anglian, the second as Anglian rather than Norse, and Norse rather than British. The tall fair type engrosses most of the beauty of the north, having often an oval face, with a fine straight profile nearly approaching the Greek, as Knox and Barnard Davis, two close observers, have both remarked. And it is markworthy that it reappears in force almost everywhere in Britain where Norse blood abounds, e.g. in Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, in the upper class of the Hebrideans, in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lonsdale, about Lincoln (where Professor Phillips also noted it) and the Vale of Trent, and about the towns of Waterford and Wexford. The second type, on the other hand, much resembles a prevailing form in Staffordshire, a very Anglian county. A notable point about it is the frequency of eyes of a neutral undecided tint, between light and dark, green, brown, and grey, the hair being comparatively light. The third is of more doubtful and of more manifold origin. Iberian, Britokeltic, Roman, Breton, Frenchman, may all or any of them have contributed to its prevalence. I am inclined to think, though on rather slender grounds, that it is common in some of the districts de- populated by the Conqueror. Professor Phillips spealis of its smaller proportions ; but it includes many robust men. It is probably far from well representing the Brigantian type, which seems to me to have influenced the other types, but rarely to crop out at all purely. The breadth of the head is on the average somewhat greater in Yorkshire than in other parts of Britain ; so we are informed by the hatters. In this the natives of Yorkshire agree with those of Denmark and Norway, who have rather broader heads than those of Sweden and Friesland. I have already spoken of the colours of the eyes and hair, The latter is on the whole lighter in Yorkshire than in most parts of England; but dull rather than bright shades prevail. In the east, at Whitby, Bridlington, and Beverley, in Tees- dale and Middle Airedale, light hair is particularly abundant; in Craven, as might have been expected, it is less so: other parts of the county are not so well known to me; and in this matter I have to trust to my own observation. As to the stature and bulk of the people, however, I have much and accurate information, through the kindness of numerous observers, some of them of repute as naturalists. These are Mr. Atkinson of Danby, Mr. Tudor of Kirkdale; Dr. Wright of Melton, Dr. Christy of the North Riding Asylum, Drs. Kelburne King and Casson of Hull, Mr. Ellerton of Middlesborough, Mr. Wood of Richmond, Mr, Kaye of Bentham, Mr. Edy of Grassington, Dr. Paley of Ripon, Dr, Ingham of Haworth, Messrs. Armitage of Farnley, Dr. Wood of Kirkby Overblow, Dr. Aveling and Mr. Short of Sheffield, Mr. Milner, late of Wakefield Prison, and a clergyman on the Wolds, whom the prejudices or fears of his parishioners will not allow me toname. “A Yorkshireman,’’ complained this last gentleman, “is a difficult animal to catch and weigh and measure ;” but a very large number of them have been subjected to these processes by my obliging correspondents. The general result is that in the rural districts they are remarkably tall and stalwart, though not, except in parts of the west, so heavy as their apparent size would indicate—but that in the towns, and especially in Sheffield, they are rapidly degenerating ; and I conclude from the Haworth report that the same is the case in the manufacturing villages. In many of the rural districts the average ranges between 5 feet 8 and 5 feet 9 inches, and about Richmond and on the Bentham Fells is considerably higher; while at Sheffield, and even at Haworth, it may hardly reach 5 feet 6 inches. The causes of this great degeneration are manifold: some of them may easily be traced ; but either the will or the power to remedy the evil is wanting. Of the moral and intellectual endowments of Yorlkshiremen, it may perhaps appear presumptuous or invidious to speak ; but the subject is too interesting to be passed by in silence, and I will endeavour to treat it without either “extenuating, or setting down aught in malice.” In few parts of Britain does there exist a more clearly marked moral type. To that of the Irish it has hardly any affinity; but the Scotchman and the Southern Englishman alike recognize the ditferences which distinguish the Yorkshire character from their own, but are not oon to appre= 140 REPORT—1873. ciate the numerous respective points of resemblance. The character is essentially Teutonic, including the shrewdness, the truthfulness without candour, the perse- verance, energy, and industry of the Scotch, but little of their frugality, or of the theological instinct common to the Welsh and Scotch, or of the imaginative genius, or the more brilliant qualities which sometimes light up the Scottish character. The sound judgment, the spirit of fair-play, the love of comfort, order, and cleanliness, and the fondness for heavy feeding are shared with the Saxon Englishman ; but some of them are still more strongly marked in the Yorkshire- man, as is also the bluff independence—a very fine quality when it does not degene- rate into selfish rudeness. The aptitude for music was remarked by Giraldus Cambrensis seven centuries ago; and the taste for horseflesh seems to have descended from the old Norsemen, though it may have been fostered by local circumstances. The mind, like the body, is generally very vigorous and energetic, and extremely well adapted to commercial and industrial pursuits, as well as to the cultivation of the exact sciences; but a certain defect in imaginative power must, I think, be admitted, and is probably one reason, though obviously not the only one, why Yorkshire, until quite modern times, was generally behindhand in politics and religion, and why the number of her sons who, since Czedmon, have attained to high eminence in literature is not above the average of England. Note on the Iberians. By Joun Brpvor, M.D., F.R.S. The writer briefly adverted to :—1st. The longer heads and more frequently light hair of the Spanish Basques as compared with the modern Aquitanians, 2ndly. The probable presence in Aquitaine of a melanochroic element of population, neither Basque, Kymric, nor Gaelic, but possibly Ligurian. 38rdly. The presence of acommon element in the populations of the Basque countries, of Bretagne, and of Wales, indicated by certain physical types. The Serpent in connexion with Primitive Metallurgy. By A. W. Bucktanp, In considering the innumerable serpent legends which have descended to us from an immeasurable antiquity, we cannot fail to be struck with the remarkable fact that by far the larger number represent the serpent either as the guardian of hidden treasure and revealer of hidden knowledge, or as in some way connected with gold and gems. Pursuing our inquiries further, we find almost invariably that all the heroes and gods with whom the serpent is associated are also credited with some mysterious power over riches, agriculture, and atmospheric phenomena: they are always the pioneers of civilization, the teachers of agriculture and of mining: their age is the golden age of the people over whom they reign; and in all these instances the serpent is the Agathodsemon, the good and benevolent deity, sometimes the creator, almost always the first and oldest of gods or demigods, and in this character is generally accompanied by an egg as an emblem of the world, or a cone symbolical of the sunorfire, these serpent races being invariably worshippers of the sun and earth. But we find that this character of the serpent is confined to Turanian races, or to those nations who have at some time or other passed under Turanian influences. Among the Aryans and Semites the serpent is looked upon as a form of evil, although this - idea is modified in many cases by a survival of primitive belief, so that in Hindostan he is still regarded with veneration, although the origin of that veneration can generally be traced to aboriginal tribes. It would therefore appear that the serpent may yet become a very important ethnological guide; and being traced back to the age of totemism, and read by the light of legends confirmed by early monuments, it may probably be assumed that the primitive tribe or tribes bearing the serpent as a totem were also the first metal workers, and had acquired their knowledge of metals in some way through the instrumentality of the totem, for this reason so highly and so widely venerated. It would also appear that these early serpent TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141 tribes carried their knowledge from the parent hive (probably in Central Asia or India, where the precious metals abound) across Asia, Africa, Europe, and even to America, leaving traces of their presence everywhere in serpent symbols, serpent mounds, megalithic monuments, and the earliest traces of metallurgy, confined, however, to the use of the three precious metals in their pure unsmelted form. And it would further appear that the connexion with America was broken before smelted metals and iron became known, the art of smelting having probably been an acci- dental discovery of the Aryan successors of the early serpent tribes. This serpen- tine origin of metallurgy the author has endeavoured to set forth at some length in this paper, believing it to be a matter worthy of further investigation, being apparently confirmed by the present veneration of the serpent existing among uranian races, and the absence of serpent traditions among savages living in a purely stone age, excepting in the Fiji Islands, where the inhabitants bear traces of great admixture with Asiatic tribes. — Observations on Professor Gennarelli’s Paper “ On the Existence of a Race of Lied Men in Northern Africa and Southern Europe in Prehistoric Times.” By ©. H. KE. Carmicaarr, M.A. This communication gave an analysis of a paperrecently read before the Anthropo- logical and Ethnological Society of Italy by Prof. Gennarelli. The arguments ad- duced rest partly on the exposition of various myths, and partly on so-called histo- rical evidence furnished by the hieroglyphics of Egypt and the pottery of Etruria, where representations of men are coloured red, and those of women of a lighter shade. As a consequence of the discussion of Gennarelli’s hypothesis, an Italian Committee has been formed for the study of the primitive races of Italy. On Prehistoric Names of Weapons. By Hypn Crarxe. This was a first attempt to apply the evidence of philological science to the con- sideration of the distribution of the names of weapons in illustration of the distri- bution of the weapons themselves among variousraces. Examples were taken from the Indian region, West Africa, North America, South America, and Australia, of the roots BK, BN, KN, and DM, applied to arrow and dart, knife, axe or hatchet, spear or lance. Of one of these an example was given in Naga (India) of Api and takoaba, and in Houssa (Africa) of kebia and takobi. In the latter triliteral epoch, the fanciful reference of weapons to the tongue as darting was mentioned in degen and tongue, lancea and lingua, gladius and glotta. Examples were also given from Australia, On the Comparative Chronology of the Migrations of Man in America in relation to Comparative Philology. By Hypr Ciarxe. The object of this paper is to show that, so far as the evidence of language is as yet available and so far as probabilities go, the languages and culture of ‘America are connected with those of the Old World, and that there is no exclusive or indigenous American language, grammar, or culture. The inference drawn is that there is an original community of races and of culture, but that the culture was arrested in its development by the stoppage of migration of the advanced races, Successive migrations are declared to represent successive geological formations, and the essay is made to lay the foundation of the comparative chronology of man. The earliest migration determined by philology is that of the three languages of the Negritos or Pygmeans, allied to the Mincopies of the Andamans. To the austral branch are assigned the Natchez and Muskogulge, or Creek of North America, the Alikulip and Tekeenika of Tierradel Fuego; to the septentrional belong the North- American Shoshoni, Utah, Comanch, &c., the Netela and Kij, the Central American Bayano and Darien, and the South-American Mayoruna and Kiriri ; and to the polar the Eskimo, To the Lenca of Honduras are joined the Coretu of South America as allied to 142 REPORT—1873. the Kouri of West Africa. The great; Carib group is connected with those of Dahomey and Whydah. The close connexion of the Guarani and Omagua with the Abhass of Caucasia and the Agaw of the Nile, in grammar and roots, embraces the Guarani, Tupi, Om-agua, Mundrueu, Apiaca of Brazil, the Movima Saraveca &c. of the Missions, the 5, Pedro and Coretu of the Orinoco. More distant are the Skwali, Sekumne, and Tsamak of California. The want of better knowledge was accounted for by imperfect information as to the languages of the Old and the New World, and by the disappearance of whole formations of languages, leaving only surviving a few detached and ill-connected members, much altered by subsequent influences. A tradition of the Americas and Australia was attributed to the Greek, Roman, and medizeval geographers, On