a ) err ae ve yi rt) ‘ t ef REPORT FORTY-FIFTH MEETING een ZERSH = Mifo~ AWN Sie VSS 23) v OF THE |= $2 BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT BRISTOL IN AUGUST 1875. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1876. [Office of the Association: 22 Arpemarte Srreer, Lonpon, W.] PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STRERT, « ALERE 4 FLAMMAM, CONTENTS. NAR AARARARAY Oxzxcts and Rules of the Association ..............0 000 c eee Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from ame OMICHY, 52 te eet UL. PES RU nll, ees REG tO NT elias cats edb oA Gidea sh SHR vane TA Lectures to the Operative Classes .......... 0. ccc cece eens EMEC AEOOUIG "yie 0e .7a 0s (Rie ok Bgitay MRI AP hGra Shae, ebereunsyene Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at Annual Meetings .. Spiieers Of Sectional Committees oo. kk eee ees SS IT UG TLTRGT NS US 0 LO © a oho a> che oy ss over svar an eh co dean br ovcn'e WE Ol ands Report of the Council to the General Committee ................ Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reporis See edemrehes 1m, Seienee.. <2 hele ele eI Emm uoney Crantd |e). J SOM SS Place-of Meeting in 1877 .............:.. SCHR AS chy ewe, Inee area General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific RIE Metical 2 WL Ts 8 Maia Ah wohl el Vike Pele holy nes Ve elES Arrangement of the General Meetings .............. 0.0.00 ue _ Addzess by the President, Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.8. REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xhii xliv xlvi xlvil xlviii lii lviii lix lx lxvii lxvili Eleventh Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- shire—the Committee consisting of Sir Jonny Luszocx, Bart., F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Georcr Busx, F.RB.S., Wirt1am Born Dawkins, F.R.S., Witt1am Aysurorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., Joun Epwarp Ler, F.G.S., and Wiitram Prenentry, F.R.S. (Reporter) 1 a2 iv CONTENTS. Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Professor Evrrerr, Sir Cuartes Lynrt, Bart., F.R.S,, Professor J. - Orerx Maxwett, F.R.S., G. J. Syuwons, F.M.S., Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor Gerxir, F.R.S., James Guatsaer, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. _Granam, G. Maw, F.G.S., W. Peneztty, F.R.S., 8. J. Mackie, F.G.S., Professor Hurt, F.R.S., Professor Ansrep, F.R.S., and Professor Prustwicn, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various localities of Dry Land and under Water. By Professor Evrrerr, ID ECH Ins (seas shia) ee Be oss Parse dues 9 sles eie hits 9) oer Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Huxtey, F.R.S., P. L. Scrater, F.R.S., F. M. Baurour, J. Gwyn Jurrrnys, F.R.S., Dr. M. Foster, F.R.S., E. Ray Lanxester, F.R.S., and A. G. Dew-Suire (Secretary), on the Zoological Station at Naples.................. Report of a Committee, consisting of E. C. C. Sranrorp, James Dewar, Aurrep E. Frercaer, and Atrrep H. Atten (Secretary), appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products and on the mode of stating the results. Drawn up by Atrrep H. ALLEN 3.6 & 218 (01s wae te ee re ee ke ea a Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.— Part I. On the Homologies of the Dermal Skeleton. By C. Spence IB AMIS PRN OEC.) ee dow ev ev ose ape wise wise « 0 ee ite te Second Report of a Committee, consisting of Prof. A. 8. Hurscuer, B.A., F.R.AS., and G, A. Lezovr, F.G.8., on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geo- logical Aspects of the Investigation Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Roscor, Barrour Srewart, and THorre, appointed for the purpose of extend- ing the observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids. Drawn up ay (Ts BE REORPY 5.5 oto, 345.0 «01+ dcassis lie iosece boas dle al Sixth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, drawn up by Dr. Brycz, F.G.S. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycr, F.R.S.E., Sir W. THom- son, F.R.S., J. Broveu, G. Forsss, F.R.S.E., D. Mirnz-Home, F.R.S.E., and J. THomson Seventh Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage, reappointed at Belfast, 1874, and consisting of Ricuarp B. GrantuaM, C.E.,-F.G.S. (Chairman), Professor A. W. Wiiu1aMson, F.R.S., Dr. Girsert, F,R.S., Professor Corrrenp, M.A., M.D., Wi- tam Hop, V.C., and F. J. Brawwenn, C.E., F.R.S...........-+08 Report of the Committee, consisting of Major Wison, R.E., and Mr. RaAVENSTEIN, appointed for the purpose of furthering the Palestine Explorations Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness, Pro- fessor Prestwicn, Professor Huenrs, Rev. H. W. Crossxey, Professor W. Boyp Dawxrs, Messrs. C. J. Woopwarpv, Grorce Maw, L. C. Mratt, G. H. Morron, and J. E. Lex, appointed for the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the more important of the Erratic Blocks of Eng- land and Wales, reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation. Drawn up by the Rev. H. W. Crossxzy, Secretary os ee 0 e 8 0 0 Fe eee clin & y ve WEenane Page 14 ilte\s 24 41 o4 64 65 81 CONTENTS. Report of the Rainfall Committee for the year 1874-75. The Committee consists of C, Brooxn, F.R.S., Chairman, J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., Rocers Fiery, C.E., J. Guatsner, F.R.S., T. Hawxstey, C.E., The Earl of Rossz, F.R.S., J. Suyru, Jun., C.E., C. Tomirnson, F.R.S., Seneremasss Secketaty eos 20k haiiniad waned sore gellads . Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. E. Armstrrone and Dr. T. E. Txorre, appointed for the purpose of investigating Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives. Drawn up by Dr. Anmsrrone ............ First Report of the Committee for investigating the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian Forma- tions of England, and the quantity and character of the Water supplied to various towns and districts from these formations. The Committee consisting of Professor Hurt, Mr. E. W. Brynny, Mr. F. J. Bran- weLL, Rey. H. W. Crossxny, Professor Green, Professor HARKNESS, Mr. Hower, Mr. W. Motynevux, Mr. C. Moorr, Mr. G. H. Morron, Mr. R. W. Myxnz, Mr. Penertiy, Professor Prestwicn, Mr. J. Puant, Mr. J. Metiarp Reap, Rev. W. 8. Symonps, Mr. Tyrpren Waricnrt, Mr. Wuiraker, and Mr. C. E. DeRancz (Reporter) .............. On the Steering of Screw-Steamers. By Professor Ossorne REYNOLDs. . Second Report of the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour, consisting of Lord Hovenron, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Chairman), Jacop Brx- rENS, THomAs Brassry, M.P., Franx P. Frertows, Arcnisatp Hamit- ton, Professor Lronr Lrvi, A. J. Munprria, M.P., Wu. Newmanrcn, F.R.S., Lord O’Hacan, R. J. Ines Paterave, Professor THoronp Rocrers. Drawn up by Professor Leone Luvi, F.8.A., F.S.8. ... Second Report of the Committee, consisting of W. CuanpLer Rozerts, Dr. Mitts, Dr. Boycorr, A. W. Gaprspen, and J. 8. Sznton, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the Method of making Gold-assays, and of stating the Results thereof. Drawn up by W. Cranpzrr Menuabieyy Pik hs, Weerobary re Lee OS ad Pe eth oe eet Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Everrit, Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Professor J. Clerk Maxwe tt, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, F.M.S., Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor A. Grixre, F.R.S., Jameus GuatsHER, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. GRanam, GrorcEr Maw, F.G.S., W. Prn- GELLy, F.R.S., 8. J. Mackin, F.G.S., Professor Hux, F.R.S., Professor Anstep, F.R.S., Professor Prestwicn, F.R.S., and C. Lz Nevz Fosirr, appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor Eyererr, Secretary . ‘Tides in the River Mersey. Half-tide Level at Liverpool. By Jamus /) SEPOYTTETETEOUIS COAL GIGI ae mm SER Pd ee Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. THomas Witr- sire, M.A., F.G.8., Professor Wittramson, F.2.8., and JamzsTHomson, F.G.8., Secretary, appointed to investigate the Structure of the Carbo- EE SEAS eae ce Goth a AB a. a di n'n, boar teat > Bache s) ys Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jonw Lunzocx, Bart., Professor Presiwicu, Professor T. M‘K. Hveurs, Professor W. Boyp Daweins, Rey. H. W. Crossrry, Messrs. L. C. Mrarz and R. H. Trppr- MAN, appointed for the purpose of assisting in the Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave). Drawn up by R. H. Tipprman, Reporter Page 91 112 114 141 156 161 165 166° vi CONTENTS. On the River Avon (Bristol): its Drainage-Area, Tidal Phenomena, and Dock Works. By Tuomas Howarp, M.Inst.C.E. .........2.-0505 Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barns, H. E. Dresser (Secretary), T. Hartann, J. E. Harrine, Professor Newton, and the Rey. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the possibility of establishing a “ Close Time” for the protection of indigenous animals, and for watching Bills introduced into Parlia- mont allecting this SUpJech . 4... s\.<'o ons va wuld s oe 7 Report of the Committee appointed to Superintend the Publication of the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry, the Committee consist- ing of Professor A. W. Wittramson, F.R.S., Professor Franxianp, HR b.5 and erotessor ROSCOE, sEAK.S. «2. acuke beers opacke ener Report on Dredging off the Coast of Durham and North Yorkshire in 1874. By Gzorer Srewarpson Brapy, C.M.Z.8., and Davin Rozzrt- BOM BIRR hist cite ole rea eta ete hee a pata Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1874-75, by a Committee, consisting of James Guatsuer, F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, R. P. Gree, F.G.8., F.R.A.8., C. Brooxe, F.R.S., Professor G. Forsrs, F.R.S.E., Watrer Frieut, D.Sc., F.G.S., and. Professor -A./8., Humscmmn,) FP ReAeSi yon terse s oe te On the Analytical Forms called Trees, with Application to the Theory of Chemical Combinations. By Professor Carney, F.R.S. Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Caytey, F.R.S., Pro- fessor Sroxzs, F.R.S., Professor Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Professor H. J. 8. Surrg, F.R.S., and J. W. L. Grarsumr, F.R.S., on Mathematical Tables, Professor Cavixy, Reporter:)..., 22, \c. 0s eae ee Report of the Committee, consisting of W. Srorriswoopn, F.R.S., Pro- fessor Sroxrs, F.R.S., Professor Caytey, F.R.S., Professor Crrrvorp, _ FLRS., and J. W. L. Guaisuer, F.R.S., appointed to report on Mathe- matical Notation and Printing, with the view of leading Mathemati- cians to prefer in optional cases such forms as are more easily put into type, and of promoting uniformity of notation .................. Second Report of the Committee appointed to investigate Intestinal Secre- tion. By Dr. Lauper Brunton and Dr. Pyz-Smiro.............. Third Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, consisting of Hoeyry Witter, F.G.8., R. A. C. Gopwin-Avsten, F.RB.S., W. ToPLey, F.G.S., T. Davison, F.R.S., Professor J. Presrwrcn, F.R.S., Professor Borp Dawxins, F.R.S., and Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S. Drawn up by Henry Witterr, F.G.S. Page 175 184 184 185 305 339 CONTENTS, yu NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. REE mILIEHIGIELEL AS-i op Se SEAR eh Heed A sone iniSN er ate ke Grea i Mlaldisels atdle ree etedss MatTHEMATICS. Professor R, 8. Bau on a Screw-complex of the Second Order............ Professor CayLEy on the Analytical Forms called Factions .............. Professor CirirFoRD on the Theory of Linear Transformations: I. The Gra- hical Representation of Invariants; Il, The Expansion of Unsymmetrical nections in Symmetrical Functions and Determinants; III. The Notation BeaMv lr COSMMCa fePetcfote lay ssi foi 8 aie sealsh Vela g ca waked Gop auc, eLeseaaa chs LoNGde asebobaetHd — on Theorems on the n* roots of Unity............ Mr. W. HaypEN on some Geometrical Theorems .............00cceeeeees Mr. Henry M. Jerrery’s two Memoirs :—I. On the Shadows of Plane Curves on Spheres; IH. On Cubic Spherical Curves with triple Cyclic Ares and NE EM ee Pa ris LN Sc ata eae he ital Hae ath Mince em Uae wlaN sient Professor Paut Mawnsron’s Elementary Solution of Huyghens’s Problem on ESC LSI CERT § 77 1 ee een ea nee ae ———_————— on the singular Solutions of Differential Equations of the First Order which represent Lines at Infinity..................6- Professor Henry J. SterPHEN SuirH on Singular Solutions .............. — on the Effect of Quadric Transformation fee ottietiinr Points of a COrves). ici cieas ds sssage ican ntianees ences LEDER ido 8 Bie Yo Sic AEE ETRE Th Cs II eT ek Ye Sir W. THomson on Laplace’s Process for determining an Arbitrary Constant in the Integration of his Differential Equation for the Semidiurnal Tide . General Integration of Laplace’s Differential Equation of NR ee Nila eM EI gc coc ute a ATC AS ANG Seow whe opel o's, cs, ein a ba Foeye nye ———_——— on the Integration of Linear Differential Equations with MerTUpBAN (OCKICLONES 0 i.)2 ss Waldo had vase rind sn sin cosh Sebo noo GEe Page Address by Professor BALFourR Strwart, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President of 1 vili CONTENTS. ASTRONOMY. Dr. J: JANSSEN on the’Total Solar Eclipse of April 5,1875, observed at Bang- Chal: Star) 20 e. 9. ans scace nfeve tetris» nssscrapens (2 is ae, sheet ee ee ee Se Rey. R. Many’s List of Meteors observed at Oxford ee ay Lieut, Hat, anp ELEec tricity. Captain W. pr W. Asney on the Ratio of the Actinic Power to the Muminating Power of the Magneto-Electric Light ........+..+.25+-+,sceesv eee ce Dr: J. JANSSEN on) Mirageiat Sea... cs. s «isle vets ee eitle etal piel ethene eae ee on the Photographic Revolver, and on the Observations of the Transitiof Venus made:in Japan. 6... «serie +,x/o)etoahetelel peta tee eee Mr. A. Matxtoc# on a Mode of producing a sharp Meridian Shadow........ Professor Sroxrs and Mr. J. Hopxrnson on the Optical Properties of a Titano- STICIG' GASS) Nis 5 Seal sie afele Salers operate: thede fotireteiers «iaedeberefep lie «Cina: ae aa Professor W. F. Barrett on the Effects of Heat on the Molecular Structure Olmsteel Wires anid, FROGS... 2\s cau ocular ces > v8 olsce baci CRIES ote en eee Mr. P. Branam’s Experiments on Magnetized Rings, Plates, and Disks of JePIG Gin Eee) Mie annie seats acon atiote Genre oto Gonos Sabi > oc ma. Mr. J. A. Fiemme on the Decomposition of an Electrolyte by Magneto- leciric Induction: . azpeitins) cha dtl melaepete st avesrete sc ialakeds 16th. tale Weal eee re Dr. J. JANssEN on the Position of the Magnetic Equator in 1 the Gulf of Siam andin-thesGulfiot Benpalexegy. p40 ea)-1-\0 tokio a a One. De a Mr. H. A. Rowxanp on the Magnetizing Function of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt ———_—— — on Magnetic Distribution ............... cues cere ees Sir W. THomson on the Effect of Stress on the Magnetism of Soft Iron .... Murtroroioey. Professor Henry Hennessy on the Influence of the Physical Properties of Water on Climate a sey ed Se ee PA Fe We be DD 6.6 Clergie © = 6016 6 be v6 StU e MuaeNneray —— on the possible Influence on Climate of the sub- stitution of Water for Land in Central and Northern Africa ............ Dr. J. Morrat on the apparent Connexion between Sun-spots, Atmospheric Ozone, Rain, ‘and:Horce’ af“Windstnc..necentse och so nee cre clk rele nae Mr. G. J. Symons on the Rainfall in Monmouthshire and the Severn Valley on July 14th, and on some subsequent Floods in England and Wales CHEMISTRY. Address by A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., President of Phe SCctonl * 56 cteise dieters dete cbse Cccetete coal clei aa ashe ec Mr. A. H. ALLEN ona Method of effecting a Solution of difficultly Soluble Sub- BEATIGES "2,5 c'e1s aiete nile sie sietensi Were ote te hier ieteteie & ote slat ctato fete tee ere Dr. Henry E. Armstrone on the Nature of Berthelot’s Vinylic Alcohol . Mr. G. H. Beckett and Dr. C. R. AtpEr Wricur on the Alkaloids of the Aconites a ee 0 Ob ae Os vee oo ee 0 0 8 dre 0 4 age vile 10 0 0 iw 8 e one sv ehie® 0s eL0 ie) Sas Win WERUnl ls SuE eC oelellg te, s © ee bled (0 ee ye © o die Ble ble Oe b O1ele soe ye ae ie ee8 Ue Cnnene Page 26 ne CONTENTS. Page Mr. P. Bravam’s further Experiments on Crystallization of Metals by Elec- nr oes rece ccc cess teem tenenerus ce perse tats ‘Mr. Henry T. Cxamperarn on the Manufacture and Réfining of Sugar in Bristol, 1875....... Pe rate eee Riera ape ersthss yes Perea siti a wsra a ile (01% (ol'ee atale Me Mr. F. Crowes on the Action of Ethyl-bromobutyrate upon Ethyl-sodaceto- SPEER ECHINT E TTT cia V Pia Rro Taha bar afdtet oi oiclel orlelevctat eller ailabetlolate! cvelenelatelis asa le/ste we svele ® Mr. Tuomas Davey on the Tobacco Trade of Bristol ..........++0+eee es Mr. A. 8. Davis on a simple Method of Determining the Proportion of Car- WPT NOTOEITN ANT) coi aictsre ciate oi site os 0 suspen ae ofefeynte wide a eg rip,auncean sie ihe. Dr. DeBus on the Chemical Theory of Gunpowder .....-..ees severe eens Mr. SparkE Evans on the Manufacture of Sole-leather in Bristol.......... Mr. T. Farrury on the Separation of Lead, Silver, and Mercury, with a pro- posed process for estimation of Lead .......... seeeeeer rere eee ernes — on anew Method of preparing Periodates, with Application as a Test for Iodine and Sodium .......... eee eeee cere tere renee eres on new Solvents for Gold, Silver, Platinum, &c., with an Explanation of the so-called Catalytic Action of these Metals and their Salts on Hydrogen Dionide ..........eeeeeseee sete ere ener sete sees —__—_. on the Use of Potassium Dichromate in Grove’s and Bunsen’s Batteries to ensure constancy 61... esse cee eee e ee teeter ees Mr. J. W. GateHouse on Nitrite of Silver 21... . cece cece eee eee eens Dr. J. H. Grapstonr on the Relation of the Arrangement of the Acids and Bases in a Mixture of Salts to the original manner of Combination ...... and Mr. Atrrep Trrsr on the Action of the Copper- —_————— on the Augmentation of the Chemical Activity of Aluminium by contact with a more Negative Metal. Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt on an Apparatus for estimating Carbon Bisul- phide in Coal-gas 2.00... seen eee e ete cere teen etter eee e ne en seen’ Messrs. L. Jackson and A. OppENHEIM on Derivates of Mercaptan........ Mr. Cuartes T. Kinezert on the Oxidation of the Essential Oils.—The Limited Oxidation of Terpenes and Cymene .......... see serene erneee Mr. J. C. Mexuiss on the Treatment of Sewage .....sesseete rere ene nees Mr, A. OPPENHEIM on Onynoitic Acid 6.1... eee eee cent eee ees Dr. T. L. Purpson on Noctilucine ...... ccc cece cece eee nee e ee cnees Mr. Wiirram THomson on Apparatus and Modes of Examination for the Source of Polluted Air ........ccceeee tener ect ernest tenner seerees Professor T. E. THORPE on a new Gaseous Compound of Fluorine and Phos- PCy aiele 21533 !- ithe Ua erie wala ha ge T+ sald «be ae)digeiel albpe yey ote oe 4 cdots Dr. Wit11am A. TivEN on the Crystalline Constituents of Aloes ........ Dr. Jonn Warts on Miintz and Ramspacher’s Apparatus for the Estimation PEP RTIT ECR ACIG ® ook ois, cn Bea ee on Ia Neha: wane RR UE Vetere leone ie Paar ew ae Welty GEOLOGY. Address by THomas Wricut, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., President of the SIECLLON) varapiteteteceiatateraterets Pets! ste" ctatarec io’ ghatohcietelo’otelels/oCotelele'els wines s reen sey s« D.¢ CONTENTS. Page My. Wituram Heimer Barry on a new Species of Labyrinthodont Amphiba from the Coal at Jarrow Colliery, near Castlecomer, co, Kilkenny Rey. James BrovieE on the Action of Ice in what is usually termed the Gla- Cla Period. sresrs.c 3 seeps Cos Heciely ls Wee e mere Spela o ete ser ee Rey. P. B. Bropr® on the further Extension of the Rheetic or Penarth Beds in Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, and Cumber- land; and on the Occurrence of some supposed Remains of a new Labyrin- thodon and a new Radiate therein ee Oe ee a CO eet We Ora) ce Dr. W. B, CarPENTER on the Origin of the Red Clay found by the ‘ Chal- lengeriat/ereat Deptha in ‘the Ocean .)..% |. |. 1 ties «rye ee cose i eneieiel ene —_—_—_—__—_——_——— on the Condition of the Sea-bottom of the North Pacific, as shown by the Soundings recently taken by the U.S. Steamship ‘Tuscarora’ Messrs. HanDEL CossHaM, Epwarpd WETHERED, and WaLTER SalIseE on the Northern End of the Bristol Coalfield... 6... canes eass geumensvogenas Dr. CLemEnT Lr Neve Foster on the Deposit of Tin-ore at Park of Mines, St. Columb, Cornwall Mr. Epwarp Fry on Moraines as the retaining Walls of Lakes............ Mr. A. H. Green on the Variations in Character and Thickness of the Millstone-grit of North Derbyshire and the adjoining parts of Yorkshire, and on the probable manner in which these Changes have been produced. . Mr. J. G. GRENFELL on Carboniferous Encrinites from Clifton and from Lancashire Ovi ete e 0.0 O06 (6.0) oR, 6s 0 }8 Mee’ p. © 6) e.6).0K0 mine oly nip o.8.8 8 ie leualednin lien Oe eee eh Oe a eer ewe ee a ee eT yy Tie hs at eee rt a wy oy Mr. JoHn Guwn on the Influx and Stranding of Icebergs during the so-called Glacial Epoch, and a suggestion of the possible cause of the Oscillation of the Level of Land and Water to which that Influx may be due.......... Mr. Wiixi1am J. Harrison on the Occurrence of Rheetic Beds near Leicester Professor E. H¥BERT on the Undulations of the Chalk in the North of France, and their probable existence under the Straits of Dover Dr. J. Hector on the Geology of New Zealand ............cs.eeeeeees Mr. Henry Hicxs on some Areas where the Cambrian and Silurian Rocks oeeur as Conformable Series Cone @lee ol elein © ee ble © wie 0 2 6,60 © nen 6 6 0 8) ¢ 6 6a elaine 8 Mr. Joun Hopkinson on the Distribution of the Graptolites in the Lower Ludlow Rocks near Ludlow :.., .4m secdee pa ok pate © alk siete ile ae ae Prof. T. M*K. Huauss on the Classification of the Sedimentary Rocks Professor Epwarp Huu on the Discovery, by Count Abbot Castracane, of Diatomacez in Coal from Lancashire and other places Mr. G. Henry Kinanan on the Drifting-power of Tidal Currents and that of Wind-waves : ee Mr. G. A. Lesour on the Limits of the Yoredale Series in the North of England _... wed ds bu can eh Se Ree nt dae acaen ye A Mr."D. Macxrnrosu on the Geological meaning of the term “ River-basin,” and the desirability of substituting “‘ Drainage-area ” SS on the Origin of two polished and sharpened Stones from Cefn Cave —..-——— 0n existing Ice-action in Greenland and the Alps, com- pared with former Ice-action in the N.W. of England and Wales........ Mr. J. M*Murrrie on certain Isolated Areas of Mountain-Limestone at Luck- ington and Vobster Os (0 Vie oe vie G85 ed 8 ele ee Wk else 8 8 e Pee Se ale le nya (se) «Biel ®) Meee 63 64 64 G4 64 64 64 65 G5 CONTENTS. xi Mr. CuarLes Moore on the Age of the Durdham Down Deposit, yielding BR ECACORLOSCUTUS SUCs arn ich sinh t Aabolsinie 19) x aleys- MMMes> sa aes 05 of nus) uefel oie) > Slee ia jaye.s ae Mr. J. R. Mortm™er on the Distribution of Flint in the Chalk of Yorkshire. 7 ProfessorH. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON on Azygograptus, anew Genus of Graptolites Ser ea SOKIAGAW SLALCSE tree ale larersi ne) qeveke ays) oiesticietel es eitic: shale aia) slcyels! vals 3. 78 — and Mr. CuHartes Lapworts on the Cen- tral Group of the Silurian Series of the North of England .............. 78 Dr. CHartes Ricketts on the Cause of the Glacial Period, with reference Pemmer EPICS NES OSe statis oy dretoeicslad.s Upitetdale mie eels Ueno ok. 8 79 Mr. Witt1am SANDERS on certain large Bones in Rhetic Beds at Aust Cliff, onto LRUGL SS Rp Aas Sar Geert Bele Re RRS RE IOP I Oe 60 CRU OC ere a aan ea 80 Mr. W. W. Sroppart on Auriferous Limestone at Walton .............. 81 Rey. W.'S. Symonps on Changes of Climate during the Glacial Period .... 82 My. E. B. Tawney on the Age of the Cannington-Park Limestone, and its Relation to Coal-measures South of the Mendips .,..............-.000- 82 Mr, J. E. Tayvtor on the Discovery of a Submerged Forest in the Estuary of BtepOh Olle. s(), ci cic, aos. s ort haa dae 4 tok ot eae + SERRE ys ANGE CONG 82 Professor J. TENNANT on the South-African Diamonds ..............0005 82 Mr. James THoMSON on a new Genus of Rugous Corals from the Mountain- MBinmestone of Scotland”. >. dissect sae dd eatin ae DekayenA alone atekeune 83 Mr. Wiiitam A. TratIxi on the Occurrence of a Lower Boulder-clay, or Till with Shells, in the Counties of Down and Mayo, Ireland ................ 83 —_____—+__————_ on a Mass of Travertine or Calcareous Tuff, called “The Glen Rock,” near Ballycastle, County Mayo, Iveland.............. 84 Dr. THomas Wricurt on the Reptilian Remains from the Dolomitic Conglo- MELESPH MOL OD UTC ANU SE) OWL? oh c.ins cheno: aeshensue ous oytfiaiins aval oo Uaxnel ody |n. eset eS obra vole 85 BIOLOGY. Address by P. L. Scuater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., President of the ETAL a acu! 7A Ge ORE Oe DOD DRE RE DDE Bb to open Cn UEeie ete f 85 Botany EPR SCE AMOR SPACOICSS ta:5) cizieiojsrtgices Ne HOSES RG: bee cs Ov me Rade aelgne des 85 Professor BALFouR on Rare Plants from Scotland ............. cece eens 156 Mr. I. Baytey Baxrour on Turneracee from Rodriguez ..............6+ 156 © on the Geological Structure and Flora of the Mas- carene Islands ....,......... HES Bole AEOOS So OOo Pig eG e SOAR nae Ae 157 Professor A. Dickson on an Abnormality of Primula vulgaris with Interpeta- eam CSM ae Teen Taare Vale ott sats. ctnerstenisiele cfs css Meta city wersceiss 157 —————— on a Monstrosity in Saxifraga stellaris ...........445 157 —____- on Abnormal Flowers of Trop@olum......... 00. ee 157 Professor W. R. M°Nas on a Variety of Polypodium vulgare .........00005 158 — ona Varibhy Of Pubes csi. ieee Hilal Viislt's ola we 158 Mr. J. J. MonrEro on the Application of the Fibre of Adansonia digitata .. 158 Dr. Daviy Moore on Spiranthes Romanzoviana..... ccc ccec ce ceen en eunes 158 xi CONTENTS. Page Mr. Crcit H. Sp. PErcEVAL on a rare Species of Fungus found in Surrey .. 158 Professor W. ©. WILLIAMSON on some Fossil Seeds from the Lower Carbo- niferous Beds of Laneashire: 3200.64.60 eee de vemt ee eee se sens wee 159 ZooLoey. Dr; SOLATER’S Address) joys iis) sis eicevsQoass'ore 216 s\oys nels Vie» ayneae fokonaehe hes ee 85 Dr. Purire P. CARPENTER on the Primary Divisions of the Chitonide...... 161 Dr. W. B. CARPENTER on the Nervous and Generative Systems of the Crinoidea 161 Dr. Hecror on the Occurrence of Moa-bones in New Zealand ............ 161 Dr. C. T. Hupson on the Classification and Affinities of the Rotifera ...... 161 Mr. ALFRED NEwTon on certain Neglected Subjects of Ornithological Inves- PLO AULOTI ean MPa a ase atccalevens ahs ts ates ete'a itavape,« ntitr ete ak cae aia ete itt 162 Mr. 1); AV SpanpinG on Instinct and Acquisition 7.0.0.0... 100055005 geee 163 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. Professor CLELaNnp’s Address to the Department of Anatomy and Physiology 154 Mr. Henry B. Brapy on a new Method of taking Photographs of Microsco- pical Objects, devised by Mr. Hugh T. Bowman ...........+..+ssee0e 163 Mr. W. J. Cooper on some Physiological Effects of various Drinking-Waters 163 Professor Dewar and Dr. M‘Kenpricxk on the Physiological Action of the Whinodine and @Pyridine’ Bases 2". io. s+ «seve 6 5 cle Heiesrinegs ie aaa 165 Drs. GrorGr and Frances EvizaBretTH Hoeean on the Origin of the Lym- (DRCIICS GAR thin SOmntinend & Racin nenOnMineinin Dumaibinericmcuninin ao doo nd 70 6 165 Mr. D. J. GoopMan on Protoplasm and Adipocere ..........e+eeesserees 167 Mr. F. GrEENwoop on the Preservation of the Bodies of the larger Animals FEO BUD SSGCULOM say fens yolcusretohets (liciomit- Gaps ligoausvenegey ocala’ aisle) caaleess (ares eee a 167 Mr. C. O. Groom-Naprer on Vegetarianism..........-.esscesesesersens 169 Mr. P. Hatiert on the Bearings of “the Conservation of Force” on Life .. 169 Dr. Martyn on some new Researches on the Anatomy of the Skin ........ 169 Messrs. L. C. Mratz and F. Grreenwoop on Vascular Plexuses in the Ele- phanbrand "other tAmimals'~.<.:.lev. eters oretetedaye tects) sacl tetetele skates et tice 170 ANTHROPOLOSY. Professor RoLLEsTon’s Address to the Department of Anthropology........ 142 Dr. Joun Beppor on the Ossuary at Rothwell, in Northamptonshire ...... 170 Miss A. W. Buckianp on Rhabdomancy and Belomancy ................ 170 Colonel Carrin@Ton on the Indians of the North-western United States.... 171 Mr. Hypr Crarxe on Prehistoric Culture in India and Africa ............ 171 on Prehistoric Names of Weapons ..........00+++se00- 172 on the Himalayan Origin of the Magyar and Fin Languages 172 Rev. J. Eartx on the Ethnography of Scotland ..........0..ee eee e eens 172 Mr. R, Epwarps on Recent Discoveries of Flint Implements in Drift-gravels an Middlesex, Essex, sand) Barks) . 31. s:,.00. ss\shoels akon came op ae eee 173 Sir Watter Exvrior on the Original Localities of the Races forming the pre- Boibek OPUIAMON OR URGIN, .. . Ce ccc sits to oa. «once ee cit 175 CONTENTS. My. Joun Evans ona new Code of International Symbols for use on Prehistoric WITH): Qn Qk O UP OD SOE OOO E CPD OER EOUOEE: REC RnOnOOUE Chie mnna emda Colonel A. H, Lanz Fox on Recent Investigations in Cissbury Camp, Sussex Rey. W. W. Grtx on the Origin of the South-Sea Islanders on some Traditions of the Hervey Islanders Dr. J. H. Guapstone on the Recent Discovery of a Stone Implement in the Brick-earth of Erith, Kent Mr. Bertram F, TartrsHorRNE on the Weddas of Ceylon mite ofc) 8) cio) Ghutete sie are sl evel y sheets ale’ h oe) 6 0 es» 6 8) 6 ae 6 Dr. Lerrner on an Ethnological and Linguistic Tour of Discovery in Dar- PURINA CS rerch Set os cvov ey sn crereve MRE Ae NRO tS ee Wa Re ORRENS aare Mr. D, MacxrytosH on Anthropology, Sociology, and Nationality f 6 @0:an6i'p Mr. Ropert MricHet on the supposed lost Language and Antiquity of the Kirghiz, or Buruts Mr. CuarzeEs O. Groom Napier on the Localities from whence the Gold and Tin of the Ancients were derived Dr. T. Nrcizonas on a new Paragraph in Early English History .......... Mr. W. PENGELLY on the Archeological Discoveries in Kent’s Cavern, Tor- TTA? 5 cco Sap aig lo tet ree RO eee ei Lo Dee yee ie b aca als og on a recent Notice of Brixham Cavern................ Dr. J. S. Pené on the Works, Manners, and Customs of the Early Inhabi- tants of the Mendips Rey. Canon Rawuryson on the Ethnography of the Cimbri .......,...... Professor ROLLESTON on the Animal Remains found in Cissbury Camp on the Applicability of Historical Evidence to Ethno- em Ss (a) Oe «wv whe leo 6 a's eye) eh) MG bh eee ela 6 ee he) 0 ela sie) 8.8 8, m Dr. Sruums on the Physiopnomy of the Har......... 00. cece ccc eee e eee Mr. W. 8. W. Vavx on the Origin of the Maori Races in New Zealand .... Mr. C. Stantnanp WAKE on the Predatory Races of Asia and Europe; a Beep ereine MOLDS Me arse te ctpir is one un ee eos Sab ae ly ad saree aa ay akah als Mr. Hopprr M. Wesrropr on the Cycle of Development graphical Inquiries GEOGRAPHY. Address by Lieut.-General R. Stracury, R.E., 0.8.1, F.R.S., President of the Section EOC” DMO RCCRCHON ACRICIICNTOR eCIOONONCLS ge 1 Cate. Wr Oe Neer iC J NEM mC emcees nPe re res Dr. J. C. Brown on the Physical Geography of South Africa, and Products and Prospects of the Cape of Good Hope COC ee SWC ie Cat SNe May Set Yt ie Se eg ae: on the late Inundations in France viewed in connexion with Reboisement and Gazonnement on the Alps, Cevennes, and Pyrenees, em- ployed as a means of extinguishing and preventing the Formation of Torrents Mcer eS) e Peele els eo 8. v6 6b 6 os aq so. w aie) aml alai ets mile aide Bde aty Wee Cleon, a eh setae E's’ 6 —————— on South-African Torrential Floods viewed in connexion with the late Inundations in the Valley of the Garonne and its Affluences, and Measures adopted in France to prevent such Floods ................ Dr. W. B. Carpenter on Bearings of recent Observations on the Doctrine of Oceanic Circulation Be 6b e) aiel Wim aie) aw oe k Welt eS an 6, bh 6 pe ee 6 0b wae 0 as a nel ee ae wig xu Page 173 175 1738 180 189 189 XIV CONTENTS. Page Lieutenant CHIpPINDALE on a Journey towards the Outlet of the Nile from the Ilia) Vall eng CVI Be Sen 0 G0 Cte DOO SOIOOIN DIDS O25 0-8 0.00.6 0.o05.5 ¢ 190 General Sir ARTHUR CoTTon on the North-west African Expedition ...... 190 Mr. James Croxt on the ‘ Challenger’s’ Crucial Test of the Wind and Gravyi- tation’ Theories: of Oceanic’ Circulation...)..(. » aa.) Bie ote ee 193 Colonel T. G. MonrcomMeErie on Himalayan Glaciers ................000 193 Mr. E. DetMar Morean on Prejevalsky’s Travels in Mongolia and Northern PRD Etipcegsy Mouses cep ayciaisbs sit ievelet a Cieaeracs spivti cht stars alk pee a tsk 194 Dr. G. Nacutieau’s Expedition from the Lake Tchad to the Upper Nile .. 195 Captain the Hon. G. Napier on the Turcoman Frontier of Persia Lieut.-Colonel R. L. PLAyFarr’s Exploration of the Aurés Mountains .... 195 Captain H. Toynsrx on the Physical Geography of that part of the Atlantic which lies between 20° N, and 10° S. and extends from 10° to 40° W. ,... 196 Major Hersert Woop on Changes in the Course of the Oxus ............ 197 Colonel Yuux on Trade-Routes to Western! Ching viens. 0s tac ty eee 197 ECONOMIC SCIENCE anp STATISTICS. Address by Jamzs Hrywoop, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Pres. Statistical Society, Presidentiot the Section. ;y csese sacs cc cumecees ole ote 197 Major-General Sir J. E. ALexanprER on the probable Cost and Propriety of removing to England the fallen Obelisk of Alexandria, presented to Great Bata by the Vache OF Hey yt, 0. cok a aciee 3 «ose». sey os be 204 Dr, Joun Beppox on the Need of Systematic Observations on the Physical Udtarncters of Manin’ Beltaih oo50 i cwihs tis. «100. 0 esate a 204 —_—_- on the Mortality of Adolescence .............s.ce0ecees 205 ——-——-—— on the Death-rates of some Health-Resorts, and specially ENO RERUOE Os 5 isin ede av aid intars els auld oa Ree ee el fee ee 205 Mons. Bonnomr on Sericicultura . $22. c.u hese: «».os16 ose ee sacan ee 206 Mr. Wit11aM Borty on Agricultural Statistics and Waste Lands........., 206 <= on’ Workmen's Dwellinbs®.) sic jvc yet ee 206 Mr. E. W. Brasroox on the Working of the Building Societies Act, 1874.. 206 Mr. Lronarp Bruton on the Trade and Commerce of the City and Port of ASRESUOL, 9) 22 1S IE LY, Uae ure wets tates tae ct ciara one 207 Rev. Joun T. Burr on the Principles of Penal Legislation.—Second Paper... 207 Miss CarpENnTER on Industrial Schools OREO ER IE NOHO e Me os 1 209 Mr. Henry CHAMBERLAIN on the Rise and Progress of the Sugar Trade in BustebA8VS -0, bivicager i hadley, 8h, 790 ee 209 Mrs. R. M. Crawsway on Domestic Service for Gentlewomen ............ 209 Mr, Sparke Evans on the Tanning of Sole-Leather in Bristol ..:......... 209 o. CONTENTS. Bo” Mrs. Witt Grey on the Standard of National Education My. P. Hatyett on Income Fallacies and some of their Consequences Professor W. STANLEY JEVONS on the Progress of the Coal Question on the Influence of the Sun-spot Period upon Mr. D, MacxrnTosu on the prevailing Mode of Preparation for Competitive BME ONS UANS Cus Sara PORRS fis TMC KARA sh Gite MLE OTe. oka Dr. F. J. Movar on the Value of European Life in India in its Social, Poli- tical, and Economic Aspects Mr. C. O. Groom Napier on Legislative Protection to the Birds of Europe . Mrs. BuApEN NEIxu on the Acclimatization of the Silkworm.............. Mr. Toomas Francis PEAcocK on Building Societies and the Act of 1874... Miss A. M. PrrestMan on the Industrial Position of Women as affected by their exclusion from the Suffrage Mr. D. A. SpaLpineG on Free Trade in Labour O50) O01) O 8) Odea a) a) a ol meee 4/816) oa ee eS eMalciaMe naib, éha co a eee aie i668 uel a) ome ie ea eb 6 wie Mr. E. Vrv1An on the Comparative Mortality of Abstainers and Non-Abstainers from Alcoholic Liquors DE wher 6 she wid oel ale pas ers @) mrsy 60s) 60 0) si @te/ eye) Wi Gen! 68) 6. 0a 6) a ote onesie MECHANICAL SCIENCE. Address by Wiutu1am Frovpr, C.E., M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section 2) OSG OS CLC ROC CASON UCC CHORE OSM ACRE MCHC MCE a ALR a RCM RCHE EP Ye eR Mr. FrepEerick AsuMEaD on the Drainage of the City and County of Bristol Mons, C. BERGERON on the Prevention of Sand Bars at the Mouth of Harbours Mr. Watter R. Browne on Roberts’s Patent Communicator for Railway Trains é Seana LS MEN gees Cage) S), 5) A'S Sele (ees mse) Wiailaie 0, Sel a raeailel @ Get uoata ‘aitaustas oFeveliel cra. t Mr. James Brunuexs on the Bristol Port and Channel Dock at : Avonmouth, near Bristol PE rit SAS OB UAUe Kp Sod 9 faye ch LAST ais ca) Te roman Mee espns TaN a) ayoy sixe Youl> Si aa awivaitn: at's) otal nn, Ooo. J SPD Oe Mn shat STS aa at (ei mi 8 ig. \6 for ola ehas ahistal's (S.-i bhe Pees ears nae t)'s) 4b es, ia 6/8) 0. a) Rte, 8! poe at pivele.@ aie Mr. J. D. Cogan on Toughened Glass Messrs. CRICHTON and CraiG ona System of Audible Signals for Railways... 2 Mr. Witi1am Denny on the Trials of Screw Steam-Ships Mr. Francis Fox on the Bristol joint Station Mr. R. R. Harper on Block-signalling on Railways ae J. Hopxrnson on Improvements in the Clockwork of Revolving Light- ouses Professor Huru’s Scheme of Water-supply for the Villages and Country Parishes of the Central and Eastern Counties of England ............. x Mr, Henry Masters on a Sewer-Trap ..... 0.0.0... .0. ces cecsceccce, Mr. Cuarzes Ricwarpson on tho Severn Tunnel 250 Xvl CONTENTS. Mr. Jamus N. SHootprep on Tides in the Irish Sea ............. Seccektare 250 Mr. W. Smrru on A. S. Hallidie’s Wire Rope Traction-Railway ......... , 252 —~—— on a Means of Recording the Movements of Points and Signals 252 —- on a Breech-loading Mountain Gun ............cseeeeeeee 252 —_______. one Military Bidom.s cu... o. ct oe + «pial eihte emanate , 252 Mr, BG, Srimmman on Portishead Dock: \.)..().. isin: » »ichswicope ses oeueiyeenatetlety 252 Messrs. SrRouUDLFY and RusBRIDGE on Communication between Passengers TIA TIALS. cots 5 jcedeal « iohwiale Sng oem p Se sain p ious eae» ls gio eee as 252 Mr. Joun I. Toornycrort on Vertical Motion of Vessels.............+4- 252 Sir W. THomson on a Machine for the Calculation of Tides .............. 253 —_—_____- and Mr. J. 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Oxford . Cambridge.. . Edinburgh... . Dublin . Bristol Aberdeen ... Manchester . Cambridge.. Newcastle... TRENT ceeccgame Birmingham Nottingham Dundee...... Norwich ... Exeter Liverpool... Edinburgh . Brighton ... Bradford ... Belfast Bristol ..... . Liverpool... . Newcastle... . Birmingham Glasgow ... . Plymouth... . Manchester, Presidents. The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P., E.RS. : Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....... G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof, G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.BS. Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.BS., F.R.AS. W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.RB.S., E.R.A.S. Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.8. Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., E.R.S. Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D., E.R.S J. Clerk Maxwe!l, M.A., LL.D., Prot PSG. Tait, HRS B:. oocs. W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.B.S... Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A., M.R.I.A. Prof. Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S. M.A., Secretaries. J.P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H. J.8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Rey. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison, Prof. Stevelly. Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. Rey.N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Prof. Steveliy, Rev. C. T. Whitley. Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rey. G. Buckle, Prof. Stevelly. Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G. 8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, J. M. Wilson. Fleeming Jenkin, Prof, H. J.§. Smith, Rey. 8. N. Swann. Rey. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster, Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan. Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley, R. B. Hayward. Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward, W. K. Clifford. Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford, Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen Whitworth. Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley, Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D. Everett, Rev. R. Harley. Prof. W. K. Clifford, J.W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell. Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S.Herschel. J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel, Randal Nixen, J. Perry, G. F. Rod- well. Prof.W. F. Barrett, J.W. L. Glaisher, C. T, Eudson, G. F. Rodwell. CHEMICAL SCIENCE. COMMITILE OF SCIENCES, II.— CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S....... pe P ape oh) 2, ale cas aos ‘Dr... Thomson, F.R.S.. ....0. Rey. Prof. Cumming Sete w eee eens Michael Faraday, F.B.S. ......... Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S.... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......... Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S. ... Dr. Daubeny, EARS. ....-<0.c5s000% James F. W. Johnston. Prof. Miller. Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison, SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. ..|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston. Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera- path. Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr. Reynolds. Prof. Miller, R. L. Pattinson, Thomas Richardson. Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson. Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark, Dr. L. Playfair. J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.......| Tweedy. Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham. REPORT—1875. XXXI11 Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. 1843. Cork......... Prof. ‘Apjohn, M.R.LA. ........./R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny. 1844. York......... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. .........|/Dr. R. Playfair, E. Solly,T. H. Barker. 1845. Cambridge..|Rev. Prof. Cumming..........+-.. Bae J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller, . Solly. 1846.Southampton|Michael Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S.|Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall. 1847. Oxford ...... Rev.W.V.Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.|B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly. 1848. Swansea .../Richard Phillips, F-R.S. ........./2. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams. 1849. Birmingham|John Percy, M.D., F.RB.S.........- R. Hunt, G. Shaw. 1850. Edinburgh .|Dr. Christison, V. P. R.S.E. ..|Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson. 1851. Ipswich .../Prof. Thomas Graham, F. R. bis ..|I. J. Pearsall, W. 8S. Ward. 1852. Belfast ...... Thomas Andrews, M.D., FRS.. ese Gaerne, Prof. Hodges, Prof. onalds. 18535 Hull ct... Prof. i F. W. Johnston, M.A.,/H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J. B.RS Pearsall. 1854, Liverpool... nae W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Price. 1855. Glasgow ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .|Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe. 1856. Cheltenham |Prof. B. C. Brodie, FERS. ree e J. aoe P. J. Worsley, Prof. oelcker. 1857. Dublin ...... Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,|Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- M.R.LA. livan. 1858. Leeds ...... Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,)Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey- D.C.L. nolds. 1859. Aberdeen ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S..|J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D. Liveing, Dr. Odling. 1860. Oxford ...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...... A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, A. B. Northcote. 1861. Manchester .|Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S./A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing. 1862, Cambridge .|/Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S./H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof. Roscoe. 1863. Newcastle.../Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, F.R.S./Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C. Stevenson. 1864. Bath......... W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S. |A.V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R. Biggs. 1865. Birmingham/Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S.|A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof. Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills. 1866. Nottingham/H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S....|J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J. Russell, J. White. 1867. Dundee ...|Prof.T. Anderson,M.D.,F.R.S.E./A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing, W. J. Russell. 1868. Norwich ...|Prof.E. Frankland, F.R.S.,F.C.S./Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus- sell, F. Sutton. 1869. Exeter ...... Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...|/Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. W. J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson. 1870. Liverpool...|Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S.,|Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., A. E. F.C.S. Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell. 1871. Edinburgh |Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. |J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T. B. Thorpe. 1872. Brighton ...|Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....... Dr. Mils W. Chandler Roberts, Dr. ; W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood. 1873. Bradford .../Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S......./Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chan- dler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe. 1874, Belfast ....../Prof. A. Crum-Brown, M.D., Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand- F.R.S.E., F.C.8. ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe. 1875. Bristol ...... A, G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,‘Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler E.R.S., F.C.S8. Roberts, W. A. Tilden. GEOLOGICAL (ann, unm 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE. 1832. Oxford .. 1833. Cambridge . G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. 1854, Edinburgh .|Prof. Jameson ..|R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8. ere e rene ease et ennees COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.— GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY, John Taylor. ..|W. Lonsdale, John Phillips. Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie, Rey. J. Yates. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, XXXili Date and Place. 1835. Dublin 1836. Bristol ...... 1837. Liverpool... 1838. Newcastle... 1839. Birmingham 1840. Glasgow ... 1841. Plymouth .. 1842. Manchester 1844. York 1845. Cambridge . eee tenes Secretaries. Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie. Presidents. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY, is aia GUPIANUNY fecdecceess eteveves eoend | Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo- graphy. R. 1. Murchison,F.R.S. Rey.Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Geo- graphy. G.B.Greenough,F-.R.S. graphy. Lord Prudhope. Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo- graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S. Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geogra- phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. H. T. Dela Beche, F.R.S.......... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......... Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S., M.R.I1.A. Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres. Geol. Soe. Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. 1846. Southampton 1847. Oxford 1848. Swansea 1849. Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh * eeeeee 1851. Ipswich 1852. Belfast 1853. Hull 1854. Liverpool . . seeece Beeneenee 1855. Glasgow ... 1856. Cheltenham 1857. Dublin 1858, Leeds Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geogra- phy. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S8. Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S. Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B., EBS. Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S. William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, T. J. Torrie. Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo- graphy. Captain H. M. Denham,R.N. \C. Lyell, F.R.S., V-P.G.8.—Geo-\W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.— Geography. Capt. Washington. George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strickland, Charles Darwin. W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh Murray, H. E. Strickland, John Scoular, M.D. W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D., R. Hutton. E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R. Lloyd, H. EH. Strickland. Francis M. Jennings, H. E, Strick- and. Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury. Rey. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay, Rev. W. Thorp. Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D., Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C. T. Beke. Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. OC, Ramsay, J. Ruskin. Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof. Ramsay. J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof. A. C. Ramsay. Sir Roderick I. Murchison, F.R.8. A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro- fessor Nicol. SECTION ¢ (continued).—GEOLOGY. .../ William Hopkins, M.A., F.R.S... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ............ Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S. ... Sir R.I. Murchison, F.R.S. ...... Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide ... William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D., E.B.S. Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., FE.R.S Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D., FRS, F.GS. C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod, Searles Wood. James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol. Prof. Harkness, William Lawton. John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall, James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof, Nicol. Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rey. R. Hepworth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,T. Wright. Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro- bert H. Scott. Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. haw. Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir, H. . Sorby. Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt. Woodall. _ * At a Meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved “That the, subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to consti tute a separate Section, under the title of the ‘‘ Geographical and Ethnological Section,’- for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxvii. ¢ XXXIV rEPORT—1875. ee EEE Date and Place. 1861 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865, 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1832. 1833. 1854. 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1845. 1844, 1845. 1846, 1847. . Manchester Cambridge Newcastle Birmingham Nottingham Dundee...... Norwich . Hixeter. ...... Liverpool.. Edinburgh ., . Brighton ... 1873. 1874. 1875, Bradford . Belfast Bristol feneee .../Prof. Warington W. Smyth, Presidents. Secretaries. Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru- pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod. Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, H. C. Sorby. E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C. Sor- Sir R. I. Murchison, LL.D., F.B.8., &e. J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S....... D.C.L., E.R.S., F.G.8. by, Thomas Sopwith. Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,/W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C. E.G.S. Sorby, W. Pengelly. Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,K.C.B.|Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rey. E. Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly. Prof.A.C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.8.[R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil- son, G. H. Wright. Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.|Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry Woodward. ../R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.,|Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W. EGS. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood. Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.8./W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rev. H. H. Winwood. .|Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton,|W. A eneelly. Rev. H. H. Winwood, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton. Prof. me Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S...|R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. McKenny Hughes, L. C. Miall. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.8./L. C. Miall, George Scott, William Topley, Henry Woodward. ..(Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L., F.R.S.,|L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W. - HGS. Topley. Prof, Hull, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8./F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes, R. H. Tiddeman. Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,|L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley. F.G.S. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—-ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY, Oxford ...... Cambridge * Edinburgh Dublin Bristol Liverpool .. Neweastle. Brimingham Glasgow .. Plymouth.. Manchester etre ewes Cambridge Southampton) Oxford....... Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. .. Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, ELS... Prof, Grahattescesc..+h daageaesaccess ..|Rey. Prof. J. 8. Henslow. .|C. C. Babington, D, Don. W. Yarrell, Prof, Burnett. Dr. Allaire, ses sage enter tedavants: J. Curtis, Dr. Litton. Rey. Prof. Henslow ...........04-: J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S. Rootsey. i\Wi8. Macleay .cicccssvanemadar case C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W. Swainson. ..|Sir W. Jardine, Bart......... seee.-[J. EH. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr. Richardson. Prof. Owen Ris. <5: asesyoars, E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson. Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......... Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat- terson. .|John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.. ./J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, Hon. and Very Rev. W. ’ Herbert, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A. LL.D., F.LS. Turner. William Thom pson, F.L.S. ......|\@. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R, Pat- terson. Very Rey, The Dean of Manches- ter. Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. .... Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, Dr. Lankester. ../Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston. Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. |Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H. Wooldridge. H. E. Strickland, M.A., F\R.S..../Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. YV. Wollaston. * At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for Presidents and Sgcretaries of which see xxxp. vi. PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXXV Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries. SECTION D (continued).—zo0LOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. xxxvi.] 1848. Swansea ... 1849. Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh. . 1851. Ipswich 1852. Belfast 1853. Hull ......... 1854. Liverpool ... 1855. Glasgow 1856. Cheltenham. 1857. Dublin 1858. Leeds 1859. Aberdeen ... 1860. Oxford ...... 1861. Manchester.. 1862. Cambridge... 1863. Newcastle ... 1864. Bath waenee sent eenee 1865, Birmingham ...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. . L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S. ............ William Spence, F.R.S............. Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. ... Rey. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.S. W. Ogilby C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.... Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....... beeen eee ener tere neeaeneeees Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.... Prof. W.H. Harvey, M.D.,F.B.8. C. C. Babington, M.A., F-R.S.... Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.. Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.LS. ...... Prof. C. C, Babington, F.R.S.... Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. 0 .....6...6.- Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S. ...... Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...... Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen- frey, Dr. Lankester. ‘Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell. Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan- kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan. Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E. Lankester. Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr. Edwin Lankester. Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester. Tsaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester. ..|William Keddie, Dr. Lankester. Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman Dr. Lankester. Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester, Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele. Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. H. Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. Ogilvy. ~ W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright. Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright. Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T, Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright. Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. SECTION D (continued ).—BIOLOGY *. 1866, Nottingham./Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.—|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H. Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum-| B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B, phry, M.D., F.R.S.—Anthropo-| Tylor, Dr. EB. P. Wright. logical Dep. Alfred R. Wallace, FE.R.GS. 1867. Dundee ...... Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr. Dep. of Zool. and Bot. George| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H. Busk, M.D., F.R.S. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner. 1868. Norwich ...'Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.—|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr. Dep. of Physiology. W.H.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T. Flower, F.R.S8. Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. 1869. Exeter ...... George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.—|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster, Dep. of Bot. and Zool.C.Spence| M.D., E. Ray Lankester, Professor Bate, F.R.S.—Dep. of Ethno.| Lawson, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H. B. E, B. Tylor. Tristram. _ * At a Meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved:—‘“That the title of Section D be changed to Biology ;” and ‘That for the word ‘S 1bsection,’ in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted. c2 XXXVI REPORT—187 5. Date and Place. Presidents. 1870. Liverpool...|Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D., ¥.R.S.,F.L.S.—Dep. Anat. and Physiol. Prof. M. Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep. of Ethno. J. Evans, tea oy SHIR , Edinburgh |Prof.Allen Thomson,M.D.,F.R.S. “see 3 —Dep. of Bot.and Zool. Prof. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol. Prof. W. Turner, M.D. .|\Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.8. —Dep. of Anat. and Physiol. Dr. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S8. —Dep of Anthropol. Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S. Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and Physiol. Prof. Ru- therford, M.D.—Dep. of An- thropol. Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S. Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of Zool. and Bot. Dy. Hooker, C.B., Pres. R.S..—Dep. of An- thropol. Sir W. R.Wilde,M.D. P.L.Sclater, F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and Physiol. Prof.Cleland,M.D., - F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol. Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. 1872. Brighton .. 1873. Bradford ... 1874. Belfast ...... seneee 1875. , Bristol Secretaries. Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans, Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H, T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, C. Staniland Wake, EH. Ray Lan- kester. Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake, Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne King. Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton, Prof. Lawson, I’. W. Rudler, J. H. Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, H. Ray Lan- kester, Dr. Pye-Smith. Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson, R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E. Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J. H. Lamprey. W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning- ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W. Rudler. E. R. Alston, Dr. MeKendrick, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W. Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr. W. Spencer. ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 1833. Cambridge...|Dr. Haviland ................eceee 2 1834, Hdinburgh...|Dr. Abercrombie Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget. Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson. SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE. 1835. Dublin |Dr.\ Pritchard 00... sceseetseesescee 1836. Bristol LD Roget, MBVRIS: Noseseedtseetens se 1837. Liverpool ...!Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ............ 1838. Newcastle ...|T. E. Headlam, M.D. ............ 1839. Birmingham John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D 1841. Plymouth ... P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.S. 1842. Manchester . 1843. Cork 1844. York ‘Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S. ... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.......... J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ............ Cer ns 1845. Cambridge .|Prof. J. Haviland, M.D, ......... 1846.Southampton| Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......... 1847. Oxford* ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S........... PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS 1850. Edinburgh |{Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.\R.S. .. 1857. Dublin ...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. * * By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, under the name of “Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” ‘Lhe Section being then yacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography, Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart. Dr. Symonds. Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Voso. Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. Dr. J. Brown, Prof.Couper, Prof. Reid. ..|\Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8S. Sargent. Dr, John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY. Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster. C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent. Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P. Ormerod. OF SECTION D. .|Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers. Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern. Sections D and E were incorporated (see p. xxiv), PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, XXXVI1 - Date and Place. | . Oxford . Manchester. . Cambridge . Newcastle... weeeeeee 1865. Birminghm*. 1846. Southampton 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. ..|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.8. .. Presidents. Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,F.R.S8. Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S. Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E NCe Ma bareb iM Dvrcc.scscet- son Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F. i Se% Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.R. S. Prof, Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S. Secretaries. —. ——_— —__.. C. G. Wheelhouse. — -|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith. ..|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. .|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. J. 8S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner, GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES. [For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxxii.] Oxford Swansea .. Birmingham Edinburgh.. Ipswich .../Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8., Pres. R.G.8 ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm ... SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AN Belfast Hull Liverpool.. Glasgow Cheltenham eevee .../Sir J, Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. Col. Chesney, R.A, D.C.L., E.R.S. R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. as R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., FE.R.S. Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B. Rev. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres. R.1.A. OF SECTION D. Dr. King. . Prof. Buckley. G. Grant Francis. Dr. R. G. Latham, Daniel Wilson, D ETHNOLOGY. R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr, Norton Shaw. R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton Shaw. ...|R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr. Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw. Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. Nor- ton Shaw. R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H, Rum- sey, Dr. Norton Shaw. R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad- den, Dr. Norton Shaw. Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.8., E.R.S Ol Bear-Admiral Sir James Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.B.S. Manchester. Cambridge Newcastle.. Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., E.R.S. John Crawfurd, F.R.S8............. .|Francis Galton, F.R.S............. Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., E.R. Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., FE.RB.S. R.Cull, Francis Galton, P.O’Callaghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas Wright. Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr. Norton Shaw. Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C. Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw. Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode. J. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr. Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright. C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield, C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson. H, W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright. 1865. Birmingliam|Major-General Sir H. Rawlinson,/H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C. M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S. R. Markham, Thomas Wright. 1866. Nottingham |Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|,H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, BR. LL.D. 1867. 1868. Dundee tenes Norwich ..|Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N., F.R.S Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S... H. Major, Clements R. Markham, D. W. Nash, T. Wright. ..|H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R. Markham, S.J. Mackie, R. Sturrock. JT. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark- ham, T. Wright. * Vide note on page xxxv, XXXViii REPORT—1875. Date and Place, Presidents, Secretaries. SECTION E (continued).—GEOGRAPHY, 1869. Exeter ...... Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D.,{H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham, F.R.G.S. J. H. Thomas, 1870. Liverpool ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt., K.C.B.,,H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert 1871. 1872. LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8. Edinburgh. |Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S8. .., Brighton .../Francis Galton, F.R.S. ............ J. Mott, Clements R. Markham, Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan, J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston, H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas. H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Cle- ments R. Markham. H. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H. H. W, Bates, EH, C. Rye, F. F. Tuckett. J. E. Drinkwater. Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean. ..|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield. Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp, James Heywood, W.R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. O. W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood. F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C. C. R. Baird, Prof, Ramsay, R. W. Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, RB. W. Rawson. Rey. R. Luney, G, W. Ormerod, Dr. W. C. Tayler. Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock. J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D. J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott. 1873. Bradford .../Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.... 1874. Belfast ...... Major Wilson, R.E., F-.RS..,| E.R.G.S. Thomas. 1875. Bristol ......{Lieut.-General Strachey, R.E., C.8.L.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.G.8, STATISTICAL SCIENCE. COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS, 1833. Cambridge .|Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. ............ 1834. Edinburgh .|Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. ......... SECTION F.—STATISTICS 1835. Dublin ...... |Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ....... 1836. Bristol ...... Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S. 1837, Liverpool...{Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon ............ Tayler. 1838. Newcastle...\Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ........00- 1839. Birmingham|Henry Hallam, F\R.S. ............ Tayler. 1840. Glasgow .../Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P., E.R.S. Rawson. 1841. Plymouth...|Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. ......... 1842. Manchester .|G. W. Wood, M.P., F.LS. ...... 1843. Cork......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...... 1844. York......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S. 1845. Cambridge ./Rt. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam... 1846.Southampton|G. R. Porter, FVR.S. .........6006.. 1847, Oxford ...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... 1848. Swansea 1849. Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh .. 1851. Ipswich 1852. Belfast feenee 1853. Hull ......... 1854. Liverpool ... 1855. Glasgow ..... ...(J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...... Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton Very Rev. Dr. John Lee, V.P.R.S.E. Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. His Grace the Archbishop of Dublin. James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.... Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...... Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G. P. Neison. J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede. Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P. Neison. 'Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J. Stark. J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock. Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James MacAdam, Jun. ‘Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch. ‘E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H. Duncan, W. Newmarch. 'J. A. Campbell, EH. Cheshire, W. New- | march, Prof. R. H. Walsh. SECTION F (continued).—BCONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, 1856, Clieltenham a Hon, Lord Stanley, M.P. . ..|Rey. C. H. Bromby,E, Cheshire, Dr. W. N, Hancock Newmarch, W, M. Tartt, PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXX1x rd =e a] a aia Rt ON — —— = —————— Date and Place. Presidents, Secretaries. 1857. Dublin ...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W. Dublin, M.R.1.A. Newmarch. 1858, Leeds......... Eidward Baines) . Marshall, Walter Bae P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M. A. Tarbottom. P. Le Neve Foster, Jchn P. Smith, W. W. Urquhart. ...|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C. Manby, W. Smith. ..|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman. -|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T. King, J. N. Shoolbred. H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J. P, Smith. «...|H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster, J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. 1873. Bradford ...|W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ............ Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, 8. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. . Shoolbred. 1874. Belfast ...... Prof. James Thomson, LIL.D.,|A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John C.E., F.R.S.E. Smyth, jun. 1875. Bristol ...... W. Froude, C.E,, M.A., F.R.S....|W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. List of Evening Lectures. Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse. 1842. Manchester .| Charles Vignoles, F.R.S..........| The Principles and Construction of lon coe Atmospheric Railways. Sire. Brunel 6.0cccec 5 eee oe The Thames Tunnel. Re Le Murchison, ',).0s3.¢stcssseess The Geology of Russia. 1843, Cork......... Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ......) The Dinornis of New Zealand. Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S. ..... The Distribution of Animal Life in the AXgean Sea. Depts tp Dp MRObIMSONM A arccsscctsce eee The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope. Charles Lyell, F.R.S. Dr. Falconer, F.R.S. Geology of North America. ...| The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik Hills in India. — ————- = Date and Place. 1845. Cambridge .. 1846.Southampton 1846. Southampton 1847. Oxford weneer 1848. Swansea 1849. Birmingham 1850. Edinburgh. 1851. Ipswich...... 1852. Belfast 1853. Hull 1854. Liverpool ... 1855. Glasgow...... 1856. Cheltenham 1857. Dublin ...... 1858. Leeds......... 1859. Aberdeen .. 1860. Oxford 1861. Manchester . 1862, Cambridge . 1863. Newcastle- on-Tyne, eeeeee LIST OF EVENING LECTURES, Lecturer. G. B. Airy, F.R.8., Astron. Royal R. I. Murchison, F.R.S......... Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...... Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ............ W. R. Grove, F.R.S. ...,.....08. Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. ... Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S8. Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S. W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. ... Dr. Faraday, F.R.S.............04. Rey. Prof, Willis, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., E.R.S.E. Dr. Mantell, F.R.S........e00000- Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. G. B. Airy, F.R.8., Astron. Royal Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S8. Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.B.S., EGS. Robert Hunt, F.R.S. Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.... Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.RB.S. ... Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson Col. Sir H. Rawlinson ............ W. R. Grove, FBS. ...cccceeee Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...... Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. ... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.... .| Sir R.I. Murchison, D.C.L....... Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...... Rey. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...... Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. . Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S. G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. . Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. ... Prof. Odling, F.R.S......... nabbed Prof. Williamson, F.R.S. xli Subject of Discourse, Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism. Geology of Russia. Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles. Valley and Delta of the Mississippi. Properties of the Explosive substance discoyered by Dr. Schénbein ; also some Researches of his own on the Decomposition of Water by Heat. Shooting-stars. Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno- mena. ...| The Dodo (Didus ineptus). .| John Percy, M.D., F.R.S. ...... Metallurgical operations of Swansea and its neighbourhood, ~ Recent Microscopical Discoveries. Mr. Gassiot’s Battery. Transit of different Weights with varying velocities on Railways. Passage of the Blood through the minute vessels of Animals in con- nexion with Nutrition. .| Extinct Birds of New Zealand. Distinction between Plants and Ani- mals, and their changes of Form. Total Solar Eclipse of J uly 28, 1851. Recent discoveries in the properties of Light. Recent discovery of Rock-salt at Car- vickfergus, and geological and prac- tical considerationsconnected with it. Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo- logy and Physical Geography of Yorkshire. The present state of Photography. Anthropomorphous Apes. Progress of researches in Terrestrial Magnetism. Characters of Species. Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities and Ethnology. Recent discoveries in Assyria and Babylonia, with the results of Cunei- form research up to the present time. Correlation of Physical Forces, The Atlantic Telegraph. Recent discoveries in Africa. The Ironstones of Yorkshire. The Fossil Mammalia of Australia. Geology of the Northern Highlands. Electrical Discharges in highly rare- fied Media. Physical Constitution of the Sun. Arctic Discovery. Spectrum Analysis. The late Eclipse of the Sun. The Forms and Action of Water. Organic Chemistry. The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat- tery considered in relation to Dy- namics. xlii REPORT—1875, Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse. 1863. 1864. 1865, Birmingham 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. Newecastle- on-Tyne. ESBULY sober: vot Nottingham. Dundee Norwich .... Liverpool ... Edinburgh Brighton ... Bradford ,.. eeeees sennee . Liverpool ... . Brighton ... . Bradford ... . Belfast ...... 5 Bristol reese: James Glaisher, F.R.S. Prof. Roscoe, HUR.S......0.c.csees Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ....... J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S. ............ William Huggins, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.B.S.......... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......... Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S. ... J. Fergusson, F.R.8. Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. ........... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S. J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, LL.D., F.B.S. HG IAY ABU UHC RSsccetecacs seg estes HB Dylon Hy Riestesedcags » ens nee Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.D., E.R.S. Prot, WW. BW Oliford..:. .cc.o1ces Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.B.S...... Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., E.RB.S. Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. ..... ee William Spottiswoode, LL.D., E.R.S F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. . ..,... The Balloon Ascents made for the British Association. The Chemical Action of Light. ..| Recent Travels in Africa. Probabilities as to the position and extent of the Coal-measures beneath the red rocks of the Migland Coun- ties. The results of Spectrum Analysis applied to Heavenly Bodies. Insular Floras. The Geological origin of the present Scenery of Scotland. The present state of knowledge re- garding Meteors and Meteorites. Archeology of the early Buddhist Monuments. Reverse Chemical Actions. Vesuvius. The Physical Constitution of the Stars and Nebule. The Scientific Use of the Imagination, Stream-lines and Waves, in connexion with Naval Architecture. Some recent investigations and appli- cations of Explosive Agents. The Relation of Primitive to Modern Civilization. Insect Metamorphosis. The Aims and Instruments of Scien- tific Thought. Coal and Coal Plants. Molecules. Common Wild Flowers considered in relation to Insects. The Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History. The Colours of Polarized Light. ..| Railway Safety Appliances. Lectures to the Operative Classes. Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. .| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. ... Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...... Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., E.R.S. Wilham Spottiswoode, LL.D., FE.R.S C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.B.S... Professor Odling, F.R.S... ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F-.R.S. ... Matter and Force. A piece of Chalk. Experimental illustrations of — the modes of detecting the Composi- tion of the Sun and other Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum. Savages. Sunshine, Sea, and Sky. Fuel. The Discovery of Oxygen, A piece of Limestone, —aaaanee “GBT ‘Gz ysndny <== iy siccr ‘NOSINVITTIIM “AA "¥ L % gieey 8 I 69 “ 0 0 Tt “es JOINSBIAT, [VAsMay JO Spuey UL a 8 LT sloy ued IIISUIUTJSIAA PUB UOPUOT ze vouLyed “cs “Sny ‘XAHOVULS "y oe UG sree Sviahee th ct "ELST ‘sonpny ) ‘TCOOMSTLLOdS “A $ 800d Lis este jo ENE “ HNOLSAVTIS “H GZ “spmbry jo seumyjo, opioedg = . < not aa a aa o TOneErnCe “3 qO91109 PUNOF pure SIAYONOA Jy} YITAA pourmMExy 0 0 OT abe sess SY nape sie auoqspueg poy AT UT s194¥B AA PUNOASIOpUy < (Tyn(aiaat\fcin em knee teens sOystT prourxé yy “ Omgn0Ge es “*"TOIgRIOTAXA OABD 9T999gG < 0 0 9O0T _Smoeropdxgy wepree M-qng Z 0 0 ST E uwe[}009 url soysnbyywe be 0-60-04 = P8[O8e4p) OLLouLOsT \e 0 0 Oct * ee TTBFULBY, USL FS 0 0 OOT * “more10pdxgy oUIyseeg g 00 0 ° ** SUOTPOIOIG [BUIISOqUT de 0 0 0g seeeeneneee “* sroojaqy SNOUTUMT “ ‘ 0 0 OOT “"'""' TornvI0;dxy u1e8ABH 8,4Usy = 0 0 02 magsuy Teordojodorqyuy e L *® gee 0 0 OOT suoyoung ody WO eo4qTUuTUTOG 0 0 OOT ” “* paooayy Auqsrarey : hoa = 0 0 OOT * se" pIo0aIT [eordojoog OL e¢ ¢ OOTP eee eeeenerne se eaeeeeree® 993410109 suoja10ag —'ZIA ‘SuTjOIIN JSPJ[OG 9} 3e opeur szuery “ [UL}SajUy 0} plofypeIg ye apeuUL yuRIN JO sdURTeg S ty 11) Samael a (aang apaeureqly) sasuadx gq ooujQ pue quay “ 9 61 Zz Steeaasensescqneueceoseseoreasererss gan ateTMOK) SUOIUL) 0 0 OLF PURIST TILI LITT (avak T) ‘02 ‘SOLIR]eg “ sopeiy, am} 0} proyprig 9 opeul query jo aouryeg “ 0 0 T pile SOO 7, "TOA ‘geoT qr0doy Suipurg 73 tl c¢ soeree oe Oe ccereneserccscen suolyeoTqng jo ares TOF “ce I OL 99 vevwesicneseosncieeecsececsae (qseqjaq) are 8kz . ens: oe sr aseine BOOTS uo Spueprarcy se ogg octet oIp 0741p ‘s]aYolL, Soipe'y + Lig cee op o7Ip ‘sjayOT], Sepeloossy 2 0 "IIITX ‘TOA ‘ SuneoN WFP JO y1oday JO yunooov uo Suyumg “ 0 0 OF WSO Sore oyp = oyIp = ‘suoNdyrosqng [enuuy = 0 6 8 9 689 Dee wwe eee eee ereee Poe ee eee ee eee Tee (piojpeag ) TITX ‘IOA a pigp Jo yrodoy ‘op ‘Suravasug ‘suyumg * cooooow Z 0 SOP “TT sosuadxy Ayag jeyUploUy pur ‘Sulstyzeapy ‘Sur 0ZZ 9UIS pur Sudo] prospeag ye suoiisodui0g ayry 10J paatsoayy -puig ‘Sunurtg Arpung ose ‘Sunsoyy ysvjjag jo sosuedxg preg IL PIL resesersreeeseeeeeerereereeeesatmoooy ISB] WOAy IINOIG souRTeg OF, ps "SLNINAVd Leo AC "SLdIGO TU “Buyaoyy [OIStAg JO yunooov uo sydiaoay Surpnpoutr jon *(TOLSINGA) SZSI “Gz jsusny 0} (SunsaWY LSVATAC Jo Uowsousmmod) p28] ‘6 snsny Wo TNOOOOV SUAVASVAUL TVUANAD AHL “HONUIOS 10 LNANYGONVAGY FHL Yor Pigeeetiece 1-4 ‘ASILIUa aL xliv REPORT—1875. Table showing the Attendance and Recei; Date of Meeting. Where held. TS3T, Sopts27 ec: .| MORK j.noe <2 stirs cee ae L832, dune mo \~.|Oxtordy sc. .sescee nee 1833, June 25 ...| Cambridge ......... 1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh ......... KO35, Aut etO ©. .|\Dublina s,-:...sccceese MeGb, AueTe20..| Bristol ..5..cccuenuses 1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............ 1838, Aug. 10 ...) Newcastle-on-Tyne.. 1839, Aug. 26 ...) Birmingham ..;....... 1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow. ............ 1841, July 20 .,./ Plymouth ............ 1842, June 23 ...| Manchester ......... BAG PAUP Sai won| COLK ....c.ssesecescore ROMO INCD UTZ. «| VOLK \..0c0.0rosresn eee 1845, June ig ...|Cambridge ......... 1846, Sept. 10 .,.|Southampton ...... 1847, June 23 ...| Oxford ............... 1848, Aug. 9...... SWANSEA: cccsesees ecoss 1849, Sept. 12 ...! Birmingham ......... 1850, July 21 Edinburgh ......... 1851, July 2 ...... IEPRWICH sence: scvasoees 1852, Sept. 1 Belfast’ \.cseveessesees Mages sept. 4 — ...| Kull. oy. -sessen ec ce oe 1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ 1855, Sept.12 ...|Glasgow ............ 1856, Aug. 6...... Cheltenham ......... Les peAae 26 ...| Dublin .....csccce 1858, Sept. 22 ...| Leeds ..............0008 1859, Sept. 14...) Aberdeen ............ 1860, June 27 ...! Oxford ............... 1861, Sept.4 ...| Manchester ......... 1862;\Oct. T ¢:...: Cambridge ......... 1863, Aug. 26 ... 1864, Sept. 13 ... 1865, Sept. 6 1866, Aug. 22 1867, Sept. 4 1868, Aug. 19 = 1869, Aug. 18 ... 1870, Sept. 14 1871, Aug. 2... 1872, Aug. 14 1873, Sept. 17 1874, Aug. 19 1875, Aug. 25 1876, Sept. 6 ses ..-| Brighton ...| Bradford ...| Belfast .. -| Bristol .| Liverpool Newcastle-on-Tyne a 1167) ee aE eo Se es Edinburgh Glasgow............2.. Presidents. The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.... The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.8. .. The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L. ...... The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. The Marquis of Lansdowne The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.. The Duke of Northumberland... The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt . The Marquis of Breadalbane ... The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.... The Lord Francis Egerton ...... The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...... The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D. ...... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. . Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart. ...... The Marquis of Northampton... The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.. Sir David Brewster, K.H. ...... G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Royal. Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ... William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S8.. The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. .. The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.... The Rey. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. ... H.R.H. The Prince Consort The Lord Wrottesley, M.A....... William Fairbairn, LL.D.,F.B.8. The Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A. Sir William G. Armstrong, OB. Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. . Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L. ...... Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LI.D.... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Prof. J. Tyndall, L.D., F.R.S. Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E.,F.B.S. Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. Old Life Members. ee ee ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS, xly ie We ~ Bit Meetings of the Association. Amount bare ag . received aoe © 3 ; : during the rants for ual Annual | Associates.| Ladies. | Foreigners.) Total Scientific 5 Attended by bers. | Members. pias Purposes. Py £ s. d. £ s. d. Es. ; BBS) a lee weveesers Bay RE a a GOOD ME ocosccesel lh raaewear ae ae c TAGS 4 Sled ee nyer. es 20 0 O vee ; ~ or well Lamborn 167 0 0 aoe EQ5OR Ih eivaces cs 434.14 0 sy Fi : a a 1840 cess 918 14 6 tee ao re 1100% ae DAGOW FW ae taste c 956 12 2 aes 34 WASS' A) cerecs.« 1595 Il oO BS Sa “as 40 E35She |) ccxeteecs 1546 16 4 317 “oe 60* ace SOE Werrcade ance 1235 10 II 376 33t 331* 28 EQUGRT | greece 1449 17 8 185 Aan 160 Ace én sneer 1565 10 2 Igo gt 260 Ser Goce Yb we wii O88. 981 12 8 22 407 172 35 EOTOD Wil vetwseees 830 9 9 39 270 196 36 Sell Redenea de 685 16 o 40 495 203 53 T2BO 8 cedesess 208 5 4 25 376 197 15 929 797 00} 275 1 8 33 447 237 22 1071 963 00| 159 19 6 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 O 345 18 o 47 244 141 37 710 62000] 391 9 7 | 60 510 292 9 1108 10og5 CO |] 304 6 7 57 367 236 6 876 993 09] 205 0 o 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 00] 33019 7 101 1094. 543 26 2133 2311 00] 48016 4 48 412 346 9 IIIS 1098 00 |] 734 13 9g 120 g00 569 26 2022 20150 Of 507 15 3 gI 710 509 13 1698 1931 00} 618 18 2 : 179 1206 821 22 2564 278200] 684 11 1 a 59 636 463 47 1689 16040 0} 1241 7 O 125 1589 791 15 3139 394490] IIII 5 I0 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 © | 1293 16 6 209 1704 1004. 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 00 | 1289 15 8 149 766 5c8 23 1997 222700] 1591 7 Io 105 960 771 II 2303 2469 00] 1750 13 4 118 1163 hgh 7 24.44 2613 00/1739 4 0 117 720 682 4st 2004 2042 00] 1940 0 0 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 00 | 1572 0 o 195 1103 gio 14, 2878 3096 00 | 1472 2 6 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 90/1285 0 o 80 937 gi2 43 2533 2649 00 | 1685 0 o 99 796 6or II 1983 2102 00] 1151 16 © 85 817 630 12 1951 197990] 960 0 o 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 00 ———_—_—________4 * Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843. t Tickets for admission to Sections only, ¢ Including Ladies. xlvi - REPORT—1875. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE BRISTOL MEETING. ' ‘SECTION A.—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. President.—Professor Balfour Stewart, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Rey. J. W. Caldicott, D.D. ; Professor Cayley, F.R.S.; Rev. S. J. Perry, F.R.S.; Professor Price, F.R.S.; Professor H. J. 8. Smith, E.R.S. ; W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S.; Professor J. J. Sylvester, F.R.S.; Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S. ; Professor Tyndall, F.R.S. Secretaries,—Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., F.0.8.; J. W. L. Glaisher, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. ; C. T. Hudson, M.A., LL.D.; G. F. Rodwell, F.R.AS., F.C.S8. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS. President.—A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.B.S., F.0.8. Vice-Presidents—Professor Atkinson, F.C.S.; Professor Debus, F.R.S.; Professor J. H, Gladstone, F.R.S.; Dr. Longstaff; Professor N. Story Maskelyne, F.RB.S. ; Alderman T. Proctor; Professor W. J. Russell, F.R.S. ; Professor Williamson, - F.R.S. Secretaries—H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D., F.C.S.; W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S. ; William A. Tilden, D.Sc., F.C.S. SECTION C.— GEOLOGY. President.—Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Vice-Presidents.—The Earl of Ducie, F.R.S.; Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton, Bart., F.R.S.; The Earl of Enniskillen, F.R.S.; R. A. C. Godwin-Austin, F.R.S. ; Sir W. V. Guise, Bart., F.G.S.; Professor Harkness, F.R.S.; Professor Hull, F.R.S. ; W. W. Stoddart, F.G.S. Secretaries. —L, C. Miall, F.G.S. ; E. B. Tawney, F.G.S.; W. Topley, F.G.S. SECTION D.—BIOLOGY. President —P. L, Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Cleland, M.D. , F.R.S.; Professor Rolleston, M.A., M.D., F.RS., F.LS.; Dr. Allman, F.R.S.; Osbert Salvin, F.R.S.; Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.; Professor Balfour, F.R.S.; Colonel Lane Fox, F.G.S.; Dr. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. Secretaries.—E. R. Alston, F.Z.S8.; Dr. McKendrick ; Professor W. R. M‘Nab, M.D.; Dr. Martyn; F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.; Dr, P. H. Pye-Smith. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. Pe ottalant teamed Strachey, R.E., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.GS., F.LS., Vice-Presidents—Sir Rutherford Aleock, K.C.B.; Admiral Sir E. Belcher, K.C.B., E.R.S., F.R.G.S.; Francis Galton, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. ; Major-General Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.8., Pres.R.G.S. ; Rey. Professor Rawlin- son, M.A.; Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. "Eo Rectdtarica-- 1. Bates, F.L.S., Assist. Sec. R.G.S. ; E. C. Rye, F.Z.8., Librarian R.G.S.; F. F. Tuckett, F.R.G.S8. SECTION F,—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., Pres. 8.8. Vice-Presidents.—Lord Aberdare; Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S. ; Right Hon. Stephen Caye, M.P.; M. E. Grant Duff, M.P.; W. Farr, M.D., F.R.S.; G. W. Hastings ; Jerom Murch ; Rey. J. Percival, M.A., LL.D. nee. P. Fellows, F.S.S., F.S.A.; T. G, P. Hallett, M.A.; E. Macrory, SECLION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. President.—William Froude, M.A., C.E., F.R.S. Vice- Presidents —W. H. Barlow, C.E., F.R.S.; F. J. Bramwell, C.E., F.R.S. ; James Brunlees, C.E.; P. le Neve Foster, M.A.; Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.S. ; C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S.; Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.; Sir William Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S. ; Edward Woods, 0.E, Secretaries.—W. R. Browne, M.A., 0,E.; H.M. Brunel; J. G. Gamble, B,A., CE, ; J. N. Shoolbred, C.E., F.G,S8, OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1875-76. PRESIDENT. SIR JOHN HAWKSHAW, C.E., F.R.8., F.G.8. VICE-PRESIDENTS. The ea Hon. the EARL oF Duciz, F.RS., Majors ee Sir mene C. RAWLINSON, K.C.B., F. E.B.S., The Right Hon. Sir SrAFFoRD H. Nor?THcore, a W. B. Ginieatne C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Bart., C.B., M.P., F.R.S. F.G.S8. The MAyor OF BRISTOL (1874-75). W. SANDERS, Esq,, F.R.S., F.G.8. PRESIDENT DESIGNATE. 4 PROFESSOR THOMAS ANDREWS, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. His Grace the DuKE oF ARGYLL, K.T., LL.D., | Professor Sir W1LL1AM Tomson, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.8. D.C.L., F.R.S.L. & E. The LoRD Provost oF GLAsGow. Professor ALLEN THomson, M.D., LU.D., F.R.8.L, Sir WILLIAM STIRLING MAXWELL, Bart., M.A} & E M.P. Professor A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.S. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT GLASGOW. Dr. W. G. BLACKIE, F.R.G.S. J. D. Marwick, Esq. JAMES GRAHAME, Esq. LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CLASCOW. Dr. FERGUS. A, 8. M‘CLELLAND, Esq. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. ABEL, F. A., Esq., F.R.S. MAXWELL, Professor J. CLERK, F.R.S, BATEMAN, Z. F., Bsq. . E.R.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S. BRAMWELL, F. Ts Esq., C.E., F.R.S Newton, Professor A., F.R.S8. De La RvE, WARREN, Esq,., D.C. L., "E.R.S. OMMANNEY, Admiral E., 7 ee FE.R.8. Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Se Te Farr, Dr. W.. E.R.S. PLAYFAIR, Rt.Hon. Dr. Ly a C.B.,M.P.,F.R.S. FLOWER, Professor W. H., F.RS. PRESTWICH, Professor J., F.R.S Foster, Professor G. C., ERS. ROLLESTON, Professor G., M.A., ERS. Gassiot, J. P., Esq., D. C. L., LL.D., F.R.S. ROScoE, Professor H. E., Ph. D. F.R.S. HeEywoop, J., "Esq., ERS. Russet, Dr. W. J., BR JEFFREYS, J. ‘Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S. SIEMENS, C. W., Esq., D. © L. .» E.R.S. Lockyer, J. N., Esq., F.R.S. SMITH, Professor H. J. 8. ., E.R.S. MASKELYNE, Prof, N. §., M.A., F.R.S. GENERAL SECRETARIES. Capt. DovGLas GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G. 8., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W. _ Dr. MicHaEx Foster, E.R. s., F.C.8., Trinity College, Cambridge. ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., F.C.8., Harrow-on-the-hill, Middlesex. GENERAL TREASURER. Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). General Sir EDWARD SABIneE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir PHitip DE M. Grey EGERTon, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.8. Sir Joun Lupzock, Bart., M.P., F.R.8., F.L.8. PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS. The Duke of Devonshire. The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Stokes, M.A., D.C.L, The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., See. R.S. Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal. | Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Sir W. Tahoniien, D.C.L. General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir William R. Grove, FERS. Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S The Duke of Argyll. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S, GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS. F. Galton, Esq., F.R.8. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.8. AUDITORS. Professor J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S, | Major-General Strachey, F.R.8. xlviii REPORT—1875. Report of the Council for the Year 1874-75, presented to the General Committee at Bristol on Wednesday, August 25th, 1875. The Council have received Reports during the past year from the General Treasurer; and his Account for the year will be laid before the General Committee this day. The General Committee at Belfast referred the following four Resolutions to the Council for their consideration, and they beg to report their proceed- ings in each case :— First Resolution.