the Ashantee and Fantee Languages. By Hype Crarxe. These, together with the Dzellana, were classified with the Korean and the Che- temachs assigned as a North-American branch, It was noted, in reference to the common origin of culture, that the Oricas had, like the Ashantees, established a large kingdom and repulsed European forces. On the Report concerning Bushinan researches of Dr. W. H. Bleek, Ph.D. By Hyper Crarxe. Dr, Bleek had been supplied by the authorities of the Cape of Good Hope with a large number of Bushmen convicts. From these he had written down more than four thousand columns (half pages quarto) of text, besides a dozen genealogical tables, and other genealogical, geographical, pathological, &c. notices. An English- Bushman vocabulary of 142 pages and a Bushman-English one of 600 pages have been formed. The mythology in which animals and heavenly objects are personified is largely illustrated. It is expected that the Cape legislature will authorize the publication of these important materials for anthropological investigations. On the Northern Range of the Iberians in Europe. By W. Boxy Dawxis, M.A., PLR. The range of the Iberian Basque, or Euskarian peoples, characterized by their small stature, dark complexion, jet-black hair and eyes, oval face, and orthognathic skull, was examined from the point of view offered by history. In the earliest records the population of the Iberic peninsula was composed of two elements, the northern, to which its name is due, and the southern or Celtic, the fusion between the two being proved by the name Celtiberi, or Castilians, In France, at the time of the conquest by the Romans, the Iberic element was represented by the Aquitani in the region bounded by the Garonne and Gironde, but whose north-eastern frontier was subsequently extended to the Loire (Ligur). Between them and the allied Ligurian tribes on the borders of the Mediterranean a broad band of Celte inter- posed, marking that the eastern Pyrenees was the route by which the Celtic invasion of Spain took place. The Belge pressed on the Celts, occupying the valley of the Rhine. The same sequence of peoples was maintained in Britain. In the west of ‘Wales the Iberians were represented by the Silures ; the Celtee occupied the greater part of the island, and the Belge had taken possession of the maritime region. The - dark-haired inhabitants of South-west Ireland were of Iberian descent, and the Celt possessed most of the island. These “ ethnological islands” of Iberians, in Ireland, in Wales, in South-east France, and it may be added in Sicily, isolated by a sea of Celt from the mainland of Basques, proved that the Iberie peoples were once distributed through the area under consideration before the Celtze had driven them away to the west. This conclusion is confirmed by an examination of the contents of ossiferous caves and of tumuli, by which they were shown to have extended as far north TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143 as Oban, and as far to the east as Belgium in the Neolith age, the human remains described by himself, Busk, Thurnam, Broca, Dupont, and others being of the same type as those from Basque cemeteries in the museum of the Anthropological Society of Paris, and the associated works of art being for the most part the same. The pred of the Iberic peninsula were also occupied by Basques in the neolithic stage of culture. - The Basque population was probably derived from Asia, and the route by which they peg into Europe was probably the same as that by which the Celtz, Belge, and Germans advanced to the west rather than by way of Africa, Itis also very likely that the Basques stood in close relation to their neighbours the Etruscan, and the two non-Aryan peoples may have been identical in race, related to each other as Celt to Belgian. Some Remarks on Ethnic Psychology. By Rosrrt Duyn, FRCS. _ The comparative psychology of the typical races of man presents a subject for investigation of great interest to many an ethnological inquirer and to all physio- logical anthropologists, but at the same time is of a character so wide and compre- hensive, that the author confines his remarks principally to the physiological bearings of the subject—to cerebral psychology. He observes that, while comparative psy- chology, in its widest sense, embraces the study and strict interpretation of all those living experiments (to use the happy expression of Cuvier) which nature presents to us in an ascending series in the wide domain of animal life, from the lowest up to man himself, ethnic psychology restricts the inquiry to the genus Homo sapiens and its typical varieties. He refers to a paper which he read at the Cambridge Meeting of the British Association in 1862, “On the Psychological Differences which exist among the Typical Races of Man,” in which he dwelt upon the importance of carefully studying and of contrasting and comparing the cerebral organizations of the typical races, with the view, and as the most efficient means, to the better understanding and elucidation of the psychological differences which exist among and characterize them. Believing as he then did, and as he still does, that the distinctive psychical differences which exist among the typical races will be found to be engraven on their brains, he here again enforces the paramount importance of this duty, and indicates a field of investigation and inquiry which, if fully explored, cannot fail, as he thinks and believes, of throwing a flood of light upon the subject of ethnic psychology. He dwells on the labours of Gratiolet in France, quoting the emphatic language of Professor Rolleston, of Oxford, “ what Max Miiller had done for language and Adams for astronomy, that Gratiolet had done for the anatomy of the brain ; ” regretting at the same time that, notwithstan- ding the labours of Gratiolet and the chart which he may be said to have provided for our guidance as a standard of comparison, the brains of the typical races have yet to be carefully examined, compared, and contrasted with each other. This remains to be done, and is still a desideratum. He strives to impress strongly on the minds of others his own conviction of the necessity and importance of a more exact knowledge than that to which we have yet attained of the cerebral structural differences which exist among the typical races. The basis of his own conviction of the paramount importance of the duty of studying, contrasting, and comparing in all the different races the nervous apparatus and organic instrumentality through which their varying psychological phenomena are manifested, rests on the postulates that the genus Homo is one, and that the brain is the instrument of the mind ; and on the consequent and legitimate corollary from these, that the distinguishing psychical differences which exist among the typical races are greatly, if not altogether, de- pendent upon structural differences in their cerebral organizations. He says all physiological psychologists are agreed that the vesicular matter of the great hemi- spherical ganglia of the brain is the sole and evelusive seat of all intellectual action and volitional power, but that his own mind rests in the conviction, as a well- established fact, that different parts and portions of the vesicular matter of the cerebral hemispheres are the seat of tet psychological activities and of different kinds of mental action. He says the type of the brain is the same in all the different races, and that in its evolution and ascensive development it passes through the 144 : REPORT—1873. phases in which it appears in the Negro, Malay, American, and Mongolian races, and finally reaches the highest or Caucasian type ; so that, in fact, the leading characters of the typical races of mankind are virtually and simply representations of particular stages of the highest or Caucasian race. As the anterior lobes of the brain are the seat of the intellectual activities, fullness of development and com- plexity of structure are sure indications of the elevation of the racial type; while, on the other hand, the converse, as seen in the Negro or Bushman, is equally true, viz. that simplicity of structure and perfect symmetry of type and arrangemnt of the convolutions on both sides of the hemispheres are indisputable marks of degradation of function and inferiority of race. He says Gratiolet has dwelt on the importance of studying with scrupulous care and attention the complexities, relations, and ar- rangements of the convolutions on the inferior, frontal, and coronal stage in all the typical races, with a view to their psychical significance, and to the elucidation and advancement of the study of ethnic psychology. In conclusion, he says that the fact is indisputable that the large-brained European differs from and far sur- passes the small-brained savage in the complexity of his manifestations, both intel- lectual and moral ; but then he asks, Is not all this in strict accordance with and what @ priori might be expected to result from organic differences in the instruments of the higher psychical activities—in other words, in the nervous apparatus of the perceptive and intellectual consciousness ? Notes on Ooral-Caves with Human Bones in Stalagmite on Mangaia, South Pacific. By the Rey. W. Wyatt Grit, B.A. The author has resided for many years on the little island of Mangaia, one of the seven islands constituting the Hervey group. Mangaia is in 21°57’ south latitude, and 158° 7’ west longitude. It is nearly 20 miles in circumference, and not more than 800 feet above the sea-level, with an unbroken fringing reef. The interior of the island is formed of dark volcanic rock, rising in low hills striking from a single flat-topped centre. There is no lagoon. Streams of water from the centre por- tion, after fertilizing some thousands of taro-plantations, find their way to the ocean through a remarkable belt of uplifted dead coral, which, like a cyclopean wall, surrounds the inner part of the island. This mass of coral rock begins to rise gradually about 200 yards from the rugged beach and slopes up to a ridge, but towards the interior is perpendicular. It is from one to two miles across. In some places the surface bristles with jagged rock sharp as spear-points. Many are the ghastly wounds to the passenger occasioned by footslips. Numerous sea-shells, ‘similar to those on the present beach, are imbedded in this reef, even in the highest parts. It is everywhere perforated by caverns and galleries. Mangaia thus remarkably displays both the ordinary forms of coral islands, the reef of dead coral upraised on the land, and the fringing reef at sea denoting elevation first and then subaidlenie both requiring a very long period of time for growth. The caves in the dead coral have been used as habitations, as refuges, and as cemeteries. Scores of them are filled with desiccated human bodies; stalactite and stalagmite abound, and form thick and fast-growing layers of limestone rock, of which the author exhibited some specimens. In the waters lying in the hollows were nume- rous limestone balls. Soon after arriving in Mangaia in 1852, the author explored a great number of caverns on the southern part of the island. The great ‘cave of Tevaki” divides into two branches—the one communicating with the sea, the other with a glittering stalactite roof terminates in an awful chasm. Pursuit of a tribe entrenched in such a natural fortress was out of the question; the plan adopted in such circumstances was to starve them out. Opposite to this great cave is a lesser one with a low en- trance. At the further end of this the author found a quantity of detached human bones, and, close by, a number of others imbedded in the solid limestone wall of the cavern, Two years ago the rumour of the great interest felt in Europe in the antiquity of the human race reminded him of these caye-remains ; and so vivid were his first impressions that he was able to go straight to the grotto, and with a hammer de- tached the few specimens from the rock which were exhibited. ——— TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 If any ordinary native of Mangaia were asked about these relics of humanity, he would merely say, they were “ taito, taito rava” (old, very old”), and this would probably delude the Eae peal inquirer into the belief that they were of remote antiquity. The tradition of the “ wise men” in relation to the matter is, that the sacerdotal clan of Mautara, about the year 1718 a.p., surprised and destroyed Ruanae’s can- nibal tribe at Pukuotoi, a spot about a mile from the grotto. This event has been celebrated in song by the chief Potiki in his ‘ Lament for Vaiaa,’ beginning thus :— The clan of Ruanae has perished, As the reef covered with dead fish Is the ground where they fought. The entire victorious { Let their carcases rot there! clan in chorus ... | Let their carcases rot there! The bodies of some of the most distinguished were conveyed by their friends to the neighbouring caves and piled up there on wooden platforms. As the wood decayed, the bones were scattered over the damp floor. The author procured some human bones of a more remote date, but in a much better state of preservation, a circumstance owing to the dryness of the cave in which they were found. These relics are stated by the “ wise men” to be the remains of invaders from Tubuai, who effected a landing, and at first overran the island in the reign of Anne, but were eventually deceived and destroyed by the aborigines of Mangaia, Anne was the fourth sovereign chief of the little island; the battle which sealed the fate of the invaders was the fourth ever fought on Mangaia. At first sight the bones chipped out of the rock seem to be of much higher antiquity than the relics of the invaders from Tubuai; yet this is not the case. The author concludes that the Hervey islands have been peopled in compa- ratively recent times; and so, too, of the Eastern Pacific islands. Tahiti and the neighbouring islands were all peopled some generations previous to the Hervey islands, the first island colonized in that neighbourhood being Raiatea, the. centre of a widely extended and most sanguinary worship. Those islanders speak of their ancestors as having come up from the “po” =“ darkness,” or from “ Hawaii” =“ Savaii.” By “coming up out of darkness,’ no doubt the lands where the sun sets are intended ; and “ Hawaii” is Savaii, the largest island in the Samoan group. Of course ‘‘ Hawaii” naturally reminds one of the great island in the Sandwich group; but the traditions of the Eastern islands all point west- ward, not northward. A close study of the question for several years past induces the author to believe that the Hervey group was colonized about five or six centuries ago. The grounds of his belief are :-— 1. The fact that when in 1823 Rarotonga was discovered the twenty-fourth “Makea”’* was reigning. Allowing to each “Makea” a reign of twenty-five years, we have a total of 600 years. Another chief on Rarotonga, named “ Tino- mana,” was in 1823 the nineteenth in direct descent from “ Makea Karika,” who came from Samoa. Allowing, as in the former instance, twenty-five years to each chief of this tribe, we obtain a total of 475 years. 