—“ That the Council be requested to take such steps as they may deem expedient to urge upon the Government of India the desirableness of continuing Solar Observations in India.” The Council, having considered this Resolution, requested the President to embody their views in a Letter to the Government of India. The following is a copy of the letter to the Marquis of Salisbury :— “ British Association for the Advancement of Science, 22 Albemarle Street, London, March 5, 1875. ‘My Lorp,—By the desire of the General Committee and of the Council of the British Association, I beg to lay before your Lordship the accom- panying resolutions regarding the continuance of Sclar Observations in India. “Researches of the character here contemplated axe of comparatively recent date, and have been hitherto pursued with conspicuous ability by independent observers. They may be divided into three distinct groups :— namely, Sun-spot Periodicity; the relation of that Periodicity to Terrestrial and Planetary phenomena; and the Physical and Chemical changes of the sun’s visible surface. It is the opinion of the Council of the British Associa- tion that observations of the sun conducted under these three heads would furnish results of the highest scientific importance, and that India, presenting as it does every diversity of climate and of atmospheric condition, and every degree of elevation from the sea-level to the greatest mountain heights, is a field eminently suited to the successful prosecution of such observations. “The specific proposal which, on behalf of the British Association, I have the honour to submit for your Lordship’s consideration is, that the instruments recently supplied for the Observation of the Transit of Venus should, now that they have served that purpose, be made to contribute to the equipment of a Physical Observatory to be established in the Himalayas, the Nielgherries, or some other fit locality. These instruments are suitable for solar observations, and with the addition of a spectroscope and a few other minor adjuncts would suffice for the present. They would be ready to be brought into practical action the moment the necessary buildings, which might be of the simplest and most inexpensive character, are erected. “But to extract from solar observations their full value it is necessary REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlix that they should be continuous. No day ought to pass without observations of the solar surface. This can only be accomplished by establishing, in connexion with the principal observatory, stations in positions selected with the view of rendering it in the highest degree probable that at one or other of them favourable weather would always be found. When, therefore, the results obtained in the proposed observatory shall have justified the extension (and of such justification the Council entertain a confident hope), outlying stations may be added, provided with the moderate equipment needed to multiply the chances of that continuity of observation which it is so desirable to secure. “Tt is specially agreeable to me, personally, to have the privilege of bringing this important question under the notice of a nobleman whose scientific acquirements render unnecessary any lengthened argument to prove that the proposed observatory is likely to redound to the honour of England, and to materially assist in the advancement of Natural Knowledge. ‘T have the honour to be, ‘My Lord, * Your most obedient Servant, ‘“ Joun TYNDALL, President.” * The Most Honourable The Marquis of Salisbury, Secretary of State for India.” A copy of this Letter was forwarded to the Governor-General of India. _” following reply has been received from the Secretary of State for dia :— India Office, Westminster, 8.W., April 2, 1875. “Srr,—I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 5th March, setting forth the desirability of instituting continuous Solar Observations in India, and, in reply, to transmit to you a copy of a Despatch which his Lordship has addressed to the Government of India on the subject. “Tam, Sir, ‘Your obedient Servant, “ Louis Mater,” _ “ Professor Tyndall, F.RS.” ‘«¢ Geographical (Observatories), No. 16. “©T0 His Excellency The Right Honourable the Governor-General of India in Council. “ «India Office, London, March 24, 1875. **¢My Lorp,—Para. 1. I have received and considered in Council your Excellency’s Despatch, dated 12th February (No. 2, Industry, Science, and Art), 1875, reporting your sanction of an arrangement by which Licutenant- Colonel Tennant, with a small establishment, will be employed, during the year 1875-76, to make observations, at Roorkee, of the sun and of Jupiter's 1875, d 1 REPORT—1875. satellites, and to reduce the transit-observations. The instruments* for use at Roorkee will be ordered in this country, and sent out with as little delay as possible. jie “¢¢9. T observe that your Government, in sanctioning these arrangements, have declined to engage themselves to any thing further at present; and that the suggested establishment of a solar observatory at Simla remains an open question for future consideration. «<¢3, T herewith transmit a copy of a letter, which I have received from the President of the British Association, on the importance of continuous Solar Observations in India; and I would suggest for your consideration whether an observatory on an inexpensive scale might not usefully be established at Simla after the ensuing year, with this object, for which spectroscopes only would be necessary, in addition to the instruments already at Roorkee. “«¢T have the honour to be, **<« My Lord, *©¢ Your Lordship’s most obedient humble Servant, (Signed) *¢ ¢ SaLISBURY.’ ” Second Resolution.—“ That the Council of the Association be requested to take such steps as they may think desirable with a view to promote the appointment of Naturalists to vessels engaged on the -coasts of little-known parts of the world.” The Council drew up the following Letter, which was signed by the President, and forwarded to the Admiralty :— “ British Association for the Advancement of Science, 22 Albemarle Street, London, March 9, 1875. “ Srr,—The Council of the British Association have had recently referred to them by the General Committee of the Association a question which in various forms has been already under their consideration—the importance, namely, of attaching Naturalists (that is to say, persons specially trained in Natural-history observation) to Surveying-ships generally, and more especially to those engaged in the survey of unfrequented or little-known regions. “The Council have requested me to communicate to Her Majesty’s Govern- ment their conviction of the importance of making, wherever practicable, this addition to Surveying Expeditions, They believe that such action on the part of the Government would not only be of advantage to Science, but that it would be conducive to the commercial interests of the country to an extent far outbalancing the trifling outlay which such appointments would render necessary. “We are here in reality only asking for a further application of the en- lightened policy which enabled the Government to utilize the talents of such men as Banks and Solander in the last century, and which has more recently given scope to the abilities of such men as Darwin, Hooker, and Huxley. Even in a commercial point of view the advantages which have flowed from this policy have been quite out of proportion to its cost to the country. * ¢A parallel wire micrometer s..sscescsccsecsecteceecenanes £ 20 Solar and stellar spectroscopes...c.csccsccccceseeeseenens 130 Micrometer for measuring solar photographs ...... 50 REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. li “The obvious desirability of associating trained observers with the Surveys of the future is thus strengthened by the experience of the past. The Council of the British Association beg therefore to urge upon the favourable con- sideration of Her Majesty's Government the question submitted to them by the General Committee. * T have the honour &ce.” “ Vernon Lushington, Esq., Q.C.” The following reply has been received from the Admiralty :— “ Admiralty, March 29, 1875, *‘Srr,—I am commanded by My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to thank you for your letter of the 9th instant, conveying the opinion expressed by the Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science as to the desirability of trained Naturalists being attached to all Surveying- vessels, more especially to those engaged in the survey of unfrequented regions. clam sir, “ Your obedient Servant, * Ropert Hatt.” “ The President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 22 Albemarle Street, S.W.” Third Resolution.—* That the Council be requested to take such steps as they may think desirable with the view of promoting any applica- tion that may be made to Her Majesty’s Government by the Royal Society for a systematic Physical and Biological exploration of the seas around the British Isles.” The Council deferred the consideration of this Resolution until action be taken by the Royal Society. Fourth Resolution,— That the Council should take such steps as they may think desirable for supporting the request to Her Majesty’s Government to undertake an Arctic Expedition on the basis proposed by the Council of the Royal Geographical Society at the beginning of ~ the present year, which it is understood will be again made by that body.” The Council are glad to report that the efforts of the Learned Societies to obtain a renewal of the Exploration of the Polar Seas have been crowned with success ; the Expedition which has been despatched on this service has been furnished with the best-known appliances for the furtherance of the objects in view. The Council have added the following list of names of gentlemen present at the last Meeting of the Association to the list of Corresponding Members :— M. A. Niaudet Breguet. Dr. Knoblauch. M. Ch. d’ Almeida. Dr. G. Schweinfarth. Dr. W. Feddersen. Professor Wiedemann. d2 li REPORT—1875. The Council have been informed that the invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association in 1877 at Plymouth will be renewed, and that an invitation for a future Meeting will be presented from Leeds. In accordance with the regulations adopted at the Belfast Meeting for the selection of Ordinary Members of Council, the Council append a list of the Members of the present Council who are not proposed for re-election for the ensuing year :— Dr. Beddoe. Mr. Sclater. Dr. Debus. General Strachey. Mr. Fitch. The Council recommend the re-election of the other Members of the Council, with the addition of the following gentlemen :— Mr. F. A. Abel. Mr. John Evans. Mr. J. Heywood. Professor A. Newton. Professor Rolleston. RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL Comuirrer At tHE Berstot, Meetine rn Aveust 1875. [When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary, except there is a specific nomination.] Involving Grants of Money. That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor G. G. Stokes, Professor H. J. 8. Smith, Professor Sir W. Thomson, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher (Secretary), be reappointed ; that the sum of £59 4s. 2d. be placed at their disposal as a final payment on account of expenses incurred in the calculation of the Elliptic Functions, and that.a further sum of £100 be placed at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose of continuing the printing of the tables of Elliptic Functions. ae That the Committee on the Rainfall of the British Isles, consisting of Mr. C. Brooke, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. J. F, Bateman,-Mr. T. Hawksley, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. C. Tomlinson, Mr. Rogers Field, the Earl of Rosse, and Mr. J. Smyth, Jun., be reappointed; that Mr. G. J. Symons be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose, with the understanding that £60 is for completing the observations in Great Britain, and that £40 be devoted to observations in Ireland. That the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. Charles Brooke, Dr. Flight, Professor G. Forbes, and Professor A. 8. Herschel, on Luminous Meteors, be reappointed, and that a grant of £30 be placed at their disposal. That the. Committee, consisting of Professor Clerk Maxwell, Professor J. D. Everett, and Mr.-A. Schuster, for testing experimentally the exactness of Ohm’s law, be reappointed, and that the grant of £50 which has lapsed be renewed. That the Committee, consisting of Professor Stokes, Dr. De La Rue, Pro- ben een RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. hin fessor Clerk Maxwell, Mr. W. F. Barrett, Mr. Howard Grubb, Mr. G, Johu- stone Stoney, and Professor R. 8. Ball, for examining and reporting upon the reflective powers of silver, gold, and platinum, whether in mass or chemically deposited on glass, and of speculum metal, be reappointed, and that the grant of £20 which has lapsed be renewed. That the Committee on Thermo-Electricity, consisting of Professor Tait, Professor Tyndall, and Professor Balfour Stewart, be reappointed, and that the grant of £50 which has lapsed be renewed. That Sir W. Thomson, Professor J. C. Adams, Rear-Admiral Richards, General Strachey, Mr. W. Parkes, Colonel Walker, Professor Guthrie, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Mr. John Exley, Mr. J. N. Schoolbred, and Mr. J. R. Napier, be appointed a Committee on Tides, and that the sum of £200 be placed at their disposal for completing and setting up in a locality in London, where it may be available for use, Sir Wiliam Thomson’s Tide Calculating Machine. That Professors Roscoe, Balfour Stewart, and Thorpe be reappointed as a Committee for the purpose of determining the Specific Volumes of Liquids; that Dr. Thorpe be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Armstrong, Professor Thorpe, and Mr. W. W. Fisher, be a Com- mittee for the purpose of investigating Isomeric Cresols, and the Law which governs Substitution in the Phenol Series; that Dr. Armstrong be the Se- cretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. _ That Mr. Frank Clowes, B.Sc. and Dr. W. A. Tilden be a Committee for the purpose of examining the Action of Ethylbromo-butyrate on Ethyl Sod- aceto-acetate ; that Mr. Clowes be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Messrs. Allen, Dewar, Stanford, and Fletcher be a Committee for the purpose of examining and reporting upon the methods employed in the esti- mation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in commercial products, and on the mode of stating the results; that Mr. Allen be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Professor Prestwich, Professor Busk, Pro- fessor Hughes, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Rey. H. W. Crosskey, Messrs. L. C. Miall and R. H. Tiddeman be a Committee for the purpose of assist- ing in the exploration of the Victoria Cave ; that Mr. Tiddeman be the Se~- cretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the pur- pose. That Messrs. J. Reis W. Carruthers, F. Drew, R. Etheridge, Jun., A. H. Green, G. A. Lebour, L. C. Miall, H. A. N icholson, W. Topley, and W. Whitaker be a Committee for the purpose of carrying on the Geological Record; that Mr. Whitaker be the ecw ity and that the sum of £100 ke placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. J. Evans, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Mr. E. Vivian, Mr. W. Pen- gelly, Mr. G. Busk, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Mr. W. Ashford Sanford, and Mr, J. E. Lee be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the ex- ploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay ; that Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor A. S. Herschel and Mr. G. A. Lebour be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of making experiments on the Thermal Con- ductivities of certain.rocks ; that Professor Herschel be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. _ That Professor Hull, Mr. E. W. Binney, Mr. H. Howell, Mr. M. Reade, liv REPORT—1875. Rey. H. W. Crosskey, Professor A. H. Green, Professor Harkness, Mr. W. Molyneux, Mr. G. H. Morton, Mr. Pengelly, Professor Prestwich, Mr. J. Plant, Mr. W. Whitaker, Captain D. Galton, and Mr. De Rance be reap- pointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the circulation of the underground waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations of England, and the quantity and character of the water supplied to various towns and districts from those formations ; that Mr. C. EK. De Rance be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the pur- _pose. . That Dr. Bryce, Mr. J. Brough, Mr. G. Forbes, Mr. D. Milne-Home, Mr. J. Thomson, Professor Sir W. Thomson, and Mr. Peter Drummond be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the Observations and Records of Earthquakes in Scotland ; that Dr. Bryce be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Sclater, Mr. Rye, and Mr. M*Lachlan be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the Zoological Record; that Mr. Rye be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Dresser, Mr. Barnes, Mr. Harland, Mr. Harting, Professor Newton, and Canon Tristram be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of considering the desirability of establishing “a close time”’ for the protection of indigenous animals; that Mr. Dresser be the Secretary, and that the sum of £5 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor Balfour, Professor Dewar, and Dr. M°Kendrick be a Com- mittee for the purpose of investigating the Physiological Action of Sound ; that Dr. McKendrick be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor Huxley, Mr. Sclater, Mr. F. M. Balfour, Dr. M. Foster, Mr. Ray Lankester, and Mr. Dew-Smith (Secretary) be a Committee for the pur- pose of arranging with Dr. Dohrn for the occupation of a Table at the Zoo- logical Station at Naples during the ensuing year, in accordance with their Report ; that Mr. Dew-Smith be the Secretary, and that the sum of £75 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Lauder Brunton and Dr. Pye-Smith be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of making physiological researches on the nature of Intes- tinal Secretions ; that Dr. Brunton be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Colonel Lane Fox, Mr. John Evans, and Professor Rolleston be a Committee for the purpose of Prehistoric Explorations ; that Colonel Lane Fox be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the Committee, consisting of Colonel Lane Fox, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Franks, Mr. F. Galton, Mr."E. W. Brabrook, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir W. Elliot, Mr. C. R. Markham, Mr. E. B. Tylor, Mr. J. Evans, and Mr. F. W. Rudler, be reappointed for the purpose of preparing and publishing brief forms of instruction for travellers, ethnologists, and other anthropological observers ; that Colonel Lane Fox be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Beddoe, Lord Aberdare, Dr. Farr, Mr. Francis Galton, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Colonel Lane Fox, Mr. Rawson Rawson, Mr. James Heywood, Dr. Mouat, Professor Rolleston, Mr. Hallett, Mr. Fellows, and Professor Leone Levi (with power to add to their number), be an Anthropometric Committee for the purpose of collecting observations on the Systematic Ex- amination of the Heights, Weights, and other physical characters of the RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. ly inhabitants of the British Isles; that Mr. Francis Galton be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the Committee on instruments for measuring the speed of ships be reappointed ; that it consist of the following Members :—-Mr. W. Froude, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. A. E. Fletcher, Rey. E. L. Berthon, Mr. James R. Napier, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. H. M. Brunel, Mr. W. Smith, Sir William Thomson, Mr. J. N. Shoolbred, and Professor James Thomson ; that Mr. J. N. Shoolbred be the Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. James R. Napier, Sir William Thomson, Mr. William Froude, and Professor Osborne Reynolds be a Committee for the purpose of making experiments and of reporting on the effect of the propeller on the turning of Steam-vessels ; that Professor Osborne Reynolds be the Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money. That the Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Professor Everett (Secretary), Professor Sir W. Thomson, Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. George Maw, Mr. Pengelly, Professor Edward Hull, Professor Ansted, Dr. Clement Le Neve Foster, Professor A. 8. Herschel, Mr. G. A. Lebour, Colonel Strange, and Mr. A. B. Wynne, be reappointed. That the Committee on the Magnetization of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt, consisting of Professor Balfour Stewart, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Mr. H. A. Rowland, and Professor W. F. Barrett, be reappointed. That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, Professor Hirst, Rev. Professor Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J. 8. Smith, Dr. Spottiswoode, Mr. R. B. Hayward, Dr. Salmon, Rev. Professor R. Townsend, Professor Fuller, Professor Kelland, Mr. J. M. Wilson, Professor Henrici, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, and Professor Clifford, for considering the possibility of improving the methods of instruction in elementary geometry, be reappointed, and that they be requested to consider the Syllabus drawn up by the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching, and report thereon. That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Professor Sir W. Thomson, Professor Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, for effecting the determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, be reappointed, That the Committee, consisting of Professor H. J. 8. Smith, Professor Clifford, Professor W. G. Adams, Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr. J. G. Fitch, Mr. George Griffith, Mr. Marshall Watts, Professor G. Carey Foster, Mr. W. F. Barrett, Professor Clerk Maxwell, and Mr. G. F. Rodwell, for considering and reporting on the extent and method of Teaching Physics in Schools, be reappointed, and that Professor G. C. Foster be the Secretary. That Mr. Spottiswoode, Professor Stokes, Professor Cayley, Professor H. J. §. Smith, Sir W. Thomson, Professor Henrici, Lord Rayleigh, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be appointed a Committee to report on Mathematical Notation. That Mr. W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on Hyper- elliptic Functions. That Dr.-Atkinson, Professor Gladstone, and Mr. A, Vernon Harcourt, be lyi rnEPortT—1875. a Committee for the purpose of collecting and suggesting subjects for Che- mical Researches ; that Dr. Atkinson be the Secretary. That R. B. Grantham, C.E., F.G.S., Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S., Professor Corfield, M.D., F. J. Bramwell, C.E., F.R.S., W. Hope, V.C., and J. W. Barry, C.E., be a Committee for the purpose of con- tinuing the investigations on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage; that Dr. Corfield be the Secretary. That Professor Prestwich, Professor Harkness, Professor Hughes, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Messrs. L. C. Miall, G. H. Morton, D. Mackintosh, R. H. Tiddeman, J. E. Lee, T. Plant, W. Pengelly, and Dr. Deane be a Committee for the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest con- nected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation; that the Rev. H. W. Crosskey be the Secretary. That Mr. Spence Bate be requested to continue his Report on our present knowledge of the Crustacea. That Mr. J. J. Hubbard, M.P., Mr. Chadwick, M.P., Mr. Morley, M.P., Dr. Farr, Mr. Hallett, Professor Jevons, Mr. Newmarch, Professor Leone Levi, Mr. Heywood, Mr. Shaen (with power to add to their number) be a Committee for the purpose of considering and reporting on the practicability of adopting 2 Common Measure of Value in the Assessment of Direct Taxa- tion, Local and Imperial, and that Mr. Hallett be the Secretary. That the Committee, consisting of Lord Houghton, Professor Thorold Rogers, W. Newmarch, Professor Fawcett, M.P., Jacob Behrens, F. P. Fellows, R. H. Inglis Palgrave, Archibald Hamilton, Rev. Dr. Percival, Mr. F. Bennoch, Mr. T. Sopwith, F.R.S., Mr. Morley, M.P., and Mr. Chadwick, M.P., on Capital and Labour, be reappointed; that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary. That the Metric Committee, consisting of James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S., Lord O’Hagan, Sir W. Armstrong, F.R.S., William Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., John Beddoe, M.D., F.R.S., Dr. Mouat, P. Hallett, M.A., Professor Hennessy, F.R.S., W. P. Price, Rev. Dr. Percival, Frank P. Fellows, F.S8.8., C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., and Professor Leone Levi, be reappointed for the purpose of reporting upon the best means of providing uniformity of weights and measures with reference to the in- terests of science ; that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary. That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. W. Pole, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Professor Fuller, Mr. H. M. Brunel, and Professor W. K. Clifford, be reappointed to estimate the cost of constructing Mr. Babbage’s Analytical Engine, and to consider the advisability of printing tables by its means. That the Committee for the purpose of considering the use of steel for structural purposes be reappointed, consisting of Mr. W. Barlow, Mr. H. Bessemer, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Captain Douglas Galton, Sir John Hawk- shaw, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Professor Abel, and Mr. E. H. Carbutt; that Mr. E. H. Carbutt be the Secretary. That the Committee for considering and reporting upon British Measures, consisting of Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Sir John Hawkshaw, and Professor Osborne Reynolds, be reappointed. That Sir Wiliam Thomson, Major-General Strachey, Captain Douglas Galton, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. Rogers Field, Mr. E. Roberts, and Mr. James N. Shoolbred be a Committee for the purpose of considering the Datum-level RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTED. lvii of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, with a view to its establishment on a surer foundation than hitherto, with power to communicate with the Go- yernment if necessary ; that Mr. James N. Shoolbred be the Secretary. Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of the Association. That Professor Cayley’s paper “‘ On the analytical forms called Trees, with application to the Theory of Chemical Combinations,” be printed in extenso _in the Reports of the Association. That the paper of Professor Osborne Reynolds “ On the Steering of Screw- steamers ” be printed in eatenso in the Reports of the Association. That the paper of Mr. Thomas Howard “On the River Avon” be printed in extenso in the Proceedings of the Sections of the Association, together with the necessary Plates. That Mr. J. N. Shoolbred’s paper “On the Half-tide Level at Liverpool ” be printed in extenso in the Reports of the Association, together with the necessary Plates. Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if it seem desirable. That the Council be requested to consider the recommendations of the Reports of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advance- ment of Science, and to take such action thereupon as may seem to them best calculated to advance the interests of Natural Science. That the Council be requested to take such steps as they think suitable for renewing their representations to the Secretary of State for India, as to the importance of establishing an Observatory for Solar Physics in India, in conformity with the recommendations of the Royal Commissioners on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science. That the Council be requested to consider and report upon the manner in which the Members of Committees and other Officers of the Association shall be selected, and whether Ladies shall be admitted to such offices, and if so, to what offices, and under what conditions. ‘That the Council be requested to take into consideration the expediency of appointing Representatives to attend the International Statistical Congress, to be held at Buda-Pesth, in 1876. lviii REPORT—1875. Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the General Committee at the Bristol Meeting in August 1875. The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed. Mathematics and Physics. *Cayley, Professor.—Printing Mathematical Tables ........ £159 S brooke, Mir British aiNtall css. cc... sys ss ota 20,5 be & sie Pe 100 *Glaisher, Mr. J—Luminous Meteors .............+ 200008 3 *Maxwell, Professor C.—Testing the Exactness of Ohm’s Law 50 *Stokes, Professor.—Reflective Power of Silver and other CUMAUMEIRER SRM NeIE ST Sc. eo ce se hee ee ene 8 5. oe 20 *Tait, Professor.—Thermo-Electricity (renewed) .......... 50 Thomson, Sir William.—Tide Calculating Machine ........ 200 Chemistry. *Roscoe, Professor.—Specific Volumes of Liquids .......... 25 *Armstrong, Dr.—Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives .... 10 Clowes, Mr.—Action of Ethylbromo-butyrate on Ethyl Sod- ALCELOSACOLALE nhs soe aie & 8. d. Meteorological Observations, Os- ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 Reduction of Meteorological Ob- SEFVAtiONS ..sccccesecerccsssscess 80 0 0 Meteorological Instruments and Grainitiesy ccsecscessesrscstesss-+ G9: 6 0 Construction of Anemometer at EMVCKUCSS sc .benaaeeicesechincaeas ous 56 12 2 Magnetic Cooperation sessancsees 10 8 10 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory ssorssccesesseesees 50 0 0 Action of Gases on Light ........ 18 16 1 Establishment at Kew Observa- tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- ture and Sundries..........+6... 183 4 7 Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 20 0 0 Publication of Report on Fossil Reptiles.....ccssesccssesscoseecee 40 0 O Coloured Drawings of Railway Sechlonsiigeseacescansasscresies-es 147 18 3 Registration of Earthquake Shocks .....scccccssesssesssrsevee 80 0 O Report on Zoological Nomencla- CUTE covsecccescccecccesccccsscceee 10 0 O Uncovering Lower Red Sand- stone near Manchester ......... 4 4 6 Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 5 3 8 Marine Testacea (Habits nos 10 0 0 Marine Zoology.........+0. eseee 10 0 0 Marine Zoology...cccssssesesceseeee 214 11 Preparation of Report on British Fossil Mammalia ..........0005 - 100 0 0 Physiological Operations of Me- dicinal Agents ....sesccccseseeee 20 0 0 VitaltStatistica!"cccscusescssceensese - 86 5 8 Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ...ses.esseeeee 70 0 0 Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ... ........00- 100 0 0 Reduction of Experiments on the Forms of Vessels .....sseeseeees 100 0 0 Morin’s Instrument and Constant ENUICAtOL, ‘ecseccasccccserersaseere 69 14 10 Experiments on the Strength “of Materials .,....ssssesseeersessese 60 0 O £1565 10 2 1844, Meteorological Observations at Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 Completing Observations at Ply- MOUtN seerscccccarereseoes sosseee 3D 0 0 Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Operation .+...sccccccecsees esooee 25 8 4 Publication of the British Asso- ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0 Observations on Tides on the East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 Revision of the Nomenclature of Stars .sccccsevssccesscseereelS42 2 9 6 Maintaining the Establishmentin Kew Observatory seceeseeeseeeee 117 17 3 Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 $8 xii Ey Shee Us Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0 Subterraneous Temperature in Treland, ..ccccscccccccccenssscncces iis AL Coloured Drawings of Railway BGLEONS soncwccccsnseeersccecesscsce 15 17 Investigation of Fossil Fishes of the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0 Registering the Shocks of Earth- quakes ..... Vapesogssss +ose1842 23 11 10 Structure of Fossil Shells ......... 20 0 0 Radiata and Mollusca of the Egean and Red Seas...... 1842 100 0 0 Geographical Distributions of Marine Zoology ........- 1842 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall ....-seeceeesescerereee 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cor FUL ...eeseee 10 0 0 Experiments on the Vitality of DEEdS) evaccee Meceacasnrastcaccaseses 9 0 3 Experiments on the Vitality of Needs ccvsceemie sessapenepenss isk oak ik p33 Exotic Anoplura Ronecascnaswasas ah 15 0 0 Strength of Materials .....+. seers 100 0 0 Completing Experiments on the Forms of Ships .......sssseseeee . 100 0 0 Inquiries into Asphyxia ........ 10 0 0 Investigations on the Internal Constitution of Metals ..... Sens Meal Constant Indicator and Morin’s Instrument — ..ecccseccerees 1842 10 3 6 £981 12 8 1845. Publication of the British Associa- tion Catalogue of Stars .......06 351 14 6 Meteorological Observations at Inverness sdasercocnsesssesgupaan 30 18 11 Magnetic and Meteorological ‘Co- OPPFAtlON) Sascesscescessrcutavne ee GO 26s Meteorological Instruments at Edinburgh ........secescccessrres vals [1-9 Reduction ‘of ‘Anemometrical Ob- servations at Plymouth ......... 25 0 0 Electrical Experiments at Kew Observatory sreccssoccccserececes 43 17 8 Maintaining the Establishment in Kew Observatory ...++++ Seneca 149-15 0 For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0 Gases from Iron Furnaces ....,. 50 0 0 The Actinograph .....++e+8. Spexses) Al UO Microscopic Structure of Shells 20 0 0 Exotic Anoplura .......ee.8- 1843 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds .......0.006 1843°- 2) 0°" 7 Vitality of Seeds .........0+. 1844 7 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0 Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- talitypin VOtke. a secsiseentcaseee 20 0 0 Earthquake Shocks .,,......1843 15 14 8 $830 9 9 1846. British Association Catalogue of SIAIST ca cusyeseneaee sosevenee L844 211 15 0 Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 160 0 0 REPORT—1875. & 3s. da, Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ...,........ 50 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ......secsseree 146 16 7 Strength of Materials ........... 7 00 OG Researches in Asphyxia ..... ase TO kG ae Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds .....0...4.. 1844 2 15 10 Vitality of Seeds .......... 1845 712 8 Marine Zoology of Cornwall...,... 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 Exotic Anoplura ..........66 1844 25 0 0 Expenses attending Anemometers 11 7 6 Anemometers’ Repairs ......... wos a. (oO Atmospheric Waves ......e++se0s oe Oe se Captive Balloons ......se+.06 1844 819 3 Varieties of the Human Race 1844 7 6 3 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- tality.In YODKi?ccnssscanveeueseeeimnce mata £685 16 0 1847. Computation of. the Gaussian Constants for 1829 .......00006 50 0 0 Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0 Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 Atmospheric Waves .....scccrree 6 9 8 Vitality of Seeds ........604. sigaty ee Ne Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ....s..00000-. 107 8 6 £208 5 4 1848. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ...ecsecceee ee 171 15 11 Atmospheric Waves ...eccccceeee 8 10 9 Vitality of Seeds” w0i2.0cccsecce «- 915 O Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 On Colouring Matters .......0..4. 5 0 O On Growth of Plants............... 15 0 0 27a, V8 1849. Electrical Observations at Kew Observatory ...ccccsscesssoee oneal one Maintaining Establishment at MICE OS Ganies se viea'e on bassseb can cesneate eeiGl cia Vitality of Seeds .........006 soscs 0! 8 OE On Growth of Plants............ ws Oo (OoN® Registration of Periodical Phe- NOMENA ....e000 Rndcneceasored 10 0 0 Bill on- account oF Aniemoienaaat Observations .. csscoccensrcees alee SO £159 19 6 1850. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ......-s0...+. 255 18 0 Transit of Earthquake Waves ... 0 Periodical Phenomena .........6. 15 0 0 Meteorological Instruments, IAZOLES) .venenescscuceceaeumsevssect econ arU 0 £345 18 GENERAL STATEMENT, & s. ad. 1851. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory (includes part Of grantin 1849) .......csceeeee 309 2 2 Theory of Heat...... evaviasesyes a) 20) lo OL Periodical Phenomena of Animals BUUUNNENER cs Ssvsseseredsucssetieese!) 2100 0 Vitality of Seeds w..cecrsescrreee 5 6 4 Influence of Solar Radiation,..... 30 0 0 Ethnological Inquiries ............ 12 0 0 Researches on Annelida .......... 10 0 0 SSI] 9" "7 1852. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory (including balance of grant for 1850) ... Experiments on the Conduction iS] ix) oo _ ~ io] TAEELCHUy vcentnec4yassen ae raxsactasnsHd - aDibet cise ta Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0 Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0 Researches on the British Anne- IIMB tra dscsesccarecastigigccbastacs? /LOw hntD Vitality of Seeds ......... wan skenuene sd Ord ania Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10 0 0 £304 6 7 1853. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory Fechenendossnce 165 0 0 Experiments on tne Influence of Solar Radiation............0.08. 15 0 0 Researches on the British Anne- PB aedystetesccacs ess Raeeced 10 0 0 Dredging on the East Coast ‘of Scotland....... Siesapdeaiensanees aoe UY ne Ethnological Queries ............ 5 0 0 £205 0 0 1854, Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory (including balance of former grant) . 830 15 4 Investigations on Flax............ 11 0 0 Effects of Temperature on Wrought Iron ..........004 «- 10 0 0 Registration of Periodical Phe- NOMENA w.cscecccreesecceeees fosene 20) SUDO British Annelida exsdtaerenceccasea, LO! 10 O Witality Of Seeds” 2c). ...c.cecsceeee, 52 8B Conduction of Heat .........0.. 4 2 0 £380 19 7 1855, Maintaining the Establishment at | Kew Observatory ......s000000.. 425 0 0 Earthquake Movements .......... 10 0 0 Physical Aspect of the Moon....... 11 8 5 Vitality of Seeds ...,.....s0ce00008 10 7 11 Map of the World............00.. 15 0 0 Ethnological Queries,............ 5 0 0 Dredging near Belfast ............ 4 0 0 £480 16 4 (ee re ee 1856. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory :-— 1854,,....8 75 0 0 » 1355..4.4.£500 0 ot ore e Ss a. Strickland’s Ornithological Syno- NYS so ghabeorvescewaredeeds esooee 100 0 0 Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9 Chemical Action of Light ...... os 20°0 0 Strength of Iron Plates ............ 10 0 0 Registration of Periodical Pheno- MENA cecccecscsssevseccsssereees PS a Propagation of Salmon vacvoreenssere 1000s 0 £734 13 9 1857. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory «........ dciene 350 0 0 Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 40 0 0 Dredging near Belfast .......00.4. 10 0 0 Dredging on the West Coast of Scotlands scccqsscscacdsuecuarses ose 10 0 0 Investigations into the Mollusca Of California ..ccsccésssscvssvense 10° 0° 0 Experiments on Flax ........0... 5 0 0 Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 0 Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0 Report on Natural Products im- ported into Liverpool ........ 10 0 0 Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 O Temperature of Mines ............ 7 8 0 Thermometers for Subterranean Observations) .cccscccsdetsesccee OH 4 Life-Boats Cee eet F ere evececoeree® 5° 0 0 £507 15 4 1858. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory «........00+ «. 500 0 0 Earthquake Wave Experiments... 25 0 0 Dredging on the West Coast of Scotland ....... sccacoceecee 10 0.10 Dredging near Dublin. ceree st wee 35 0 O Vitality of Seeds .......... anak 5 5 0 Dredging near Belfast .....-...s0 18 13 2 Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0 Experiments on the production of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 Report on the Natural Products imported into Scotland......... 10 0 0 £618 18 2 1859. “Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory .........0.... 500 0 0 Dredging near Dublin ............ 15 0 0 Osteology of Birds...... ep casennceey nid On nO Irish Tunicata ......... canvas eccone (9) 00 Manure Experiments .........0. 20 0 0 British Meduside ......... werccscee 5 0 0 Dredging Committee............... 5 0 0 Steam-vessels’ Performance ...... 5 0 0 Marine Fauna of South and West Of Ireland). ce scesercscescsavacnassg? DO 0/0 Photographic Chemistry ......... 10 0 0 Lanarkshire Fossils ............2. 20 0 1 Balloon Ascents,,.........- seaapeerase) dabete £684 11 1 1860. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory..i..... score JOU © O> OU Dredging near Belfast...... aneseven plOny GenO Dredging in Dublin Bay..,.,,..... 15 0 0 ]xiv REPORT—1875, & 5. d. £ Inquiry into the Performance of Steaniships’ Performance......... 150 0 0 Steam-vessels.....eeesreseeeseeeee 124 0 O | Thermo-Electric Currents ...... 520) 0G. Explorations in the Yellow Sand- £1293 16 6 stone of Dura Den............... 20 0 0 Chemico-mechanical Analysis of 1863. Rocks and Minerals..s...s.ssees 25 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment Researches on the Geng of of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 Plants.....cssseceessseeeesseseeeeee 10 0 0 | Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 0 Researches on the Solubility of Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0 Alt csjaiueccosscssvesssesevesseese 30 0. (0 | Emtozodiiicsissses-s-s-avnereemeeeee 25 0 O Researches on the Constituents Conb-Bansile 5 /cé.5, 0-0 Patent Laws .......... trrssseeeeees 21 6 0 | Dredging Northumberland ,..... 25 0 0 Mollusca of N.-W. America,..... 10 0 © | Balloon Committee .......+...... 200 0 0 Natural History by Mercantile Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0 Marine seeeeeeeeeres sesssseeree 5 0 0 | Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0 Tidal Observations .......0006- ve 25 0 O01! Analysis of RockS....-0..«+. woke h lOL oD Photoheliometer at Kew «ue. 40 0 0 | Hydroida csessccessseee vanseh oni a) ees Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0 | Asiham’s Gift wees. wees 50 0. 0 Rocks of Donegal ...+.+++.+++++4 + 25 0 0 | Nitrite of Amyle ...........ccc0000 10 0 0 Dredging Durham and North- Nomenclature Committee ...... 5 0 O umberland...... sesiscesscerseonce 25 0 0) RoinsGauges oss scovowerse-ssven semeto) 158 Connexion of Storms. Reel tiae eee 20° 0 0} Cast-Iron Investigation areal 20 0 0 Dredging North-east Coast of Tidal Observations in the Humber 50 0 0 Scotland...... teeaeecsseseocecsace 6 9 6 SpéctralRaysinivpicesttessctem 45 0 0 Ravages of Teredo ss..s.ee000. 311 0 | Fuminous Meteors .............. 20 0 0 Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 0 O 77289 15. 8 Railway Accidents ............00. TOPOL 0 ps Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 1865. Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10 0 O | Maintaining the Establishment Dredging the Mersey ......... | es) of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 O Prison Diet ......., sessseencevennes 20 0 O | Balloon Committee .........1..00 100 0 96 Gauging of Water..ccccssccssresnee 12 10 O | My ArOida) ivsssisseresacwrteae 13 0 0 GENERAL STATEMENT, Sa. od. MBAUORCEASIZCS pacts nesessescscsceres 30 0 0 Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 6 8 0 Hexylic Compounds............... 20 0 0 Amyl Compounds............066. «7 20) 09 0 MEISOUIATD OT stswesisensoessss see viel 20" 0 0 American Mollusca ...... Masters 3 3.9 0 MEPIIGHACIONS 5 5..200: 000000. 00e00e 20 0 0 Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 10 0 0 Eurypterus ..........05. maawasscee 50 0 0 Electrical Standards...... ........ 100 0 0 Malta Caves Researches ......... 30 0 0 Oyster Breeding ..............00+ 25 0 0 Gibraltar Caves Researches...... 150 0 0 Kent’s Hole Excavations...... +» 100 0 0 Moon’s Surface Observations... 35 0 0 Marine Fauna ............0s00ee00 25 0 0 Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25 0 0 Dredging Channel Islands ...... 50 0 0 Zoological Nomenclature......... 5.60 «(0 Resistance of Floating Bodies in Water ...... avalvauerrr acces stain 100 0 0 Bath Waters Analysis ............ 810 0 Luminous Meteors ..............5 40 0 0 £1591 7 10 1866. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 Lunar Committee.........000088 6413 4 Balloon Committee ............... 50 0 0 Metrical Committee............... 50 0 0 British Rainfall..................008 50 0 0 Kilkenny Coal Fields ............ 16 0 0 Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15 0 0 Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0 Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 0 Chemical Constitution of Cast RTI ergy cise sass eos ae vossoa es 50 0 0 Amy] Compounds.................. 25 0 0 Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 0 Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 0 Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and BUPPANINVGALL — vas eeceness sensed aisiies 25 0 0 Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 0 Dredging Hebrides Coast........ . 50 0 0 Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 0 0 Resistance of Floating Bodies in ET ropes sei ans) se teicpiacteeh 50 0 0 Polyeyanides of Organic Radi- BBRET Gace iecscssvies'sssee p08 Poerco, Auer) PAM OEY MUONS: | snsesesconsesccsss5nes 10 0 0 Trish Annelida ...............00.008 15 0 0 Catalogue of Crania............... 50 0 0 Didine Birds of MascareneIslands 50 0 0 Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 0 Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 0 £1750 13 4 1867. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Gbservatory............ 600 0 0 Meteorological Instruments, Pa- REGEIEN av adiccccessacscovts abecee, 200) 10h 0 Lunar Commiittec.........s00cc008 120 0 0 1875. — nw =< eo ist Ge Metrical Committee .............06 30 0 0 Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 100 0 0 Palestine Explorations... .. corre 90 0 O Insect Fauna, Palestine ....... smed0) 0) 10 Tits! Nainkall casdeck «sxe skauber 50 0 0 Kilkenny Coal Fields ...... ase 25 0 0 Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 25 0 0 Luminous Meteors .............. 50 0 0 Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds » 30 0 0 Dredging Shetland ............... 75 0 O Steamship Reports Condensation 100 0 O Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0 Ethyle and Methyle series ...... 25 0 0 Mossi) Crustacea | .<...s+senaeovte oe 25 0 0 Sound under Water .............4+ 24 4 0 North Greenland Fauna ......... 75 0 0 Do. Plant Beds... 100 0 O Iron and Steel Manufacture 25 0 0 Patent Laws ....... cia ele waa alesis tne 30 0 0 £1739 4 O 1868. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory.........06- 600 0 0 Lunar Committee............0.... 120 0 0 Metrical Committee... PeLactbecde 50 0 0 Zoological Record ........ - 100 0 0 Kent’s Hole Explorations seeeee 150 0 0 Steamship Performances......... 100 0 0 British Rainfall .........seeceseee 50 0 0 Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0 Organic Acids ........... er Meee 60 0 0 Fossil Crustacea .....sseseeseeeeee 25 0 0 Methyl series .......... Bp besnce 25 0 0 Mercury and Bile............. sect ieo) Os .40 Organic remains in Limestone REGCK Sig ae figures in this column are obtained by dividing the total train mileage by the aggregate length of single line of way, excluding sidings, and not by the actual length of the railway. (5) The passenger mileage has been calculated, as it is not given in the Board of Trade returns, under this head has been made. (c) The figures in column No. IX. are obtained by dividing those in column VIII. by those in column V. (d) The figures in column X. are obtained by dividing those in column VIII. by those in column VII. (e) The figures in column XI. are obtained b the figures in column V. e figures in column X -B.