2. The “wise men” of Atiu confessed to the writer that the ancestors of the present chiefs sprang from the regal Makea family of Rarotonga. 3. The well-known succession of priests of the three principal gods of Mangaia supplies us with nine very long lives. Allowing each priest to discharge his functions during the long (probably too long) period of fifty years, we get a result of only 450 years. The Mangaians themselves trace their origin to ANATKI, or “netherworld.” Now “Avaiki,” “Hawaii,” and “Savaii” are but slightly different forms of one word. In their songs and myths are many references to ‘the hosts of Ukupolu,” undoubtedly the “ Upolu” of Samoa, The other islands of that group are all mentioned in ancient Mangaian song. But whence did the Samoans spring? Many words in their dialect are identical with that spoken on the south-eastern peninsula of New Guinea, Of the Asiatic * “ Makea” is a regal title, like “ Pharaoh” and “ Candace” of Scripture, 146 ; REPORT—1873. and Semitic origin of the Samoans and Eastern Pacific Islanders generally, the author has no doubt. ‘ The instruments produced were not from the cave, but were actually used by the present or last generation. The author pointed to a remarkable oval sling-stone of stalagmite limestone, to the axes of jade, basalt, and greenstone, to the hafted axes of basalt, as illustrating by recent examples the history of the extinct stone age of Europe. On the Passage of Eastern Civilization across the Pacific. By J. Parx Harrison, M.A. The fact that a drift-current from the west deposits wood and other light mate- rials upon the shores of Haster Island, and then, turning northwards, joins the Chilean stream in its course towards the equator, goes far to support the tradi- tions of the Eastern islanders, as well as the inhabitants of the coast of Quito, that strangers arrived amongst them many centuries ago from the west. The author mentioned that there is a tall race, with marked aquiline features, who formerly followed sun-worship and artificially elongated the lobes of the ears, that can be traced across the Pacific in two directions—one through the islands of Sancta Crux to California, the other through the Tonga Islands, Oparo, and Easter Island to Peru. Numerous distinctive analogues along both routes appear to connect the people alluded to with our east. Both in stature and profile they differed from the races with which they mingled, and became more or less amalgamated. On a hitherto undescribed Neolithic Implement. By J. Stvcuarr Horpen, M.D., F.GS., MATL. This implement is a flint saw, which seems peculiar to the primitive dwellers of the Glens of Antrim in the later stone period. It has been found in several dolmens by the Earl of Antrim and the writer. That it is rare and local is con- firmed by its absence from the stone-implement collections in our museums, and its also not being mentioned by Mr. Stevens, Mr. Evans, and other writers on this subject. It is formed from a flat flint flake by chipping a curved portion out of its thin margin, the edge of which is bevelled and finely serrated. When held in the hand and semirotated, it would be an excellent tool for sawing notches in a round stick or bone, and may have been thus used to notch arrow-shafts in order to securely tie on the barbs, and would also serve for marking tallies. Being found so purely local puts aside the suggestion of it having been used for any religious rite. It 1s much too delicate to have been employed as a scraper, and the manner in which old ones are worn and fractured negatives this opinion, Though very unlike every flint saw hitherto met with and described, this genuine implement seems to admit of no other designation. A true Cerebral Theory necessary to Anthropology *. By J. Karns, D.Se., M.A., Tr. L.A.S. Dr. Kaines began his paper by stating that anthropology, the science of mankind, cannot be more than instituted as a science while physiology, or the science of individual life, is incomplete, To render human and comparative physiology com- plete, cerebral physiology must acquire positivity. Further, the aim of the author was to show that phrenology was the only de facto science of mind, it being based on physiology ; while certain pseudo-sciences of mind, based on theological and metaphysical data, were unscientific. Dr. Kaines briefly reviewed the labours of Gall and others who had founded and established organology, and asked why it was that the science of cerebral physiology had fallen into apparent disrepute. He went on to show in what way the strength and weak- ness of the system were regarded by eminent thinkers and physiologists, such as * The above paper is printed iz extenso in ‘Anthropologia,’ No, II, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147 G. H. Lewes, Broussais, De Blainville, and A. Bain, nearly all of whom agreed that the fundamental position of phrenology was demonstrated. The author quoted freely from A. Comte’s ‘Philosophie Positive,’ tome iii. ‘ Biologie ”—a philosophical exposition and criticism of Gall’s doctrine, and the means whereby it might become, physiologically and anatomically, scientific. He said, “ Phrenolo- gical analysis has, then, to be reconstituted, first in the anatomical, and then in the physiological order; and finally the two must be harmonized; and not till then can phrenological physiology be established upon its true scientific basis.” “Tf our existing phrenology isolates the cerebral functions too much, it is yet more open to reproach for separating the brain from the whole of the nervous system.” “ Phrenology has too much neglected the great influence to which the chief intel- lectual and moral functions are subject from other physiological phenomena, as Cabanis pointed out so emphatically while preparing the way for the philosophical revolution which we owe to Gall.” The paper concluded by showing that anthropology could benefit nothing from old systems unscientifically based, and that anthropologists could only prosecute their studies successfully by discarding: as idle all questions of origins of species, whether human or animal, and of first and final causes, these questions being be- yond settlement by such knowledge and such powers as we have, On an Age of Colossi. By Joun 8S. Puuyt, /.S.A., F.GS., PRGS., FRIB.A. This paper commenced with a slight sketch of the theory of the ages of stone, bronze, and iron, as generally recognized by anthropologists, for the purpose of bringing forward a feature which, in the author's opinion, would at a future period considerably modify present ideas on this subject—the geographical feature, the effect of which, he thought, could be hardly understood till we were able to cor- relate more perfectly the antiquities of distant countries. He argued that, as- suming a wave of emigration from a common centre to bear forward any distinct characteristic, whether of these recognized features or of colossi, or otherwise, such wave might, in prehistoric times, while portions of it terminated abruptly near its source, upon desirable spots being attained, travel indefinitely by other sections over an enormous area, even giving rise to secondary or subwaves of exodus. This, in result, might produce the strange features, discovered by subsequent travellers, of a civilized or historic age setting in, either from a succeeding wave or some other cause, which would reach to the settlements from which the sub- exodus proceeded, but not follow the offshoots; hence, in an age highly historic, and civilized in a given geographical area, there might be found people with the same features, traditions, myths, and roots of language in a barbarous or prehistoric age or condition outside that geographical area; and in consequence any par- ticular age so identified might be, or seem to be, indefinitely long from the retainers of its characteristics wandering beyond the reach of communication. That such waves had pire over distant lands, he argued by illustration and analogy, through various architectural features, special and peculiar, found in remote and distant countries. After drawing attention to the inhabitants of what he termed the three great centres of colossi, and which he designated as Egyptian, Malayan, and pre-Mayan, or Mexican, he illustrated by diagrams and drawings the favourite emblems of those creators of colossi, from which it appeared that on a-broad basis there was both an architectural and emblematic similarity in their works, the yramid, the monolith, the obelisk, and the elevated platform being prominent Ptares in each; the worship of the sun apparently common, and colossal em- blems of the human figure, reptilia, and birds abounding. Laster Island, as repre- senting Polynesia, was included, and the physical features and climatic conditions were found approximating in these different centres. He are pee a belief that a careful study of the poetic language of the Singhalese would aid and stimulate researches in the forest-covered cities of Ceylon, and those of the ancient Maya (if possible) and of the Quiché peoples would unravel the mystery of the now impene- trable cities of Mexico and Central America. While these cities, with their colossi, 148 REPORT—1873,. were so buried, we had much to learn of the history of the human family, and the age in which their colossi were executed. This part of the question was (he considered) too extensive for a single paper, and he would confine himself, by way of illustrating his argument, to what seemed to him the result of an offshoot from such a preceding wave as he had supposed, which he considered had laved its final billow on the shores of Britain. He first pointed out that the highly civilized nations of Greece and Rome were not origi- nators of colossi, but elaborators of the raw material ideas (if he might so express himself) of the Egyptians and other earlier nations, as shown by their exquisite symmetry, and the costliness of the materials (gold and ivory) of which some of their most gigantic colossi were constructed, as quoted by Pliny, Pausanius, Strabo, and other ancient writers. He then gave a number of examples of similar accom- panying features in Britain, Egypt, Mexico,and Malaya. He found parallels of design in the plans of some Oriental cities (as Rhodes), in those of some of the Chinese and Sardinian tombs, and the horseshoe device of Stonehenge, all of which assimilate ; in the circle of Copan and those of Avebury, the Giant’s Ring near Belfast, and others; and finally argued that we had not only these collateral evidences, but actual colossi of the ancients in these lands, in enormous monoliths, in venerated idols—as, amongst others, the celebrated rock, the traditional goddess Andras, and the enormous Wilmington giant, both in Sussex; and the latter, as the result of his attracting attention to it, is now being restored, with the consent and kind assistance of the Duke of Devonshire. This figure, he quoted Cresar and Strabo to show, agreed identically with the description given by those writers of the vast Celtic deity, to which were sacrificed human victims, wild beasts and cattle, and of which Cesar says “ they had many images,” Notes on Stone Implements from British Guiana. By F. W. Rovrmr, F.G.S. The specimens exhibited to the department and described in this communi- cation were collected by Mr. C. B. Brown during his recent survey of British Guiana. One of the implements, formed apparently of diorite, presented the form of an acute cone, 6 inches high, with a flat circular face, about 2 inches in diameter : this face seemed to be well adapted for grinding or pounding. Mr. Franks had pointed out the similarity between this implement and others from the north-west coast of America, where they are used as hammers. This specimen was found on the Burro-burro river. Among the other implements was an adze in diorite, found on the site of an ancient Indian village at Skeldon, at the mouth of the Corentyne river. It was accompanied by a small carved image in a green steatitic mineral, by fragments of coarse pottery, and by a large number of bones, including those of the tapir. On the Relation of Morality to Religion in the Early Stages of Civilization. By Epwarp B. Trtor, F.B.S.. Investigations of the culture of the lower races of mankind show morality and religion subsisting under conditions differing remarkably from those of the higher barbaric and civilized nations. Among the rudest tribes a well-marked standard of morality exists, regulating the relations of family and tribal life. There also exists among these tribes some more or less definite religion, always consisting of some animistic doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings, and usually taking in some rudimentary form of worship. But, unlike the higher nations, the lowest races in no way unite their ethics and their theology. As examples, the Austra- lians and Basutos of South Africa were adduced. The Australians believe spiri- tual beings to swarm throughout the universe : the Basutos are manes-worshippers, considering the spirits of deceased ancestors to influence all the events of human life ; wherefore they sacrifice to the spirits of near relatives, that they may use their influence with the older and more powerful spirits higher in the line of ancestry. Yet these races and many others have not reached the theological stage at which man’s good or evil moral actions are held to please or displease his divinities, and to be rewarded or punished accordingly. The object of the present paper is to TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149 trace the precise steps through which the important change was made which con- verted the earlier unethical systems of religion into ethical ones. This change appears to have been a gradual coalescence between the originally independent schemes of morality and religion. In order to show the nature of such coalescence between religion and other branches of culture not originally or not permanently connected with it, the author traced out, on an ethnological line, the relations between religion and, on the one hand, the rite of marriage, on the other hand the profession of medicine. First, as to marriage. The evidence of the lower races tends to show that at early stages of civilization marriage was a purely civil contract. Its earliest forms are shown amongst savage tribes in Brazil and elsewhere. The peaceable form appears well in the custom of the marriageable youth leaving a present of fruit, game, &c. at the door of the girl’s parents; this is a clear symbolic promise that he will maintain her as a wife. Another plan common in Brazil is for the expectant bridegroom to serve for a time in the family of the bride, till he is con- sidered to have earned her, The custom of buying the wife comes in at a later period of civilization, when roperty suited for trade exists. The hostile form of marriage, that by capture, fi also existed among low tribes in Brazil up to modern times, the man simply carrying off by force a damsel of a distant tribe—the antiquity of this “ Sabine marriage ” in the general history of mankind being shown by its survival in coun- tries such as Ireland and Wales, where within modern times the ceremony of capturing the bride in a mock fight was kept up. i in none of these primitive forms of marriage, as retained in savage culture, did any religious rite or idea whatever enter. It is not till we reach the high ‘ savage and barbaric conditions that the coalescence between marriage and religion takes place, as where among the Mongols the priest presides at the marriage feast, consecrates the bridal tent with incense, and places the couple kneeling with their faces to the east, to adore the sun, fire, and earth; or, as where among the Aztecs, the priest ties together the garments of the bridegroom and bride in sign of union, and the wedded pair pass the time of the marriage festival in religious ceremonies and austerities, So complete in later stages of culture did this coalescence become, that many have come to consider a marriage hardly valid unless celebrated as a religious rite and by a priest. Second, as to the relation of the profession of medicine to religion. In early animistic philosophy, one principal function of spiritual beings was to account for the phenomena of disease. As normal life was accounted for by the presence of a soul operating through the body in which it located itself, so abnormal life, including the phenomena of disease, was accounted for in savage and barbaric culture as caused by some intruding spirit. Thus the belief in spiritual obsession and possession becomes the recognized theory of disease, and the professional exorciser is the doctor curing disease by religious acts intended to expel or propitiate the demon. Since the middle period of culture, however, this early coalescence has been gra- dually breaking away, till now in the most civilized nations the craft of healing has become the function of the scientific surgeon or physician, and the belief and ceremonies of the exorcist survive in form rather than in reality. By these cases it is evident that coalescence between religion and other matters not necessarily connected with it may take place at different periods of culture, and also that this coalescence may terminate after many ages of adhesion, Havin shown this, the author proceeded to ascertain exactly when and how in the history of civilization the coalescence of morality and religion took place. First, where manes-worship is the main principle of a religion, as among some North-American tribes and de Kafirs of South Africa, the keeping up of family relations strongly affects the morality. It is, for instance, a practice among the rude races to disinter the remains of the dead or to visit the burial-place, in ade to keep the deceased kinsman informed as to what takes place in his family, in which he is a held to take the liveliest interest. Thus itis evident any moral act of anin- dividual damaging to his family would be offensive to the ancestral manes, whose influence must therefore strengthen kindly relations among the living members of the tribe. Higher in the social scale this ethical influence of manes-worship takes 150 REPortT—1873, more definite form, as when in China the divine ancestors of an emperor will re- proach him for selfish neglect or cruelty to his nation, and even threaten to induce their own highest divine ancestor to punish him for misdeeds, Thus among the ancient Romans the Lares were powerful deities enforcing the moral conduct of the family, and punishing household crime. Second, the doctrine of the Future Life begins at the higher levels of savagery to affect morals. In its first stage the doctrine of metempsychosis is seen devoid of moral meaning, men being re-born as men or animals ; but when the distinction appears in the higher savagery between migration into vile or noble animals, it is not long before this distinction takes the form of reward or punishment of the good and wicked by their high or low re-incarnation, an idea which is the basis of the Buddhist scheme of retributive moral transmigration through successive bodies. In its earlier stages this doctrine was one of mere continuance, as where South- American tribes expected the spirits of the dead to pass to another region where they would live as on earth. Here the distinctions of earthly rank are carried on, the chief’s soul remaining a chief, and the plebeian’s soul a plebeian, but no sign of moral retribution appears. The first stage of this seems to be where warriors slain in battle are admitted to the paradise of chiefs in the land of the Great Spirit. This idea, which comes into view in several districts, leads to the fuller moral scheme in which goodness of any kind, valour, skill, &c. are more and more held to determine the difference between the next life of the good man in happy hunting-grounds, or of the bad man in some dismal wilderness or subterranean Hades. In the higher nations this element becomes more and more distinctly marked, till the expectation of future reward and the fear of future punishment becomes one of the great motives of human life. Third, when theology among the rudest tribes is mostly confined to considera- tion of ghosts, demons, and nature-spirits, the intercourse with these leads to little inculeation of moral action. It is when ideas of the great deities become pre- dominant, when men’s minds are turned to the beneficent action of the Sun, or Heaven, or Earth, or to a Supreme Deity yet above these, that it is conceived that the order of nature includes moral order of human conduct. Then, as in the reli- gion of ancient China, the universe and its Supreme Deity are regarded as furnish- ing the model and authority regulating man’s actions towards his kindred and his subjects. Thus there presents itself, not at the beginning but the middle of the development of religious ideas among mankind, the leading principle of a moral government of the world and its inhabitants. In these three ways it appears, from the evidence of ethnology, that the vast ae was made from the earlier unethical to the later ethical systems of religion. GEOGRAPHY. Address by Sir Ruruzrrorp Axcock, K.C.B., President of the Section. I cannot help feeling that my claim to the title of a Geographer is much too slight to warrant my appearance here as President of the Geographical Section of the British Association. My misgiving as to the fitness of the choice would, indeed, have precluded my accepting the honour, had I not believed that the main object of this Association is to receive and give ventilation to any new ideas or scientific contributions, to secure the attention of a larger audience of scientific men than could otherwise be easily obtained for any special subject, and to pro- mote the free interchange of opinions between persons of various pursuits and qualifications. For this end it is not necessary that the President should himself be competent to take a leading part in discussing the many interesting and scientific subjects which are likely to be brought forward. It is enough, I conceive, that he should appreciate at their just value the studies of those who are willing to com- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151 municate the results of their labours, and be ready to promote the candid and im- tial consideration of any papers to be read and discussed, With this assurance will throw myself upon your indulgence for any shortcomings, and proceed with the business before us. The admirable review of geographical progress during the past year presented to the Geographical Society at its last Anniversary in May by Sir Henry Rawlinson, must be too fresh in the memory of those of my hearers who are interested in geo- graphical pursuits, to require any attempt on my part to go over the same ground. it has been published in the volume of the Society’s Transactions for the year, and it would be superfluous, if not presumptuous, on my part, therefore, to occupy your time by any repetition on the present occasion. If I venture at all upon this field of geographical achievements it will be rather with a view to draw your attention to the wide scope and application of Geography as a science, and to the mode in which geographical explorations and discoveries lead to important results in various directions. Geography, in a popular sense, is apt to be too much associated with a mere description of the configuration of the earth, with its seas and continents, illustrated by maps. But before Geography could fulfil even this very narrow and restricted conception of its proper functions—before, indeed, it could exist in any but the rudest and most im- perfect shape, such as we see_in medizval maps—great progress had to be made in astronomy and mathematics. Without these two sister sciences, Cartography, or the process of depicting relative distances and places on the earth, either on maps or iotex could not be carried out with any approach to certainty or accuracy. Explorations with a compass, and measure of distance estimated by the number of days’ journey, gave little more than such results as we find recorded in Pto- lemy’s works. The map of the world preserved in Hereford Cathedral is a curious sample. There the history of our race, as well as the distribution of countries, are given on purely theologic and historical or legendary data. Beginning at the top of the circle with Paradise, it presents nearly every thing in nature and fiction, but Geography, to the gaze of the curious. Until the discovery of the gnomon, and the means of fixing the latitude and longitude of any place by ob- servations of the celestial bodies had been perfected, Geography could have no existence as a science. It owes much, also, to its intimate connexion with various branches of knowledge, and investigations into the nature and mutual relations of objects on the earth, or forming a part of its crust, which seemingly had, at the time of their