—The passenger mileage includes the miles estimated to have been trave holders) b: (f) Th mile for each class of passenger, and dividing the receipts from the season-ticket holders by the average fare. II. are obtained by dividing the total number of passengers carried in each year by the figures in column VII. Tea by season-ticket holders. This estimate was obtained by calculating an average fare per except partially between 1852 and 1859 (inclusive), and since 1859 no return y dividing the total number of passengers carried in each year (including a calculated number of journeys made by sesson-ticket rt at we “ole e08 | Whntepeaes rie fanaa om a tae fi | his vito eagii 11 yo lay Fenn te Pecr000. pene . ay} cont spa TaN |r ARTO ponies ia | it . (i) se yuezrON Te reroerad hag fa een a a, eee a Lt , J ; — a vA ; X ay “Saar ; / > “ee j be. . te 5 ee ~ sh ‘ ae ieee ecya. oe ; i, a. 7 ae @ “ee « ; oft bo ~ ih oltiowno’) MHaluiest alt to seqeil. VL ATAIT Me Led pqoensld savifl edt at ola oo sage . ay. artes Obie oa 16 woidesnlyed ot ao frog Haid? adh aoidoauk is | 0 moamelion't qa worl bolle ‘ei } ee ie al eed J] ’ , ’ i REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Eleventh Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavera, Devon- shire—the Committee consisting of Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Guorcr Busx, F.R.S., Witutam Boyp Dawsrys, F.R.S., Winttam AysHrorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., Joan Epwarp Lex, F.G.S., and Wititam Pen- GELLY, F.R.S. (Reporter). Tue Committee have again the melancholy duty of reporting that death has deprived them of one of their members. As long ago as 1859, as soon as he became aware of the importance of the discoveries made in the Windmill- Hill Cavern at Brixham, Sir Charles Lyell expressed a strong desire that Kent’s Cavern should also be systematically and thoroughly explored; and it was with his full concurrence that the proposal to do so was laid before the Committee of the Geological Section of the British Association at Bath in 1864, the day after he delivered his Presidential Address ; whilst his ardent advocacy, together with that of the late Professor Phillips, secured its ready acceptance by the Committee of Recommendations and the General Committee. At the first meeting of the Cavern Committee, appointed in the year just mentioned, he was unanimously elected Chairman, and he con- tinued to occupy that post until his lamented decease on 27th February, 1875. Though the state of his health prevented him from taking any active part in the exploration, his interest in the work never abated; he always carefully studied the Monthly Reports of Progress sent him by the Super- intendents, and he made careful arrangements for their preservation. The Tenth Report, read to the Geological Section of the Association at the Belfast Meeting, and printed in the annual volume for last year, brought up the work to the end of July 1874. The exploration has been carried on without interruption from that date to the present time, the mode of excavation adopted at the beginning has been uniformly followed, the Superintendents have visited the Cavern daily, the progress of the work has been carefully recorded in the Cavern diary, the workmen have, as heretofore, given complete satisfaction, and Monthly Reports have been B 1875, 2 REPORT—1875. regularly sent to Sir Charles Lyell until his decease, and subsequently to Mr. John Evans. The Committee have the satisfaction of stating that they still retain the services of George Smerdon, foreman of the work, who has been engaged on it from the beginning. As John Clinnick, the second workman, believing the employment prejudicial to his health, has sought more congenial labour, they have engaged Nicholas Luscombe in his stead, and hope that he may prove an equally satisfactory workman. The Cavern continues to be much visited by persons desirous of studying on the spot its characters and phenomena; and during the last twelve months the Superintendents have had the pleasure of taking the following gentlemen through those branches which have been explored, and of explaining to them the mode of operation :—Sir C. Wheatstone, General D. Lysons, Colonel Brine, Major J. Virtue (Madras), the Revs. Dr. Stebbing, J. L. Ball, W. E. Buckley, G. Henslow, J. Parker, T. R. R. Stebbing, T. Talbot, J. H. Tooke, and R. H. J. Turrell, Dr. T. Oldham (Calcutta), Dr. FE. B. Tylor, and Messrs, E. W. Alexander (New Zealand), W. F. Alexander, A. R. Baker, J. R. Baker, H. 8. Ball, W. Beer, C. A. Bleckly, H. F. Bleckly, Gellings Blow, A. Brine, N. Brown, M. de Bunsen, W. Carruthers, Moncure D. Conway, J. D. Crossfield, P. L. Davidson, W. J. Dobie, F. Elder, E. C. Elliott, W. Francis, G. 8. Gibson, J. Giles, H. Gurney, T. Gurney, T. Har- rison, T. N. Hart-Smith, E. 8. Hastings, F. J. Hext, C. Holdsworth, J. Holds- worth, J. A. Holdsworth, J. H. Holdsworth, J. S. Holdsworth, R. Holds- worth, A. R. Hunt, T. Hunton, H. J. J. Lavis, J. Norman Lockyer, D.C. W. Lysons, J. I. Mackenzie, D. Pidgeon, A. D. Powell, H. Reuter, A. Richard-. son, A. F. Robinson, H. Segar, J. Sollas, E. B. Stott, J.S. Stott, F. R. Thom— son, J. R. Terry, H. Tozer, J. H. Tuke, 8. Tuke, W. 8. Tuke, W. A. E. Ussher, C. Staniland Wake, E. G. Wake, J. C. Wheat, J. N. White, B. H. Williams, F. Williams, F. R. Wolfe, B. B. Woodward, H. B. Woodward, and F. L. Woodward. Numerous visitors have also been conducted by the “ Guide,” who, though under the control of the Committee, is not permitted to take parties to those branches of the Cavern in which the exploration is in progress or has not been begun. As in former years, rats have frequently been seen running about in various parts of the Cavern, including those in which the men have been at work, though hundreds of feet from any glimmering of daylight ; and they have displayed their usual boldness as well as their skill in carrying off candles. In other branches, almost as far from the entrances, where all researches have ceased for some years, their footprints are to be seen in very great numbers, especially on, the silt left, here and there, where the drip is copious in wet weather. It is difficult to understand what draws them thither, unless it be the small amount of tallow which drops from the candles of visitors. On 29th January, 1875, a ‘* buzzing fly” was heard by one of the Super- intendents in ‘‘ The Cave of Inscriptions,” about 300 feet from daylight, and was subsequently seen by the workmen in the same Cave. Clinnick’s Gallery.—The Tenth Report (1874) stated that the Committee had discovered that the “ Long Arcade,” about 225 feet from its entrance, threw off a narrow branch, which had been named “ Clinnick’s Gallery ” after the workman who first entered it—that its exploration was in progress and had been completed for about 34 feet—that below the least ancient, or ON KEN1’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 3 the “ Granular, Stalagmitic Floor,” for a distance of 18 feet from the entrance, a small quantity of “ Cave-earth” uniformly presented itself, beneath which lay the “ Breccia,’ occasionally separated from it by remnants of the more ancient, or the “ Crystalline, Stalagmitic Floor” in situ—but that from the point just named, up to that reached when the Tenth Report was drawn, there was no Cave-earth; so that the two Stalagmites lay the one imme- diately on the other, with the Breccia (that is, as far as is known), the oldest of the Cavern deposits, beneath the whole. At the commencement of the exploration of this Gallery, the deposits so very nearly reached the roof as to induce the belief that a very few fect at most was all that the workmen had before them. In short, no one suspected the existence of this branch of the Cavern. As the work advanced, how- ever, the unoccupied interspace between the roof and floor became gradually larger, until on the 6th of August, 1875, John Clinnick, the workman already mentioned, forced himself through, and, after proceeding about 50 feet, as he estimated, entered a large chamber, of which he brought back such a glowing description as to induce one of the Superintendents to follow him, when he found the workman’s description by no means too highly coloured. The Chamber, probably one of the largest in the Cavern, is beau- tifully hung with stalactites, and has numerous stalagmitic “ paps,” some of them four feet high and of almost cylindrical form, rising from a floor of the same material. The work in Clinnick’s Gallery was very difficult, as the two stalagmites were not only extremely hard and tough, but had an aggregate thickness amounting frequently to fully four feet; and the very contracted height and breadth of the Gallery prevented the men from working to the best advantage. The state of the Floor was a puzzling study. The older, or lower, or Crystalline-Stalagmite was broken in places near the left wall along a line parallel with it, and the fragments, occasionally considerable sheets, were raised some inches above their original level at their margin most remote from the wall and depressed at that nearest to it, whilst every thing remained intact at and adjacent to the opposite wall of the narrow Gallery. The dis- turbance occurred obviously before the commencement of the formation of the upper or Granular Stalagmite ; for not only was this less ancient floor undisturbed, but the fragmentary and tilted sheets of the older floor just mentioned passed in some instances obliquely through it, rising above its upper surface on one side and projecting below its base on the other. Adjacent to the left wall, at a point where the Floor was unbroken, a pap (which had evidently lost its top) reached the height of 16 inches and was still standing erect. Though varying somewhat in diameter, it may be said to be cylindrical in form, and at the top it measured 10 inches in cireum- ference. Almost in contact with it, but lying horizontally at its base, and completely enveloped in the Granular Stalagmite, was a fragment of, no doubt, the same pap, 10 inches long; whilst on the opposite side of the standing portion was a third fragment, 5 inches long, terminating in a cone, and firmly held to the spot by stalagmitic matter. There can be no doubt that the three pieces are portions of one and the same pap, of which the shorter piece was the conical apex, the unbroken column having been at least 31 inches long. Phenomena such as these are calculated to induce specu- lations respecting the causes which produced them and the time they repre- sent. In the case just mentioned, we have, first, the deposition of the Breccia, or oldest of the Cavern-deposits, so far as is certainly known; this B2 4. REPORT—1875. was followed by the formation of the Crystalline Stalagmite as a continuous sheet of somewhat variable thickness, which sometimes reached fully 3 feet in this Gallery; next came that very slow drip and precipitation of car- bonate of lime which alone seems compatible with the formation of paps, and this continued until the pap just described had reached a height ex- ceeding 30 inches anda girth of 10; this was succeeded by some cause of disturbance, which broke the thick floor of Crystalline Stalagmite, depressed, as if by subsidence, the deposit adjacent to one wall, but left every thing intact on the opposite side of the narrow passage, broke the pap into three pieces, leaving the lowest of them still erect, causing the middle segment to fall at its foot on the outside, and that which formed the apex on the inside ; finally, this was followed by another sheet-like floor of Stalagmite, of less thickness than the former, granular in texture, and capable of preventing the results of the disturbance from being themselves disturbed. A faint earthquake-tremor would, no doubt, suffice to break some of the long com- paratively slender paps ; for some of those which have been found detached have been known to resolve themselves into fragments, even at a touch, the planes of division being at right angles to the longest axis, whilst others of even less thickness will stand a considerable blow. Most of those standing intact emit a musical note when gently struck ; and the notes are such as to show that the rates of vibration, and hence probably the molecular arrange- ment, must differ considerably even in masses differing but little in di- mensions. Clinnick’s Gallery on being excavated was found to be a somewhat tortuous passage, varying from 4 to 8 feet in width, and from 7 to 10 feet in height *. That it was once a watercourse there can be little or no doubt, as the roof bears the marks of the long-continued action of a running stream. The walls vary considerably —being in some places smooth, in others much fretted or corroded, and in others more or less angular. The objects of interest found in this branch of the Cavern during the last twelve months have been by no means numerous; nevertheless they are not without interest, as a few of them throw a new light on the pale- ontology of the Cavern. ; Attached to the upper surface of the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, the least ancient of the two deposits of that material, portions of three land-shells (No. 6477) were found, 23rd October, 1874; and on the 31st of the same month about 20 bones of Mammals (No. 6481) were met with, lying toge- ther loose on the Floor, beneath a few small fragments of Stalagmite. Their characters are such as to imply a recent introduction into the Cavern. Incorporated in the Granular Stalagmite itself were a few bones, including a humerus (No. 6475), a tibia and ulna (No. 6476), all nearly entire, and a portion of a large humerus (No. 6491), each of which had been gnawed. Though no Cave-earth was met with beyond the point already specified, there seems no doubt that to the era of that deposit may be referred a con- siderable portion of a radius (No. 6484) and of an ulna (No. 6489), both gnawed and found under loose pieces of stalagmite. The Breccia in this Gallery was not much more productive. The total remains of animals it has yielded since the last Report was presented are 4 teeth of Bear, a few bones and fragments of bone, and 3 teeth of Lion in three portions of, no doubt, one and the same lower jaw. The latter “ find” (No. 6482) is of considerable interest, as being the first known instance of * All heights mentioned in this Report have been measured from the bottom of the excavations mace by the Committee, ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 5 remains of any animal besides Bear met with in the Breccia. It was found with three bits of bone on the 2nd November, 1874, in the third foot-level ; and vertically beneath it, in the next foot-level, were 1 tooth of Bear, a fragment of bone, and a flint chip (No. 6483). Though the Superintendents had no doubt of the feline character of the teeth, they forwarded one of them (that least surrounded with Breccia) to Mr. George Busk, F.R.S. &c., amember of the Committee, on 30th November, 1874, remarking that they believed it to be the last lower left molar of Felis spclwa, and requesting his opinion on it. In his reply, dated ‘‘ 32 Harley Street, December 8, 1874,” he remarks :— “There is no doubt that the tooth is the left lower carnassial of Felis leo, but it is of very unusual size, being, I should estimate, =, bigger than the average dimensions of that tooth in the Lion. It is usually longer, but not so thick, in the Tiger than in the Lion; but the thickness of the present one is proportionate to its length, viz. 1-20 x°65 inch. Another peculiarity, as it seems to me, is the great wear that the tooth has undergone. I fancy existing Lions are not allowed to live long enough to wear their teeth so ‘much. At any rate, the Kent’s Hole tooth appears to be more worn than any other I have as yet met with. Can it belong to Machairodus? (Signed) “‘GrorcE Busx.” Having succeeded in removing some part of the matrix incrusting the other portions of the jaw, they were also forwarded to Mr. Busk, with the observation that the Superintendents had carefully considered the question before submitting the first tooth, and had come to the conclusion that the jaw was not that of Machairodus ; for, waiving the fact that none of the tecth were serrated, the fang of the canine still remaining in the jaw was much too large for a lower canine of any known species of Machairodus; and it was suggested that it might be worth considering whether the specimen belonged to any of the species of Felis found in the Forest-bed of Cromer. Mr. Busk says in his reply, dated August 11, 1875:—*‘* The jaw does not appear to present any thing unusual. It is, however, a good example to show that the Caye-Lion lived to a good old age. (Signed) “ GrorcE Busx.” Clinnick’s Gallery also yielded 7 specimens of flint and chert belonging to the Breccia (Nos. 6466, 6467a, 6470, 6474, 6478, 6483, and 6485), of “ which the first and fourth alone require further notice. No. 6466 is an irregular tongue-shaped tool, of gamboge-colour exter- nally, about 3 inches long, 1°7 inch in greatest breadth, and -7 inch in greatest thickness. It has been reduced to an edge all round the circum- ference except at the but-end, is slightly concave on the inner face, on which the “ bulb of percussion ” is well developed near the but-end, and very convex on the outer face, whence several flakes and chips have been dis- lodged. It was broken into three pieces by the workmen in extracting it, and was found, without any other object of interest near it, on 8th August, 1874, in the third foot-level of Breccia, over which the two Stalagmitic Floors, without any Cave-earth between them, had an aggregate thickness of 48 inches. No. 6474, a flint pebble, pretty well rolled, and 2-1 inches long, was found alone, in the second foot-level of Breccia, on 24th September, 1874. The comparative paucity of specimens in Clinnick’s Gallery induced the Superintendents, cn Ist December, 1874, to suspend operations in that direction for at least a time. The labour of seven months had been ex- 6 REPORT—1875. pended on it, during which the exploration had reached 75 feet from the entrance, where the Great Chamber discovered by John Clinnick may be said to begin. The following is a list of the objects of interest found in Clinnick’s Gallery from first to last :— Lying on the surface, and apparently recent: 3 shells of Heliw and about 20 bones of Mammals. Incorporated in the Granular Stalagmite: a few gnawed bones. In the Cave-earth: 8 teeth of Hyzena, 2 of Fox, a tolerable number of bones and fragments of bone, 1 large Chert implement (No. 6401), and 1 small flint flake (No. 6426). In the Breccia: 90 teeth of Bear, 3 of Lion in portions of a-left lower jaw (No. 6482), numerous bones and portions of bone, including a large part of a skull, a flint pebble, and 11 specimens of flint and chert implements, flakes, and chips, including the very fine tool No. -7,+-. The Cave of Inscriptions—The chamber in which “ The Long Arcade” ~ terminates was called by Mr. MacKEnery “ The Cave of Inscriptions,” on account of the number of names, initials, and dates graved on the Stalagmite in various parts of it. Besides those on the ‘“‘ The Inscribed Boss of Stalag- mite,” at the entrance of the ‘“ Cave,” described in the Tenth Report (1874), inscriptions occur on what is known as “The Hedges Boss ” and on the walls of the Chamber. There are also numerous names &c. smoked on various parts of the Roof, as there are, indeed, in almost every branch of the Cavern, some of which appear to be of considerable antiquity. The left wall, about 35 feet from the entrance, is covered with Stalagmitic matter, having usually a rough surface, and to which there does not seem to have been recently any addition. On this surface the following inscriptions have been noticed :— Wily ae aoe 2. W 3, AE 1609 1792 4, 1769 No. 1 is in large badly cut characters. No. 2 is in characters about 3 inches high, well ent, bold, and very legible. The letters are, of course, an economical form of NW. No. 3 is badly cut, and immediately under No, 2. No. 4is in small characters. There are several other inscriptions, but not sufficiently legible to be copied with certainty. At the south-western corner of the Chamber the following inscriptions occur on the wall :— ; 1. MR. 2 Ge Br Sh lay Gaal Ps PS BY lly Li 64 1731 6. William Mather ; tf IM Teignmouth PALE. DA Bot IOhN MARTY & ee 9. 1653 10. Downall. No. 1 is badly cut. No. 4 is within a square 5°5 inches in the side and looped at each angle. * The numerals prefixed to the inscriptions do not belong to the originals, ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. ra Nos. 6 and 10 are in ordinary written characters. No. 7 is within arectilineal figure which has not been completed, or has been obliterated, towards the right. There has been a considerable recent accretion of stalagmite, which has probably obliterated a portion of the enclosing figure and some of the letters there; thus MARTY has perhaps lost a terminal N. Not far from the centre of the Chamber a considerable boss of stalagmite rises from the floor of the same material, having on its sides several badly scratched letters, and the following very well cut inscription in characters about an inch high :— ROBERT HEDGES OF ITRELAND FEB, 20. 1688. On account of the attention which this inscription has attracted and the name in it, the mass of Stalagmite has been named ‘“‘ The Hedges Boss.” It can scarcely be necessary to say that the Committee have left it so far intact as they found it. The earlier explorers had broken the Stalagmitic Floor all around it, and they, or probably some earlier visitors, seem to have contemplated its removal or destruction ; for its apex is broken off, and a hole 7 inches deep has been bored into it, no doubt with the intention of blasting -it. In basal circumference it measures about 30 feet; its present mutilated top is about 4 feet high, and the Floor of Granular Stalagmite from which it rises is about afoot thick. Itis not possible to believe that Mr. MacEnery countenanced the attempt to destroy the Boss, as he attached much import- ance to the inscription on it, mentioning it at least four times in his ‘ Cavern Researches.’ The effort may, no doubt, be ascribed to an earlier period, when it is stated by a writer in the ‘Monthly Magazine’ for June 1805, twenty years prior to Mr. MacEnery’s first visit, when the Cavern was open to all comers without let or hindrance, that ‘“ attempts have been made to work the stones and spars [in Kent’s Hole], but they do not prove orna- mental” *, It is not a little strange that though the name “ Robert Hedges” is per- fectly legible, Mr. MacEnery not only never so renders it, but actually gives it in three distinct forms; twice he speaks of it as ‘“‘ Robert Hodges” +, once as John Hodgson +, and once as “J. Hodges”§. Nevertheless, his description of it is of great value. “The letters,” he says, “ are glazed over and partly effaced”’||. Again, ‘ The letters in the inscription are over- laid”’§]. In short, the terms he applied to it are still perfectly apposite, and justify the belief that the inscription is as old as it professes to be. The drip on it at present is somewhat plentiful in wet weather, and there is no doubt that calcareous matter is still in course of deposition. Of all the cha- racters, the terminal 8 in the date is probably most in danger of obliteration. It was stated in the Tenth Report (1874) that the exploration of the Cave of Inscriptions had been completed up to 16 feet from its entrance, when, the mouth of Clinnick’s Gallery being completely exposed, the investigation of the deposits in the latter branch of the Cavern was undertaken. This, as already mentioned, was carried on until December Ist, 1874, when the work in the Cave of Inscriptions was resumed. In that portion of this Cave explored in 1874, the Committee found that there * Monthly Magazine, London, vol. xix. p. 435. t See ‘Trans. Devon. Assoc.’ vol. iti. (1869) pp. 275 and 459. { Ibid. p. 314, § Ibid. p. 459. || Ibid. p. 275. | Thid. p. 459. 8 REPORT—1875. were no traces of the presence of their predecessors ; that the Granular, or less ancient, Stalagmitic Floor was everywhere intact and continuous, and the Crys- talline, or more ancient, Stalagmite lay beneath it; that the latter had been broken by some natural agency, and though in some cases the severed portions remained zn situ, in others they had been removed and were not always traceable; and that adjacent to the left wall of the Cave a wedge-like layer of Cayve-earth Jay in its proper place between the Stalagmites, and was 6 inches thick at the wall, but thinned out at about a yard from it, beyond which the one Floor lay immediately on the other. This continued to be the case to a large extent for the next 18 feet (that is, up to 34 feet from the entrance), the only exception being that the broken blocks of Crystalline Stalagmite were never dislodged beyond being occasionally ‘“ faulted” to the extent of 2 or 3 inches. At and beyond 34 feet from the entrance, traces of the earlier explorers were again met with in almost every part of the Cave, but were found to be limited to the breaking up of the Stalagmites and of the subjacent deposit to the depth of 12inches at most. A thin layer of typical Cave-earth extended throughout the entire Chamber ; and it was obvious that at the time when its deposition commenced the Crystalline Stalagmite did not exist as a continuous sheet, for in considerable spaces the Cave-earth lay immediately on the Breccia without any Stalagmite between them. Though it was not always easy in these cases to determine the exact junction of the two deposits, there was no doubt that the upper surface of the Breccia was very uneven when the Cave-earth began to be lodged on it. On the discovery of objects of interest at or near this doubtful junction, care was taken to record them as belonging to the “ Cave-earth and Breccia,” even though, from their own characters, it was usually easy to refer them to their proper deposits and eras respectively. Large blocks of limestone, some of them requiring to be blasted, were numerous in this Cave, both in the Stalag- mites and below them. On its excavation being completed, the Cave of Inscriptions was found to extend upwards of 60 feet from north-east to south-west, 45 feet from south- east to north-west, and to be upwards of 20 feet high. In the right wall, immediately before reaching the Hedges Boss, there is a recess to which the name of ‘The Alcove ” has been given ; another, in the north-western corner, probably leads to an external entrance to the Cavern: in the south-west corner is the mouth of tie long tunnel known as the “Great Oven;” and adjacent to it isa Gully about 3 feet wide at the entrance, and extending to an unknown distance but too narrow for exploration beyond a length of 7 feet. Two “ finds” only were met with in the Granular Stalagmitic Floor: one (No. 6491) consisted of a few ‘bones, including a portion of a large humerus ; the other (No. 6495) was a very small bone, probably of Bat, with bits of charcoal and of coprolite, all lodged in the same hand specimen of Stalagmite, and found 3rd December, 1875. The Cave-earth yielded 4 teeth of Hyzna, a few gnawed bones, coprolites on several occasions, and 1 flint flake (No. 6520). At and near the junction of the Cave-earth and Breccia, where they were not separated by Stalagmite, 2 right lower jaws and 4 loose teeth of Hyzna, 38 teeth of Bear, part of a jaw of Fox, 1 incisor tooth of a small rodent, numerous bones and fragments of bone, a somewhat large number of copro- lites, and 1 flint flake were met with. At least, most of the ursine remains may be safely referred to the Breccia, whilst all those of the Hyena un- doubtedly belong to the Cave-earth. One of the Hyzena-jaws just mentioned ON KEN'’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 9 (No. 6570) contains all its teeth except the inner incisor; but, as is com- monly the case with lower jaws of the era of the Cave-earth, it has lost its lower border and condyles, and is much gnawed. It was found 14th May, 1875, with 1 loose canine ‘tooth of the same species, 4 teeth of Bear, and a few fragments of bone. The other jaw of Hyena (No. 6577) has lost the tivo inner incisor teeth and the condyles, and is slightly gnawed, but is otherwise entire. It was found on 24th of the same month, with 1 loose tooth of Hyena, 1 of Bear, and a fragment of bone. The flint flake (No. 6582), found Ist June, 1875, probably ‘belonged to the Breccia, but was of but little importance. There were found in the Breccia 82 teeth of Bear, some of them in jaws or parts of jaws ; 2 of Lion, in a portion of right upper jaw ; numerous bones and pieces of bone, including part of a skull and several other good specimens ; and 13 implements, flakes, and aluns of flint and chert (Nos. 6525, 6532, 6540, 6547, 6550, 6552, "6561, » eso oesz, 6565, 6573, 6581, and 6590). The Lion’s teeth (No. 6518) are the last two molars. The sockets of the canine tooth and of the small tooth immediately behind it still exist, and every thing betokens an animal of great size. The specimen, to which a considerable quantity of the Breccia adheres, is peculiarly interesting as being found in a deposit in which careful methodical research, continued for years, had failed to detect any other osseous remains than those of Bear, with but one exception—that, as already stated, being also the lower jaw of a Lion, found less than two months before. This interesting relic was met with on 31st December, 1874, with 2 teeth of Bear, bones and fragments of bone, in the second foot-level of Breccia. No feline remains have been detected since that date. A few only of the Flint and Chert specimens require detailed description. No. 6550 ,is an implement made out of a well-rolled chert nodule. It is somewhat semilunar in form, but broader at one end than the other, and measures about 4:4 inches in length, 2°3 inches in greatest width, and 2-5 inches in greatest thickness, which it attains near the broader or but-end. It has undergone a considerable amount of chipping, has been reduced to an irregular edge along the greater part of its perimeter, and is comparatively thin at the more pointed end. It is very, but unequally, convex on both faces, each of which has a central ridge, and retains the original surface of the nodule over the whole of the but-end, whence a trace of it extends along the central ridge of the less convex face to about an inch from the point. The portion of the surface which has been chipped is of a yellowish hue, derived, no doubt, from the matrix in which the specimen lay. This, however, is but a superficial stain, as there are indications of an almost white colour within. This fine implement was found 15th February, 1875, between the Hedges Boss and the left wall of the Cave, 36 feet from its entrance, in the second foot-level below the surface (that is, in the uppermost foot-level of the Breccia), having no other object of interest near it. No. 6565 is a chert implement 3-7 inches long, 2-7 breadth, and 1-7 inch in greatest thickness, which it et not far from its centre. It has unfortunately lost one of its extremities, apparently broken off whilst the tool was being made. It is very, perhaps equally, convex on each face, but the centres of convexity are not opposite one another; and though obviously made from a nodule, not a flake, no part of the original surface remains. A considerable amount of work has been expended on it, and it has been reduced to an edge all round the perimeter except at the broken end. The marginal edge is neither keen, nor regular, inches in greatest “>.” 10 REPORT—1875. nor in the same continuous plane. There can be little doubt that it was intended to be a somewhat pointed ovoid tool, and that had it been perfected it would have been more symmetrical in form than the Breccia tools are usually. Its colour is whiter than that of most of the implements found in the same deposit, in which respect, as well as in its shape and the absence of any trace of the original surface, it closcly resembles the implement No. 6103, found in the “Long Arcade,” 7th May, 1873, and described in the Ninth Report (1873). This specimen was met with on 13th April, 1875, in the second foot-level of the Breccia, without any other object of interest near it, 47 feet from the entrance of the Cave of Inscriptions. No. 6581 is a flint flake, struck from a rolled nodule, round at one end, abruptly truncated at the other, and reduced to an edge along both lateral margins. It is 2:2 inches in greatest length, 1°6 inch in greatest width, and ‘6 inch in greatest thickness. The inner surface is very irregular; the outer has three longitudinal facets; the lateral margins are somewhat sharp but slightly jagged as if from use ; both ends are blunt, and the ‘‘ but” retains the original surface of the nodule. Its colour is the warm yellow so characteristic of most of the specimens found in the Breccia; but there are indications that the interior is white. It was met with on 29th May, 1875, in the second foot-level of the Breccia, 57 feet from the entrance of the Chamber. The Gully in the south-west corner of the Cave of Inscriptions, already mentioned, was so narrow as to render it impossible to excavate the deposits occupying it in “parallels,” “levels,” or “ yards.” The specimens found in it, however, were only 2 teeth of Bear, a few pieces of bone, and a coprolite. The earlier explorers had, as usual with them, imperfectly examined the material they dug up in this branch of the Cavern, and then thrown it on one side. On taking it to the daylight the Committee found in it 19 teeth of Bear, 12 of Fox (of which 10 occupied portions of three lower jaws), 9 of Hyzna (two of them being in part of a lower jaw), 2 of Horse, and lof Rhinoceros, and a large number of bones (some entire but most of them fragmentary), numerous coprolites, a fragment of a marine shell, and 6 flakes and chips of flint. The exploration of the Cave of Inscriptions was completed on 14th June, 1875, having occupied the labour of between 8 and 9 months. The following is a list of the specimens found init in undisturbed ground, inclusive of those mentioned in the Tenth Report (1874) :—- In the Granular, or least ancient, Stalagmitic Floor: 1 bone of Bat (?), a few bones, a few patches of coprolite, and a bit of charcoal. In the Cave-earth : 27 teeth of Hyzna, several of them in jaws or parts of jaws; 11 of Bear; 1 of a small rodent; 1 jaw of Fox; numerous bones and fragments of bones, of which 6 had been charred and still more had been gnawed ; a large number of “finds” of coprolites; and 7 tools, flakes, and chips of flint and chert. In the Breccia: 321 teeth of Bear, some of them in jaws and parts of jaws ; 2 of Lion, in parts of an upper jaw; and 20 implements and flakes of flint and chert. The Recess—On completing the exploration of the Cave of Inscriptions, operations were at once commenced in the Recess occupying its north- western corner, which, as already stated, was expected to lead to a new external entrance to the Cavern. The following are the grounds on which this expectation was founded :—At the entrances at present known, on the eastern face of the Cavern hill, and termed the “Triangular” and the ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE, if! * Arched” entrances, the Cave-earth, or least ancient of the two great mechanical accumulations, is at a high level and of great depth. Thence it slopes rapidly downwards in all directions open to it, and at the same time decreases in depth, until reaching the remote end of the ‘“ Lecture Hall” towards the south and the bottom of the “‘ Sloping Chamber ” towards the west. From these facts it has been concluded that the Cave-earth entered the Cavern through the existing and known entrances. Beyond the foot of the slopes just mentioned, the levels are found to be no longer governed by the Cave-earth but by the Breccia (that is, the underlying or more ancient deposit) ; and there is in each case an acclivity, instead of a declivity, on pro- ceeding further and further into the Cavern—comparatively short and abrupt from the Lecture Hall to the Water Gallery on the east, but long and gentle from the Sloping Chamber to the Recess, now under notice, on the west. These acclivities apparently indicate that the Breccia entered the Cavern not, like the Cave-earth, through the apertures on the eastern side of the hill, but through an opening or openings on the western side; and the same line of argument points out the Recess in the north-western corner of tke Cave of Inscriptions as more likely than any other part of the Cavern to lead to such an external entrance. So far as they can be studied, moreover, its own characters support this hypothesis. The Recess extends in a north- westerly direction for fully 60 feet, and is of sufficient width for a man to pass easily ; beyond this its extent is considerable, but at present is too narrow for any one to examine it. Its Floor, a thick sheet of the Crystalline, or more ancient, Stalagmite, is abruptly truncated at the junction of the Recess with the Cave of Inscriptions. Finally, this Floor covered and rested on a thick mechanical accumulation, which is unmistakable Breccia and reached a higher level than elsewhere in the Cavern, so far as is known at present. The exploration of the Recess was begun on 15th June, 1875; and as it was decided to leave intact the Stalagmite Floor just mentioned, in fact to burrow under it, it was necessary to cut the successive “ parallels’? 5 feet deep instead of the usual 4, in order to give the men height enough for working. During the progress of the work a hole was bored through the Floor overhead, when it was found to be pure Stalagmite, 18 inches thick. When the excavation had reached a distance of 10 feet, the two walls were found to be so very nearly together as to render it necessary to abandon the work, or to break up the Floor and proceed at a higher level. The former course being, though reluctantly, decided on, the work was suspended on 6th July, 1875. The only objects of interest found here were 2 teeth of Bear, 3 “ finds” of bones, and 1 piece of flint (No. 6590) of no importance. The Alcove-—The exploration of the Alcove or recess near the Hedges Boss, already mentioned, was begun on 7th July, 1875, and finished on 26th of the same month, or at the end of about 3 weeks. When emptied, it proved to be scarcely lofty enough, from limestone floor to limestone roof, for an ordinary man to stand erect, to measure about 10 feet both from north to south and from east to west, to be divided into two compartments, a northern and a southern, by a limestone partition extending almost completely across it, and to have two entrances from the Cave of Inscriptions. The earlier explorers had partially ransacked the northern compartment, but had not entered the southern, in which a Floor of Stalagmite almost reached the roof. Beneath this Floor, and without any trace of Cave-earth, lay the Breccia, never exceeding 3 feet in depth, and resting on the limestone floor, 12 REPORT—1875. 39 “ finds ” of remains of Mammals were met with in the Alcove, including 59 tecth of Bear (several of the min portions of jaws), 16 of Fox (all of them in portions of three lower jaws), 4 of Hyzna, numerous bones (including several good specimens, though all of them were more or less fragmentary), and lcoprolite. ‘The teeth of Hyzna, 2 of the jaws of Fox, and the coprolite were met with at the junction of the northern compartment and the Cave of Inscriptions, amongst fallen masses of limestone, where neither the character of the deposits nor the exact position of the specmiens could be determined. The remaining jaw of Fox, however (No. 6619), was found in the Breccia ; it was broken into two pieces, which lay together and contained 5 teeth. ‘This specimen, the only known relic of the genus in this old deposit, was found at the inner or castern end of the southern compartment, in the second foot-level of Breccia, with remains of Bear, 17th July, 1875. It may not be out of place to remark that remains of the Common Fox (Canis vulpes) have been identified among the Mammalian relics from the Forest-bed under- lying the Boulder-clay on the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk *. In proportion to the volume of the deposit it contained, the Alcove was far richer in osseous remains than any part of the Cave of Inscriptions, of which it is an adjunct. It is worthy of mention, perhaps, that it contained no trace of flint or chert. The Great Oven.—The passage or tunnel opening out of the south-west corner of the Cave of Inscriptions is very long and narrow, and so low that a considerable portion of it can only be traversed on all-fours or in a crouching posture. It connects the Cave of Inscriptions with the ‘‘ Bear’s Den,” which the Committee have not yet explored, and has been termed the ‘* Oven,” partly from its very contracted breadth and height, but mainly because a vertical section of a considerable part of it at right angles to its length closely resembles the small earthenware ovens much used formerly in the two south-western counties. It has received the epithet Great to distinguish it from a similar but still more contracted tunnel in another part of the Cavern, and known as the “ Little Oven.” The excavation of the Great Oven was begun 27th July, 1875, and at the- end of that month, beyond which this Report does not extend, it had been completed to 4 fect from the entrance. Like the Cave of Inscriptions, it contains a thin layer of Cave-earth, with Breccia beneath it of unknown depth. Two “ finds’ have been met with in the former, containing 1 tooth of Hyzna and a few bones; and 9 in the latter, including 6 teeth of Bear and several pieces of bone. On studying the osseous remains found by the Committee in the Breccia in the various branches of the Cavern they have explored during the last twelve months, the following prominent facts arrest attention :—Some of the teeth of Bear are those of very old animals, and worn almost to the fang, such as No. 6597 from the second foot-level, No. 6608 from the second foot- level, No. 6611 from the feurth foot-level, and No. 6618 from the second foot-level, all found in the southern compartment of the Alcove during July 1875. The jaws, though frequently broken, have never lost their lower borders, a8 is almost uniformly the case with the Cave-earth specimens ; and none of the bones appear to have been gnawed. In no instance were the bones found lying in their anatomical relations, but different parts of pee ‘Cave Hunting.’ By W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 1874, p. 418. ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 13 the skeleton were often huddled confusedly together; thus in No. 6613, found in the second foot-level in the southern compartment of the Alcove, 15th July, 1875, a canine tooth adheres to one side of the proximal end of a tibia, and a piece of jaw to another side. Some of the specimens have fretted surfaces, and appear to have been rolled by running water; this is notably the case with Nos. 6608 and 6615, found in the second and first foot- levels, in the southern compartment of the Alcove, on 12th and 16th July, 1875, respectively. Many of the bones were broken where they were finally lodged, and the parts, with little or no displacement, reunited with Stalag- mitic infiltration; as, for example, Nos. 77>; and ;,2;<, found in the first foot-level in the branch of the Cavern just named, 17th July, 1875. Others appear to have been flattened and more or less crushed where they lay, of which there is a striking example in the distal end of a left femur, No. 6530, found in the first foot-level in the Uave of Inscriptions, 34 feet from its entrance, 12th January, 1875. Occasionally the same rock-like mass of Breccia contains bones of very different colours; thus No. 6603 is such a mass, containing portions of two bones not half an inch apart, each acci- dentally broken across; and whilst one is of a creamy whiteness throughout, the other is a very dark brown, approaching to black. It was found in the second foot-level in the Alcove, 9th July, 1875. This specimen, by no means unique, shows that contemporary bones lying side by side may be of very different colours. Nor are the remains met with in the Cave-earth void of instruction. Up to the present time, wherever the Cave-earth has been met with, there also have traces of the Hyzna been found, either in the form of parts of his skeleton, or his coprolites, or bones scored with his teeth-marks, or jaws divested of their lower borders, or long bones broken after his well-known and recog- nizable fashion. But though everywhere present in greater or lesser numbers, these traces became less and less plentiful with increased distance from the external entrances to the Cavern, and were very “ few and far between ” in the Cave of Inscriptions—the Chamber most remote from the entrances. Whilst the remains of the Hyena were thus met with wherever the Caye-earth occurred, they were in the interior accompanied by those of very few of his contemporaries. Thus, whilst the Chambers adjacent to the entrances contained tecth and bones of Horse, Rhinoceros, Deer (several species), Bear, Fox, Elephant, Ox, Lion, Wolf, and Hare, as well as Hyena (the latter being far the most prevalent), there have been found during the last twelve months in the Cave-earth remains of the Hyena alone. Nor is it without interest to note the branches of the Cavern in which remains of the different forms just enumerated were last detected, so far as is at present known, on the way to the Cave of Inscriptions. The Hare has not been found anywhere in the Western Division of the Cavern—that of which the Cave of Inscriptions is the innermost Chamber; the Badger, Wolf, and Ox were represented in the “ Charcoal Cave,” but not beyond it; and relics of Horse, Rhinoceros, Deer, Bear, Fox, Elephant, and Lion have not appeared beyond the Long Arcade. Finally, no traces of Machairodus have been met with since the incisor tooth found 29th July, 1872, and described in the Eighth Report (1872), presented at Brighton. 14 REPORT—1875. Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., Professor Everett, Sir Cuartes Lyset, Bart., F.R.S., Professor J. Crerk Maxwett, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, F.M.S., Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor Grixiz, /.R.S., James Guaisner, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, G: Maw, F.G.S., W: Prncetty, F.R.S., 8. J. Macks, F.G.S., Professor Hutz, F.R.S., Professor Anstep, F.R.S., and Professor Prustwicu, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various localities of Dry Land and under Water*, By Professor Evnrutt, D.C.L., Secretary. A rew weeks after the reading of last year’s Report, another set of observa- tions was received from Messrs. Mauget and Lippmann, the engineers of the great artesian well now sinking at La Chapelle, Paris. The water had been undisturbed for a year, this time having been occupied in preparations for tubing the well through its entire depth. The exceptionally rapid increase of temperature in the lower part of the well, as indicated in the previous observations, had given reason to suspect that the heat generated by the action of the boring-tool was an important disturbing element. It is now manifest that this suspicion was correct; for the bottom temperature (660 metres deep), which was 83°:25 Fahr. in the observations of June 1862, is only 76° Fahr. in the observations of October 1868, or 77° colder than before. At the depth of 600 metres the tem- perature was 75°°8 and 75°4 in the two observations of June 1862, and 75° in the observation of October 1863, or about half a degree colder than before. At the depths of 500 metres and 400 metres there was no change; and at the depths of 300 metres, 200 metres, and 100 metres there was an increase amounting to 0°5 at 300 metres, 0°-8 at 200 metres, and 1°5 at 100 metres. - In explanation of the increase at these smaller depths, Messrs. Mauget and Lippmann remark :—‘‘ When last year’s observations were made the well had been tubed to the depth of 139-15 metres, but had not been cemented. Consequently the springs which were met with in the tertiary strata com- municated at the base of the tubes with the water of the well. Cement has this year been poured in between all the tubes some days before taking the temperature of the water. This operation has excluded the tertiary springs and permitted the water of the well to resume its normal temperature.” The new temperature 59°°5 at 100 metres, combined with the new temperature 76° at 660 metres, gives 1° Fahr. for 34 metres, or for 111 feet. The old temperature, 58 at 100 metres, combined with the new temperature 76° at 660 metres, gives 1° Fahr. for 31 metres, or for 102 feet. The temperature 53°-1 in the caves of the Paris Observatory, at the depth of 28 metres, combined with the temperature 76° at 660 metres, gives 1° Fahr. in 27-6 metres, or in 90°5 feet. ~ All these results differ largely from previous determinations of the rate of increase in the neighbourhood of Paris, which were very harmonious among themselves, and gave a rate of 1° Fahr. in 56 feet (see 1871 Report). The only source of error that appears possible in the La Chapelle observa- tions is convection by vertical currents in the well. Such action is certainly * Read at the Belfast Meeting, 1874. ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 15 favoured by the large diameter of the well (1:35 metre at the smallest), and may have been further promoted by the same cause which stopped the works and rendered tubing necessary—namely, caving in. Herr Johann Grimm, Director of the School of Mines at Przibram in Bohemia, has furnished some valuable results from observations made by himself in the year 1830, and again in 1854-55, in the deepest mines of that district. The observations in 1830 showed a temperature 11°9 R. at a depth of 1127-4 Austrian feet, as against a temperature 7°-34 at 66 feet. The dif- ference here is 4°56 R. in 1061-4 Austrian feet, or 10°-26 Fahr. in 1100 English feet, which is at the rate of 1° Fahr. in 107 English feet. The observations in 1854-55 showed a temperature of 13°08 R. at a depth of 1832°3 Austrian feet, as against 7°-05 R. at 66 feet. The dif- ference here is 6°-03 R. in 1766-3 Austrian feet—that is, 13°57 Fahr. in 1832 English feet, which is at the rate of 1° Fahr. in 135 English feet. The following is a tabular statement of the results obtained at different depths in the observations of 1854-55 :— Depth below Temp. in Depth in Temp. in Name of Gallery. Paes, ig Aste English ft. deg. Far. Joseph Maria ...... 66-0 7:05 68 47-9 OTC) MEE. Vie 's+a «0. 288-6 7-45 299 48°8 7th Adalbert ...... 