prosecution, no direct bearing on Geography or its objects. In modern times only it has been fully recognized that Descriptive Geography is of little value apart from Physical Geography; and these, again, lose much of their interest without their relation to Political and Historical events are traced. Astronomy had, in effect, to supply the means of reducing to a systematic and available form the accumulated materials which must now constitute Geography, by first enabling geographers to determine with accuracy the relative position of eee with their distance from each other, and their exact latitude and longitude. ut this power once gained, the importance of Geography and its influence over the material interests of mankind soon became ara and its progress as a science has gone on increasing at a proportionately rapid rate. It was in vain that Marco Polo twice traversed Asia in its whole breadth, from the Mediterranean, to the Great Wall of China, and lived to return and recount all the wonders he had seen to his countrymen within the prison walls of Genoa. It only earned for him the derisive sobriguet of Marco Millione, from the supposed fabulous nature of the statements he made; and although he contributed so vast an amount of new facts to the knowledge of the earth’s surface, it does not appear, even when his book was printed a century and a half later, that it had any material effect upon the science of Geography, for want of the higher knowledge required to systematize and assi- milate the whole. Later (as Colonel Yule has well pointed out in his admirable edition of Marco Polo’s book), when Vasco de Gama, doubling the Cape of Good Hope, reached the Malabar coast, and “the great burst of discovery eastward and westward took place,” the results of all attempts to combine the new knowledge with the old were most unhappy. The first and crudest forms of such combination attempted 152 REPORT—1873. to realize the erroneous ideas of Columbus regarding the identity of his discoveries with the regions of the Great Khan’s dominion. It was, in consequence, some time before America could vindicate its independent position on the surface of the globe; while Jerusalem long remained the central point of the map, because it was so described in the book of Ezekiel. Down nearly to the mine of the 15th century the map of the world was, in its outline, as it had been handed down by Biblic and other traditions sanctioned by some Fathers of the Church, “ sprinkled with a combination of classical and medieval legends.” How important geographical science has become since that date, and how each day brings fresh materials and illustrations of the importance, I need hardly point out. The discovery by the Portuguese of a sea-route to India entirely changed the whole course of commerce between Europe and Asia. A trade which had first enriched Tyre and the Phoenicians, and in Solomon’s reign tempted the Jews to build fleets on the Red Sea—which, still increasing, made Alexandria the great em- porium of Indian wares, while in more modern times it helped to create a city of merchant princes in Venice,—abandoned from that date the caravan routes of Asia. The Adriatic ceased to bear rich argosies from the East, and Nuremberg, with other free cities of Germany, equally lost a source of wealth in distributing Eastern merchandise. This was the first and most pregnant of the great changes caused by the geo- graphical discoveries of the 15th century. The planting of the European race in North and South America, and especially of our own stock in the North, was a second result, which promises to make English the predominating language of the world, and to spread British institutions and love of liberty over the four quarters of the globe. How it has affected the destiny of the Aborigines over the new world laid open by geographical discoveries is a less satisfactory subject of reflection; but svhafore the estimate may be of relative good and evil following in the wake of such explorations, the influence exercised on the destinies of nations cannot be * questioned ; and amidst all the workers who contributed to these results, great and lasting as they have been, Geographers may rightly claim a foremost place. Few things in the retrospect of past intercourse and knowledge of each other among nations widely separated are more remarkable than the continuous communication across the whole breadth of Asia between east and west, which seems always to have been maintained for purposes of traffic, from the earliest periods. No dangers of the way, no physical Pistnelas of mountain-ranges and great rivers or deserts, no length of time nor ignorance of the geographical bearings of any portion of this area of so many thousand miles, seemed to have acted as deterrents. Hvyen the softly nurtured Venetian merchants were undismayed; and Marco Polo’s book of his father’s travels and his own abundantly proves that time must have borne a very different value in those days to that which prevails in this century. In the first journey to China we find they stayed one year at Sarai, on the Volga, and another at Bokhara. It is true they found it difficult to get either backward or forward, owing to the unsettled state of the country; but this did not in any way militate against their accepting an invitation, under a safe escort from the Envoys of Alan, the “ Lord of the Levant,” to proceed to the court of Kublar Khan, in China—a journey which occupied them a whole year. Whether the profits of any successful venture were so enormgus as to afford adequate return for the time, or the merchants of those days were so fond of adventure and exploration that they were content with less profit than modern commerce expects, I am not prepared to say. But whatever may be the true explanation of this apparent diversity, we may congratulate ourselves that each year many geographical explorations, accom- panied as these now are by careful and scientific observations, and the immediate registering of new facts in accurate collation with all previously acquired data, sensibly diminish the extent of unknown territory, and by so much not only facili- tate the development of a constantly increasing commerce, but largely contribute to the diminution of causes of national contention, in the application of treaties and the determination of boundaries. We have had several very striking examples of this within the past year; and although this is not the place to enter into the merits of the oie questions as to limits in any of the cases, I may be permitted to refer to them in general ee a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153 terms as illustrations of the important service which geographical science is enabled to render to Nations and to States in the higher field of political combi- nations and diplomatic negotiations. It has been well said that the surveyor is likely to do more in future than soldiers to prevent war; and the more frequently the scientific geographer precedes negotiations, the less ground there will be for doubt or disputes about boundaries—a most fertile subject of quarrel in all ages. Ts it not quite certain, for instance, that if accurate and complete surveys had been made of the Straits between Vancouver’s Island and the American coast, and appended to the treaty of 1846, which was intended to settle the Oregon boundary, with a line drawn exactly where it was intended the delimitation should take place by the two negotiators, no dispute could have arisen? It may have seemed enough to define the north-west water boundary to be “a line drawn from the middle of the channel which separates the Continent from Vancouver's Island southerly through the middle of the said Channel and of the Fuca Strait to the ocean,”—more espe- cially, perhaps, as the existence of the De Haro and Rosario channels, about which the dispute has arisen, was known to the negotiators. Yet how long and fierce the contention has been between two great powers ! and though now peacefully decided, we all know that it has for more than 25 years been one of those questions which might at any time have been a cause of war between two kindred nations,—the greatest calamity that could well befall either the one or the other. The result of Sir Frederick Goldsmid’s geographical labours in the east of Persia during the past year has added another example of the inestimable political value of accurate geographical surveys. In Asia more than any other country perhaps is this necessity felt. Papers have been read at the Geographical Society describing the journey of the Arbitration Commission from Bunder Abbas, through Kerman to Seistan, and reporting fully on the districts which have been so long in dispute between the Persian and Afghan governments. The line of delimitation between the two countries has been decided by the labours of the Commission, and the last mail from India announces its acceptance by both parties. My chief object in refer- ring to it is to show the great and important services which not only may be, but are actually rendered by geographical labours under able direction, and how much is to be gained, both in the interests of peace and of science, from the adoption of a practice of avoiding political complications by determining disputed lines of frontier through the agency of mixed commissions and professional engineers, That it should be generally adopted in the East must be the earnest desire alike of eographers and statesmen, and converts to the principle are rapidly increasing. he latest news from Constantinople brings the gratifying intelligence that the Sultan of Turkey and the Shah of Persia have mutually agreed to refer their contentions about the boundaries between the two States to a mixed Commission of this kind. The delimitation fixed by the British Government on the Upper Oxus by similar action is a pledge of peace with Russia. These are so many triumphs of an enlightened policy, by which disputed boundaries are settled, not by the sword, but by geographical observation, the accuracy of which cannot be contested. In this case it was rendered difficult, and all the more important politically, because, as Colonel Yule has recently demonstrated, the whole geography of the region of the Upper Oxus and surrounding country had been falsitied by Klaproth. In all the pseudo-travels that he invented he had imposed alike upon the British and the Russian Governments; and the consequences of such falsification might have been most fatal, for it vitiated the maps of the Russian Government, and with it their diplomacy. Fortunately our own information of the geography of the trans-Himalayan regions had so much improved since Klap- roth exercised his ingenuity, that it became possible not only to show where the falsification existed, but how one great source of error had arisen. Colonel Yule has proved, in a paper now published in the ‘Transactions of the Geographical Society,’ how, by a certain square of the Chinese Map constructed in 1759 (which was the groundwork of Klaproth’s geographical Imowledge) having been acci- dentally turned round through an angle of 90°, the mistake originated by which the district of Wakhan for instance, instead of being laid down in the same parallel as Badakhshan, was placed in the map {100 miles to the northward, and thus appeared to Prince Gortchakoff to he conterminous with Kara-tegin. 1873, 11 154 a REPORT—1873. There is no nation, perhaps, which has so much reagon to value geographical science and the art of map-making at a high rate as the Russians. In their rapid advance across the steppes and mountain-ranges of Northern Asia southward into the valley of the Amoor and Manchuria on the east, and to Khiva and Samarcand in the west, they have taken many courses; but in all they have had the im- mense advantage of not only knowing the territories they coveted, but being able to place them accurately on maps. The late Mr. Atkinson, a great traveller in Siberia and Central Asia, gives more than one graphic and, there 1s every reason to believe, perfectly veracious account of how negotiations for territory with Asiatics may be successfully and even peacefully conducted, at a very small cost when thus aided and prepared. First an exploring party starts for some unknown region, ostensibly, it may be, for hunting, well armed and prepared to note accurately the physical features of any country they may traverse. ‘The first exploration accom~ plished, a second follows, better provided for an actual survey and geological and mineralogical researches. These being completed, negotiations are opened with the chief of the tribe to whom the territory in question belongs. One of these transactions in 1848 ended in a considerable district in the Kirghis Steppe, lying between the Targ Abatai and the Irtisch, already ascertained to possess valuable silver- and lead-mines, being transferred from the Sultan and chiefs of the Great Horde of Kirghis to the Emperor of Russia (or, as he is better known to the Kirghis, the “Great White Khan”) for a sum of 250 roubles, a gold medal, a sword of honour, and half a dozen handsome khalats or robes for the Sultan, Mulla, and the five or six head chiefs. In these mysterious and hitherto inaccessible regions of Inner or Central Asia, geographical knowledge is almost a necessary qualification in any Power which seeks further intercourse and access. To Russia, of course, it is matter of paar importance, situated as she is in direct contact along all her southern border wit the nomade races which occupy the vast regions stretching across the continent between her and all the southern ports and seas; but scarcely more so, perhaps, than to Great Britain, as another great Asiatic Power,—the only one of equal pretensions, strength, and influence in the East by its command of Western resources and Asiatic territory. A knowledge of the geography of the regions lying between the Caspian and the Amoor is, indeed, power of the most valuable kind. When the Russians secured possession of the upper portion of the Zarafshan valley about Saware, they commanded the waters on which Bokhara depends for its fertility and existence, and of course obtained a means of easy conquest. Thus, whether for conquest or for commerce, Geography is the best ally and a necessary pioneer. If we look again at the nes showing the complex systems of mountains separating the plains of India from Eastern Turkestan and the upper tablelands and valleys of Central Asia, we shall find that they are not simple ranges, like the Alps or the Pyrenees, which can be crossed by a single pass, as Mr. Shaw has so well shown, but are composed of many chains, enclosing considerable countries within their valleys. Thibet and Cashmere are examples of this. Eleven passes, ‘we are told, have to be crossed in travelling from India to Turkestan ; and of these, only two are lower than the summit of Mont Blanc. Yet, thanks to the labours of many geographic explorers, impassable as these mountain-barriers seem, we know now that they are penetrated in such a manner by rivers, and so accessible by comparatively emi routes, that they form no insurmountable obstacle to peaceful commerce, although capable of a complete defence against force. Take, again, that range of the Thian Shan to the north and the Himalayan system to the south, which converge together as they run westward, and unite in a vast boss supporting the high plateau of Pamir, which the natives call the Bam-i-dunya, or “ Upper floor of the World.” Numerous valleys penetrate into it from east and from west, peculiarity which makes it far easier to traverse from east to west than from north to south—a fact which you will see at once has a most important bearing on the trade-routes. The latest advance in this direction of Russia is fixed at present at Kulja, where she has established an important trading centre. This has been obviously dictated by a knowledge of geographical features giving her access to Eastern Turkestan; for although Kulja appears to be separated by difficult snowy mountains, yet these TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 155 are found’ to die away to the east; and from that point Mr. Shaw tells us Russia has it in her power to push her advance or her trade in two directions over level country, either eastward to China, or westward to Turkestan. Geography, it is clear, therefore, in these regions, is the right hand of Rulers and of Generals, and determines alike the march of armies and the advance of merchants. Nothing can be done by either without its aid. It is impossible, however, not to admire the energy and indomitable spirit with which Russia, claiming and freely using all the assistance scientific geography can give, utilizes the knowledge thus secured. Mr. Shaw relates how the Muzat Pass, leading between Aksu and Kulja, lies over a formidable glacier; and he was assured that forty men were kept at work in the summer roughing the ice for the passage of the caravans. With such a rival it must be evident, if we are to compete in the same field with any success, that both Government and merchants must put forth all their strength, and neither be scared by physical obstacles nor daunted by expense and risks, This seems to me the great lesson which all these accumulated facts convey. Geography has shown the way, it is for merchants to follow, and Government, if need be, to aid in removing obstacles not otherwise to be overcome. The connexion between history and geography, and the important bearing of each upon the other, was scarcely recognized until the second half of the last cen- tury, when several historical travellers gave, with their researches into the ancient history of Greece and Western Asia, many details of physical geography, and showed how essential a knowledge of these were to any perfect understanding of the events taking place in the several localities. They must be studied together, as the nature of the ground on which a battle has been fought, or a campaign conducted, must be studied, to understand the movements of the contending forces and the design of the leaders, The late Dr. Arnold, in his lectures on history, insisted much upon the mutual relations of history and geography, and the important light which a study of physical geography throws upon the national conditions of life, social and political, “The whole character of a nation,” he observes, ‘‘ may be influenced by its geology and physical geography. Again, geography holds out one hand to geology and physiology, while she holds out the other to history. Both geology and physiology are closely connected with history. The geological fact of England’s superior rich- ness in coal over every other country lay at the bottom of the corn-law question. The physiological fact that the tea-plant was uncultivated in any other climate or country than China gave a peculiar interest to our relations with it.” And it would be easy to give many examples of this intimate connexion between geography and history, and the mutual aid they afford. We have seen how possession of the head sources of the water supplies could determine the fate of a country like Bokhara. And the distribution of river-courses mainly determines the location of great populations, and the development of trade and civilization by facilities of traffic and intercourse. Dr. Arnold, in the lectures already quoted, gives an admirable illustration in dealing with the map of Italy, which I cannot resist bringing under your notice. The mere plan-geography of Italy shows a semicircle of mountains round the northern boundary, and another long line stretching down the middle of the Apennines. But let us look a little further, and give life and meaning to these features, as Arnold delighted to do. “ Observe, in the first place, how the Apennine line, beginning from the southern extremity of the Alps, runs across Italy to the very edge of the Adriatic, and thus separates naturally the Italy proper of the Romans from Cisalpine Gaul. Observe again how the Alps, after running north and south, where they divide Italy from France, turn then away to the eastward, running almost parallel to the Apennines, till they too touch the head of the Adriatic on the confines of Istria. Thus; between these two lines of mountains there is enclosed one great basin or plain, enclosed on three sides by mountains, opening to the east to the sea. One great river flows through it in its whole extent, and this is fed by streams almost un- numbered descending towards it on either side, from the Alps on the one side and from the Apennines on the other. Who can wonder that this large and rich and well-watered place should be filled with flourishing cities, or that it should.have pa 156 4 REPORT—1878. been contended for so often by more poor invaders? Then, descending into Italy proper, we find the complexity of its geography quite in accordance with its manifold political divisions. It is not one central ridge of mountains, leaving a broad belt of level country on either side between it and the sea; nor yet is ita clear rising immediately from the sea on one side, like the Andes in South America, leaving room therefore on the other side for wide plains of tableland, and for rivers with a sufficient length of course to become at last great and navigable. It is a backbone thickly set with spines of unequal length, interlacing with each other in a maze almost inextricable. Speaking generally, then, Italy is made up of an infinite multitude of valleys a in between high and steep hills, each forming a country to itself, and cut off by natural barriers from the others. Its several parts are isolated by nature, and no art of man can thoroughly unite them. Even the various provinces of the same kingdom are strangers to each other, The Abruzzi are like an unknown world to the inhabitant of Naples.” This is what Dr. Arnold meant by a “real and lively knowledge of geography,’ which brings the whole character of a country before our eyes, and enables us to understand its influence upon the social and political condition of its inhabitants. But such is the rapid progress of science and man’s triumphs over nature, that the tunnel through Mont Cenis, or Fell’s railroad over it, and the railroad which now pierces the Apennines and unites the eastern and western coasts of Italy, aided by telegraphic wires, already falsify Arnold’s eonclusion that no art of man can thoroughly unite regions so separated. And the influence these achievements must have over the unification of Italy, and the progress of civilization throughout the peninsula, can hardly be exaggerated. Persia at the present day offers another striking illustration of the influence of hhysical causes on the progress of civilization and the destiny of nations, -Apart from the consequences of ages of misrule, its physical geography has exercised a ‘very adverse influence upon the country. Persia suffers from a great deficiency of rainfall; and although an immense supply of water comes from the mountains by the rains and the melting of the snow, it is lost in the plains and wasted, if not before, at least as soon as it reaches the great salt desert about twenty miles from Teheran. With the prevailing insufficiency of the rainfall on the plains them- selves the whole country is becoming sterile; but if the abundant supply from the mountains could be intercepted before it reached the lower ground and collected into reservoirs, if might then be distributed by irrigation over the whole face of the land and play the same part as the Zarafshan or “ Gold-scatterer” (so called for its fertilizing powers) in the rich cultivation of Bokhara. Perhaps this may not prove beyond the power of Baron Reuter to accomplish, aided by all the science and some of the capital of Europe. What further changes he may be enabled to effect by the introduction of railroads and telegraphic lines for facilitating trade and rapid communication, we may soon be in a position to speak from actual experience ; for it is stated in the public prints that the proposed railway between Teheran and Resht is to be commenced at once, and that the plant has already left England. More extended operations are, it is nnderstood, contemplated to the south of Teheran to Ispahan, and from thence to the Persian Gulf—perhaps also to the Turkish frontier, The former will open a direct line to India, and the latter to the Mediterranean, should the Turkish Government be willing to work in concert. Who can calculate the revolution in the whole aspect of the country and its life-sustaining powers, if a whole series of such measures should be carried through at once P The part which Russia plays in the history of Europe and Asia, and the future which may yet be reserved for that Empire, is more a matter of physical geo- graphy than of politics or of policy, if we look to determining causes. . What could Russia do, frozen in between two seas and with closed ports for more than six months in each year, but, guided by an infallible instinct (often exemplified in nations as in individuals), stretch out feelers towards the open waters and more genial climates? We have heard much of Russia’s destiny driving her southwards to the Bosphorus, and eastward in the same parallel over the rich valleys of Central and Tropic Asia; but is it not a geographical necessity, far more than a political ambition, which has thus far driven her across the whole breadth of Asia until she TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157 gained the Chinese ports on the Pacific, and southwards towards the mouths of the Danube, the sunny ports of the Mediterranean, and the head of the Persian Gulf? Until unfrozen rivers and ports could be reached, how could her people make any pro- gress or develop their resources? It not only was a natural tendency,—as natural as the descent of the glacier to the valleys, forging downwards by a slow but irre- sistible pressure, but as inevitable. Obstacles may retard the progress, but not arrest it; and Russia is but following the course of nature as well as history in ouring down nomade hordes and hardy Scythians on the cultivated territories ying in a more genial climate. MJRailroads and telegraphic wires supply her with means of transport and quick transit over vast spaces never enjoyed by her great predecessors in this line of march. Let us hope, too, that more civilizing influ- ences will follow her track, through regions never highly favoured in this respect, than marked the passage of a Genghis Khan or a Timor. ‘The Times’ observed recently that it was one of the happiest coincidences in history that, just at the time when the natural course of commercial and political development brings Central Asia into importance, there should still exist in the eastern border of Europe an empire retaining