599°3 8-30 621 50-7 9th stains hch ere a6 904-8 11-45 939 57°8 13th , ee ee 1244-4 11-70 1209 58°3 17th es ear 1362°8 12°20 1414 59-4 ES SMRUES beret isl) ene Fee, hos 1591°9 12-98 1652 61:2 21st cog Reade Rae 1832°3 13°08 1900 61:4 Taking the differences of successive numbers in the last two columns, we deduce the following rates of increase :— In the first 68 feet ...... Unknown. Om the rest 2k ee, 1° per 260 feet 7 Sy ee Are: per hin. PA CS IRN wat are per 46 ,, pa SM Soll ae cons ater Peeper "700, ,: FY} gs ad ot ane Eo per T10™,. a PEE og ty Pao ea aay I per’ “182. *;, re aL O tent ate Sots 1° per 1400 ,, 1900 If we had omitted the last 248 feet from the reckoning, the ayerage rate of increase would have been 1° for 120 feet. The following explanatory remarks are extracted nearly verbatim from Herr Grimm’s letters :— “The depths of the shafts in these mines, and specially of the Adalbert and Maria shafts, you can see from the annexed Table [Section annexed, showing fifteen shafts]. The Adalbert shaft is sunk perpendicularly to the depth of 470 Vienna fathoms=891-5 metres from the shaft-brace to the bottom of the shaft. “TJ have to remark that, for the observations of the temperatures, such 16 REPORT—1875. levels and places were selected as were far from the workings and from all circumstances which could cause a change of the temperature of the rock. The temperature was observed on thermometers put in bore-holes of 2 fect depth, which were bored in idle rock free of any particles of iron pyrites and far from all lodes. Through the whole time of the experiment, in summer and winter, the temperature of the rock on each level remained, excepting only some very small variations, nearly without change. “From the Table it will be seen that the increment of heat by descending in the mines is much smaller than in the mines of other localities. The reason of it may be looked for in the quality of the rock, which, belonging to the beds of the Lower Silurian formation, is very quartzose and free of any particles of iron pyrites. «‘The temperature in the bore-hole remained, by the observations made throughout the whole year 1830, without a change, as the bore-hole (which was closed up with a piece of clay) kept always the equal temperature of the rock. Even in the year 1854-55, when the observations in the higher levels were repeated and the same bore-holes used, the temperature remained the same. ‘“‘ The shaft-braces of the different shafts differ very little in height, as you have seen from the sketch sent to you, and all of them are situated on lofty hills. My observations of the increase of heat have all been made near the Adalbert shaft, on the different levels; and the difference from the tempera- ture on the same levels in the other mines can only be trifling.” These observations appear to be thoroughly reliable, and to prove con- clusively that the rate of increase in this locality is remarkably slow. Even after applying a large conjectural correction for the convexity of the ground, as connected with the fact above stated that all the shaft-braces “are situated on lofty hills,” the rate of increase will still remain slower than any that we have hitherto discussed. From the description of this rock, considered in connexion with the description given of the rocks in the Mont-Cenis Tunnel (1871 Report), it would appear that highly quartzose rock is characterized by a slow rate of increase—an index probably of high conductivity *. Further observations will be taken by Herr Grimm with two thermometers which have been supplied to him by the Committee. One of them is a maximum protected Negretti, the other a simple mercurial thermometer with a large bulb. Several instruments of this latter kind have been constructed for the Com- mittee during the past year, with a view to observations similar to those above described by Herr Grimm. The objects aimed at in the construction are, slowness of action, combined with facility for reading with quickness and certainty in a bad light. It was stated in last year’s Report that M. E. Sadoine, Director-General of the mines of the Société Cocqueril at Seraing, near Liége, had consented to have observations taken in the mines of that company. A Negretti maximum thermometer was accordingly sent in September 1873, and at a later date (March 1874) a non-registering unprotected thermometer. The following results, obtained with the meximum thermometer, have been communicated by the chief engineer of the collieries. The observations were made in December 1873. _* Added September 1875. This inference as to the high conductivity of quartz, pub- lished a year ago, is verified by the direct experiments of Professor Herschel (see Report on Conductivity of Rocks in the present volume). Quartz was found to be the best conductor of all the rocks experimented on, ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 17 Temperatures Fahrenheit. A Depthin ¢ , Airin Rocki . e in rin OcK 1n Name of Colliery. ae es, Surface. gallery. — hole. EREIG os oo 5, aie nC NeBOe 232 59° (hee ca _ ee he errr 310 56 77 78 Henri Guillaume ...... 505 45 774 87 The site of the two collieries in question is on the banks of the Meuse. The observations were made at the bottom of holes 5 centimetres in diameter and 5 metres deep, bored at the ends of galleries 6 feet high and 6 feet wide, the material of the rock being coal-schist (des schistes houillers). The ther- mometer remained in each hole twenty hours. The holes at the depths of 232 metres and 310 metres are almost vertically beneath the bed of the river. The hole at the depth of 505 metres is about 900 metres from the river. The coal-bearing strata are covered with 8 or 10 metres of gravel, in which the bed of the river is contained. Comparing the first and last of the above observations, we have an increase of 10° Fahr. in 273 metres, which is at the rate of 1° Fahr. in 27-3 metres, or in 90 feet. The temperature of the ground near the surface can be approximately inferred from Quetelet’s observations at Brussels, which is about 50 miles distant from Seraing, and about 10 miles further north. Quetelet found the ground, both at the depth of 12 feet and of 24 feet, to have a mean annual temperature of 12° Cent., or 53°6 Fahr. If we accordingly assume at Seraing a temperature 54° Fahr. at the depth of 5 metres, we have, by com- parison with the temperature 87° at 505 metres,'an increase of 33° in 500 metres, which is at the rate of 1° Fahr. in 15:2 metres, or in 50 feet. It was mentioned in the 1872 Report that four thermometers had been sent to the School of Mines at Ballarat, Australia. A communication has recently been received from the Vice-President (his Honour Judge Rogers), enclosing a report of observations taken at Clunes, in the mine of the New North Clunes Company, by Mr. John Lewis (the Company’s general manager), and promising a report of observations from the Stawell Mine by an early mail. Both mines are about 1000 feet deep. Mr. Lewis’s observations were taken in twelve bore-holes, each 3 feet deep, which were filled with water four or five hours previously, and the thermometer (a large non-registering mercury thermometer) was allowed to remain in the hole for thirty minutes before reading. The depths from the surface of the ground vary from 160 feet to 1015 feet. It appears that sufficient precautions were not taken to exclude atmospheric influences, by plugging the holes and avoiding places where the currents of ventilation were strong. The temperatures recorded in all the bores, except one, appear to be thus vitiated, and are very variable from time to time. The one bore to which these remarks do not apply is designated “bore No. 10,” is at a depth of 790 feet from the surface, and is described as “being in a cross cut without any circulation of air.’ The temperatures observed in it, in the four observations recorded, were 72°6, 72°:5, 72°'5, and 72°-5, the temperature of the air in its vicinity being 73°-6, 73°, 73°, and 73°. Mr. Symons has furnished additional observations made at the depth of 1000 feet in the Kentish-Town well, but recommends that their publication be deferred for the present, as better observations are expected during the ensuing year. The hut which covers the well has been repaired, and the 1875, c 18 REPORT—1875. apparatus employed in the observations has been thoroughly cleaned and put in order. In answer to an application addressed to the director of the School of Mines at Schemnitz, in Hungary, a letter was received, under date Novem- ber 1873, from Herr E. Poschl, Counsellor of Mines, and Professor of Mining Mechanics and Drawings (the director being absent), requesting that thermometers might be sent. A second letter was received from the same gentleman, dated December 26, 1873, acknowledging the safe arrival of the thermometers (one a Negretti maximum protected, the other non- registering and unprotected), and stating that the observations would at once be commenced, under the direction of a joint committee of professors of the Mining Academy and members of the Directory of Mines, Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, wrote, under date February 3, 1874:—* You will oblige us by sending us three sets of guarded registering thermometers, suitable for observations of tem- perature of artesian wells of a diameter of 3 inches, We learn that there are in the vicinity of Chicago sixty wells varying from 500 feet to 1500 feet in depth, included within an area of six miles square. Their elevation above the level of Lake Michigan, as well as the quality of the water they furnish, are very nearly alike. We shall send a set of these instruments to a trustworthy engineer of Chicago.” ... In accordance with this request, three protected maximum thermometers have been sent. No successful observation has yet been made in the Sub-Wealden bore nor in the well at Witham. No report has been received from Harwich, from Anzin, from the Hoosac Tunnel, nor from the Mont-Cenis Tunnel. As regards the St.-Gothard Tunnel, the absence of Professor Ansted has hitherto delayed the carrying out of the resolution adopted by the General Committee last year (see Report for 1873, p. lviii, last paragraph); but action will probably be taken very speedily. Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Hux.ey, F.R.S., P. L. Scrarer, F.R.S., F. M. Batrour, J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S., Dr. M. Foster, F.R.S., E. Ray Lanxesrer, F.R.S., and A. G. Derw-Smiru (Secretary), on the Zoological Station at Naples. Av the Bradford Meeting of the Association the Committee on Zoological Stations was able to report (see Association Reports, 1873, page 408) that the building of the Zoological Station at Naples had been completed; but it was naturally obliged rather to describe the arrangements made for carrying out = objects of the Station than to dwell on the work which had been actually one. The present Committee, however, can now congratulate the Association that, during the two years which have elapsed since the Bradford Meeting, a scientific undertaking of cosmopolitan character, in which the Association has taken a lively interest, and which it has in so many ways assisted, has proved an undeniable, indeed it might be said a brilliant success. The actual ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 19 difficulties and obstacles have, no less through the great energy of Dr. Dohrn than through the help afforded him from time to time, been overcome; and the future of the Station seems in every way bright and promising. The facts which form the subject of the present Report will best be con- sidered under distinct heads :— 1. The Nature and Extent of the working accommodation at the Station. At the present time there are in the Station twenty-one working-tables, the number of which will by the end of the year be increased to twenty-four ; of these no less than seventeen are already occupied or bespoken. Each table is in itself a condensed laboratory ; and the nature of the ac- commodation offered by the Station to any investigator will perhaps best be shown by the following extract from the form of contract between Dr. Dohrn and the hirer of the table. a. The working-table, fully equipped, will be placed at the disposal of the inquirer nominated to occupy it after the interval of a week from the an- nouncement of his coming. The equipment consists of :— 1. The necessary chemical reagents. 2. The ordinary anatomical and microscopical tools and apparatus. 3. Drawing-apparatus. In detail these are as follows :— Reagents. Alcohol, 70 per cent. Olive-oil. » 90 per cent. Pure fat. » absolute. Turpentine. Distilled water. Oil of cloves, Miiller’s fluid. Creosote. Potassic bichromate, 5 per cent. Chloroform. Calcic chloride. Ether. Potassic acetate. Glycerine. Alum. Tincture of iodine. Gold chloride, 1 per cent. Berlin blue solution. Silver nitrate, 1 per cent. Canada balsam. Chromic acid. Gum-arabic. Perosmic acid, Beale’s carmine solution. Hydrochloric acid, pure. Hematoxylin solution. Acetic acid (concentrated). a. », alcoholic. Picric acid, Magenta. Oxalic acid. Picrocarmine. Nitrie acid (concentrated). Cement. Sulphuric acid (concentrated). Wax. Caustic soda. Paraffin. Caustic potash. Spermaceti. Caustic. ammonia. Instruments, Section-entting knife. 3 scalpels. 2 pairs forceps. 2 preparation-needles. 3 pairs scissors. 2 dozen needles. c2 20 REPORT—1875. Drawing-Apparatus. 1 Drawing-tablet. Rule. 6 Drawing-pins. Drawing-instruments. 4 Drawing-pencils. 3 gold pens. Blotting-paper. | Ink eraser. Colour-box and brushes. Glass Instruments. 1 dozen simple glass slides. 1 large hollowed glass slide. 6 stoppered bottles. 1 small oval hollowed glass slide. 1 wash-bottle. 1 trough object-holder. | 1 tray with reagents. 3 glass rods. 50 thin cover-glasses. 3 beakers. 1 lamp. 5 glass plates. 1 measure-glass. 1 microscope-shade. 1 pipette. 1 instrument-shade. 3 glass tubes. Miscellaneous. 2 porcelain capsules. 2 towels. 3 paint-saucers, 1 slate. 1 dozen filter-papers. India-rubber tubes. 1 preparation-trough. 2 portable tanks for holding 1 can. smaller animals. 1 washing-basin. The Station also possesses :— a. A number of special instruments and pieces of apparatus which are not in general use, but only required occasionally. These accordingly are not supplied to each table, but are regarded as belonging to all the tables in common. ; Microscopes are noé provided, it being supposed that each investigator will possess an instrument of his own, to the use of which he is accustomed. 6. Hach working-table is provided with a number of working experi- mental aquaria, and with a constant stream of sea-water; these are entirely at the disposal of the occupant of the table for his investigations. c. The animals serving as materials for study are provided by the Station, and as constant a supply as circumstances will admit is kept up during the investigation. Not only so, but the occupant of the table can, if he pleases, take home with him, on his departure from Naples, a number of scientifically preserved specimens, to enable him to complete or continue his research. The extent of this supply of animals is of course dependent on the variety (or abundance) of the specimens and the concurrent demands of other inyestigators. d. The large aquarium of the Station can be used freely by the occupants of eeties for suitable purposes; for instance, for the study of the habits of animals. e. The Library * (the catalogue of which has been. sent to all academies and universities), placed close to the Laboratory, is accessible to all occupants _* The Library has already, even in so short a time, become a fairly extensive one, being especially rich in embryological works. A copy of the Catalogue may be seen in Siebold and Kolliker's ‘Zeitschrift,’ Bd. xxv. Dr. Dohrn will thankfully receive additions, ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES, 6 pA | of tables. There is also a separate room for making extracts and pre- paring MSS. f. The laboratory is open at 7 A.M. in summer and 8 a.m. in winter. In particular cases special arrangements can be made for access at unusual hours; but the staff cannot undertake to have the Laboratory cleaned before the above-mentioned times. g- Any occupant of a table is free to accompany and take part in the fishing- and dredging-expeditions of the Station. He may thus learn the use of the dredge and the towing-net and the other means employed for pro- curing specimens. h. The cost of the ordinary wear and tear of the instruments and appa- ratus is borne by the Station to the extent of 20 francs. Damages to a greater extent than this must be paid for by the occupant of the table. The working-tables thus equipped and disposed in several rooms constitute the Laboratory of the Station; and of these, of course, the interest and im- portance are purely and exclusively scientific. The large aquarium on the ground-floor has, on the other hand, a double function. Itis partly a popular exhibition, and the payments of visitors consti- tute a not inconsiderable and, it is to be hoped, an increasing item in the in- come of the Station. It serves also asa large field of observation for scientific investigators desirous of learning something about the habits of animals. When our great ignorance on this subject is considered, in relation to the morphological importance with which the theory of natural selection and descent has invested even apparently small details of the working of animal economies, the large aquarium may, after all, seem no less a laboratory than the working-table. It will of course be understood that the general public, who are admitted on payment to view the large aquarium, are carefully excluded from the laboratories proper, though the occupants of tables in the latter have free access to the former. The staff of the Station consists of :— a. Dr. Dohrn, the general director. 6. Dr. Eisig, who has direct command of the laboratory, and whose duty it is to superintend all the arrangements of the tables, to arrange for the providing of the material, and to preside over the distribution of instruments and reagents. In Dr. Dohrn’s absence Dr. Eisig acts as his substitute. There are also two other scientific assistants, one to superintend the large aquarium and the fishing, the other to arrange for the collection and pre- servation of animals for the use of the Station or for distribution abroad. c. Three engineers, four house servants, and four fishermen. Such are the general arrangements of the Station for scientific work ; and your Committee can report (from the personal experience of two of their number during the past winter) that these arrangements are carried out in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. 2. The nature of the work for the carrying on of which the Station offers ; facilities. a. Investigations into the morphology and embryology of Marine Animals.— It is needless to say much on this point. The advantages, first, of an organization to secure the animals which it is desired to study, and, secondly, of a laboratory in which to work on the animals thus obtained, are too obyious to require pointing out. 22 REPORT—1875, We might, however, remark, as a caution, that the Station cannot provide marine animals which do not visit the neighbourhood of Naples; and more- over, seeing the strange coming and going of particular forms at various times, cannot undertake to provide certain animals at all times. For instance, the investigator who desires to study Pyrosoma must visit Naples at the same time as does the object of his study, otherwise it will be impossible for the Station to procure him living examples. b. Physiological investigation of Marine Animals—This branch of stndy, little worked at present, will probably afford rich results in the future. c. Study of the habits of Marine Animals.—Of the importance of this we have already spoken. d. Systematic investigation of the Marine Fauna and Flora of the Medi- terranecan in the vicinity of Naples.—In spite of all that has been done in this direction much yet remains to be done. Possibly few tasks seem more promising than a thorough systematic and long-continued dredging of the Bay of Naples and the sea around. ‘The results of such an inquiry would be valuable not only to the systematic zoologist and to the student of the distribution of animal life, but also indirectly to the morphologist and to the Station, as affording certain information as to where and when particular animals may be obtained, and an exact knowledge of the generic and specific nomenclature of the forms studied. On this head we might call attention to the interesting problems connected with the periodic appearance and disappearance of certain animals in shoals or large numbers—problems which have already attracted the notice of the residents at the Station, and which can only be successfully attempted by long-continued observations at the same place. Animal forms naturally occupy the chief attention at the Station, but no less facilities are offered for the study of marine vegetable forms. This is suffi- ciently indicated by the fact that Prof. Cohn, of Breslau, and Dr. Reineke are about to visit the Station next session to carry on algological researches. e. The Station offers also no mean opportunities for the physical inves- tigation of the sea in the neighbourhood of Naples. f. Experiments on breeding and preserving delicate Marine Organisms in a healthy vigorous condition.—This subject has already, since the Brad- ford meeting, especially engaged the attention of Dr. Dohrn; his results, however, are not as yet sufficiently definite to enable him to draw up his promised report, though we hope that it will be ready at the next Meeting of the Association, g. Transmission of specimens to investigators at home.—Already this work has been carried on, though at present on a small scale. Various inyes- tigators have received supplies of animals carefully preserved for the purposes of research. It is proposed, as soon as the fishing arrangements have become more complete, to develop largely this special activity of the Station, so that investigators at home and the authorities of museums may be able to obtain such animals as they may desire in a perfect condition with great ease and at a low price; in fact, at what is to the Station cost price. 3. The Scientific results of the Station. Since the opening of the Station in the early part of 1874 no less than 33 investigators have made use of the Station, the stay of each varying from a few weeks to several months, and some of them haying visited the Station during both years. ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 23 The following is a list of the names in an approximately correct chrono- logical order :— 1. Prof. Kleinenberg. 18. Prof. Claus. 2. Prof Waldeyer. 19. Prof. Selenka, 3. Mr. F. M. Balfour (2 years). 20. Prof. Langerhans. 4, Mr. A. G. Dew-Smith. 21. Prof. Bobretzky. 5. Prof. Wilhelm Miller. 22. Prof. Rosenberg. 6. Prof. Salensky. 23. Prof. von Ankum. 7. Dr. Rajewsky. 24. Dr. Gotte. 8. Dr. Steiner. 25. Dr. Laurent. 9. Prof. Henlohe. 26. Dr. Zincone. 10. Prof. Kollman. 27. Dr. Horst. i. Dr. Greef. 28. Dr. Ulianin. 12. Prof. Ranke. 29. Dr. Fanzago (2 years). 13. Dr. Hubrecht. 30. Mr. A. M. Marshall. 14. Prof. Ray Lankester. 31. Dr. Cavanna (2 years). 15. Dr. Kossmann. 32. Dr. Fetter. 16. Prof. Hoffmann. 33. H. Isnokoff. 17. Prof. Oscar Schmidt. Naturally many of the researches undertaken by these gentlemen, espe- cially those made during the past winter, have not yet been published ; it is therefore impossible to give any thing like a fair statement of the scientific results of the Station. It would be useless to give a list of those memoirs which have up to the present moment been published, and it would be invidious to pick out any for special comment ; but we may say that among the researches, both published and unpublished, are some of very high bio- logical importance, such as would alone justify the application of the word success to the Station. Next winter Dr. Dohrn proposes to begin a series of annual accounts of the work done at the Station; in fact a sort of scientific almanack of the place, so that the actual research achieved may be made known to all. 4. The present wants of the Station. The large aquarium pays fairly well as a popular exhibition. Since the guide-books have admitted it into their list of things worth seeing at Naples, the number of foreign visitors, English, German, and Russian, has been steadily increasing. Nevertheless the receipts from this source can never be looked upon as a main or astable source of income. A European war or an epidemic of cholera would in such a case at once put the Station in _ jeopardy. j It is the money paid by Governments, Universities, and other institutions for the command of the laboratory tables which is to be regarded as the real income. Of the total 24 tables, 17 are already let; and Dr. Dohrn calculates that when the whole 24 are let \ the Station will be able, with strict economy, to pay its way. We had intended to make this Report entirely a statement of facts, without adding any suggestions for action; but if we have shown (and we venture to think we have) that the Zoological Station at Naples is doing sound scientific work, and is offering unusual advantages for research to British no less than to German investigators, we may perhaps conclude our Report by 24 REPORT—1875. suggesting to the consideration of the Association whether it would not be fairly within the scope of its action to undertake the hire of one of these tables. 1t must be remembered that in this country the University of Cam- bridge is the only body which is in direct relation with the Station. That University occupies two tables, which it has placed, and naturally will continue to place, at the disposal ofits own alumni. Hence any British naturalist not belonging to the University of Cambridge, and not able to bear of himself the expense of a tabie, cannot enjoy the opportunities offered by the Station. An equivalent to a grant of £75 per annum would remove the great dis- advantage; and ye venture to suggest the funds of the Association could not be more profitably spent as far as biological research is concerned. Report of a Committee, consisting of E. C. C. Stranrorp, James Dewar, AurrepD E. Furrcrer, and Aurrup H. Auien (Secretary) , appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products and on the mode of stating the results. Drawn up by Aurrup H. ALLEN. Tar Committee was of opinion that the objects for which it was appointed would be best attained by ascertaining as fully as possible the details of the methods of examining phosphates and potash salts in general use, and learning the opinions of the chemists employing them as to their special advantages and limits of error, at the same time collecting information on other closely related matters. With the view of carrying out these intentions to the fullest possible extent, the Committee issued a circular letter setting forth its aims and objects, and sent it to every member of the Chemical Society, to all gentlemen known to be interested in the subject, and to such chemists as your Com- mittee learnt would be likely to afford assistance. The following is the letter referred to :— ' “No. 1 Surrey Street, Sheffield. May 10, 1875. “‘Srr,—aAt the last Meeting of the British Association, a Committee, con- sisting of Messrs. J. Dewar, A. Fletcher, E. C. Stanford, and myself as Secretary, was appointed, ‘for the purpose of examining and reporting upon the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in commercial products, and on the mode of stating the results.’ “The Committee proposes to ascertain, by inquiry, what methods are in general use, and to learn the opinions of the Chemists employing them as to their special advantages and limits of error, and also to collect information on other closely related matters. ‘* The Committee hopes to be enabled to recommend one or two accurate and practical processes for the estimation of Phosphoric Acid and Potash in commercial products which would meet with very general adoption by Chemists, and would be welcomed by both buyers and sellers as a perfectly neutral standard of reference. Such a plan, we believe, would do much to secure uniformity in such estimations and in the methods of stating the results. “If you have experience in this description of analysis, you will much aid ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 25 the Committee by filling up the accompanying paper, and returning it to me at your earliest convenience. “A similar paper has been sent to all the Fellows of the Chemical Society ; but if you know any other Chemists, whose advice and opinion would be of service to the Committee, we shall esteem it a favour if you will kindly send me their names. «T have the honour to be, “ Your obedient Servant, « Arrrep H, ALLEN, Hon. Secretary of the Committee.” Together with the above circular letter, the Committee forwarded the following series of very carefully arranged questions, with the view of indi- cating the exact nature of the information they were in need of. of the process you habitually employ for the estimation of the Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Phosphates ? 2. What length of time does the above process require ? 1, Will you give the Committee the details | 3. Are you of opinion that the method gives strictly accurate results? If not, will you state the direction in which the error occurs, and the maximum extent of it? 4. Would it be possible to eliminate the error by taking certain well-defined precautions ? is in your opinion the most accurate ? and how long does it require ? 6. Which is the most rapid and con- venient ? 7. Which gives the most constant results } 5. Which process of analyzing Phosphates | in the hands of different manipulators? } 8. Do you know of any reliable process for the estimation of the so-called ‘‘Re- duced Phosphates?” If so, will you give details of the method? | 9. Do you think it desirable that Chemists | should be called on to state the com- mercial value of a manure ? 10. What in your opinion are the relative \ yalues which should be attached to Phosphoric Acid existing in the fol- lowing forms, taking free anhydrous Phosphoric Acid as 100? A.—As Acid (soluble) {Phosphate of ——$ + ---. Calcium. B.—As insoluble Phosphate of Cal- cium. C.—As “ Reduced” Phosphate of Cal- cium. D.—As Phosphate of Aluminium. i E.—As Phosphate of Iron. y) 26 REPORT—1875. of Iron, Aluminium, and Calerum, and Phosphoric Acid has been acted on by Sulphuric Acid, in what forms do you | 11. If a native Phosphate containing oxides suppose the Phosphoric Acid exists? and how would you state the analysis ? 12. What means should be adopted to in- sure the samples submitted to Chemists for analysis fairly representing the com- position of the bulk ? 13. Will you give the Committee the details | of the process which you consider the best for the estimation of Potassium in commercial Potash Salts? What are the limits of error in the process? Are accurate results obtainable by it in the hands of unpractised manipula- tors? ) 14. Which, in your opinion, is the correct \ mode of stating the analyses of Com- mercial Potash Salts, containing Soda and more than one Acid—e. g. com- mercial ‘“ Muriates,” Sulphates, Ni- trates, Carbonates, Potashes, and Pearl- ashes ? r 15. Can you give the Committee the name and address of any Chemist not a Fellow of the Chemical Society of London whose advice and opinion would be likely to be of service ? 16. Write here your name and address, and ~ please state qualifications or nature ot} any appointment. No effort has been spared to make the objects of the Committee widely known, and nearly a thousand circulars have been distributed. In the case of chemists known to have special knowledge of the subjects on which information was desired, the circulars were accompanied by manuscript letters from the Secretary requesting careful consideration of and full replies to the queries. In answer to their request for information, the Committee has received contributions from a considerable number of chemists, both in England and on the Continent, the answers in many cases containing much original information, and being generally of the utmost value in enabling the Com- mittee to form an opinion on the present state of the questions which it was appointed to consider and report on. On receipt of the replies, a further correspondence was in many cases entered into by the Secretary, with the view of obtaining explanation of or further information upon doubtful points, and every means has been taken to elicit the views of correspondents. The following is an alphabetically arranged list of chemists to whom the Committee is indebted for information :— G. Brerranp, Ph.D. Manager of United Chemical Works of Leopoldshall. Cuas. Broxam. Professor of Chemistry, King’s College, London. T. P. Brunt, M.A. Chemist to Shropshire Chamber of Agriculture. ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 27 J. Campsett Brown, D.Sc. Professor at Infirmary School of Medicine, Liverpool, Public Analyst for Liverpool, &c. Cuas. F. Burnarp, of Messrs. Burnard, Slack, & Alger. Cas, A. Cameron, M.D. Analyst to Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, Public Analyst for Dublin, &c. Jn. Cammack. Analyst to Bridgewater Chemical Works, St. Helens. A. H. Cuurcu, M.A. Professor at Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. W. M. Cowan. Public Analyst for Greenock. Joun Cox. Chemist to Nottingham Mills Manure Company. VY. Crusr. Chemist to Messrs. E. Packard & Co., Ipswich. Tuomas Farrier. Analyst to the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, Public Analyst for Leeds. W. Fuieur, D.Sc. Assistant Examiner in Chemistry, London University. — Franz, Ph.D. Chief Manager, United Chemical Works, Leopoldshall. C. R. Fresuntus, Ph.D. &c. Wiesbaden. W. Gatsraira. Late Chemist to the Phospho-Guano Company, Liverpool. W.A. Hamter. Analyst to the Peruvian Government Guano Company Agency. J. Huenes. Analyst to Lawes’s Chemical Manure Company, London. H. Jovriz. Paris. Aurrep Kircuen. Whitehaven. M. J. Lanspert, of Messrs. J. C. Nesbit, Lansdell, & Co., Analytical Chemists, London. Sypnrey Lupron. The Harehills, near Leeds. Leister, Bock, & Co. Glasgow. M. Licurenstery. London. Newton, Knares, & Co. St. Helens. T. R. Oatrvie. Late Public Analyst for Greenock. E. W. Parynett. Chemist at Desoto Alkali Works, Widnes. J. Parrinson. Public Analyst for Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mannine Prenticz, Jun. Stowmarket. T. Reppror. Chemist at L. & N. W. R. Co.’s Works, Crewe. G. Rosunrmat, Ph.D. Chemist to Messrs. Holloway Bros. J. Rurriz. Late assistant to Dr. Voelcker, &c. Axrrep Srsson. Analytical Chemist, London. G. L. Urex, Ph.D. Hamburg. Wattacz, Tartock, & Crarx. Joint Public Analysts for City of Glasgow. Ropert Warrneton. Formerly chemist to J. B. Lawes & Co. W.J. Witttams. Chemist in charge of Phosphate Sewage Company’s Works, Hertford. It will be observed that in almost every case the replies have been from chemists having special experience in the analysis of commercial phosphates or potash salts; and their communications contain, in the aggregate, an amount of information on the subject probably far in excess of any previously collected. With a few notable exceptions the Committee has received assistance from all the best known authorities on the subject ; a few of the leading chemists known to have special experience of the kind required have not responded to the Committee’s request for information, though their assistance was most courteously sought by a special letter in each case. The cause of the silence observed in the above mentioned cases is probably similar to that which prompted the following reply from a well-known firm of chemists, whose results were in some degree the cause of the appointment of the Committee. 28 REPORT—1875. “Mr. Alfred H. Allen. ; “ June 19, 1875. “Dear Sir,—We are in receipt of your favour relating to the examination of phosphates and potash salts; but we must decline to give you the information required, as we do not think ourselves called upon to publish our methods of analysis, which we have perfected after long and careful investigation, for the benefit of those who have not taken this trouble. ‘We are, dear Sir, “Yours obediently, &c.” A French chemist of very high standing says he belongs to that class of chemists who cannot afford to work“ pour la gloire,” but must keep their methods, their only capital, secret. It is evident that the interests of science would materially suffer if a similar system were adopted by many chemists; but happily the above answers stand in striking contrast to the generous and elaborate replies that have in very many instances been sent to the Committee. The answers received to the various specific questions put have shown in a very striking manner how very various and even irreconcilable are the opinions held by chemists on many of the points submitted for their con- sideration. On this account the Committee refrains for the present from expressing any definite opinions on the points in question; but feeling that the communications received contain much information which should be at once in the possession of those interested, it begs here to submit to the Association the following digest of the replies received up to the present time. The Committee has avoided as far as possible any specific mention of the sources of the various items of information, but has departed from this rule in cases in which the value of the information would have been seriously diminished if the authority on which it was quoted had not been given. PuHosrHoric Acrp. Solution of the Manure and separation of Silica, In the case of soluble phosphates treatment with cold water, with (in some cases) subsequent washing with hot water, seems universal. Most chemists prefer to take a considerable quantity of the manure, and grind it with small successive quantities of cold water in a mortar. An aliquot part of the filtered solution is taken for analysis. With but one or two exceptions, hydrochloric acid is universally employed for effecting the solution of insoluble phosphates *. In the great majority of cases they then recommend evaporation to com- plete dryness. Some operators omit this step as a rule, but classify it among the precautions necessary when great accuracy is required. The effect of evaporation to dryness is considered to be twofold; silica is rendered insoluble and fluorides are decomposed with volatilization of hydrofluoric acid or of fluoride of silicon. The residue is next treated with hydrochloric acid in the ordinary manner, and the insoluble silica filtered off +. * Tt is evident that the addition of a few drops of nitric acid is desirable here to insure the complete peroxidation of any ferrous compounds which may be present. t It is evident that in presence of fluorides the silica here found will not strictly represent the quantity originally present in the sample. ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 29 Oxalic-Acid Method. Of the chemists whose processes of analyzing phosphates have been com- municated to the Committee, a decided majority precipitate the phosphoric acid as the double phosphate of magnesium and ammonium, after previously separating the calcium as oxalate. Although there is no great difference in the general outline of the method followed, the most extraordinary variations occur in the details of the instructions, and in the precautions recommended to insure accuracy. By far the greater number of chemists precipitate the calcium as oxalate after neutralization of the excess of acid. Some add citric acid previously to employing oxalate of ammonium. According to Mr. R. Warington this modification “‘ occasions a deficiency of lime, oxalate of calcium being soluble in citrate of ammonium.” Those chemists who add citric acid before pre- cipitating the calcium usually employ an acetate to get rid of free mineral acid. Of course, the addition of citric acid then becomes a necessity when iron and aluminium are present, unless the precipitated phosphates of these metals are filtered off and estimated separately. This plan appears to have several advantages, and is recommended by some chemists of wide experience. By employing it, the phosphates of iron and aluminium (by most chemists believed to have a very limited manurial value) are separately estimated, and the subsequent addition of citric acid is rendered unnecessary and the iron introduced by its use avoided, If the phosphates of iron and aluminium are not previously separated, the general plan is to neutralize the solution with ammonia till a slight turbidity ensues, to clarify the liquid by the addition of a few drops of oxalic acid, to add a moderate excess of ammonium oxalate, to heat the liquid nearly to boiling, and to filter off the precipitated oxalate of calcium. Some chemists filter again after cooling. After careful washing of the precipitate, the filtrate is usually concentrated, a moderate quantity of citric acid added and then excess of ammonia. A precipitate may here occur of silica, fluoride of calcium, or oxalate of calcium. The more careful analysts leave the solution for a time to make sure that the liquid remains clear, or to filter from any precipitate. Precipitation by Magnesia. The clear solution is next precipitated by ‘‘magnesia mixture,’ which is universally admitted to be better made with chloride than with sulphate of magnesium. It is also clearly proved and generally recognized that a large excess of the precipitant should be avoided, some chemists recommending a preliminary analysis of the sample with the view of adding the approximately theoretical quantity of solution. On the other hand, it has been proved that - complete precipitation is very slow except in presence of a considerable excess of ‘‘ magnesia mixture.” Very great variation occurs with respect to the concentration and tem- perature of the solution at the time of precipitation. A few chemists recom- mend precipitation in a hot solution, but the majority direct precipitation in the cold; one or two recommend the use of a dilute solution, while others concentrate, if necessary, to a certain bulk; and some make a correction for the solubility of the double phosphate in the liquid. The amount of free ammonia present during the precipitation varies from a moderate excess to one fifth of its bulk of the strongest ammonia (880). 30 REPORT—1875. The time allowed for precipitation varies from ten minutes (with vigorous stirring) to twenty-four hours; but most chemists are of opinion that six or eight hours are sufficient. Very few chemists recommend re-solution and re-precipitation of the double phosphate. But few precautions appear to be taken in the ignition of the precipitate. The more careful analysts thoroughly dry the precipitate and remove it from the filter, igniting it first gently, then intensely. Very different opinions are held as to the accuracy of the results obtained “by precipitation with magnesia. In many cases the observers are merely able to say that the process gives fairly constant results on repetition; in other cases they state that very concordant results have been obtained when the same sample has also been analyzed by some chemist of repute. In some cases the observers consider that the process is liable to give results somewhat below the truth, owing to the slight solubility of the double phosphate in the mother-liquid and the loss of phosphate in the oxalate-of-calcium precipitate. In other cases the process is said to give results in excess of the real amount, owing to the presence of other magne- sium salts or of iron or aluminium in the double phosphate precipitate. A most elaborate series of experiments has been made by Mr, T. R. Ogilvie on the magnesia process and the variations to which it is liable *. His results have been to a great extent confirmed by the researches of Mr. E. M. Dixon, On the other hand, Professor Church writes, ‘* My confidence in this plan when carried out successfully, giving time for any oxalate to fall after addition of citric acid and excess of ammonia, is not shaken by Ogilvie’s results reported recently in the ‘ Chemical News.’ His experiments seem to me to exaggerate the errors of the method greatly. Several times have I got nearly identical results by the use of the molybdic method for separating the P,O, from the soluble part of a superphosphate, and by the use of the oxalic method. I always use a measured quantity of the am- moniacal magnesium chloride ; but considerable excess of this reagent often produces but little influence on the result—sometimes none.” Direct Citric-Acid Method. The method of Joulie is employed by some chemists of wide experience. In this process the iron, aluminium, and calcium are all retained in solution by citrate of ammonium, and no attempt is made to separate the calcium as oxalate; but the phosphate is at once precipitated from the ammoniacal solution by “magnesia mixture,” the precipitate being either ignited and weighed or dissolved in acetic or nitric acid and the solution titrated with uranium. This method is in‘many respects similar to that recommended by Fresenius, Neubauer, and Luck f. Iron-Acetate Method. A few chemists employ a process of which the following is an outline ;— The neutralized hydrochloric solution of an insoluble phosphate (frecd from silica), or the aqueous solution of a soluble phosphate, is treated with acetate of ammonium (filtered from the precipitated phosphates of iron and aluminium if their separate estimation is required) and sufficient ferric * Chemical News, May 6, 1870; Proceedings of the Philosophical Society (Chemical Section) of Glasgow, 1874 and 1875, &e. t Zeit. f. anal. Chem, ix. 16, and Sutton’s ‘Volumetric Analysis,’ second edition, p- 241. ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 31 chloride added to cause the precipitate to appear distinctly reddish. The liquid is boiled, well filtered, and the precipitate washed slightly. It is redissolved on the filter in hydrochloric acid, tartaric or citric acid added judiciously to the solution, and then a tolerable excess of ammonia. The alkaline soluftion should be greenish, not reddish. ‘Magnesia mixture” is then added in moderate excess, the liquid stirred and left over night. The precipitated double phosphate is then filtered off and treated in the ordinary manner. The method gives results agreeing well with the average of chemists of repute. On repetition, the results of the two estimations agrec within -1 to *2 per cent. Phosphates of Iron and Aluminium. The precipitate of iron and aluminium phosphates, produced by treating the cold solution of a sample containing the above metals with an alkaline acetate (or with ammonia and excess of acetic acid), can be very con- yeniently analyzed by the following method, contributed by Mr. R. Waring- ton :—‘‘ The precipitated phosphates of iron and aluminium are washed, ignited, and weighed, redissolved in strong hydrochloric acid, and the iron determined volumetrically with stannous chloride and iodine (see Fresenius). From the iron the quantity of ferric phosphate in the precipitate is cal- culated, the phosphate of aluminium found by difference, and thus the iron, aluminium, and phosphoric acid in the precipitate are obtained, A little phosphoric acid is liable to be removed from the precipitate during washing, and basic salts are thus reckoned in the calculation as of normal composi- tion.” Estimation by Uranium. The removal of iron and aluminium by addition of an alkaline acetate in the cold, with determination of the phosphoric acid in the filtrate by means of uranium *, is a method which appears to deserve more extended employ- ment. The use of an acetate in a slightly acid solution brings the liquid into just the condition required for the use of the uranium process. The volumetric estimation by uranium is very highly spoken of by some chemists as convenient and fairly accurate, while others consider it very unsatisfactory. The conflict of opinion is very great, and special experiments on this process appear desirable ; but the following seem to be the precautions necessary for successful working. The proportions of acetic acid and alkaline acetate employed and the volume of the solutiou should be approximately constant. The uranium nitrate should be standardized with an acetic-acid solution of pure precipi- tated ammonio-magnesium phosphate or tricalcic phosphate, instead of with phosphate of sodium as is commonly done. The titration should be converse, the solution of the phosphate being added to that of the uranium. The latter should be mixed with a constant proportion of acetic acid and heated on a bath of boiling water. The indicator should be powdered potassium ferrocyanide on a white plate. Owing to the reversal of the usual process, the brown colour of the ferro- cyanide of uranium becomes gradually fainter till the end of the titration. This method, which is recommended and employed by some authorities of great experience, is said to be capable of giving results of every desirable accuracy. * It is universally admitted that the estimation by uranium is untrustworthy unless any iron or aluminium present in the original solution is first removed. 382 REPORT—1875. The gravimetric method of precipitation by nitrate of uranium is employed by a few chemists, and is very well spoken of. Molybdic-Acid Method. Of all methods, Sonnenschein’s process of precipitation with molybdic acid appears to be regarded as the most accurate. All the chemists who refer to it speak of it as extremely accurate, and consider that it is preferable to any other in presence of much iron or aluminium; but comparatively few use it habitually. The causes of this unpopularity are the time required and the expensive nature of the reagent. As a very large excess of molybdic acid is required above that which is actually precipitated as ‘“ phospho-molybdate of ammonium,” it becomes an important matter to recover the molybdic acid from the solution. Unfor- tunately no very simple process of effecting this appears to have been devised. The yellow precipitate obtained, containing as it does less than four per cent. of anhydrous phosphoric acid, becomes very bulky and unmanageable when the weight of phosphoric acid present exceeds -1 or -2 gramme. This fact necessitates the employment of very small quantities of the phosphate ; and as the yellow precipitate has to be subsequently redissolved and precipitated with magnesia mixture in the ordinary way, the error liable to occur from the use of an unusually small weight of the sample, together with the loss of time and expense incident to the use of the process, seem to have combined to render the method unpopular for every-day work *, while its value is generally admitted when the above considerations are of secondary importance, J. Macagno has very recently proposed to reduce the yellow precipitate with zinc and acid, and titrate the solution so obtained with standard permanganate. The test experiments show a maximum error of ‘5 per cent. of the phosphoric acid present. Eggertz’s Molybdic-Acid Method. Metallurgial chemists are well aware that M. Eggertz has proposed to weigh the yellow precipitate of phospho-molybdate of ammonium instead of redissolving it and converting it into ammonio-phosphate of magnesium in the ordinary manner. The modified plan has the advantage of speed; and the fact that the precipitate contains less than four per cent. of phosphoric anhydride would render the results extremely accurate. Unfortunately it seems improbable that the precipitate has a constant composition ; and any sensible yariation in the proportion of phosphoric acid contained in it would render it worthless as a method of estimation, at least as far as manures are concerned. M. Eggertz estimates the anhydrous phosphoric acid contained in the yel- low precipitate, obtained under the conditions prescribed by him, at 3-72 per cent. * Mr. A. Sibson writes:—“The molybdic-acid process is, in my opinion, not suitable for phosphatic minerals, although invaluable for soils, limestones, &e. containing small proportions only of phosphoric acid. The large excess of molybdic acid necessarily employed in the former case is itself a source of error with no adequate advantage, inasmuch as the magnesia precipitate has still to be employed ; and it is in the manipula- tion of this precipitate that the ees in analyses chiefly arise.” ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 33 Other Methods. Besides the above-described processes, and trifling modifications of them, descriptions have been received of no other method. The lead, bismuth, and tin processes appear to have fallen into complete disuse. No chemist has reported that he precipitates phosphoric acid as tricalcic phosphate by direct addition of ammonia to the original solution. “ Reduced” Phosphates. Of all the chemists who have communicated with the Committee, only two consider that the so-called “reduced” phosphates can be estimated even approximately by any known method. One of these writes as follows :— “J employ a process based on the ready decomposition of gelatinous phos- phate of lime by oxalate of ammonia*, and the almost complete inaction on the mineral phosphate by the same salt. Although not an exact process, it gives good approximate results within 4 per cent.; and seeing the urgent need for some such means of estimation, more especially in the case of bone- manures, in which a large proportion of decomposed phosphate may exist unrecognizable by the ordinary soluble phosphate determination, I think it better to employ even an imperfect process than to classify such decomposed phosphate with undecomposed mineral phosphate.” Professor A. H. Church, referring to the bicarbonate-of-sodium method described in his ‘ Laboratory Guide’+, writes, “It is the only method giving approximate results.” A series of highly instructive experiments on the estimation of “ reduced” phosphates has been contributed by Mr. M. J. Lansdell. ' With the oxalate-of-ammonium method of Mr. Alfred Sibson +, and with the bicarbonate method (which was first described by Mr. Chesshire $), Mr. Lansdell obtained the following results, the samples being all passed through the same sieve and the proportions employed being the same as those recommended by the authors. Dissolved (equal to Ca, P, O,). Sample contained By Sibson’s By Chesshire’s (equal to Ca, P, O,). method. method. Cambridge coprolite .... 56-07 per cent. 8°32, 2-23 per cent. 100 (OX Lp aa 76:87 a 10-68, 3:07 Ms Navassa phosphate ...... 65°62 i, 7:48, Bae Nas German phosphate ...... 60°74 Ps 8-04, 2-09 ti Redonda phosphate (dried) 87-42 ,, 19-72, 5GO7" | Redonda phosphate (lump) 86°58 Fr 19°10, 64:65 —_,, By employing a solution of bicarbonate of twice the above strength, the Redonda phosphate gave equal to 84:3 of Ca, P, 0, in solution. Using a smaller quantity of the sample in the oxalate method, 47-76 per cent. passed into solution. ' * See Chem. News, Sept. 10, 1869, p, 123. : + 3rd Edition, p. 146. This process consists in boiling the insoluble portion of 5 grammes of the sample for one hour with a solution of 10 grammes of sodium bicarbonate in 800 cub. centims. of water; filtering hot, acidifying, concentrating, precipitating with magnesia, Xe. ¢ Chem. News, Sept. 10, 1869, § Ibid. Sept. 3, 1869, p. 111. 1875, D od REPORT—1875. The above results show that neither method is at all satisfactory ; and Mr. John Hughes * has made experiments leading to the same conclusion. Another correspondent writes, “There is no reliable process known for the estimation of ‘reduced phosphates’ under all circumstances. Even the citrate-of-ammonium method (which seems to be the one generally preferred) utterly fails to distinguish between ‘reduced phosphate’ and the native phosphate of aluminium known as ‘Redonda phosphate,’ the latter being largely soluble in the citrate-of-ammonium solution ; so that the latter, which is a comparatively cheap material, if introduced into a superphosphate, would, according to the results obtained by the methods usually employed for esti- mating reduced phosphates, be quoted as the latter.” Mr. T. L. Patterson has criticised the citrate-of-ammonium method in a paper contributed to the ‘Chemical News’ f. Mr. W. Galbraith makes the following remarks on the estimation of “reduced phosphate ” :— «Tt seems to me that an arbitrary method of determining these phosphates would serve every purpose—that is, provided there is a necessity for deter- mining them (from a commercial point of view), which I am inclined to dispute; because any other phosphate in as fine a state of division as these ‘reduced phosphates’ is of equal value; and if (as some chemists maintain) these ‘reduced phosphates’ consist principally of phosphates of iron and aluminium, they cannot and should not be reported as, or assumed to be, phosphate of calcium. “Tt is well known that the presence of oxide of iron and aluminium is the cause of the manure ‘ going back.’ Superphosphates containing no iron and aluminium do not ‘go back ;’ so that the manufacturer has the remedy in his own hands—to avoid using mineral phosphate containing iron and aluminium. “At present a manufacturer who makes his manure from a phosphate containing iron and aluminium, and who sells it immediately after manufac- ture, has a decided advantage over another manufacturer who has made his manure from a phosphate containing no iron and aluminium, because a mineral phosphate containing iron and aluminium is much cheaper than one free from those substances. Besides, the iron and aluminium are almost invariably stated in the analysis of a mineral phosphate, while those substances are seldom if ever mentioned in the analysis of a super- phosphate. “JT do not think it advisable (even if possible) to determine the actual amount of ‘reduced phosphates ;’ but an arbitrary method, or a method of determining phosphates of a given fineness, which would include ‘ precipi- tated phosphates,’ would, I think, be very serviceable; and such a process could be easily devised.” Statement of the Commercial and Agricultural Value of Manures. Without exception, all the chemists who reply to this question are of opinion that it is highly undesirable that analysts should express any opinion on the commercial value of a manure. Many of them believe that tricalcic phosphate (for instance) has a very different value according to its origin and state of division, and that any valuation of a manure not taking this and similar facts into account must be worse than useless. Most of the chemists who have replied consider that phosphates of iron and aluminium * Chem, News, June 4, 1869, p. 266, + May 31 and June 7, 1872, > ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 35 have an exceedingly limited manurial value. The relative manurial values attributed to phosphoric acid existent in various states is very differently regarded ; and as many of the opinions expressed appear to be based on very insufficient evidence, the Committee thinks it unnecessary to quote the different replies received. Mode of occurrence of the Constituents of Manufactured Manures, and statement of the Results of Analysis. On this subject the Committee has received a large amount of valuable but somewhat discordant evidence. Very strong opinions are expressed to the effect that the quantity of iron and aluminium present in a manufactured manure (superphosphate) should always be stated. Such a plan would enable the manufacturer or purchaser to judge of the probability of a newly made manure “going back” on keeping, and would enable a more accurate opinion to be formed of its true value than is possible while the presence of iron and aluminium is ignored. At the same time the estimation of the “ reduced phosphates” would often be rendered superfluous. With respect to the mode of occurrence of the constituents of manufac- tured manures, the Committee considers the evidence before it too vague and conflicting to justify any expression of opinion at present. PorasH Sats. Estimation of Potash. The Committee has received comparatively few replies on the estimation of potash in commercial salts containing it, on account of the limited number of chemists having special experience in its determination. The answers received are, however, from chemists of the first rank as authorities on the subject, and appear to be almost exhaustive of the question. The method of estimation by platinic chloride is employed by all the chemists who have communicated their processes to the Committee, the only differences being in the manipulation and details of the method. Some chemists recommend the removal of any sulphates by addition of a slight excess of chloride of barium, and some also remove any calcium or mag- nesium which may be present. The Committee is in possession of some correspondence respecting a sample of “muriate” which was analyzed independently by Professor Fresenius and Mr. R. R. Tatlock ; and as it throws much light on the origin of the discrepancies often observed in the estimation of potassium, the Committee quotes it almost in ewtenso, together with a description of the methods employed by the two authorities above referred to. Messrs. Wallace, Tatlock, and Clark write :-— “We employ the platinic-chloride method as described by Fresenius in the sixth edition of his ‘ Quantitative Analysis,’ with a slight modification which renders it more applicable to all the numerous varieties as well as strengths of commercial potash salts. After pounding and mixing in the usual way, a quantity of the salt (500 grains) is weighed out, dissolved in hot water and filtered. The filtrate and washings being cooled to normal temperature are mixed well, made up with cold water to a fixed bulk (5000 grains) and again mixed ; a portion of this solution (100 grains), equal to 10 grains of the D2 36 REPORT——1875. original sample, is delivered into a small basin, diluted with 400 grms. or so of water, and acidified slightly with hydrochloric acid. “About 500 grains of platinic-chloride solution (containing at least 25 grains of platinum) are added, and the fluid evaporated nearly to dryness on the water-bath. A few drops of water are then added to the residue, and the evaporation repeated to expel the excess of hydrochloric acid. About 50 grains more of the;strong platinic solution are mixed with the precipitate, and the whole stirred well and set aside in a cold place for at least an hour with occasional stirring. The precipitate is then thrown on a very small filter (unweighed), the basin rinsed out with about 10 drops more of the platinic solutiori, and the precipitate on the filter washed with 10 or 15 drops more. The basin with the filter and contents are then washed with the small- est possible quantity of alcohol of 95 per cent. strength, and dried at 100° C. The dried precipitate is transferred as completely as possible to a small cap- sule, in which it is further dried until it assumes a distinct orange-colour, and weighed. The filter and trace of adhering precipitate is ignited on a cruci- ble lid, and the residual metal with its corresponding chloride of potassium calculated to potassio-platinic chloride, and the weight added to that of the precipitate. The following factors are employed :—To bring the precipitate to potassium °1603, to potash -1930, and to chloride of potassium 3056. The figures are based on Stas’s numbers for potassium and chlorine, and Berzelius’s equivalent for potassium.” Professor Fresenius writes :— “T am quite ready to go once more closely into the question regarding the estimation of potassium in commercial potash salts. However, I can only do so occasionally when I am at leisure, for there are a great many experiments still to be made before being able to give a satisfactory answer. As far as Tam concerned myself, as well as the analyses in my laboratory, these questions are of no great importance. The great object I have in view is to be accurate ; saving time is only a secondary consideration. I begin by entirely separating from the solution the sulphuric acid, lime, and magnesia; then I weigh the pure chloride of the alkali-metals, estimate the potassium as platino-chloride of potassium according to the method given in my manual of quantitative analysis, make sure that it is quite pure, and generally also estimate the chloride of sodium in the washings by evaporating and heating the residue in a current of hydrogen*, partly to have a check, principally, however, to make sure that it contains no more potassium. This method, however, is not practi- cable in works because it is too elaborate.” In reference to the estimation of potash, Messrs. Wallace, Tatlock, and Clark also write :— ‘Tt is a notorious fact that while the results obtained by the process we follow, as compared with those got by what we may term the alcohol method, agree very closely in the case of potassium compounds free from sodium, wide differences have been observed when the potassium salts were of low strength -from the presence of sodium compounds. To this fact it would not be diffi- cult to get manufacturers and merchants to testify. This remark applies specially to the case of potassium products from kelp, of which many thousand tons are made in Glasgow every year, some of which contain a large propor- _ * How the proportion ef chloride of sodium present is deduced from the weight of the ignited residue is not stated. Probably by washing with water and subtracting the weight ot the residual metallic platinum. ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 37 tion of sodium sulphate, which is not readily convertible into sodio-platinic chloride, but must be converted into chloride by double decomposition with barium chloride—a tedious and unnecessary process, and one liable to lead to error in any than very skilled hands. “Sulphate of potash made from kelp is an excellent example of the kind of salt, as it usually contains about 20 per cent. of sodium sulphate in the form of the double salt 3K, 50,+ Na, SO,,. “Tt was with the view of obtaining a process for the estimation of potas- sium by platinic chloride, directly, in these compounds, that the process we employ was originated, and it hasstood the test of practice for 15 years. It has been objected to our process that the fotassio-platinic chloride is soluble to an appreciable extent in platinic-chloride solution; but our experience goes to show that in the circumstances of a potassium determination, as above described, the results obtained are accurate. As an instance of this, we may mention that a German firm, supposing that we must necessarily get too high results, handed to us for analysis, in the usual commercial way, a sample of muriate of potash. We found and reported, as the result of the only trial made, 99-95 per cent. of chloride of potassium, and were afterwards informed that the sample consisted of pure chloride of potassium, prepared and sent in order to test our process. A further instance will suffice to show the exactness of this mode of estimating potassium in presence of sodium compounds in quan- tity. A portion of a carefully mixed and pounded sample of muriate of potash, of which we had made previously a complete analysis as usual by this method, was forwarded by our client to Dr. Fresenius, unknown to us, with the request that he would spare no pains to arrive at the truth regarding the relative proportion of potassium and sodium salts which it contained. The following are the results of the respective analyses :— W.T.&C. Fresenius. per cent. per cent. Parride df potassium 2, Pe 5 SEO 88°50 88°86 Paipeidie Of potas sf. ete PO et 13 He RrmorImorcn Spmtinne oa) 8 LO 2 aed We Se 8°46 8:39 ROR ANS OMNI te ree neat oe skiers as 18 22 Wmloride of MasnesiuM ..... 062. es ese ae 50 “47 MEREETENOM Tee en Nts tee cw tite ns 23 23 (oo arto gies Orion tigi tat A pridl Bs 1:80 1:83 bol "ES oe aa eee eee ee 55°97 56°10 With reference to Mr. Tatlock’s method and the above analyses, Dr. Fresenius writes :— “T must object to his washing the precipitate with chloride of platinum. He dissolves by doing so a small quantity of chloride of platinum and potassium ; and you see that he makes the chloride of potassium 0°2i per cent. lower than I. This discrepancy, however, will scarcely ever be greater. To make sure not to keep any chloride of sodium along with the chloride of platinum and potassium, I first extract the chloride of platinum and sodium with spirits of wine of 80 degrees, and then wash the chloride of platinum and potassium with a few cubic centimetres of water drop by drop; then I evapo- rate this solution, adding a little chloride of platinum, treat the small preci- 38 ‘REPORT—1875. pitate again with spirits of wine, and add the small quantity of chloride of platinum and potassium to the bulk.” In reply to the above criticism the Glasgow chemists say :—“ In his analy- sis of this sample Dr. Fresenius followed the method described in the sixth edition of his ‘Quantitative Analysis ;’ but, evidently fearing that the digestion of the precipitate with alcohol of even 80 per cent. might not free it from sodium compounds, he used a little water, wherewith to ensure the separa- tion of the latter, and afterwards estimated the potassium in the washings obtained, adding this to the main result—a plan which of course can be equally adopted with our process if considered necessary ”*. Messrs. Wallace, Tatlock, and Clark further write:— ‘“‘Our method obviates the necessity of converting sulphates into chlorides before applying the platinum process. All that is necessary in the case of these salts, or where they are present, is to add an equivalent quantity or rather more of pure sodium chloride, which takes up the liberated sulphuric acid. We believe that the general tendency is to report potassium results too high, not only on account of incomplete removal of sodium compounds from the potassium precipitate, but by reason of impure platinic solutions, which, however pure when originally made from the metal, are liable to contamina- tion through the spent liquors and precipitates being recovered by question- able means. ‘There is almost no limit to the accuracy of this process ; with care and in good hands, the potash may be estimated easily to within ‘05 per cent.” Mr. W. Galbraith, who has had great experience in the analysis of potash salts by Mr. Tatlock’s method, writes of it as follows:— “The method requires a few precautions, the principal of which are that the pipette be accurate and that the platinic chloride be pure. Care also should be taken that the evaporation should not go to dryness, especially in presence of a large quantity of soda salts, or the result will be too high. By diluting the solution previous to the evaporation, the precipitate comes down in larger crystals, is more easily filtered and taken off the filter, and is also more likely to be pure. “With these precautions, which are easily attended to, the method gives rigidly accurate results even in the hands of inexperienced manipulators.” Dr. G. L. Ulex, of Hamburg, separates any sulphates by very cautious ad- dition of chloride of barium. He washes the chloroplatinate of potassium with alcohol of 80 per cent. He obtains results reliable within -2 per cent. The process, “although simple, requires to be worked carefully, otherwise serious mistakes will be made.” Mr. M. J. Lansdell says, “I consider the great secret is to use plenty of platinum, which facilitates the washing out of the sodium salts, and renders the indication by colour (as to when to arrest washing) distinct.” M. Joulie separates sulphates, and then the barium introduced, together with any calcium or magnesium present. He washes the chloroplatinate with a mixture of alcohol and ether. Absolutely exact results are obtained in 5 or 6 hours, whatever the nature of the original sample. Dr. G. Berrand uses a large excess of platinic chloride, and washes the . * As the quantity of platinic-chloride solution employed by Mr. Tatlock for washing the precipitate does not exceed 70 fluid grains, the solution of any sensible quantity of the latter seems improbable, and if occurring might be altogether prevented by previously satu- rating the platinic chloride used for washing with the potassium salt, ON THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 39 precipitate with alcohol of 98 per cent. He removes any sulphates with a slight excess of chloride of barium. He remarks that “‘the most essential point of the whole method is the purity of the chloride of platinum, which can be well proved by testing it with chemically pure muriate of potash. This, of course, must yield 100 per cent. If more or less, the platinum solu-- tion has not been pure. If the platinum solution is correct, even less practised hands will obtain exact results by the above method, which is now universally applied in the manufactories of our place.” The above replies and correspondence show conclusively the necessity for independent experiments on miwtures containing known amounts of real potash. Statement of Results of Analyses of Potash Salts. The information the Committee has received on this subject is limited to the opinions of a few chemists. | Without endorsing the whole of the fol- lowing observations, the Committee believe that the subjoined remarks will be read with interest and advantage. “Tt is quite likely that the sulphuric acid exists in these (kelp) muriates not as sulphate of potash, but as the double salt 3K,80,+Na,SO0, (discovered in kelp potash salts by Penny of Glasgow) ; and if so, the large proportion of sulphates present in kelp muriates (usually from 4 to 6 per cent.) would involve a slight alteration in the mode of stating the results, and would introduce sodium sulphates to a small extent. This view, however, even if proceeded upon in practice, would not interfere practically with the commercial value of the sulphates. “There cannot be a doubt that the alkali present is carbonate of soda, both from the fact of these muriates not being deliquescent, and the impossibility of the existence of carbonate of potash and chloride of sodium together without mutual decomposition ; otherwise carbonate of potash could be made by the simple process of mixing solutions of carbonate of soda and chloride of potassium.” Dr. Ulex, of Hamburg, writes:— “Potash, carbonate of potash, and pearlash generally contain sulphates (which require to be removed carefully by a chloride-of-barium solution be- fore estimating the potassium). The whole of the potassium is estimated as chloride of platinum and potassium, and calculated to oxide of potassium. The sulphuric acid present is precipitated with chloride of barium as sulphate of baryta, the chlorine with a solution of silver as chloride of silver; the former is calculated to sulphate of potash, the chlorine to chloride of potassium. The oxide of potassium equivalent to these two salts is subtracted from the total oxide of potassium, and the remainder calculated to carbonate of potash. Part of the sample is titrated with sulphuric acid and noted as carbonate of potassium. Subtract from this the carbonate of potash previously found and calculate the difference to carbonate of soda.” Mr. W. Galbraith writes as follows :— “‘ Muriates, which may be alkaline and contain sodium carbonate, and there- fore will not contain calcium or magnesium soluble in water, I should state thus, putting the stronger bases and salt-radicals first :— Potassium. Sulphate. Chloride. Sodium, Carbonate. 40 REPORT—-1875. “When they contain calcium and magnesium soluble in water, they should be stated thus :— Calcium. Sulphate. Potassium. Magnesium. Chloride. Sodium. “In the case of ‘artificial sulphates,’ which contain iron, calcium, and magnesium, in addition to potassium and sodium, and are usually acid, the results may be stated thus :— Hydrogen. Calcium. Sulphate. Potassium. Iron. Chloride. Magnesium, Sodium. “The free acid I should state as sulphuric acid, as I cannot believe that it exists as hydrochloric acid, considering the heat of the furnace during the manufacture. “Of course it is evident that the acidity will not be really due to free sul- phuric acid, but to an acid sulphate, probably acid sulphate of potassium (KHSO,). Lumps of chlorides are often to be found in salt cakes and potas- sium sulphates of decided acid reaction. ‘Of course carbonates should follow the same rules as the above.” Mr. M. J. Lansdell holds the following opinions :— “T think in this, as in all other instances, it is a mistake to give detailed analyses showing any particular arrangement of acids and bases combined. I advocate a simple statement of the elements (or acids and bases) separately, | and any combining of them I am inclined to look upon as padding only (to use an expressive word), and as having weight only with the uninitiated. I do not object to a statement of any one substance (say a base) as being equal to a salt, not in the sense that that amount of that salt is present in that sample, but as a trade valuation of the base (present) according to a well- known or usual standard for its valuation. I find the practice of latter years among our clients is to ask only for certain determinations (in potash salts, generally of potash only, or for potash and its equivalent amount of sulphate of potash or chloride of potassium), and not for detailed analyses, so getting them done at a less fec. However, I should see no objection if the Committee thought fit to prescribe a mode of statement for detailed analyses which they found suited to the requirements of the trade, it being understood that such analysis, quoted perhaps as the ‘B. A. statement’ or ‘B. A. analysis,’ was only a statement in a conventional form. Yet a statement of the elements (or acids and bases) determined—with at most their amounts in equivalent pro- portions (each equivalent proportion =1 of hydrogen)—would give to each manufacturer an easy means of making all calculations useful to him as to value or the capabilities of the articles for separation or manufacture thereof of any compound, and would not parade a lot of fictitious or supposititious in- formation to impose upon or awe the ignorant. I incline to the belief that every analyst should have respect to the ends sought and need not go beyond them. A trader, only finding some constituent or constituents of value for his purnose, should be accommodated with estimations of such on paying pro- ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA, 41 perly for them, and should not be led to require as ‘the thing’ a lot of other information involving greater trouble and higher fees to the limitation of general reference to the chemist. The sooner the public learns that chemists do not want to take advantage of them, but only to do what is of use to them, and that fees are not to be regulated by the number of items given (any more than an amount of money by the number of coins of various values it may be paid in, but also by the intrinsic value of each), the better I think it will be.” In the foregoing Report the Committee has attempted to give an epitome of the very voluminous replies which have been received. It will be perceived that there are many points on which the evidence is very conflicting ; and the Committee feels it impossible to recommend with confidence any particular process or processes unless the special conditions of accuracy are very clearly defined. The large amount of information amassed during the past year has indi- cated very distinctly the directions in which further research is desirable ; and the Committee, if reappointed, will be able to complete the proposed experi- ments and inquiries before the next Meeting of the Association, and make a full report on the whole subject it was appointed to investigate, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.— Part I. On the Homologies of the Dermal Skeleton. By C. Spence Barz, F.R.S. &c. [Puatzs I. & IT.] In presenting a Report on the present state of our knowledge of the Crustacea, I do not think that I should fulfil the object in view without drawing atten- tion to what must be one of the greatest hindrances to the progress of any study in an exact or scientific manner. I allude to the want of a uniformity in scientific nomenclature. The names of the several groups and families, as well as those of the struc- ture of the animals, given by the earliest carcinologists, having been based on a limited knowledge both of the forms and the variation to which this great subkingdom is liable, make them inapplicable to the knowledge of the period. Leach named one great group of Crustacea Decapoda, from the number of legs that it possesses; and Dana more recently named another group Tetra- decapoda, from the fourteen legs that belongs to its most normal forms. Observation has demonstrated that in this latter group some genera, as Anceus, have but eight legs ; while in the Decapoda it is only a conventional rule that prevents the genus Palwmon and its allies from having the appendages of the pereion anterior to the last five pairs counted as legs. But a greater difficulty still exists where the names given to any parts of the animal carry any significance with them that precludes their being ac- cepted in their universally correct sense. Thus the third pair of maxillipedes in the Brachyurous Crustacea are identical with the first pair of walking-legs in the Stomapoda, Amphipoda, and most of the Isopoda. It is now exactly twenty years (1855) since I presented to the Association a Report on the British Edriophthalmia, in which the same difficulty was pointed 42 : REPORT—1875. out and a nomenclature suggested which, it was hoped, would to a large extent overcome the great difficulty in the study of this branch of natural history. But although many of the terms there given have become very general in use, yet the custom of some writers of applying different ones at separate times for the same parts is significant of a confusion of ideas that precludes the student from a just appreciation of the labours of others. I do not think that this difficulty will be overcome for some long period unless a committee is appointed by this Association, consisting of all the best known authors of carcinological works, who shall determine upon a syste- matic nomenclature for the structure and classification of the Crustacea to which all future writers shall conform. In this Report I purpose provisionally, except when quoting from others, to make use of the same terminology as that adopted in the previous Report, and confine each term to that which has homologically the same signification. In the classification of Crustacea in his great work*, Dana states that “in the crustacean type there are normally twenty-one segments, and correspondingly twenty-one pairs of members, as laid down by Milne- Edwards, the last seven of which pertain to the abdomen (pleon) and the first fourteen to the cephalothorax (cephalon and pereion). Now we may gather from an examination of the crab, or macrural decapod, acknowledged to bo first in rank, what condition of the system is connected with the highest centralization in Crustacea. “In these highest species, nine segments and nine pairs of appendages out of the fourteen cephalothoracic belong to the senses and mouth, and five pairs are for locomotion. Of these nine, three are organs of senses, six are mandibles and maxille.” M. Milne-Edwards, in his standard work ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés,’ says, “‘ We can generally distinguish among these animals a head, a thorax, and an abdomen; but the limit of these regions is not always naturally well defined ; and it is not well to attach too much importance to these distinctions, for they do not correspond with the same parts among mammals, birds, &c. ....” And in a note to the above he says, ‘‘ Guided by the principal viscera some authors have given the name of abdomen to the thorax, and that of postabdomen to that which we call abdomen; but after this principle we must consider the head to be a preabdomen, because it contains the same viscera as the thorax and abdomen.” The twenty-one somites of the typical Crustacea M. Milne-Edwards has thus divided—the anterior seven to the head, the next seven to the thorax, and the posterior seven to the abdomen. But in his nomenclature of the appendages the terms used are suggestive of the anterior two pairs of the thorax being attached to the head. In his “ Observations sur le Squelette tégumentaire des Crustacés décapodes,” Ann. des Sciences, 1854, the same author statesthat ‘he has often been convinced thatin many branchesof zoology the difficulties of the study are considerably augmented by the imperfection of the language by which we attempt to formulate the results of our observa- tions. The employment of expressions that are vague in the determination of zoological characters and the description of the parts that constitute an organism convey naturally the superficial observation with which the observer was content, leaving in the mind of the reader an amount of doubt which retards his: desire for distinct information ....... The terms,” he con- tinues, “of zoology are far, at present, from that degree of precision. .... These considerations have determined me to make a general revision of the * United States’ Exploring Expedition, p. 1897, ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 43 ‘ earcinological terminology’ before presenting to zoologists the work that has engaged me for some time on the natural distribution of Crustacea from the collection in the natural-history museum.” Even after this M. Milne-Fdwards uses the terms head, thorax, and abdomen, which he had previously stated to be “regions not naturally defined,” and gives the appellation of pemptognathe and hectognathe to the first and second pair of appendages attached to the thorax (or pereion). Dana made his researches on the highest form in crustacean life ; so also has M. Milne- Edwards in his later observations. But the two appendages which this latter. author determines as the seventh and eighth pairs of gnathes are invariably, according to his own showing, the anterior two pairs of the thorax. It is only in the highest and most consolidated form of crustacean life that we find them variated from their typical character so as to make them appear organs attached to the mouth ; whereas in a very considerable proportion of the various forms of Crustacea they never act as attendants on the mouth, but are simply prehensile in their character or locomotive in their power : but almost universally throughout Crustacea they are connected with a pair of branchial appendages ; and in this they fulfil most efficient work, so that in the highest types their connexion with the mouth is one of secondary impor- tance only. The first two pairs of appendages belonging to the pereion (or thorax), through nearly all the orders, of the typical crustacean exhibit a variation that distinguishes them from those posterior to them ; and it may be convenient to define them, but certainly not by a term that confuses them with appen- dages that are only connected with secondary duties. Taking into consideration the many and various forms of Crustacea, the great and numerous changes they undergo, it is desirable not only to be sure that the nomenclature shall be scientifically correct in its determination and homological signification, but that it is convenient and applicable to a very considerable proportion of the animals it has to define. A typical crustacean in any of the well-defined orders can readily be divided into three parts, each part to consist of seven somites. The first division we call the crpHaton*. It consists of the anterior seven somites, and supports the organs of sense and appendages adapted to be attendants on the mouth. The second division we call the prrnton. The seven somites that form this division support appendages that are more or less adapted for walking in their most normal condition. The third division we name the pron. This consists of the posterior seven somites; these support the appendages which, when developed, are always more or less perfectly adapted for swimming. The last somite of the pleon is almost universally variated from the others, and is developed much to resemble an appendage itself. It is, however, the posterior somite, and as such we designate it by the name of the telson. The appendages that are attached to these several divisions are known by their relation to them. Those that are connected with the senses are deter- mined by their character—such as the eyes, antenne, and oral appendages. The antenne may be distinguished as the anterior and posterior pair, or as the auditory or olfactory respectively, in preference to that of the inner and outer or upper and lower, which is liable to vary. So the fourth pair of appendages, or the first belonging to the oral group, may be known (from their mandibular power) as the mandibles, while the three following may be deter- * For the derivation of these terms see Report of the British Edriophthalmia, 1855, 4A, REPORT—1875. mined by their relationship as the first, second, and third pair of maville, or, as Professor Westwood has suggested, stagnopoda. The appendages of the second division, or seven pairs of legs attached to the pereion, may be readily denominated the pereiopoda; but the anterior two pairs are commonly variated for different purposes. In Brachyura they fulfil the purposes of opercula to the mouth; in the Squillide and Edrioph- thalmic Crustacea they are adapted for prehensile and ambulatory purposes; so that it may be found convenient to recognize them by a distinctive name, as gnathopoda. The appendages of the third division, or pleon, are never developed for walking or prehension, but almost universally are formed for swimming ; and even in the Isopoda, where these are utilized as branchial organs, they oc- casionally fulfil the office of swimming-appendages. Not unfrequently the last two, as in the Macrura, and the last three, as in Amphipoda, are variated in form so as to enable the animal to spring when on land or dart a con- siderable distance in the water; and the term wropoda has been applied to them; but their variation is so inconstant that the advantage of defining them by any special name will be less than the convenience arising from the distinction. The integumentary structure is one of the most important in the Crustacea, and a knowledge of the variations of its several parts is of much assistance, not only to the student of the history of these animals, but also for elucidating the knowledge of those forms that have passed away and can be studied only through the impressions left imbedded in the rocks. The external skeleton of a crustaceous animal consists of series of rings, that appear to repeat each other, differing only in modification according to the necessity of the various portions of the animal. These rings represent and protect externally various segments of the body, each division supporting one pair of appendages only and the internal structure that relates to them. Each of these several divisions we call a ‘‘somite,” a term suggested, I believe, by Professor Huxley in his lectures at the Royal College of Surgeons. Of these there are never more than twenty-one; and this may be considered as being the normal number in all Crustacea above those known as the Ento- mostraca, in some few of which, as in the genera Apus and Stegocephalus, the number of somites appear to be much more numerous ; but there the somites appear to be repeated without having any function to fulfil or appendage to support—a numerical repetition only, the result of an enfeebled force. The first somite supports and carries the organs of vision. In some of the most condensed forms the eyes are implanted on the outer side of the two pairs of antenuz; but the internal structure invariably shows that the most anterior pair of nerves are those that are connected with these organs. The progress of development which we purpose alluding to in its proper place clearly demonstrates the eyes to be the most anterior of all the organs. The second somite bears the first pair of antennz, which, from its position in the higher Crustacea, is generally called the inner pair, and from its posi- tion in the lower forms is called the upper pair of antenne. The third somite supports the second or posterior pair of antenne; this, from its relative position to the other antenne in the higher and lower forms of Crustacea, has been called respectively the outer andlower antenne. This somite is so closely associated with the fourth that it is not certain that they exist distinct in any species of Crustacea. The three anterior somites are generally closely blended together. In the earlier forms of development they are invariably so; but in Squilla and its ~ ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 45 congeners the two anterior somites are distinctly separated from each other and the third. In Palinurus the first is distinct from the second; but in the greater portion of Brachyurous and Macrurous Crustacea the three first somites, and perhaps the fourth, are strongly soldered into one piece. This piece in most Crustacea, but more conspicuously so in the more con- densed forms, is developed to a greater or less extent, and is recognized under the name of the carapace or shield. In the lower forms, such as the Amphipoda and Isopoda, it is developed sufficiently to cover only the four succeeding somites; while in the higher forms, such as the Brachyura, it is developed so as to protect the whole of the animal. The carapace varies very much in shape, both in width and length, and generally covers the whole of the somites of the pereion ; but not universally so. In the Anomura several genera have the posterior somite of the pereion exposed; in the Diastylide there are three or four somites not covered, and in the Edriophthalmic Crustacea all seven are unprotected and developed into perfect somites. It is one of the earliest features present in the development of the embryo, and is distinctly defined in the Nauplius form. Even in this early stage of development, as in later existence, the form of the carapace varies considerably, and is an easy mark of distinction between genera. It is desirable as well as important, in an anatomical point of view, that a clear idea should be obtained of the homological relation of this large and con- spicuous portion of the highly developed crustacean. This can be done only after an examination and comparison of a large number of various forms and types of animals, as well as a close investigation and study of the parts during their progressive development. Milne-Edwards, as far back as 1834, arrived at the conclusion that the carapace in the higher types of Crustacea is “the result of an excessive development of the superior arch of the cephalic antenno-maxillary seg- ment. ... But (Hist. des Crust. vol. i. p. 26) among certain Stomapods, such as Squilla, the head is divided into many distinct segments; the first two, the ophthalmic and antennular rings, are movable and little developed. The third and fourth rings are, on the contrary, very large and compose between them a single segment that we call the antenno-maxillary. The carapace occupies the dorsal portion of the trongon formed by this union, and is prolonged above the six following rings.” “In studying (/.c. p. 28) the carapace as a whole as well as in its parts, we must examine into the rules of the normal organization of Crustacea, not only in the later, more or less, remarkable modification, but also the very curious structure of certain Entomostraca, where all the animal is enclosed in a kind of bivalve shell.” These views receive general support from Mr. Dana, who, however, takes exception to the assertion that the ventral piece of the carapace is formed out of what M. Milne-Edwards calls the epimera (J. c. p. 32), but contends that they “are in fact the posterior extension of the mandibular segment ;” and he continues, ‘“ excepting that we consider what is here called epimeral, the mandibular segment, we agree with Milne-Edwards, for the most part, in the above-mentioned deduction; so that while the mandibular segment is confined to the ventral pieces of the Brachyural carapax, it constitutes its posterior half in Macrura.” In 1855 the author of this Report communicated to the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ a memoir on this subject, supporting the opinion of Milne-Edwards 46 REPORT—1875. as to the homology of the carapace, but denying the existence of epimera in the theory of the somite, and corroborating the assertion of Dana that the antennal segment constitutes the anterior and upper portion, and the mandibular seg- ment the posterior and lower portion of the carapace in the Macrura and Bra- chyura; and affirmed that the suture which traverses the lower surface forms a line of demarcation between the third and fourth somites; it homologizes with the cervical suture in the Macrura, as also with that which traverses the dorsal surface of the cephalon in several genera of Trilobites (Pl. I. fig. 5). If we wish to judge of the relation of these parts in the several forms of Crustacea, we must make a careful investigation during the immature stages of the animal. In the Megalopa stage the inferior antenne are attached to the anterior _ external horns of the carapace; these horns are folded beneath the animal, and it is this inflection that forms the orbit in which the eye is lodged. Through this inversion, consequent upon the monstrous development of the hepatic region, this suture lies upon the inferior surface of the carapace in Brachyurous Crustacea, extending posteriorly to the extreme limits of the carapace. The author concluded his paper by saying, “ But we have seen in the de- scending scale of nervous force the rings which carry the organs of conscious- ness degenerate in importance, and yield to a corresponding development of the mandibular ring: this law appears to be in force in the Amphipoda, the lowest type of the Macrura form, in which I am inclined to believe that the mandibular ring represents the whole of the upper portion of the cephalic ar- ticulation—the anterior three being so diminished in importance, that they are to be found only in the perpendicular wall of the head, or perhaps represented by their appendages only” (Ann. Nat. Hist., July 1855). It would scarcely perhaps be necessary to enter further into the evidence that supports the homological relations of the carapace, had not Professor Huxley, in his Hunterian Lectures at the Royal College of Surgeons, expressed an opinion opposed to the above statements. In his twelfth lecture Prof. Huxley says:—“ In all the Brachyura and ordinary Macrura it appears to me to be obvious that the carapace is con- tinuous with, and part of, all the somites of the cephalothorax—that it is composed, in fact, of their connate terga, the branchiostegite being nothing more than their connate and highly developed pleura; the cervical suture, placed immediately behind the attachment of the mandibular muscles and in front of the heart, corresponds in these respects precisely with the posterior boundary of the head of a Squilla and of a Branchiopod, or of an Edrioph- thalmian. The cephalic are roofs over the stomach, as does the tergal region of the head in these last-named Crustacea. Anatomically, then, it seems to be demonstrable that the scapular are of the carapace in the ordinary Podoph- thalmia is the equivalent of the terga of the thorax, that the cephalic are is the homologue of the terga of the head, and that the carapace is formed by all the cephalothoracic somites.” Before the Reporter can proceed with any fresh evidence to support the argument demonstrative of the homological character of the carapace, it is desirable that a clear idea should be given of the theory of a somite or segment as it exists in Crustacea. Prof. Milne-Edwards, in his ‘ Histoire des Crustacés,’ vol. 1. p. 16, says :— “Each of the rings of the skeleton appears to be composed of two lateral moieties, resembling each other. We can distinguish moreover two arcs, the one superior, the other inferior, as shown in the accompanying diagram ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 47 [pl. 1. fig. 3 of his work]. The former results from the assemblage of four pieces more or less intimately connected together, and arranged in pairs on each side of the median line. The central pieces are called by the name of the tergum, and the lateral are called the flancs or epimeral pieces. The inferior are is composed of the same number of pieces. The two median pieces unite to form the sternum; and the latter are known by the name of the episternum, by reason of their analogy with those that M. Audouin has designated by the same name among insects. They are united always at the sternum ; but there generally exists, between the inferior are and the epimera situated above, a wide space destined for the articulation of the corresponding member.” “We know of no example,” he continues, “of a ring where we are able to distinguish at the same time all the pieces that we desire to enumerate. Sometimes there is an absence of some of the pieces from the place they should occupy, and sometimes they are very intimately soldered together, so that we cannot see even a trace of separation; but in studying each of them separately, where it is most distinct, we shall be able to form a clear idea, and recognize its character in spite of its union with its neighbouring pieces. Moreover, although this analysis of the ring may not be always practicable, it is not the least true that it facilitates much the study of the exterior ske- leton of articulated animals, and that it will permit us often to establish analogies where there would first appear to exist the greatest difference.” “To terminate the enumeration of the constituent parts of the tegumentary rings of the Crustacea, there only remains for us to speak of the plates that we often see elevated from the internal surface and arrange themselves into cells and canals. These processes are always developed at the points of union of two rings or of two neighbouring pieces of the same segment; and this disposition has obtained for them the name of apodemes (from M. Audouin). They are the result of a fold of the integumentary membrane which penetrates more or less deeply between the organs, and which is strengthened with cal- careous matter like the rest of the structure, and ‘ure always formed of two thin plates soldered together.” These views haye long been accepted as the acknowledged theory. Nor am I aware that any one (except the authors above quoted) has attempted upon original investigation to analyze the evidence upon which M. Milne- Edwards has formed his theory. That the author of this Report has long held views not consistent with M. Milne-Edwards’s theory, is known to those carcinologists who have read his Report on the British Edriophthalmia, which was communicated to this Association and published in its Transactions for 1855, wherein he trusts that he clearly demonstrated that the pieces to which M. Milne-Edwards gave the name of epimera, and selected by him as typical of his theory, were parts attached to the legs, and not pieces of the dorsal arc of the crustacean somite. He is moreover desirous in this Report to show :—that the epimera, as sec- tional pieces in a theoretical construction of a somite, cannot exist; that the so-called epimera are portions only of the integumentary structure of the appendages of the animal, and that the apodema are formed out of this structure, more or less thinned out by lateral pressure and internal arrangement ; and that the head of the lower types and carapace of the higher are homologically the same, the carapace being a monstrous deve- lopment intended for the covering and protection of the more complicated branchial appendages of the higher types. 