sufficiently the character of a military absolutism to render it especially adapted for the conquest and control of these semibarbarous communities. Iam not altogether prepared to accept this high estimate of Russian ability and peculiar fitness for its self-imposed task, without qualification. That Russia, Asiatic in origin and type, autocratic, and armed with all the power which military science and discipline give, has some special fitness for the mission it seems to accept as a destiny, | am not inclined to deny. But whatever may be the decision arrived at on this head, it seems quite certain that as her progress in arms gives her control over Central Asia, so will be the exclusion, by protective or prohibitive tarifis, of all commerce but her own. It is only necessary to follow on the map, and in the history of the successive advances southwards, the progress made and the trade-routes established or extended within the last twenty years, to be convinced that trade and exclusive rights of commerce are among the prin- cipal objects which dictate the present policy of the empire. And, whatever may be the designs of Russia in her advances on Central Asia, it must be clear by this time that it is with her, and not with the nominal rulers of the States her armies have overrun, that we must count in any steps we may take for the peaceful prosecution of commerce. Strange and unexpected as are the reverses of fortune which have befallen nations and empires in all ages, and great and complete as has been the fall of many, there are few more striking than the interchange of parts between the Muscoyite and the Mongol dynasties. The time was, as Colonel Yule remarks, when in Asia and Eastern Europe scarcely a dog might bark without Mongol leave from the borders of Poland and the coast of Cilicia to the Amoor and the Yellow Sea. As late as the 13th century the Moguls ravaged Hungary and conquered Russia, which they held in subjection for many generations. Sarai on the Volga was the scene of Chaucev’s half-told tale of Cambuscan, when « At Sarra in the Londe of Tartarie There dwelt a King that werriéd Russie.” The times have changed indeed since then, and the successors and descendants of those same Moguls and Mieriats have another tale to tell now, at Khiva and Peking. Before I pass from this part of my subject, I would draw your attention to the vast field which yet remains in Asia for geographical research and exploration. The intimate connexion between such labours and the development of our commerce in the trans-Himalayan countries must have been made abundantly evident; and I would fain hope there will never be any want of competent volunteers (who may rival Mr. Shaw and Mr. Ney Elias, both distinguished and adventurous pioneers taken from mercantile pursuits) to show the way for others. Notwithstanding all difficulties and opposing influences, physical and political, there appears to be a large field for our commerce, and one capable of almost infinite expansion, where enterprise, skill, and industry may fairly count upon a good return. As regards costly efforts in opening roads, it may perhaps seem doubtful to the Indian as to the Imperial Government, how far either would be justified in any large outlay. Nothing, however, is more to be regretted than doubt or hesitation 158 REPORT—1873, for the markets once monopolized by the Russians, we may seek in vain to open them to general trade at any later period. It is difficult to calculate how much we should lose; for the distance from the Indus to Vernoje and Kopal, two of the most recent markets of Central Asia founded by the Russians, is about one third of that from these places to the great fair of the Volga. Commercially this is of great importance, as these towns will become the centres whence the Tartar merchants will send forth their agents to disperse the goods among all the Kirghis of the Steppes. From these points they will also go to the Mongolian tribes, on the north of the Gobi ; and this region, Mr. Atkinson assures us, contains a vast population. He even anticipates that, should such a trade be established, the merchandise will find its way through the country of the Kalkas into Davuaria, and to the regions beyond the Selenga and the sources of the Amoor, where it may advantageously compete with goods brought up the latter river; nor will the Siberians fail to avail them- selves of its advantages. Whenever there shall be fairs on the Indus or beyond the passes of the Himalayas on the borders of Sikkim or Thibet, the Kirghis will send into India vast numbers of good horses annually. Silver and gold, the same traveller says, is plentiful in their country, and their other resources will in all pro- bability be rapidly developed. The best mode of opening such a trade with Central Asia beyond question will be by fairs, or great marts, similar to Kiachta on the frontier between China and Russia, Irkutzk and Urga, and more recently at Irbit by the Russians. On this point we have also Mr. Atkinson’s very decided opinion. He says, speaking of such fairs, “This I deem preferable to the English plan of consigning goods to agents either in Yarkand, Kokhan, or Tarshkend. Once these fairs are established, the Tartar and other merchants will attend and purchase the necessary articles for the people among whom they vend their wares. These men are thoroughly acquainted with the tribes and know all their wants. They are industrious and energetic in their calling, travelling over thousands of miles. They know every part of the country, and where to find the tribes in all seasons of the year ; and it is by them that Russia distributes her merchandise over Central Asia. Wherever trade can be carried on at a profit, experience has shown that all natural obstacles have been surmounted by these hardy sons of the Steppe. It is well to have such commercial agents and distributors as allies and customers, whereas any attempt to locate English agents in their midst would create jealousy and excite fears lest they should lose their legitimate profits. Far greater dangers are encoun- tered by caravans which travel from Kulja into the interior provinces of China than they will meet with between Yarkand, Kashgar, and the Indus.” All that is re- quired is to bring the goods from the plains of India through the passes to the border ; and steps to this end are being actively taken in more than one direction. Tn 1850 Lord Dalhousie sanctioned the commencement of a road, which, leaving the plains in the neighbourhood of Kalka, 36 miles from Umballah, should ascend to Simla and thence towards Thibet, through the temperate valley of the Sut- ledge, to Shipki on the Thibetan border. In the next five years this Hindostan and Thibet road, which was to unite India with Central Asia, had made such progress, that 115 miles of six-feet road had been completed; and it was anti- cipated that by the following spring but 25 miles would remain of unfinished work between Simla and China, and 60 between Simla and the frontiers of China. I regret to state that later accounts show the work to have been stopped; and this seems to be matter for deep regret, both on account of the large unproductive expenditure incurred for a work stopped short of completion, and the urgent necessity there is for secure access to the trans-Himalayan regions, while there is yet room for competition with Russian trade and influence. One of the great questions of the hour is, how best and most expeditiously to open up practicable roads from the plains of India to Central Asia, on the west to Turkestan, and eastwards to the borders of Thibet, and perhaps by British Burmah across the Shan States to the western provinces of China. But access to the markets of Central Asia is by far the most urgent and important ; for, as I will presently show, the southern route through Burmah, were all difficulties overcome (and they are neither few nor slight), pro- mises little in comparison with a more direct outlet for the Assam teas, and an interchange of goods and produce with the populations of Thibet, Turkestan, and Central Asia generally, Across the Himalayan barrier it appears there is a choice TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 of more than one or two practicable passes ; that through Sikkim to the vicinity of Thibet offers the fewest difficulties, and in every respect promises the most speedy results with a moderate outlay. Other routes to the west, leading to adakshan, and one by Ladak to Turkestan (where we have already an energetic and enterprising British representative in Mr. Shaw), and through the valley and passes of the Chitral, are beset by many difficulties, physical and political, though not more than a powerful Government like India may surmount. It has been said that if the Russians had such a question to deal with, the solution would not be long delayed ; and no doubt they have solved some more arduous problems in the present generation. The enterprise, vigour, and perseverance which mark all their proceedings where the extension of their commerce or their dominion and influ- ence over Asia from Peking to Constantinople (and especially towards the Khanates of Central Asia) are concerned, may leave us far behind in the race, and render them formidable adversaries, notwithstanding their merchants are weighted with distances so vast, that the 700 miles from the Indus to the other side of the Himalayas sink into insignificance. But Iam not inclined to join in any con- demnation of our own Government, without taking into consideration the inherent difficulties of the task, because they have not moved hitherto more rapidly in this direction. As regards access by Sikkim there ought to be both decision and prompt action. It is a protected state, and a late despatch of the Lieut.-Governor of Bengal to the Secretary to the Government of India expresses a hope to be able to connect the frontier mart at Dewangiri, once a very active trade-mart for the Tibetans and other adjoining districts, with the plains of India by a good road this next cold season. He considers it possible “to have a much easier, leasanter, and more profitable communication with High Asia by this way than urther west ;” and speaks very decidedly as to the uselessness of any right of passage or trade through Nepaul or Bhootan. There seems every hope, therefore, that within a few months something effective will be done to open a trade-route through Sikkim and make the passes practicable. All that seems to be required is a branch railroad from the other side of the Kooshteen, where the Eastern Bengal Railway touches the Ganges, on through fertile Rungpore to the foot of the hills, and a road through the pass to the border, where a fair could be established and a trading station maintained. Any direct access beyond the Thibetan border can only, in the present con- dition of affairs, be obtained by diplomatic action at Peking. The Chinese Government have hitherto created all the obstacles; and there is the greater reason for pressing a less restrictive policy upon the Chinese, that at the head of . the Assam valley the Mishmi country communicates with Batang, a dependency of the Szechuen Province of China; and access to this point through the border would be a much more effective mode of tapping the south-western provinces of China than any routes through Burmah to Sadan; Now that the Emperor’s minority is at an end, and the Bageney with it, the time would seem favourable for a strong and decided effort at Peking to remove the obstruction created by the jealous and restrictive policy of the Chinese rulers. But while Chambers of Commerce and Merchants are urging Her Majesty’s Government to incur both outlay of money and grave political responsibilities for the furtherance of trade and the opening of new markets for our manufactures, it is necessary that they should be prepared to do their own part, and push boldly forward with their goods as soon as access can be gained—because any doubt on this head must necessarily tend to paralyze the efforts of a Government by the fear of working in vain. One cause of hesitation about the continuance of the magnificent work commenced by Lord Dalhousie in 1850, by which a great road was to be made from the plains to Shipki on the borders of Thibet, may have been certain doubts expressed by merchants as to any trade taking that route. ¥ 1 But I must not detain you longer. I will only glance at the projects for opening a trade by railway between Burmah and South-western China. The one route, so long advocated by Captain Spry, would cross over from Rangoon to Kianghung on the Meikong; and another, recommended by Colonel Fytche when Chief Com- missioner of British Burmah, would extend from Rangoon to Prome, with a view to opening a trade wd Bhamo, 160 ; REPORT—1878. Many memorials have been sent during past years to the Home Government to urge the undertaking of the first of these for the benefit of trade; but I am not aware that, important as the merchants have deemed it, the matter has ever been pressed on the Government by any Member of Parliament in the House of Com- mons, and I doubt very much such a line proving remunerative. Yunnan, so far from being, as described by some of the memorialists, both populous and pro- ductive, has been reduced to a desert waste by the civil war and the destruction of the Mahomedans, and for long years to come there