48 REPORT—1875. But this portion will be discussed more fully when the structure of the appendages is treated of. The earliest stage in the life of a crustaceous animal, in which the dorsal shield known as the carapace is observable, is that of the young as it exists fresh from the ovum of a cirriped(PLAI. fig. 1). This, which has been named the Nauplius form of the Crustacea by Fritz Miller, exists as a small animal with three pairs of appendages only. ‘The eyes are not developed, the ocular spot not being homologous with the permanent organs ; but since we see that mate- rial does enter into the stomach, we can have no great effort in accepting the proposition that this incipient animal has a mouth; and such being the case, we must assume that the anterior four somites are present in the construc- tion of the head of the Nauwplius stage of Crustacea. The oral apparatus is still in an embryonic condition. The next stage of living types in which we can observe the carapace to exist in the progressive condition is in that known as the Zoéa form of Crustacea (Pl. I. fig. 2). This is the early life of the young of the higher Podophthalmous Crustacea. That of the Brachyura is most known and most instructive. Some of the appendages are beginning to assume a permanent form. ‘The eyes are developed, the antenne (though in an immature condition) are in existence, and so are all the appendages of the head except the last. The first two pairs of appendages connected with the pereion are present in an immature condition, and the posterior pairs are represented by small bud-like appen- dages. Dissection readily demonstrates that the carapace in this stage only covers, but has no associated connexion with, the appendages of the pereion ; and a closer study shows that the heart is connected with and partly exists in the great dorsal spine. The relative position of this process, therefore, enables us to determine that the future growth of the carapace takes place and is connected with the anterior portion of this structure, and not with the posterior. In the young of Palinurus, as well as in the larger forms known as Phyllosoma, which appears to be the young of Palinurus older in age and larger in size, the carapace is developed largely in advance of the oral ap- paratus ; it is produced posteriorly so far as to project over the anterior two somites of the pereion, but is not attached to any portion beyond the posterior oral appendages. An examination of the Zoéa of the various types of Podoph- thalmous Crustacea supports this observation; and we can trace the same facts from the Zoéa, through the Megalopa, to the adult Brachyurous Crustacea (PI. I. fig. 3). It is therefore desirable that we should see how far the study of an adult crustacean will assist us in demonstrating the true relation of the carapace to the general structure of the animal. In Squilla and allied forms of the same type the two anterior somites (the first of which supports the eyes, the second the anterior pair of antenne) exist as distinct and perfect, though small somites; whereas the two succeeding are closely associated together, and appear as a large dorsal plate supporting the posterior pair of antenne and mandibles. The posterior three somites belong- ing to the cephalon and the first two belonging to the pereion are represented by the sternal plates only. In the young forms the anterior two somites be- longing to the pereion are in a membranous condition dorsally complete. According to the theory of Professor Huxley, the carapace represents the dorsal are of all the somites that it protects and have not a distinct roof of their own. It is therefore desirable that we should learn what may be the distinct useful value of the carapace, and why each somite would not serve the same purpose by being perfect in its own are. ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA, 49 The branchial organs, that are so essential to the aeration of the blood in all aquatic animals, are in the Crustacea appendages attached to the members belonging either to the pereion or pleon or both. In the lower and terrestrial types, such as the Isopoda, they are connected with the pleon only. In some Stomapods, as Squilla and its allies, we find them attached to the pleopoda as well as the pereiopoda; but in the higher groups they are invariably attached to the pereiopoda only. In the most simple form the branchis exist as mere saccular attachments, whereas in the higher types they become more complicated and voluminous. In the saccular condition they are held by a small neck pendent from the joint, and are exposed in the water without protection; but in the higher Podophthalmous types they are formed of very numerous plates folded close together upon a central stalk, and would be very liable to injury if not protected by some means. The branchie, therefore, being in their very nature external organs, and attached to the first joints of the several appendages of the pereion, it is self-evident that they could not be covered or protected by their own somite, inasmuch as if it had passed over them the branchial appendages would be- come internal. Their character and constitution would therefore be changed ; ' they would cease to be external; in fact they would cease to be branchie. But since the appendages exist as branchie and are covered and protected, it must follow that if the protection cannot be evolved from the somites to which they are secondarily attached, the covering must be the result of the development of some other somite. The somites in their simple conditions have a tendency to overlap one another to an extent that precludes them from permitting any portion of the intermediate structure being exposed. That the somites have a tendency to extend in every direction, is very evi- dent from the different proportions and forms they severally undergo in various genera, and those which compose the carapace exist in all proportions. In the Isopoda the cephalon is reduced to the smallest extent in a typical form of Crustacea. In the Amphipoda the cephalon is much larger than in the Isopoda ; but in neither of these is the integumentary covering pro- duced to cover or protect any somite that is not included within its ana- tomical bounds. In the Diastylide, one of the lowest forms of the Schizopod type (where the branchie consist of but one or two pairs of a multicellular form), the tergal projection of the cephalon extends posteriorly over half the pereion; whereas the lateral walls are anteriorly produced, so as to protect and cover the anterior cephalic appendages. These animals burrow and live in the mud and sand; and no doubt this development of the carapace forms a good protection to the eyes and antennal organs. Thus we can readily interpret the origin and homologue of the shell-covering in Limnadia, Cypris, &c., by supposing a monstrous development of the carapace in every direction, induced as a protection to a feeble animal that but for this pro- tection must perish in its destructive habitat. In Squwilla and its allies (the typical form on which Milne-Edwards has based his researches) the carapace does not extend posteriorly beyond its anatomical bounds; laterally it projects interiorly more so; but the great size of this plate arises from the large amount of space that exists between the mandibles and the antenne ; and as a carapace it is scarcely more impor- tant than the tergal surface of the cephalon in the Amphipoda. The branchial organs in this type of animals are saccular, or more rudimentary in their condition than the same organs attached to the pleon. The carapace as a covering is not required to protect these branchial organs, which are - 1875. E 50 REFORT—1875. not more important than the same in the Amphipoda. Gradually, as the branchiz assume a more complicated or multicellular condition, the carapace increases in dimensions both laterally and dorsally, until we perceive it reaches the important feature we find in the Brachyurous Crustacea. In Squilla the eyes are borne on a distinct somite ; in Palinurus the same is distinctly visible ; in Cancer the ophthalmic somite is likewise distinct and separated from the next succeeding, but it is wrapt over and enclosed by the next or anterior antennal somite. In Squilla also the first pair of antenne are borne on a somite distinct from the succeeding. In the Macrura and ' Brachyura this and the succeeding somites are closely blended together ; but in Squilla the fifth, sixth, and seventh somites are capable of being deter- mined by their sternal pieces only. As we perceive the tergal pieces of the somites of the pereion are wanting in the Brachyura, so we may assume that they are not developed in the posterior somites of the head in Squilla under similar conditions. There therefore is every reason to believe in the theory, that the monstrous development of the mandibular and posterior antennal somites, incorporated together, unite to form the perfect carapace that is so characteristic of the typical Crustacea. But whatever may be correct in a theoretical or transcendental point of view, for all anatomical and practical requirements the carapace represents the tergal surface of the cephalon, so largely developed as to cover and pro- tect not only the pereion, but, as in Cryptolithodes, the entire animal, In the development of the Crustacea the gradual progress of the carapace may be traced through all its stages. In the ovum the members are first represented by small gemmiparous sacs, and precede the formation of the dorsal or ventral arcs in the small Nauplius. The carapace covers and protects all the animal except the pleon ; but this represents only the four anterior somites and their appendages. In the Zoéa stage the carapace is perfect and folded downwards laterally, and is capable of covering and protecting all the appendages of the cephalon and the anterior two of the pereion. At this period no branchial organs exist, but saccular appendages in an embryonic condition are budding in their places : in a short time the pereiopoda are seen to form, and the branchial organs assume a definite character; and with their appearance a change takes place in the form of the carapace. In a large number of Brachyural Zoée a more or less conspicuous spine or tooth-like process may be seen to occupy a position on the lateral walls. This spine, from observation during the progressive growth of the animal, is seen to correspond with the angle in the adult that defines the demarcation between the branchial and hepatic regions. The deflection of the carapace anteriorly bends over the hepatic lobes, the line of the greatest curvature being frequently surmounted by a series of well-defined tooth-like cusps; and posteriorly bends over the branchial organs, the curvature here being less abrupt and seldom surmounted by any cusp or process. Externally the carapace covers and protects both the hepatic and branchial organs; but internally a calcareous wall of demarcation exists. This wall, which Milne-Edwards terms the apodema, is continued into a thin membranous tissue that makes a distinct and well-defined separation be- tween the branchial appendages and the internal system ; so that the aqueous element, so necessary for the aeration of the blood as it passes through the branchiz, may have full power to play upon the gills without having any passage that would admit it to the internal viscera and derange the general economy of the animal. Not only does the carapace vary in external form, but also in the configu- ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 51 ration of its surface. The relation that it holds to the internal viscera is to afford protection and means of support. When the former only is required, the structure is generally smooth and even; where the tissues are internally thicker and irregular, it gives to the external surface an indented and irregular aspect, which is common, parti- cularly in the flat and short-tailed Crustacea, where the markings are so per- sistent as to afford a very valuable assistance for the determination of species. These markings are generally induced by the attachments of the tissues that secure certain viscera in their positions; these form generally points of depression ; but where any organ (such as the liver, stomach, or branchial appendages) is protected, the corresponding points in the carapace are ele- vations, sometimes crowned with a pointed spine or process. The branchial appendages are external in relation to the body of the animal, but covered over and protected by the lateral walls of the carapace. To complete this so as effectually to protect those organs without pressing on or interfering with their functions, a very considerable amount of lateral development has taken place, and a peculiar reflection so as to bring the margin of the carapace below the branchial appendages and to protect them from rude contact with the limbs. The angle which is induced by this inflection of the carapace over the hepatic lobes and enclosing the branchie is generally well defined and ornamented with points or processes more or less numerous. These processes define the dorsal limits of the carapace. Desmarest, half a century since, mapped out the dorsal surface of the carapace into regions coinciding with the limits of the internal viscera. Milne-Edwards, in his ‘ Histoire des Crustacés,’ published in 1839, adopted the same views, supporting it by illustrations from several genera. Professor Dana more recently, in his great work on Crustacea, has divided the dorsal surface into many more regions, taking the numerous areolites that are present in some genera (as Zozymus). He divides the carapace by a transverse line that extends from just ante- rior to the last of the normal lateral teeth to the same on the opposite side, and separates it into anterior and posterior portions. The anterior he again divides into three parts, defined by lines of depres- sion, and names them the median region and two antero-lateral regions. The median region covers the stomach, and includes the gastric and genital regions of Desmarest. The space anterior to the median region he calls the frontal, and on either side the orbits form another, which may be called the orbital region. The posterior portion of the carapace he likewise divides into a posterior and two postero-lateral regions. Professor Milne-Edwards in 1854 readdressed himself to this subject and further elaborated it. In the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ he communi- cated his researches with illustrations from several genera, and divided tho dorsal surface of the carapace into regions corresponding with the names of the internal viscera. But it appears to me that the correspondence in many parts exists in the name only; as, for instance, in the gastric region, which he subdivides into epigastric or anterior lobes of the gastric region, protogastric or latero-anterior lobes, mesogastric or median lobe, metagastric or latero- posterior lobes, and urogastric or medio-posterior lobe of the gastric region. It is quite within the power of demonstration to prove that it is more in accordance with the correct anatomical details of the animal’s structure if the lobes that he named metagastric, or latero-posterior lobes, were called, according to Desmarest, the genital regions after the viscera they protect. And no adyantage appears to me to be derived from dividing a region EQ 52 REPORT—1875. into parts that are not constant, and when present do not represent any in- ternal organization, as he has done in dividing the branchial region into :— epibranchial, or anterior division of the branchial region; the mesobranchial and metabranchial divisions, which consist of lobes variable in form, but represented in most genera by a smooth surface. The cardiac region he divides into an anterior and posterior portion. The anterior alone represents the position of the heart; the posterior represents the part that lies between the heart and the posterior margin of the carapace. The hepatic regions he does not subdivide, but circumscribes their limits within the extent of the internal organ—an object of consideration, as it appears that the extent of this organ is one of the most important features in the moulding of generic forms. The other regions are those situated on the ventral surface, and which will be considered in a future Report. The value of a clearly defined knowledge of the various markings that are represented on the dorsal surface of the carapace of Crustacea is best appre- ciated in the study of fossil specimens, where the remains of animals, how- ever well preserved, can be read by their external features only. It is therefore with a view to accelerate this that I have in this Report endeavoured to lay down the several regions that are represented by the markings exhibited on the surface of the carapace. Taking advantage of. the information conveyed by studying the labours of the previously mentioned eminent carcinologists, I have laid it down as a rule for guidance, that the external markings must define the internal structure ; and where this is not the case the lobe or projection exists as an excrescence. The most important and constant divisions are :— The anterior, which lies immediately above the antero-cesophageal gan- glion. This may readily be subdivided into the orbital and antennal portions. The entire region, from its relation to those organs from which alone intelli- gence is derived, may be termed the cephalic region. Directly posterior to the cephalic region is the gastric; this is generally very conspicuous, the intensity of the postero-lateral markings being rendered more distinguishable by the inner surface of the carapace being adapted for the attachment of the anterior tendon of the mandibles. The stomach consists, in the more perfectly developed types, of a large central chamber, the form of which not only varies in genera, but is capable of extension and of being collapsed in the same individual. It has also antero-lateral cavities and a posterior or pyloric extension; but these are produced at a lower line, and therefore liable to be less conspicuously repre- sented on the dorsal surface. The lobe which M. Milne-Edwards has termed the mesogastric, corresponds with that portion of the stomach that is projected above the gizzard-like plates that stand at the entrance of the pyloric chamber. On each side of the pyloric or mesogastric lobe are two generally well- defined lobes that correspond, and are probably induced by the presence beneath of the genital apparatus in the male and the commencement of the ovaries in the female.” I think, therefore, that it is desirable to retain for these lobes the name that was first bestowed upon them by Desmarest, and cail them the genital régions. t Posterior to these comes the cardiac region, which corresponds yery closely with that of the heart, which’lies immediately beneath it. Posterior to the heart the carapace protects no distinct viscera; but the posterior margin covers the anterior half of the first somite of the pleon. The muscular system which moves the pleon is attached to the apodema that divides the cardiac from the branchial cavities, which also affords attachment ———- - ae Plate 1. ; 45% Report Brit. Assoc. 18 75: ) —— 434 Report Brit. Assoc.1875. Plate Ul. ani ye 2 ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGHE OF THE CRUSTACEA, 5 to the extensive membrane that protects the internal viscera from the intro- duction of the water. This membrane is continuous with and attached to the inner surface of the posterior margin, and is represented generally by a lobe that runs parallel with the posterior margin. This portion may conveniently be known as the postcardiac region. The hepatic regions extend on either side from the orbital region anteriorly to the posterior tooth of the hepatic crest, and are bounded by the gastric and branchial regions. This is a larger portion than is admitted by Milne-Kd- wards, but it is one that corresponds with the extent of the hepatic viscera. The branchial region reaches from the posterior tooth of the hepatic crest to the posterior margin, along which it traverses nearly to the median line on either side, and is bounded on the inner side by the cardiac and genital regions, and anteriorly by the hepatic regions, from which internally it is separated by a thin membranous partition. These several divisions appear to me to be based upon strictly anatomical grounds, and as such may be regarded as natural divisions, the variation of which must depend upon that of structure, and therefore may be relied upon as affording characteristic distinctions. The great consolidation of the anterior somites of the skeleton has led Prof. Dana to pronounce the centralization to amount to a cephalization of the forces ; but this opens a subject of considerable extent and interest, which, if permitted, I hope to present in a continuation of this Report at the next Meeting of the Association, EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. References in each Plate the same:—C, Cephalic region; O O, Orbital region ; SS, Sto- “machic region; P, Pyloricregion; HH, Hepatic region; Gt Gd/, Genital region ; Car, Car- diac region; Post-Car, Post-Cardiac region; M, Muscles connecting the pereion with the pleon. Prats I. . Carapace of Nawplius, or earliest larval form of Crustacea. . Carapace of Zoéa, or second larval form. . Carapace of Megalopa, or third larval form. . Carapace of Diastylis. . Carapace of Trilobita, with that of Megalopa displayed on it, to demonstrate the homological relation of the fissure on the ventral surface of the latter with that on the dorsal surface of the former. 6. Carapace of Cancer pagurus. 7, First or ophthalmic somite of Cancer, with ophthalmic appendages and eyes attached. Second or anterior antennal somite, showing external or anterior surface: aaa, ophthalmic cavity and foramen; 00, anterior antenna, cavity, and foramen. . Same, showing internal or posterior surface: @, ophthalmic foramen; 0, anterior antenna and foramen. 10, Posterior antennal somite, dorsal aspect; carapace removed to show the internal surface of the ventral portion of the somite: ce, posterior antenne ; o/ o/, olfac- tory foramen. Fig. Ou Cobo so mM Puarte IT. Fig. 11. Diagram showing the connexion of the branchiwe with the legs and the external , character of the branchial chamber in relation to the internal viscera: BB, branchial chambers; Ap Ap, apodema. 12. Dorsal surface of carapace, showing the natural portions into which it is divided, 13, The carapace removed to show the internal structure and the relation of the viscera to the external marking in fig. 12. 54 REPORT—1875. Second Report of a Committee, consisting of Prof. A. S. Herscuun, B.A., F.R.A.S., and G. A. Lesour, F.G.S., on Eaperiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geological Aspects of the Investigation: Tun original object proposed to be effected by the Committee of devising a simple and direct method of determining approximately the absolute thermal conductivities of solid bodies, and especially of the rocks of most common occurrence in geological strata, has not yet been entirely carried out. But the experiments described in the last Report were repeated under new con- ditions, which enable the Committee to present, with more confidence than in their last Report, a list of absolute conductivities of the rocks there spe- cified, and to add to the list examples of some further important determina- tions. Many uncertainties remained to be removed from the values given in the former list, the most notable of which proceeded from the looseness of the contact obtained between the points of the thermopile and the two faces of the tested plate of rock. The real difference of temperature between the two faces was not measured, but that between the air-currents round the points of the thermopile in the two sheets of velvet which pressed them against the surface of the plate. Thus difference of temperature two or three times as great as those intended to be measured (and as those which were actually observed when in a few cases the points of the thermopile were solidly cemented to the rocks) were constantly recorded. Assuming that the indications were always too great in a certain fixed proportion (determined approximately by the direct experiments made in a few certain cases), the former list of estimated absolute conductivities was compiled from the use of. the velvet-covered apparatus. India-rubber faces about two millimetres (or one twelfth of an inch) in thickness are now stretched tightly over the flat faces of the cylindrical cooler and steam-boiler, and are bound down with wire, air being carefully excluded from these junctions by displacing it with a little oil. While the top of the boiler is formed of a thick, circular, brass plate a little convex (about one millimetre high in the centre) on the upper side, a tripod wooden stand, with straight legs passing through the lid of the cooler, rests upon the inner side of its base in the sockets of a flat, circular, perforated brass plate with wide lattice openings, and somewhat less in diameter than the cooler-base, between which and the base of the cooler, again, two thicknesses of coarse wire gauze are introduced, to permit free access of the water in the cooler to the inner surface of its tinned-iron base, when the central rod of the agitator, which contains the indicating thermo- meter, is raised and lowered frequently enough to keep the Water in a con- stant state of motion. Two twenty-eight-pound weights, suspended from an iron link or cross bar carried by the tripod stand, communicated in this series of experiments a pressure of about 3 lbs. per square inch to the rock- plate placed for examination between the india-rubber-covered faces of the boiler and the cooler; and it was expected that the exclusion of air from round the points of the thermopile and from the junctions between the faces might be assumed under these conditions: but as india-rubber offers great resistance to the passage of heat, it was found inconvenient to use it of suffi- cient thickness to accomplish this directly by its elasticity*; and recourse * Although thickly jacketed with a close covering of felt and fur, the cooler, containing 22 lbs. of water, was found to lose heat to the atmosphere at the rate of 0°-0025 F. per minute for each degree of excess of its temperature above that of the surrounding air; and for an excess of 20° F., which was sometimes reached, the loss being 0°-05 F., the mae ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS, 55 was had, in consequence, to soft cements, to make the junctions between the surfaces air-tight. An experiment was also made with slate, by plastering the thermopile solidly to it with thin sheets of india-rubber moistened with a mixture of red-lead and oil, and testing the conductivity of the plate when, after remaining for two weeks under pressure, the cement appeared to have solidified to perfect hardness. The result in this case (391) * scarcely dif- fered either from the estimated number for the same rock-plate (392) given in our former list, or from two other determinations (414 and 425), when, instead of the solid junction, a thin paste of boiled starch and another of red- lead and oil were used in succession to effect the junction. Two new ' specimens of slate, cut from one piece, and tested by the same process, with moist lutings of starch and linseed-meal to secure the junctions, gave as values of their conductivities in different experiments the rather lower num- bers, apparently belonging to this different sample of the stone, 340, 346, 349. The plate of white Sicilian marble described in the last Report as pre- senting when tested, by attaching the thermopile to it solidly with plaster, a resulting conductivity 559, now afforded, with moist linseed luting, the number 497. Whinstone, which formerly exhibited in the same manner an absolute conductivity 312, now afforded, with linseed luting, the conduc- tivity 333. The results obtained with moist lutings are sometimes in excess and sometimes in defect of those observed with solid junctions, and nothing necessary to be preferred in solid over liquid attachments of the surfaces to each other was found to be indicated by these preliminary trials. The inconstaney of some determinations now attempted of new rock- specimens with the iron and palladium’ thermopile led to the discovery that its rolled branches produce thermoelectric currents by alteration of the con- dition of the pressed metal; and no annealing by heat was able to remove this serious objection. While unequally pressed parts of the wire along its branches were subjected to unknown temperatures, it was obvious that small differences of temperature could not be measured satisfactorily with the thermopile, and no reliance in respect of ultimate accuracy could be placed on the values found up to this time with the instrument in its first constructed form. German-silyer wire was, however, substituted successfully for palla- dium in the thermopile, with which the present series of experiments were made. It consists of three rolled wires of German silver and two of iron in series, between two rolled iron-wire terminals of a Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer, three junctions of the flattened helix into which they are wound upon two bracing-bars of wood being above, and three below the rock-section, which slips easily between them. A stout india-rubber collar (half an inch in thickness} surrounds the rock-section before it is placed be- tween the wire grating of the thermopile ; and similar collars round the con- fronting ends of the boiler and cooler make a continuous non-conducting easing of the rock-plate and of adjoining parts of the apparatus, protecting them entirely, when the pressure acts upon them and upon the lutings that connect them, from heat-communication to the outer air. Although German- silver wire (even if unflattened) produced, when slightly heated af certain effects of undetected external influences might become sensible were the rate of heat- transmission to be measured less than 0°-2 F. per minute. The rate actually observed with the apparatus above described was between 0°-194 with cannel-coal and 0°-400 with quartz; and in the following list of absolute conductivities the proper correction for the external air-temperature round the cooler has in every instance been applied. * The significant figures only of the decimals representing the absolute conductivities: in the following Table are here used, for brevity, to denote them. 56 nEPoRT—1875. points of its length, sensible thermoelectrical effects of local disturbing cur- rents, which (as was also observed in the palladium wire and in some other metals which were tried) did not appear to be removed, like those of strained iron wire, by annealing at a considerable heat, yet the high electromotive force of the German-silver iron couple and the neutralizing effect of the several loops of German-silver wire, all exposed to the same temperature variations, were found, in seme suitable experiments made in the process of determining the scale of the instrument’s indications, to have almost entirely eliminated the influence of these small disturbing actions; and the smallest differences of. temperature, of only two or three degrees, occurring in the rock-conductivity experiments could be accurately measured. Resistances of two, five, and ten ohms were included in the thermoelectric circuit succes- sively in each experiment; and the proportionality of the galvanometer read- ings in these several conditions being constant, showed the constancy of the resistance, and accordingly the unvarying scale-value of the indications of the instrument for every observation; while the zero of the scale-readings could also be conveniently determined at any moment by unplugging, in the rheostat connected in the circuit, a very large resistance of 1000 ohms. Twelve, seven, and four divisions of the scale represented respectively 1°F., when the several resistances above named were used* ; and three readings being taken for every temperature-difference observation, the results reduced in this proportion were accordant to one or two tenths of a degree, as long as the total resistance of the circuit had undergone no variations from acci- dental injuries of the connexions, and as long as the thermometric value of the scale-divisions had accordingly been preserved. The electromotive force of a German-silver iron thermopile is shown, by Prof. Tait’s representation of the specific curves of these metals in his ‘ First approximation to a Thermo- electric Diagram, to be at ordinary temperatures very exactly proportional to the difference of temperature between the junctions; and the temperature- differences noted in these experiments may, it is presumed, be accordingly regarded as affected by only very small errors of uncertainty. The thickness of the flattened wire (about 0-5 millim.) of the thermopile occasioned, however, even with the considerable pressure used, a certain thickness of the lutings; and it is probable that, from this cause as well as from the partial fluidity, instead of perfectly solid nature, of the cement, the temperature-differ- ences observed somewhat exceeded those which actually existed between the faces of the tested plates. Besides the small corrections for escape of heat from the cooler to the outer air, an addition of one tenth to all the observed conductivities is made in the present list for the cooler’s thermal capacity and for that of the brass foot, wire gauze, and agitator, which it enclosed, the cor- rection for which was not included in the conductivities assigned last year. The final results in the present list are, notwithstanding this correction, somewhat inferior to those formerly observed with the thin palladium-iron thermopile, whether its attachments were solid or effected by moist cements; but in re- peated experiments with that instrument on quartz and other rock-sections offering only small resistances, the results arrived at were in general so high, and at the same time so irregular, from the predominance, in measuring their small temperature-differences, of the local currents, that for this reason only a partial dependence on its generally higher indications can be placed. The * An accidental injury which happened to one of the solderings was thus immediately detected ; and the fault having been found and repaired, when the instrument was re- graduated, it was found to afford, with the above resistances in its circuit, exactly the same proportional values of the scale-indications as before. ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 57 presence of the thin layer of moist luting of linseed-meal (mixed with between three and four times its weight of water) in the new series of experiments makes it probable, on the other hand, that the absolute conductivities pre- sented in the following list are under rather than above, and may occasionally be five, ten, or, in the better-conducting rock-specimens, possibly even twenty per cent. below their real values; but the present arrangement of the serics in a progressive scale of the observed values of the conductivities may be more certainly regarded as in the main correct. Some experiments to compare the resistances of different rock-sections with that of the luting and india-rubber faces between which they were placed, with a view of obtaining relative conducting-powers more expe~ ditiously without the use of a thermopile, were also made; but although this Absolute Conductivities and Resistances of Rock-Sections. Absolute conductivities in C.G.8. units. ae Absolute Thermopile |Compensated | resistances Resistances in Section of rock. with local. | Thermopile, | (or 1 + con- an ascending currents. |moistly luted| ductivity). symbolic scale. Rocksbetween} to the rocks (1875.) ia ; velvet faces. |with pressure. oy (1874.) (1875.) (1874*.) | (1875t.) : 0-00882 Opaque white quartz ...........[ 0 sees { 0-00876 } ’ 114 A Slate (eut across the cleavage. | +++. 000660 152 A Specimen A, Festiniog). Calcite (white vein-stuff in Bere 000596 168 as A mountain-limestone). Kenton sandstone (thoroughly | wee 000594 168 A wet). Do. (ey) Mere ccaecsiscctrenvedss case: 000489 000549 182 (B) A Grey Aberdeen granite............ 0-00600 0:00514 195 A A Trish fossil marble ...........-++- 000559 0-00488 205 Reon) eels Devonshire red do. .........00006+ 000525 0:00469 213 B B Sicilian white do...........0+++00. 0:00559§ 0-00462 216 B B Red Cornish serpentine ......... 0:00483 0-00599 251 C B Whinstone .........eeeseeereveee 0:00312§ 0-00366 278 D B Slate (cut parallel to the cleay- 000892 0:00363 275 D B age. Specimen A). Do. (do. Specimen A, Fes- | «+ 0:00825 308 C tiniog). Calton Hill trap-rock (from foot} 0°00520 0:00332 301 (B) © of the Observatory garden, Edinburgh). | Red brick (thoroughly wet) ....| «++. 0:00247 405 tt Cc English alabaster ..........+.s000+ 000412 0-00234 427 (C) Cc Plaster of Paris (plate, tho- eee 0:00160 25 ei ste D roughly wet). Red brick (dry) ...ssecesseceensee| te eene 0:00147 680 abs D Plaster of Paris (plate, dry) ..., 0:00163 0:00120 833 K E Cannel-coal .......+.0 Tougae tenance 0:00161§ | 0-00065 1538 K K a et * See Report, 1874, p. 132. t+ See Diagram, page 59. { Average of two equally good determinations 0:00879. § The conductivities marked thus were obtained by solid junctions of the thermopile to the rock-faces with plaster of Paris; the remaining numbers of the column were de- rived (in a constant proportion obtained from these) from conductivities observed with the thermopile pressed against the rock-surfaces by velvet faces. 58 REPORT—1875. method of comparison appears to be the best adapted, by its directness and sim- plicity, for determining relative resistances, the conditions of contact and of communication of heat across the junctions appear to be subject to so much variation that results of great discordance only have hitherto been obtained. Before abandoning a process which recommends itself by its ease and sim- plicity, further experiments, however, will be tried to remove if possible, from a method which promises in the sequel to become so much more expe- ditious, all the most influential sources of disturbance. The unit in which the absolute conductivities are expressed is the same as that adopted (employing the centimetre, gramme, and second as its basis) in the Table of the last Report; and the absolute resistances in the fourth column of the Table are the simple reciprocals of these, or the quotient of unity divided by the absolute conductivities. As it is in the form of this quotient or of the absolute resistances that the capacities of rock-strata for conducting heat are most conveniently employed in calculation, a graphical construction, and at the same time a convenient symbolic scale of the various grades or degrees of absolute resistance presented by different species of rocks, is here annexed (p. 59), with a view of exhibiting to the eye the general extent and character of their specific variations. Among the rock-sections re-examined, three only (Kenton sandstone, Calton trap, and English alabaster) are displaced, in the present list, from their previous order of succession. The rough and porous surface of the Kenton sandstone placing it more effectually in contact with the moist cement than the smooth surfaces of other rocks, may be accepted as an explanation of the high conductivity which it now presents; but the rough surface of the Calton trap and the smooth faces of the alabaster (although these rocks are not, like the specimen of sandstone, extremely porous) would give rise to the same or to an opposite variation; while both are lower in the list than the smooth-faced red serpentine, which has not altered its position. The defective indications of the first constructed thermopile may have introduced errors of the determinations in these latter cases, while it may probably be to its porosity alone that the Kenton sandstone now owes its somewhat superior position. The question of the effect of porosity and of the saturation of rocks with water in increasing their conducting-power was suggested by the late Mr. W. J. Henwood as one deserving of the Committee’s accurate investi- gation ; and several observations for this purpose were made, of which the results are included in the Table. It was found that of three porous rocks examined, Kenton sandstone absorbed (when freed from air in vacuo) 5-7 per cent. of its weight of water, while its conductivity rose in consequence from 549 to 594, or 8 percent. A plate of fine red building-brick, whose absorp- tion of water was 15:6 per cent. of its weight, received by this treatment an increase of conductivity from 147 to 247, or 68 per cent.; while a plate of plaster of Paris which absorbed 26 per cent. of its weight of water, rose in its conductivity by the saturation from 120 to 160, or not more than about 33 per cent. There is no appearance of regularity in these increases, but to -a more copious saturation with water it is evident that a higher proportion of increase of the conductivity is connected ; and again, comparing the highly conducting sandstone and the badly conducting brick or plaster, it is also evident that to every percentage weight or measure of water absorbed by the badly conducting substances, there corresponds a considerably greater percentage increase of the conductivity than for the absorption of the same percentage quantity of water by the better conductor. That this may arise Rock-plates (dry or wet), and the Directions of their Planes of Section. rn lies ee A RSS Ee ae ea a ee F E A B c D E F G H i oa 1, Opaque white quartz............ caivedt LLAG amesset| © 2. Slate (across cleavage) ....00....0e-| 152] wi... | * 38. Calcite (vein-stuff).........006..-000--| 168] ...... * 4, Kenton sandstone (wet) .......-----| 168] ...... * 5, Kenton sandstone (dry)...... pesduee dl) MOA meateos * 6. Grey Aberdeen granite..,.........+.| 195] ...... * 7. Irish fossil marble ...........+se00e0| 205 5 abe | ue ses * 8. Devonshire red marble .......ce00-+04| 213] csseee | sever | 9. Sicilian white marble ............... AGN ieanas cillineasecs (fH 10. Red Cornish serpentine..........0....| 251 oe ieee atte uh et 11. Basalt (Whinstone). ...............02-| 273]... saates * 12, Slate (with cleavage), @..........cc006] 275| ...000 | «- * 1S; 4Walton MUMtrap —.cc...c0.ccvcceteses| OUL| soveee Sees teles e us 14. Slate (with cleavage), 0............++ SOG lncesse qlee - So fraresee * 15. Red brick (thoroughly wet) ...... Pe= | AUDA detec gh ewes = rep Soseacntie 16. English alabaster ...... PS oe Teneacl AED Up epee o.| eb keey || febsn. ct eee * 17. Plaster of Paris (thoroughly wet)...| 625] ... ee | mac pant eros || ree % PBs Bodh orrcke liye) .o5..-e--ie--02+-200-»02|) OBO! caver. ||) evoeee”|) cover |) -nseee 6 Ooc * 19. Plaster of Paris (dry) ............0- DOES odinck- | naveepee lhaews occllivee peel eee siceeiaalll Bictints sone pes ali ee 20: Pannel-comlis. 2. cb.ub.-cs-vatoean oes Be ifs 2!) | SSE meal [eed so Perr al ocean acer cel Pc SPM KCC RO CS || coronas saad etek sve i eaaeomerllih Stoo te Ae ee a 60 REPORT—] 875. from appreciably good conductivity of water itself may be inferred with some degree of probability from the observations of Prof. Guthrie*, that films of water offer from four to fifteen times Jess resistance to the passage of heat through them than those of any other liquid (mercury excepted) of whose relative thermal resistances he obtained determinations. From Dr. Sterry Hunt’s recent publicationt the following Table of porosities and densities of various rocks is extracted, showing to what extent the presence of water among such strata may be expected, according to the general conclusions, to affect their thermal conductivities and to diminish their resistances. Table of Densities and Porosities of certain Rocks. . Absorption . Absorption gene of Gates: at Serre by tee ne of Gea ;.| of ies by rock. : volumes rock. ft. . | 100 volumes fic gravity). ef robk, fic gravity). Bhoek! 1. Sandstone (Pots- 20. Limestone, Tren- dam) (hard and average ton (black com- average white) 2:644 1:39 PBC) ieee cee senses! 2714 2. Do. do 6 2°72 2-9] UDO ECO: s.Avenssscce 2:26 [~~~ |/21. Do. (grey com- 2°715 0°32 4, Do. do, ...... 247 pact). 5. Do. (with Scoli- 22. Do. (crystalline).} 2:673 1:16 | BUS) stab ces des 2°636 6-94 23. Do. do.........+0.- 2:708 1:34 11-40 Bie di... 2641 | 7908-06 || 24. Do. do............. 2684 | 1:70] 7. Do. (with Lin- | 2°611 9°35 | guia). 25. Dolomite (Nia- | 2-679 27 eee ooo — gara). 8. Do. Sillery (green ———— —|——_—_—_ —|—_. argillaceous). ... “795 368 | 9-79 || 26. Do.(Calciferous)} 2°83, 2°15 WO ALO, ».ccenculy. 2-719 Deaf Wee. 1b, donnie 2-838 2°53 | 4. ak Sas ae 28 Mardin. sce 2892 | 661/48 10. Do. Medina (red DO DOK GO. hevececes 2832 7-22 argillacedus) ...| 2°767 8:37 } 9-21 pitas LED ONAOGshalevassser| 2000 4 OMG). a Do. (Guelph)... ——EE— — 2 DomdOses.cccaercss 12. Do. Devonian (fine ee BTOY) sssccesseeee 2646 =| 20:24 32. Do. (Onondaga) MSs WOnGO. cecccrss0s- 2645 =| 20°64 + 20°71 | _—_________——__ 14. Do. do. ......0000- 2649 | 21-27 33. Do. Chazy (ar- ——_—_—_——_ ——— gillaceous) ...... 15. Shale, Sillery (red) 2-784 3°96 Os DO sO. cssccev cess argillaceous). OD WO, WOivsscesss-cae = SG. DONAO.s. esceess: 16. Do. Hudson’s 2°747 0:30 ee River (black ar- 37. Caen limestone 2°637 29°49 gillaceous). SIO OOays suvcncssck 2-644 26°93 | 28°65 —— 30. D0. dO... .00.s0000- 2611 | 29:54 * Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, t Chemical and Geological Essays, by reprinted from the Report of the Geological Survey of ‘By an oversight in this Table the Caen limestone is described as Tertiary b : Hunt instead of Secondary. lcd 1869, part 1, p. 659 (Table). Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, p. 166 (1875). ‘ This is Canada for 1863-66, pp. 281-283. ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS, 61 Another subject of important applications in questions relating to under- ground temperature which has engaged the attention of the Committee, is the different degrees of facility with which some rocks conduct heat in different directions, recent researches by M. E. Jannettaz having shown that this property is possessed not only (as was long since shown by De Sénarmont) by certain crystals, but also by other mineral substances, and in a very high degree by rocks having schistose and laminated structures. To verify this important fact, specimens of Welsh slate were prepared by cutting plates from the same piece across and parallel to the plane of cleavage; and the rate of conduction of heat through the plates cut in the former manner was found to be nearly twice as rapid as that through plates cut parallel to the cleavage-plane. Thus the resistance of slate (shown in the Table) to transmission of heat along the cleavage-planes is only half as great as that offered to its passage across them. The example of this slate is not an exceptional one among laminated or schistose rocks; and the extreme ratios of the resistances in the parallel and transverse directions to the planes of cleavage or foliation, which have been studied and measured by M. Jan- nettaz * in a variety of cases, exhibit some much more remarkable pro- portions. Ratio of axes of the | Extreme ratio of the Description of rock. observed ellipses. conductivities. Paral. diam.: transv. do.