can be little hope of com- mercial activity. It can scarcely be expected, therefore, that either the Imperial or the Indian Government will undertake to make such a railroad themselves, or to guarantee the interest for others. As regards the Government of India, it has always held, I think, of late years that the Indian revenue could not justly be charged with the cost of an enterprise which, however successful, could only benefit English trade, and very indirectly, if at all, Burmah. If any guarantee is necessary, therefore, it seems clear it must come from the Imperial and not from the Indian Government. There is one other consideration: recent news show that the French in Cochin China haye by no means given up the hope of drawing.any trade to be developed with the south-west of China by a much more direct and river-route to a port in the Gulf which they have recently secured for their own benefit. Although the French have not usually proved formidable rivalsin Eastern trade, it is possible that, with such advantage of geographical situation, water- carriage, and proximity, they might seriously check any development of trade in a less favoured course. Before concluding I must give you some information as to the papers which are likely to oceupy your attention during this session. ; Dr. J. MeCosh will read a paper on an overland communication between India and China, a subject which he is qualified to pronounce an opinion upon, having made it his study for upwards of thirty years. As long ago as 1836, whilst serving in Assam, he furnished the Government with an official report, in which he pointed out the facility of connecting India and China by a grand trunk road ; and he read a paper on the same subject before the Royal Geographical Society in 1860. He advocates the Munnipore route. Mr. Ney Elias contributes a paper “On Trade-Routes through Mongolia and Zungaria.” He gained the Royal Medal of this year from the Royal Geographical Society for his adventurous journey in 1872, asa private traveller, over the countries described in his paper, and is well known as an accomplished traveller, taking observations for laying down his route with rare completeness. He states in his paper that the only trade-route now open between Central Asia and Western China is that through Mongolia. Mr. J. Thomson will read a paper on the Yang-tsze as an artery of communi- cation. Mr. Thomson has been long before the public as a successful traveller and accomplished photographer of the scenery of distant countries. Some years ago he visited the marvellous ruins of temples and cities in Cambodia, and published a magnificent work on the subject, illustrated by photographs. Since then he has visited China and Formosa, and is publishing, in parts, a work of a similar cha- racter to his former one on Cambodia. I believe Mr. Thomson will bring a set of photographs for exhibition. Baron Richthofen will read a paper “ On the Distribution of Coal in China.” He will perhaps read a second paper on the general subject of his travels. He is one of the most accomplished of Chinese travellers, and has traversed pro- bably the largest extent of country. His published Report to the Committee of the Shangai Chamber of Commerce on his Explorations in the Provinces of Chili, Shansi, Shensi, and Sz’chuen is full of the most interesting information regarding the physical geography, resources, and products of the interior of China. He is present at the Meeting, one of the distinguished foreign savans invited by the town and the Association. Capt. J. E. Davis will read a paper on the results so far of the voyage of the ‘Challenger.’ Capt. Davis was a member of Ross’s great expedition towards the South Pole, and by his position in the Hydrographical or Scientific branch of the Admiralty is well qualified to deal with such a subject. The public have been TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 informed from time to time of the results of the deep-sea soundings and dredgings of the ‘ Challenger,’ but Capt. Davis will supply by far the completest information. The Rey. W. Wyatt Gill will give us an account of “ Three visits to New Guinea.” Mr, Gill, after twenty-two years spent in missionary life in the South Pacific, spent a short time at the mission stations in Torres Straits, and visited the mainland of New Guinea. Recent Arctic Explorations.—The Spitzbergen and the Smith Sound routes are the two great rival highways of exploration towards the arctic basin, and discovery has alternately pushed nearer the pole by the one and the other. Till recently the Spitzbergen route held the palm, for by it ships had reached to beyond the 8lst parallel, whilst on the American side no ship had been able to force a passage higher than the 79th degree of latitude ; but in 1872 the American expedition, led by Capt. Hall, who has perished in the cause, making its way northward by Smith Sound, attained the highest point yet reached by ships, the latitude of 82° 16’ N., or to within 420 miles of the North Pole. Two expeditions, one from Austria the other from Sweden, are also in progress on the Spitzbergen side. The Austrian, under the leadership of Weybrecht and Payer, has passed beyond the limits of the remotest traffic into the unknown seas to the north of Siberia, and it is probable that no news of this voyage may reach civilized Europe for many months. The Swedish voyage had for its object to move northward by sledges from the Parry group of islands in the north of Spitzbergen, but has failed completely in this often- tried scheme, and spent the past winter at Morrel Bay, on the coast of the chief island of Spitzbergen. arly in the spring of this year another fruitless attempt was made to go north over the hummocked ice. Desisting unwillingly from these useless efforts, the sledge party turned along the coast of the north-east land of Spitzbergen to its extreme eastern point, and thence ascending the high inland ice, made a difficult passage across to Hinloper Strait, from whence the winter-quarters of the ship were again reached. With regard to British enterprise in the Arctic regions there is little to report. Since the termination of the long series of brilliant exploits in the Polar regions at the end of the search after Sir John Franklin, England seems to have abandoned the field to rival nations. A few private expeditions to the Spitzbergen seas, notably those of Mr. Leigh Smith, who has again visited those regions this summer, alone represent British activity in the Arctic seas. However, the Royal Geo- graphical Society does not allow the matter to slumber. An endeavour was made last winter to induce the Government to send out another expedition; and at the ean time a joint Committee of the Royal and the Royal Geo- graphical Societies is at work formulating a plan of action with a view to representing to Government the urgency of despatching an expedition in 1874. Africa.—Of Dr. Livingstone and Sir Samuel Baker no fresh news has been received beyond what has been before the public. Two expeditions are now on their way to Central Africa in search of Livingstone and to cooperate with him. The Congo Expedition at last date (April 3) had reached Bembe, 130 miles from the coast, in admirable order. The Hast Coast Expedition had reached Rehenneko, 120 miles, but with the loss of one of the party, Mr. Moffat, who died near Simbo. Their plan was to reach Tanganyika, and finish the exploration of that lake, until Livingstone was met with. I had hoped to have seen Sir Samuel Baker here, that we might hear from his own lips and in fuller detail what he has accomplished. I do not quite despair yet; but up to the present hour I have had no communication from him since his arrival at Cairo on his homeward journey. On the true Position and Physical Characters of Mount Sinai. By Cuarzxs T. Bex, Ph.D., FLR.GS. The identification of Mount Sinai is still uncertain, Though the great mountain- mass within the peninsula between the Gulfs of Suez and Akaba is generally looked on as containing the “ Mount of God,” it has hitherto been found imprac- 162 REPORT—1873. ticable to fix on any one of its lofty peaks as being incontestably the true Mount Sinai. The Ordnance Survey of the peninsula recently completed, however ably performed, has failed to remove the doubts and difficulties attending the subject, which have thrown discredit on the truth of the Bible history; for, though the topography of the peninsula has thereby been definitively settled, the relative importance of the various localities and their bearing on the Scripture narrative continue just as uncertain as ever. According to Dr. Beke, the cause of this uncertainty is obvious. The primary question ought not to be whether this peak or the other peak within the penin- sula has the greater claim to be considered the true Mount Sinai, but whether they are any of them entitled to that distinction. In his work ‘ Origines Biblice,’ published in 1834, he contended that Mount Sinai is nowhere within that penin- sula; and in the present paper he adduces proofs that this mountain is in reality a volcano, now extinct, situate within the Harra Radjld, a region of igneous origin, situate on the western side of the Scriptural “ Land of Midian,” now the great Arabian desert, and at no great distance to the east of the head of the Gulf of Akaba, or Sea of Edom, which (and not the Gulf of Suez) he looks on as the Red Sea through which the Israelites passed on their exodus from the Land of Bondage—the Mitzraim of Scripture not being identical with the Egypt of the Ptolemies, but lying altogether towards the north-east of it, in proximity to the country of the Philistines. At the time of the Exodus Mount Sinai was in a state of eruption, the smoke and flame from its crater being described by the sacred historian as ‘by day a illar of a cloud, and by night a pillar of fire,” just as the poet Pindar speaks of ount Etna as pouring forth “by day a burning stream of smoke, but by night a ruddy eddying flame;” and the volcano was not extinct in the time of the prophet Elijah, six centuries later. Dr. Beke traces the route of the Israelites from Rameses to Succoth, and thence to Etham, which he identifies with the Wady Yetoum or Ithem of the present day, a side valley of the Wady Arabah, at the head of the Gulf of Akaba. From Etham the Israelites turned, and (as Dr. Beke reads the Hebrew text of Exodus xiv. 21) they encamped “before the mouths of the caverns, between the castle and the sea, over against its north end,” the Castle thus mentioned being now represented by the Castle of Akaba at the north end of the Gulf. And after the Israelites had passed through the sea, their further route is traced to Marah, Elim, and again to the sea-coast at the entrance to the Gulf of Akaba; whence they proceeded in the direction of Mount Sinai, being guided by the pillar of a cloud and the pillar of fire during this portion of their journey, as they had been in that between Succoth and Etham. Fora detailed statement of his views Dr. Beke referred to his pamphlet, ‘Mount Sinai a Volcano,’ recently published. In con- clusion he expressed his desire to visit the volcanic region to the east of the head of the Gulf of Akaba, where he places the true Mount Sinai, for the purpose of verifying and completing his identification of that “holy ground,” and so putting an end, once and for ever, to the doubts and difficulties that have so long existed respecting this the most venerable spot on the face of the earth; and it not being in his power to perform so costly a journey at his own expense, he expressed his confident hope of support from those interested in the settlement of so momentous a question. On the Physical Geography of the Deserts of Persia and Central Asia. By W. T. Buayrorp, F.G.S., C.M.Z.S. The deserts of Persia consist of vast plains of alluvium, usually much longer than they are broad, surrounded on all sides by higher ground, and in several instances having a-portion of their surface covered by salt. No river emerges from any part of the Persian plateau. All the rain which falls is evaporated or absorbed. “Most of the streams from the hills which surround the central plateau terminate in salt marshes, or salt lakes; but there are two remarkable exceptions, the lake or marsh of Seistan receiving the Helmund river and the lake of Jotcha, which is in Russian territory : both of these are fresh, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163 It appears probable that the alluvial desert plains have been formed in lakes which existed when the rainfall was greater than it nowis. Around the borders of the de- serts are remarkable slopes of coarse gravel, formed probably of material washed from the surrounding hills. But the great depressions of the country must have been formed under different meteorological conditions, and were probably at one time river-valleys closed by the elevation of ranges of hills in the later Tertiary period accompanied by a decrease in the rainfall. The desiccation of the country has pro- bably been gradual ; it is possible that in historic times the rainfall was greater than it now is, and that the former population of the country was larger. The change has in all probability been gradual from river-valleys to enclosed lakes and from lakes to deserts. It appears probable that a similar change has taken place throughout a large por- tion of Central Asia.