| Parallel: transverse. 1. Steaschist, U. 8. A. (light green, in powder very unctuous to the touch). | 2:007 : 1 4-028 : 1 2. Phyllade (slate), Deville, Ardennes, France ...... Peet istectadcaesedccbecs sere) « 1988 : 1 3952: 1 3. Fine-grained mica-schist, Aurillac, Mantals Hrance < sce cesecssecccecseveosases Lice! 3312: 1 4, Talcose schist, French Guyana......... 178 :1 3168 : 1 5. Phyliade (slate), Angers, France ...... 16 1 2560: Sul 6. Gneiss, with fine crystals irregularly PUCOON Gs des saaag cds Seaseedaeeegecsnseteses I Zieh sls 144 :1 7. Gneiss, the crystals giving a veined appearance, Lyons, France ............ 1:00 :1 (circular). 1:00 : 1 8 Serpentine, with curved veins ......... 1:15 :1 (the longer 1323: 1 diameter always in the direction of the veins). The method of experiment adopted by M. Jannettaz is that originally employed by De Sénarmont, of coating thin sections of crystals with grease or wax, and observing the ratio of the diameters of the oval figures formed on their surfaces by the melted grease round a point which is heated at the centre of the plate. In a series of earlier experiments + on thin plates of erystals, M. Jannettaz had determined the ratios of the diameters for forty or fifty mineralogical species; and the values of these ratios are included t, * Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, tome ii. p. 264 (April-June 1874). + Annales de Chimie et de Physique, série 4, tome xxix. (1873). t The cases of ratios excepted from the above limitation are those of the following metals or mincrals having either two or three principal axes of conduction :—Quartz, 1:312:1; amphibole hornblende and tremolite, 1-42 and 1:67:1; selenite, 1:54:1; metallic antimony (rhombohedral), 1:59: 1; antimonite, 1836: 1-451: 1; mica, 2°5 or 24:24or2:3:1. The extreme ratio of good to bad conductivity in mica is 5°76 or 6:25 : 1; and, as in selenite and in some other crystals possessing very distinct cleavages, a direction of good conduction is along and that of bad conduction is across the cleavage- planes. 62 revort—1875. with only rare exceptions, between 1 and 1:3:1. The ratios of the con- ductivities in the directions of these diameters, being the squares of the ratios of the measured axes, range in value, for the majority of crystals, between 1 and 1:7: 1, and rarely approach the values above given for some of the talcose and schistose rocks. It is shown in his researches that the principal axes of conductivity in crystals are more closely related to the planes of cleavage than to either the optic or the crystallographic axes, and that in rocks of schistose structure it is to the internal texture arising from pressure in metamorphic actions rather than to crystalline admixtures, giving to some rocks a regularly streaked or veined appearance, that the principal develop- ment of the property of unequal thermal conductivity in different directions presented by this numerous class of rocks should be ascribed. These new considerations, and the further recognition of the important part which the saturation of certain rocks with water must exercise in determining the distribution of underground temperature in certain cases, together with the observation, recorded in the Table of this Report, of the extremely high con- ductivity of quartz forming compact masses in the neighbourhood of under- ground workings, in some situations of considerable extent, are points of special interest connected with the progress of this inquiry, the applications and extensions of which, should the Committee pursue this inquiry further, will form the chief object of their immediate investigations. Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Roscon, Batrour Srewart, and Tuoren, appointed for the purpose of ex- tending the observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids. Drawn up by 'T. EK, THorrr. WE are indebted to the experimental and critical labours of Hermann Kopp for the greater part of what we know concerning the relations between the specific gravities of liquids and their chemical composition. Kopp has pointed out that when the specific volumes of liquids are compared at temperatures at which their vapour-tensions are equal, as at their boiling-points, several remarkable relations manifest themselves. In the first place, it is found that the specific volume of a liquid formed by the union of two other liquids is equal to the sum of the specific yolumes of its components, Secondly, Kopp finds that isomeric liquids of the same chemical type have identical specific volumes. Thirdly, that in a series of homologues each increment of CH, is attended with a constant increment in specific volume. Hence Kopp was able to assign certain fundamental values to a number of elementary bodies, and thus to calculate with a considerable degree of accuracy the specific volume, and hence the specific gravity, of many liquid substances. It also appeared probable that members of the same family of elements have identi- cal specific volumes, or, to use Schréder’s expression, are “ isosterous.” Thus the analogously constituted terchlorides of arsenic and phosphorus appear to possess the same specific volume; whence it follows, since no change is ob- servable in the volume occupied by chlorine in different compounds, that the specific volumes of arsenic and phosphorus are equal. A similar conclusion was drawn with respect to tin and titaniym, members of the tetratomic group, from an examination of their tetrachlorides. ON THE SPECIFIC VOLUMES OF LIQUIDS. 63 It must be admitted, however, that certain of these deductions are drawn from experimental evidence, which, in the light of our present knowledge, can hardly be deemed sufficiently comprehensive to permit of such broad genera- lizations. For example, the examination of only four liquids can scarcely _ afford adequate proof of the universality of the statement that members of the same chemical family have identical specific volumes. The conclusion with regard to isomerides was necessarily based on limited proof, for the reason that the number of cases admitting of examination was limited. The number of isomerides has now increased a hundredfold, and we haye become more precise in defining their character. The validity of the law should be tested by an examination of well-chosen and typical isomerides, especially among the hydrocarbons. Such an examination would not only afford mate- rial for solving the primary question, but would incidentally serve to show whether the specific volumes of the component elements, carbon and hydrogen, are respectively invariable, as stated by Kopp, no matter how these elements may be arranged in a compound with respect to each other. It has been shown by Professor Roscoe that vanadium is a member of the phosphorus group of elements, and that the vanadium trichloride of Berzelius is in reality an oxychloride of the composition VOCI,, corresponding to the phosphoryl trichloride (POCI,). As both these analogously constituted liquids are readily obtained in a state of purity and boil at moderately high tempe- ratures, it seemed desirable to determine their specific volumes with a view of obtaining further evidence on the isosterism of members of the same che- mical family. As the result of a series of carefully conducted observations made on preparations of a high degree of purity, we find that the specific volumes of phosphoryl trichloride and vanadyl trichloride are distinctly different, the chloride with the higher molecular weight having the greater specific volume. We have thus been led to reopen the whole subject. Start- ing with the observations on the question of the specific volumes of members of the same chemical family, we find that the result foreshadowed in the case of phosphorus and vanadium is a general one, viz. that in a series of analo- gously constituted compounds belonging to the same chemical family, as, for example, the trichlorides of phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony, and the tetra- chloride of silicon, titanium, and tin, the specific volume increases with the molecular weight. We have completed the experimental work connected with the determina- tion of the rates of expansion, boiling-points, and specific gravities, which data (together with the molecular weights) are required to fix the specific volume, of the following liquids :— Br CCl, PCI, ICl CBrCl, PC1,C,H,O C,H, Br, PBr, C,H,ICl SiCl, POCI, C.H,Cl, TiCl, POBrCl, CH,CHCI, SnCl, PSCl, CH,Cl, “EAE voc! CH. Br, AsF CHCl, gpa \ C,H, AsCi, CHBr, Seed 6et SbCl The labour of reducing the observations, and more particularly of caleu- lating the empirical formule for so large a number of liquids, is necessarily somewhat heavy and tedious; its completion has been unayoidably delayed 64 REPORT—1875. by the pressure of other duties. The Committee, if reappointed, propose not only to complete the reduction of the present observations (which work is already in progress), but to extend the investigation so as to include a well- defined series of sulphur compounds (a number of which have been already prepared and some partially investigated), with the view of repeating the observations on the relation of the specific volume of sulphur to the manner in which it is held in union. These results will also afford material for discussing Buff’s hypothesis, that the specific volume of an element varies with its atom-fixing power. The only hydrocarbons we have hitherto in- vestigated are ethyl amyl and heptane, both C, H,,, concerning which there is proof that, contrary to Kopp’s law, their specific volumes are not iden- tical. Should this result be confirmed by the examination of similarly related hydrocarbons, the statement concerning the invariability of the specific volumes of carbon and hydrogen will need modification. Siath Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, drawn up by Dr. Brycz, F.G.S. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycr, F.R.S.E., Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S., J. Broven, G. Fores, .R.S.L., D. Minnn- Hore, F.R.S.#., and J. THomson. Dounrine the year that has elapsed since the last Meeting of the Association the Comrie district has been in a state of entire quiescence, and no earth- quake has been reported from any other part of Scotland. Your Committee has thus nothing of general interest to lay before the Meeting this year. The plea put forward at the last Meeting for an increase of the grant was founded on the necessity felt by the Committee of haying additional appa- ratus set up at Comrie. They desired to have a check of some kind on the indications of the seismometer belonging to the Association, which is placed in the tower of the parish church, as well as additional means of testing both the direction and intensity of the shocks. For this purpose it seemed neces- sary to have apparatus of a different kind, and to find a locality somewhat distant from the spot where the seismometer now stands. After experimental trial had been made of contrivances of various kinds, the method of upright cylinders (one of those recommended by Mr. Mallet in his paper in the ‘Admiralty Manual’) was adopted. The difficulty of finding a suitable site and a competent observer, to whom it should be a matter of perfect conyeni- ence to visit that site, next presented itself. No suitable apartment in which to set up the cylinders could be found in the village; and the Committee therefore resolved to erect a small building for the special purpose. Their wish being made known to Peter Drummond, Esq., who resides on his own property of Dunearn, about half a mile direct distance from the parish church, and nearer to the supposed earthquake-focus, he most kindly offered a site on the grounds surrounding his house. Here, accordingly, on a spot care- fully selected, the building has been erected. It is founded upon a rock, the same slate-rock of which the valley westwards to Loch Earn and the enclosing hills are composed, and in continuity with it; while it is completely sheltered from the agitating influences of all winds; so strongly built, indeed, is it, that, even if the situation were exposed, only a storm of extreme violence could produce any disturbing effect. No one can haye access to the building ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 65 but by Mr. Drummond’s permission ; and he has most kindly promised that the cylinders shall be his constant care. Your Committee is greatly indebted to Mr. Drummond, not only for this promise (which is all-important for their purpose) and for his so readily offering a site, but also for his liberality in making all the necessary preparations for erecting the building, so that the cost to the Committee has been considerably diminished. The building is of stone and lime, very substantial, about 10 feet square, and 11 feet high to the top of the roof, ceiled and floored. On the perfectly level floor two narrow smooth planks are placed, one directed N. & S. and the other E. & W. On each of these are placed six cylinders of boxwood, carefully turned on the lathe, at such distances apart on the planks that one cannot strike against another in falling. The floor is levelled up to the planks with dry fine sand, on which the cylinders must rest, without rolling, if they fall. ‘The cylinders are all of the same height, but of different dia~ meters, so that they are of very various degrees of stability. In this way the exact direction of a shock is indicated, and a rough scale of intensity is had. The narrowest cylinder is of so small diameter that it is hoped a very feeble shock will be marked by its fall. The perfect accessibility of the building for frequent and regular observa- tion, the certain and ready response of the cylinders to any movement of the ground, and the impossibility of the existence of any disturbing cause, will, itis the hope of the Committee, render the results highly satisfactory as regards the intensity and horizontal direction of any earthquake-shocks which may occur in future years. The comparison of these with the indications of the seismometer may lead to more important conclusions than have as yet been obtained from this inquiry. Seventh Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage, reappointed at Belfast, 1874, and consisting of Ricuarp B. Grantuam (Chairman), C.L., F.G.S., Professor A. W. Wiz- LiaMsoN, F.R.S., Dr. Giupert, F.R.S., Professor Corrietp, M.A., M.D., Witt1am Hors, V.C., F. J. Bramwett, C.H., F.R.S. Durixe the past year, from March 25th, 1874 to March 24th, 1875, the ob- servations at Breton’s Farm, near Romford, were carried on by the Com- mittee, though, owing partly to the want of funds at the beginning of the year, and partly to the fact that the notched board by means of which the flow of sewage was gauged had been removed from the trough by order of the Surveyor to the Local Board, the experiments could not be made as com- plete as they would otherwise have been. Instead of gauging the sewage applied to the land, as heretofore, by direct observations in the distributing-trough, the quantities used on the farm have been estimated solely by the method hitherto employed to verify the trough gaugings—i. ¢., the sewage entering the farm during the working hours of the engine is calculated by ordinary gaugings in the main sewer, and may be considered as the “day” sewage; the remainder, or the “ night” sewage, is ascertained by the different heights of liquid in the tanks at the time when the engine stops at night and starts next morning. The quantities thus cal- culated are given in Table I., from which we see that the amount of sewage 1875. P 66 REPORT—1875. received on the farm from the town during the year was 482,335 tons, a con- siderably larger amount than in previous years; this is partly owing to the fact that more houses have been connected with the sewers. The amount of effluent water added to the sewage and repumped on to the land was 27,295 tons, making 509,630 tons as the amount of diluted sewage received into the tanks; 491 tons of this were run into the river during ex~ cessive flows, &c., and thus the total amount applied to the land was 509,139 tons. Tables IV., V., VI. and VII. correspond with similar tables in previous Reports; but especial attention is directed to the note at the foot of Table VI., or a wrong idea may be given of the amount of crop produced per acre, espe- cially in the case of the Italian rye-grass. The total produce of the farm for the year was less (by about 200 tons) than that of the previous one, and less also than the average of the three preceding years, and this notwithstanding that the crops of Italian rye-grass were really better and those of Mangold much better than those of the pre- vious year: thus in 1873-74, 18-69 acres produced 1084-94 tons of Italian rye-grass, or 58 tons per acre; while in 1874-75, 18-95 acres produced 869 tons, or 62°83 tons per acre; while as to Mangold, the crops in 1873-74 were 18-3 tons per acre, while in 1874-75 they were no less than 42°8 tons per acre. The principal reasons for the decrease in the total weight of the crops are :— I. The increase in the acreage of the cereal crops. II. The large quantity of land allowed to lie fallow during the winter, and consequently the small quantity of winter greens grown as compared with previous years. III. The fact that five crops (four of Rape and one of Turnips) were not carried off the land but ploughed in, and that two others (of wheat) partially failed. From the autumn of 1874 to the end of the cropping year (March 1875), there were 38} acres of land entirely fallow. In addition, four crops (= 102 acres) of Rape and one crop (=63 acres) of Turnips were ploughed in, and the land, 174 acres in all, treated as fallow. Finally, 14 acres of grass were ploughed in during March and April, haying thus, so far as produce was concerned, been practically fallow land ; making a total of 70 acres, or nearly two thirds of the cultivated area of the farm, unproductive during the winter months. On reference to Table VI. it will be seen that the aggregate acreage of all the crops was 130-42 as against 170-66 of the previous year, which further illustrates the above statement; and this quantity is also less than that of the two other years recorded by the Committee. This is owing to the fact that the system of cropping has been changed, since the census of the town given in the Committee’s Report for 1872-73 (Fifth Report) showed that many of the houses in the town were not connected and many only partially connected with the town sewer, so that it became necessary to manure a much smaller area with the sewage. But an examination of the Tables given in the present and two previous - Reports, whilst establishing the above facts, also shows that the weight per acre of crops produced, and the amount of nitrogen estimated to be recovered in them, was more in the year under review than in either of the two pre- ceding years; and the improvement in these respects has been progressive during the three years, thus ;— ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 67 Total Ni : itrogen Year, Aggregate} Total | Produce | Nitrogen er ‘| area. | produce. | per acre. | estimated to | por acre be recovered. | ? ; acres. tons. tons. lbs lbs. 1872-73. | 156 | 1704 | 10-9 15,704 | 101 1873-74. | 171 | 2353 | 138 | 22,766 | 183 1874-75, | 180 | 2157 |. 165 | 20,166 | 153 This result is no doubt partly due to the concentration of the sewage on a smaller area, and partly to the increased richness of the soil, which was de- monstrated by the analytical results given in the Committee’s Fifth Report. It is necessary to state that the year 1871~—72 would, if added, show an apparent exception to this progress, inasmuch as the total amount of pro- duce that year was 2714 tons, an amount that has not been equalled since ; but this exception is only an apparent one, and is caused by the fact that there were then no cereals grown on the farm (whereas in the following years they have formed an important part of the produce), and that a much larger area was under cabbages. : And notwithstanding the large total weight of crops that year, the rate per acre of produce was less than in 1874-75; whilst the amount of nitrogen reckoned as recovered in the crops was less than in either 1873-74 or 1874-75, as appears from the figures :— Nitrogen estimated to Nitrogen Aggregate Total Produce be recovered recovered area. produce, peracre. in crops. per acre. res. tons. tons. Ibs. Ibs. ac 1871-72.... 168 2714 16:2 19,667 117 The areas given in each case are the total areas of all the crops, of course including sometimes the same land twice. The Committee were unable to have samples of sewage and effluent water analyzed regularly every month; but samples were taken three times a week (equal quantities in the case of the sewage, quantities in proportion to the flow in that of the effluent water) and mixed, and a sample of each mixture taken at the end of the month; thus twelve samples of sewage and twelve of effluent water were obtained. As the samples had been kept so long and had not (in the case of the sewage) been taken in proportion to the flow, it was thought sufficient to mix quantities of the samples of sewage proportionate to the monthly quantities of sewage pumped, and to have a sample of this mixture (for the whole period) analyzed: in the case of the effluent waters it was thought better to mix equal quantities (as the monthly total quantities could not be ascer- tained), so as to make four samples, one for each three months, and to have them analyzed. The results of these analyses are given in the following. Tables :— r2 68 REPORT—1875. Breton’s Farm. Srewacr.—From April 1874 to March 1875 (both inclusive). In 100,000 parts. PATEDACOUUAEY. /¢S0i 5 ahs. 's: 0! Sean I teed fees Se onde 3°32 Total Nitrogen (in solution and suspension) .. 5°56 SSLOTUNG: 25’: ain bn oeennee Memmi RveLteiole eet 13-00 Nitrogen as Nitrates........... Maisbstevare: Oe sie none. Errivrnt water.—In 100,000 parts, April, July, October, January, ay, August, November, February, June. September. December. March. AUNTS, 05 felis nig se site ae OG 0-112 0-004 0-004 Nitrogen as Nitrates .... 0°78 0-27 0:26 0-56 Nitrogen not as Nitrates .. 0:13 0°15 0:04 0:06 ROMLGTUDG store «felevs eye. vases oi! 10°35 11-45 11:00 9:80 - Total Nitrogen... «..). ++ 0-91 0:42 0:30 0°62 It is to be remarked, in the first place, that the result thus obtained for the total nitrogen of the sewage is very near to the average results already ob- tained ; thus in the year 1871-72 the average was 5:529, and in 1872-73 it was 5:151 per 100,000. And as regards the effluent waters, the total nitro- gen is below the average in all cases, and the purification, as shown by the smaller amount of nitrogen not as nitrates,is more perfect during the last two quarters; this may be due to the consolidation of the earth around the drain- age pipes; but the Committee would not now express a decided opinion on this point, as they intend to institute a series of experiments to investigate the changes which go on in sewage and effluent water when kept for some time. As 509,139 tons of sewage were utilized on the farm, the total amount of nitrogen supplied was (according to the analysis of the mixed sample) 28°38 tons. Last year, from the data obtained from the two previous years, the total amount was taken at 27 tons; but this year an increase was ex- pected from the fact that more houses have been connected with the sewers. The total amount of nitrogen recovered in the crops is estimated at 20,166 pounds, or 31°8 per cent. of the nitrogen supplied; in former years the per- centages estimated were as follows :— 1871-72 Ccereotiisned ans. 2L°70 per cent, 1872-73) wee cetera reerciehere 26:00 ,, 1873-74 ..... TE Dees 37°60 % The amount this year is exactly the mean of the amounts for the last two years. It should be understood that in these calculations no deduction is made for the amount of nitrogen that there would be in the normal unsewaged produce; in other words, the figures show the relation of the nitrogen in the total produce (not in the increase only) to that estimated to be supplied in the sewage. The Committee will be able to continue their investigations, owing to the generous liberality of a Member of the Association, and more complete observations are now going on again systematically at Breton’s Farm. Taste I.—Breton’s Sewage Farm. Statement of Weekly quantities of Sewage received on the Farm from the Town of Romford, from March 25, 1874, to March 24, 1875. Average : Average No. of Rainfall Sewage weekly Dates (inclusive). pe any during ausced sie ie return. ag Bas : week, on farm. | ther =e oF in. gallons. on 198. | 1874. March 25 to March 29...... 5 Gleam laies=cct 1,321,000 54 199. = SSO sy PEL, iercen 51 Osi 2,045,000 53 200. eee ADIL Wy oObsst o sy) b T2Ascnns eter 0°63 2,129,000 201. % Bie EXGae yy) Sei casces| ese. 7 O15 1,780,000 202. s PEON; en sO) secess |r cabreny) ||) eeeost 1,934,000 203. Pe seat 274 a E eOD000C Hmm GCOD o0'02 1,901,000 204. » May AG wee PE LOL sesiasth ers. 0°07 1,691,000 205. 3 hy MERU AR ey Shape er] | le osaee oz 1,927,000 206, 5 BAL WER Sy dvdona et. DACs esac 0°38 1,847,000 207. EP 7 25 3 oy ZI cvcces| sereee 9°09 1,799,c00 208. Het DUNO oT; ta chUNA gy. Zee, sales se 0°64. 1,986,000 209. ry + Sm Ns PETA Ree DRak ce Pl sacs 1,699,000 210. - +. EAU SR ee | eee 0°43 2,085,000 211, - on 8 BREE Lies och || ROCRORS 0°78 1,882,000 212, :, eZ Oss rel Uy eiieinte ney |Gnees. 0°07 1,794,000 213. » duly Soha. WANrCMED SSecealia this cas 1°84 2,130,000 214, 5 ore MS Repeat ecnencel | feccoeeim 4 le seceaee 2,066,000 215. SNIZORG) ga DOM. toes o18 2,437,000 216. “4 S27 eye AUG emen2ravenve eosese 0°42 2,148,000 217. ae AUB: BPs Mas Qesedes Sndbse 0°08 2,109,000 218, ‘5 PRMEATOvGsp tay) LADO) igeastl. were 0°67 2,094,000 219. 5 LIST? oyh syelek 23 cocatcc sods O’'or 1,992,000 220. as “ 245, cr BOlaanse eevcee O13 2,013,000 221. . eng E as Nepte dO veces: teens 0°37 2,066,000 222. SeRCD RA Fe as, 4 TS Sescmaat actos O31 2,088,000 223. ‘s aoed REVAL Mrot,.” | ZO leveavallaberssae ye (pop vests 2,063,000 224. a =, 21 y, 3 a7 ECCI eres 0°27 2,232,000 225. A See 2 Sere OCiame ns Auseccas tone 1°65 2,136,000 226. fo OS a OG capers seeees 0°61 1,977,000 227. 5 rises VLC Py teal ab SIRE aneas 1°06 2,034,000 228. - oe ORR Chie Sacbic o'04, 1,767,000 229. 9 re 20M Nove itr seneee 1'09 1,991,000 230. Me COVA 125.55 Sae=. aeasasiey ibn cteaee 1,740,000 231. P. 4 2) fetal he te 975 AiR ha serene | 0°16 1,860,000 232. ff ay 16 2 OF ra Se 2 eeeeee 0735 2,022,000 233- es ” 23 » + ZY vores eeseee | sence . 2,232,000 234. , a iC eg cole a ce Pe 1°48 | 2,466,000 235. » Dee. Tees) | FIQhevesnafs osaces 0°87 2,328,000 236, ” 99-14 gy 47 ZO cvceee| oe eeee o'lg 2,198,000 237- 73 PRE yokes. | 2i7iesarcel|) lence Sndos 1,826,000 238. ” » 28 ,, dan. 31875) coves 082 1,598,000 239. 1875. Jan. Brae BeOS anges waders 2,040,000 eae ” Fak, LR carne eer AceeRe stots 0°32 2,213,000 241. DAP tP ogg GMO voy "gph NDA ccres| cedens O75 2,522,000 242. . re Me. ED RUS Ocoee 0°96 2,752,000 243. » Feb. Biv MODs op sacee | ced ess or2 2,512,000 244. ” ” 8 ,, ” Th veeeee hie al 254.94,000 245. Pn 55 ni + CS Rr aeeeee o'21 2,255,000 246, 5 sid, | 22; 5, HURL A Oia evecee o'16 2,323,000 247. » March 1 ,, March 7...... Pea 0°38 2,243,000 248. 5. ts 8) yy:r sh gptee oTAte cote [Otle's se +e 0704. 2,153,c00 249- 2 BY LS. peu. gare ce fee eeeeee 0°09 2,132,000 250. 33 Fesd22) 5, sy ae oinwees Mesbiee Bente 971,000 19°79 Total ...|108,043,000 | Tons ... 482,335 70 REPORT—1875. Taste [Y.—Breton’s Statement showing Crops grown from No. of beds Date when sown or Plot. (inclusive). Acreage. Crop. planted. A 1 to 29 9°8 Ttalian rye-grass ........- JUNE 1873 0c: eseews tee B 1t06&g &10 3°85 CATTOIS:. \eck<-s2e00520 sadaees April 1874.0.00.0c0000e- Gy MRE” (Pen Hate ioe.) IR be teens IBLGCCOlL:Ka2. i Gasesscs dete July 1874 ....... Wivedeas FPN: idomar tates. TONNE Simagere Oabbage.sc..-.ce-esesecvds Fy, 53 tt sae ee eee Pee hl ecosstane Chen adces owe ARON SAD 25 Mase. dye tees 5 93° Wn ogtasseeN ete es i 7, 8 "95 Hardy green plants ,.....) April 1874............ ace 5 rr to 16 2°78 POAH . cs svddeasawecasedeusaiae March 1874 5..scse.c.0s oy 17 5, 26 4°54. Cabbage :.2%-.0a.--caceeues Oot. 187.3) c.caseneteeveven 4 7&8 & 11 to 16 3°73 Hardy greens ...... acaba Aug. and Sept. 1874... 17, 18 "93 Brussels sprouts ......... dtily ¥874.1..chs-ctbeveese af 19 to 26 3°61 Cabbage-plants ...........- July and Aug. 1874... + Be3,.420 12°12 Fallow. Total B eer oe M202, Mel eae cs cafes. soe are Gaees deaepe ee Cc All 1°97 Cabbage’ s.....0¢tsen+ceeesss OCb 1874) oeceerseg co aaee a ” 1°97 HPO Pateercerss Ieee ta ves Sept. 137 Atecsu ease eens es ” ” 1°97 Oats ate taectereeeee papeeteape March187/'5 Giccanesse! Total C ae 1'97 aehcteeonene vee mie ceieeics opens ~) D All. 6°93 MAR EON So scs. aecescesenes April 1374 9 -yeueess . 3 6°93 (Cabbage ts ce-seeetesncoesees Oct. and Nov. 1874 ... Totaly | a cestese 6°93 aeaepeos "asa ten ill cieeaccn aes Ae E 1 to 22 B76.) WHERE ress 66°61 Sept. to Dec. 1874... ae 21°5 Planted where the Carrots were scarce. 0°75 RUDE EG 7A vcccss-ccceresss 5°93 62 SPO TRA... vezencacones = 8°45 3°0 Straw 6°33 tons. Juneand July 1874 ...| 82°90 182 Dee. 1874. to Feb. 1875] 20°81 5°6 Noy. 1874 to Feb. 1875 5°10 5°5 Oct. and Nov. 1874...) 24°60 6°8 One fourth of crop ploughed in, aanNine'deang top 230°57 19'0 Plot fallow at end of year. Sown with Barley and Italian rye-grass, March 27, 1875. June to Aug. 1874 ...| 32°97 16°7 cosneepagococng Saeeee Senta The Rape-seed failed. Spot Oa 32°97 16°7 Plot in seed (Oats) at end of year. “his 2 lmeerereneeeeeertr 341°0 49°2 seveseceesepens | | seeee A Creere Crop remains March 25, 1875. Peaeehstecnoitsa a 341° ai 49°2 Plot under crop (Cabbage) at end of year. PALS LOA scvatuascscet.s 14°39 2°5 Including 8°53 tons straw. NG Wie. WOSER Ea one II*52 2°0 One cutting ; grass remains, ACeOEES aes 25°91 4°5 Plot under crop (Grass) at end of year. PATI. TS 74. ..ccnscavessess 6°59 22 Indi ng 4°34 tons straw. MTLY 5, wecveseesserees 2°42 57 WE ss bree «cence a= 3°03 72 Noy. and Dec. 1874... 5°46 13'0 Seaeises Pecenes MBecck esceee Crop remains. ravsevaesdaesas 17°50 4°6 Part of plot in crop at end of year (Cabbage). a ww No. of beds Plot. (inclusive). G 1to8&11to12 r 13 to 16 ” 9 “3 10 & 17 9 18 ,, 19 ” 21 4, 22 20 25 I to 22 Nota Cranllwe agence. ees H 3to 5 ” 8 ” 24 ” I ,, 24 Motaleest Ae tet I 1 to 16 = 17 & 18 a 1 to 18 ER OGAEL ec acaict vie K All. ” ” otal ied) coca sesivews L I ” 2, 3 os 4 to 20 i All Mota NW. vas.saes M All. Ay 1 to 12 ” 13 Total M N All. ee ee ee REPORT—1875. Tasre LY. Date when sown or planted. Cabbage.......c0...00+ wees] Nov. 1873 Carnotsasnc-vesectacareeces Savoy-plants ........s00000. Broccoli-plants ............ Cabbage-plants............ Brussels sprouts .......-.. Kohl rabi plants ..... ... Italian rye-grass ......++. WPINACM AR. ce-ec ep deb oeenes April’t874; Wicrcs.teenes Cabbage vo.sesasce-econete Oct. and Nov. 1873 ... Italian rye-grass ......... JUNO NS 7A eee eeeene eee NWWLiGaGimeccenesscostecrcerse Feb. 1874.5) pactendecaee TRDDASOM ws dvcccerseceee ras NOV.) 1874 )iccuncatenhiane PRUETT Hie sass sloniec nwa sehee Sept. 18°74)..s.ehessssanae Mangold .........ssseseeee April 1874. ...... veomite Spinachinnesssncccssasesteoe March 1875. Cabbage’ cass -sceuesenen- JUNC TS74. weavaemecnnn ess SAVOVS!sosersduasdcerscest ess 3)” ab ecledeeeceyes Cabbage ..dvcccnsnesdatees 3 3). veepeuteeteee eee IBEANS bresentnadeenavcteneree March 1875. Mangold cesvessceee-| April 1874 siseee Brees SEAS Meetecensecvacscwessevet March 1875 ...... Senees Fallow. Serene eeseneees fF = ee eeneeee Italian rye-grass eoseeeses| CULO LOTS cocsssseeeernes ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 73 (continued). Date when cut or gathered. June to Aug. i ae ee Aug.and Sept. ,, June 1874 May and June 1874... Sept. to Noy. Aug. 1874 June & July 1874 Apr. 1874 to Mar.1875 Produce. Remarks. Per acre. tons, Grass remains, Plot all in grass at end of year. One cutting; grass remains. Plot all in grass at end of year. a Straw 11°28 tons, This crop failed. Plot fallow at end of year. ee EE 36°3 Part of plot fallow at end of year, re- mainder sown with Spinach. Plot all sown with Beans at end of year. Crop remains. Part of plot sown with Peas at end 229°35 : Grass ploughed in at end of year. 74 REPORT—1875. -Tastn IV, No. of beds Plot. | (inclusive). fe) All. (Maye Oe ea epson P All. - ” Total P : Q All. Acreage. Crop. COO eee eee t eet ereeenes Wheat tts. cd o.sceretaccs se TREO neta devasseaestecads GUS cencas on dessscan ea eae ce Wheat © 5 cfivdstoctescseeeest Beans ov. iccdecscse wewseees eee e new eeeetee Beene enw eee ewenes See meee eee eeneseees COR tet ee eeeene CeCe eee eee err Date when sown or planted. June ,, eee ene cteweeee Heb: 1874 ceaccspectsecss March 1875. See eee e ee eenees Sept. 1874 — caspecsnesss encanta eeeeees March 0S7a\gecsseres core Rept srenpersarsn eee March 1875. Pee erent eseee ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 75 (continued). Date when cut or er Remarks. gathered. RMIT Oy ae Per acre. Aug. and Sept. 1874... ” ” ” Planted where Onions were scarce. Plot fallow at end of year. teweserseterses 3°47 tons straw. The Rape-seed. failed. Feet eeeeeeeetee Plot in seed at end of year. eee teeeeeeeeree 404 tons straw. Plot sown with Beans at end of year, Peewee ereeeae Straw 4°33 tons. Aug. 1874. ere...scc0r00 Dec. a One cutting; Oziers remain. 92 PAR e ee eee eeeee Plot nearly all sown with Beans at end of year. April 1874......... “ieee Rhubarb remains, 4°05 tons straw. INDIETISTA: secscesecses CC | The Rape-seed failed. Peet eeeeeterees Plot fallow till end of year, then sown with Oats. 1'15 ton straw. Only one acre of crop ripened. t Plot all sown with Beans at end of year. 4°33 tons straw. The Rape-seed failed. . b i=] aR - oo su > Plot fallow at end of year, then sown with Peas. 76 REPORT—1875. Taste LY. Date when sown or planted. No. of beds Plot. (inclusive). Acreage. Crop. —_— | x All. 3°36 Wheat. ccccssssovccscoersoes| March 18749 iscsessseths » FP 3°86 (BEATS. casas taasavaaseovans 990 ASISe Total X sivuesene 3°86 eeenarossseatine casenasveatae ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 77 (continued). Produce Date when cut or ft gathored. Remarks. Total. Per acre. tons. tons. MIGUPIS 7A, cin sycoccess sss 1°79 0°5 1'r5 ton straw. Only one acre of crop ripened, “Sucdaaooe Bee ‘ 1'79 o's Plot all sown with Beans at end of year. June 1874 ...... wewceetes - 17°00 3°0 One cutting. Plot used for grazing October and November. Quantity grazed computed. 78 Season 1874-75.—Summary of Cropping Return. REPORT—1875. Taste V.—Breton’s Sewage-Farm. Plot, | Acreage. A | x 980 B 12°12 Cc 197 D 6°93 E 5°76 F 3°82 G 5°17 El 6°40 E 6°67 K 4°44 L 2°87 M 3°17 N * 41S O 5°92 P 3°50 Q 2°34. R 2°52 8 0'22 U 2°53 W, 5°93 WSs 278 x 3°86 Y 5°60 10844 Produce. Crops. Total. Per acre. Tat tons tons. Italian rye-grass ........ssseeeee Peeervessear= 64.0°24. 65°3 Carrots, broccoli, cabbage, kohl rabi,| 230°57 I9'0 hardy greens, peas, and Brussels sprouts, Cabbage SAS SCBA To hoe CEOPE RE ER ETT CEEDE ES Pee 32°97 16°7 IMBMOOLC gras st; scueracsses ove Puccgens voce Geeen 34.1°00 49°2 Wheat and Italian rye-grass ......060..00+ 25°91 4°5 Wheat, hardy greens, and savyoys ...... Seats FL 7259 4°6 Cabbage, carrots, savoys, broccoli, Brus- 64°80 12'5 sels sprouts, and kohl rabi. Spinach, cabbage, and Italian rye-grass,..! 113°74 17°8 Wheat and cabbage ............sscccrceeseeees 29°68 4°5 Wan toldl Msssenecsesseees easesseor eeeyensr sesess| 1OL'GO 3673 Cabbage and savoya ......sssesseesecseesvesees 21°95 77 MDMA retarted scecdephsaccn terres ete 121'00 382 RtaigguEVE-OTARS 62°06 10°5 Wheat sracoacectrcisec bass cos covastorcatocsins 5°57 1'6 INN RAR” Secerron SS Sei0is, => WVAIEYR oescasesessccesncecccons o'12 Cabbage .........064 “ECO 21°46 Hardy greens......scsseerevves 5°10 BAVOYS,« sessscsess 0 ees ot 1°36 Brussels sprouts ........065 1°40 PEOIBOOLIG ocsctesssctesersvevves 2°00 Spinach ...2.....secsseccsesseee 0°66 HOGHISIADN recs ctevercteess eters 0°23 EERE ed cbyscacarscescevevecaset 2°78 DAPPER 5525.6. ..ce8secneeconses 4°79 EMO scccscosccccosscnsrenss 14°54 BPETOTIS Nececcccesssewase noneand 5°92 Wheat .......ccscscosesensseee 38°13 FAWORTD, ....0.0sso0cqcsacessnes o'22 130°42 Produce of each crop. Total Nitrogen estimated to be in crops. Total. Per acre. Per cent. Total. Pet acre. tons by Fe : lbs. Th: 916731 35°1 0°54. |11,084| 424 14°00 2°5 0°54. 169 30 | 17°00 30 2°00 761| 136 | or71 59 3011 14°0 0'25 | 1,686 78 29°16 5°8 O'25 163 32 14°42 10°6 0°25 81 60 8°40 60 0725 47| 34 13°69 68 0°25 77 38 I'50 2°2, O25 8 12 aos | 176 | 0375] 34] 148 eee 2°12 o°8 3°40 161 } 98 straw 6°33 23 0°80 113 76°57 16'0 0'20 343 72 623°00 42°8 0'25 | 3,489 240 55°63 | 94 | 022 | 274] 46 {Sew a6; | 12.|. ovop| 2675) 48 0°45 2'0 2157°13 16°5 vesee [20,166) 155 Ce * This acreage of Italian rye-grass includes not only the 13°95 acres of plots A and N (marked x in Table V.), on which the regular cro the 12°16 acres of plots E and H (see Table V.), practice for the following year's use, and from w ps for the year’s use were grown, but also which were sown according to the usual hich only a first light cutting was taken. 80 REPORT—1875. $ Taste VII.—Breton’s Sewage-Farm. Statement of Land in crop and Land lying fallow on March 24, 1875, Plot. | Acreage. ae Pathe Comparison. acres. A 9°80 9°80 B er) heli In crop. Fallow. Total. bi jc ; acres, acres. acres. re i arch 24,1872... 40°49 63°39 ©=103'88 97 1, » aa oan So 19°93 ro7'55 D 6° 6" ” 99 1074... O9'09X 19°35 T0044 5 “i » ~—99,—«1875 4. 79°40% 29°04 108°44 E 576) hen s76 F 3°82 | 3°39 G Oe ee , * As pointed out last year, the area de- 4 oe 3 scribed as “in crop” comprises most of the TI 667 | ee spring sowings, On March 24th, 1873, about 224 acres. K 4°44 82 ” ” ” 1 ” 38 ” L 2°87 5 87 ” ” ” 1675 ” 32 ” Moreover, on the last date there were M 3°17 2°89 14 acres of grass which was immediately after ploughed in. Practically, therefore, N 415 4°15 in considering the above comparison, 46 acres should be deducted from the area “in O ga aabee crop” March 24, 1875. P 350 | 3°59 Q 2°34 | 2°34. R 2°52 2°52 8 22 “22. U 2°53 | 2°53 x 593 | 5°93 WwW 2°75 | 2°75 x 3°86 3°86 Y 5°60 5°60 10844 | 79°40 | 29°04 ON PALESTINE EXPLORATIONS. 81 Fifth Note on the Dry Earth System. Dr. Gilbert has, in continuation of the series of results recorded in former Reports, furnished the Committee with the determination of the nitrogen (by the soda-lime process) in soil which has now passed through a Moule’s earth-closet six times. The results of the series are as follows :— After | After | After | After using | using | using | using three four five six times. | times. | times. | times. After | After using | using once, | twice. gen in soil dried 0-240} 0-383] 0-446} 0-540] 0°614| 0-716 Percentage of nitro- 0-073 at 100° C. The increase in the percentage of nitrogen (determinable by the soda-lime method) was therefore, by each use, as follows :— After | After | After | After using | using | using | using three four five six times. | times. | times. | times. After | After using | using once. | twice. ———$—$<$<$<$—$, Increase in the rs ae | of nitrogen in soil dried }| 0-167] 0-143} 0-063} 0-094} 0-074| 0-102 Sw al Oe The gain of nitrogen so indicated was therefore greater by the ixth than by any previous use of the soil since the first and second. The average gain was, however, only 0-11 per cent. by each use. As last year, so again this, Dr. Russell has determined the amount of nitrogen existing as nitrates in the soil. Last year, after the soil had been passed through the closet five times, the amount of nitrogen as nitrates was found to be 0-20 per cent. on the soil calculated as fully dried; and now, after passing through six times, it is found to be 0-254. The additional results now recorded do not in any way disturb the con- clusions previously arrived at by the Committee as to the value of the manure obtained from an earth-closet. For this, and for their opinion of the system in its other aspects, they would refer to their former Neports (IIL. pp. 187 & 188, LY. p. 143, V. pp. 413 & 439, VI. pp. 213 & 214). Report of the Committee, consisting of Major Witson, R.E., and Mr. RavensteIn, appointed for the purpose of furthering the Palestine Explorations. Tur sum of £100, granted at the last Meeting of the British Association for the purpose of furthering the Palestine Explorations, was paid over by Major Wilson to the Palestine Exploration Fund, with a request that the wishes of 1875. G 82 REPORT—1875. the General Committee of the Association, as expressed in their Resolution, might be carried out. No complete account of the work of the last twelye months has yet been received from Lieut. Conder, R.E., the officer in charge of the Survey; but from his monthly reports to the Committee of the Fund, it would appear that, since the grant of £100 was made, the triangulation of Palestine has been carried southwards as far as Beersheba, and that a large tract of interest- ing country, including the plain of Philistia and the southern slopes of the mountains of Judah, has been surveyed and plotted on a scale of one inch to a mile. : Amongst other results have been the recovery of several ancient sites, and the corrections of many errors in the topography of Southern Palestine. Lieuts. Conder and Kitchener, R.E., were recently engaged in running a line of levels from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Galilee; but this work was unfortunately stopped by the attack made upon Lieut. Conder and his party by the people of Safed. _ Lieut. Conder, who was badly wounded, has been unable to send a full report on the levelling; but in a letter written shortly before the affray he mentioned that more than ten miles, or about one third of the levelling, had been completed, and gave some details of the manner in which the work was being carried out. The line of levels was being run by two independent observers (non-commissioned officers from the Ordnance Survey); bench- marks were being cut at frequent intervals, and their position fixed by a line of traverse survey from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Galilee, which will be laid down on the one-inch survey. Lieut.-Gen. Sir Henry James, the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, was kind enough to lend instruments for the work, and he has taken much interest in its progress. In consequence of the attack on the Survey party and the spread of cholera, it has been decided to withdraw Lieut. Conder and his staff from Palestine for the present ; but as soon as the Survey is recommenced the levelling will be completed. Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harxnuss, Prof. Presrwicu, Prof. Hucuns, Rev. H. W. Crossxey, Prof. W. Boyp Dawkins, Messrs. C. J. Woopwarp, Grorcr Maw, L. C. Mutt, G. H. Morton,.and J. E. Lex, appointed for the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the more important of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation. Drawn up by the Rev. H. W. Crossxey, Secretary. ‘nn Committee have received many valuable contributions regarding the occurrence and distribution of Erratic Boulders. The inquiry is not yet sufficiently exhaustive in its details to permit of any generalization; and the Committee find it necessary to continue their record without attempting as yet = connect the facts they report with theories of the history of the glacial epoch. It will be observed, however, (1) that our knowledge of the extent of ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 83 country over which erratic blocks are distributed is considerably increased ; (2) that the erratic blocks are connected together more clearly in definite groups, distinctly pointing to special centres of distribution; (3) that the grouping and distribution of the blocks are throwing light upon the periods into which the glacial epoch must be divided. DrvonsHIRE. Mr. W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S., reports the following particulars regard- ing boulders and scratched stones in South Devonshire. 1. The New Red Sandstone boulders of Waddeton. These occur on the left bank of the river Dart, from 3 to 4 miles north of Dartmouth, on the estate of Mr. Studdy. Between the Dart and Wad- deton Court, and within sight of the latter, three subangular masses are imbedded in the soil. So far as it is visible, the largest measures 6 feet by 3 feet, and the others are not much smaller. They occupy the angular points of an isosceles triangle, of which the base, haying the direction N. 78° W. to 8S. 78° E. magnetic, is 30 paces long, whilst the sides are about 50 paces each. In an orchard are numerous pits whence boulders have been dug up from time to time, and one specimen in situ measures 3 feet long and 2 broad. In the front garden of a neighbour- ing farmhouse is an undisturbed boulder. That portion of it which is visible is considerably rounded, and measures 9 feet in mean diameter ; its base is also well rounded, and it lodges on undisturbed Devonian slate. This spe- cimen has the appearance of a transported block. Adjacent to the same farmhouse is the site of a boulder which has been broken up and removed by Mr. Studdy, and, from his description, must have been fully 10 feet in mean diameter. On the surface of a boulder projecting from the base of a hedge there are several parallel grooves, crossed by a second set also parallel to one another, This is the only fact suggestive of glacial scratches; but it is not sufficiently pronounced to justify the opinion that the lines were due to such an agency. These boulders consist of very hard, more or less micaceous red sandstone. All that have been found were imbedded in the soil, and, when dislodged, all that portion of their surfaces which had been protected from the air was yery soft and friable, but soon: hardened on exposure. So far as has been noted, they all occupy areas having a slate subsoil. Their heights aboye mean tide are estimated to be generally from about | 70 to nearly 200 feet; but a large specimen has been found not more than from 15 to 20 feet above low water, which appears undisturbed by man. The boulders being in much request by architects, on aecount of the hard- ness and durability of the stone, are sent off to Dartmouth and elsewhere throughout a considerable district. Besides the sandstone boulders there are two of dolomitized limestone: one of them, between the Dart and Waddeton Court, is rudely globular, and about 2°5 feet in mean diameter; the other is in a field adjacent to that in which there is an old well covered with a red sandstone boulder. The following questions present themselves respecting the red boulders just described :—Ist. Are they travelled masses? 2nd. If so, whence did they come? 38rd. When were they lodged where they now lie? 4th. What was the agent of transportation ? Ist. The New Red Sandstone system, as a continuous formation, reached @2 84 REPORT—1875. its southern termination in the fine cliff forming the northern boundary of Goodrington Sands, Torbay, about 2 miles in a straight line north-east from Waddeton; but several “ outliers” exist to the south and west of that point, and some of them far removed from it—namely, between Goodrington Sands and Saltern Cove, between Saltern Cove and Broad Sands, two very small masses near the top of the cliff between Berry Head and Mudstone Bay, at the village of Slapton on the shore of Start Bay, at Thurlestone in Bigbury Bay, and near Cawsand in Plymouth Sound. If these numerous outliers on all sides of Waddeton be taken as evidence of the denudation of a great volume of New Red rocks in the south and west of Devon (and on this there will probably be little hesitation), it is possible that the blocks under notice may be, not travelled masses, but remnants in situ of New Red beds which once covered the older formations now exclusively occupying the district. It is no doubt true that the form they now bear is not inconsistent with transportation ; and it is equally true that the waves, which possibly did the work of denudation, may have left them in situ and would have reduced them to the shape they now have. 2nd. Neither in the New Red Sandstone cliffs forming almost the entire coast of South-eastern Devon from Torbay to the confines of Dorsetshire, nor in any of the outliers already mentioned, with the exception of the two small masses near Berry Head, is there any sandstone having a hardness at all approaching that of the Waddeton boulders. The blocks, therefore, if they have travelled, and if their parent beds must be pointed out, certainly connect themselves with the Berry-Head outliers, upwards of 4 miles off as the crow flies, to the exclusion of all other sources, unless, indeed, they are fragments of certain well-known dykes to be briefly described immediately. Boulders similar to those at Waddeton are by no means rare on the Berry-Head plateau ; and a large subangular mass of the same material lies at the base of the raised beach between Berry Head and Berry-Head House. The Devonian Limestone, forming the southern shore of Torbay, is tra- versed by almost vertical dykes of New Red Sandstone, which form two systems, one having a direction which may be conveniently termed east and west, whilst the other runs from north to south. The east and west system is well exposed at intervals from Berry Head to the railway-cutting at the southern end of the viaduct crossing Broad Sands, about 1:5 mile east of Waddeton. This body of limestone extends to Waddeton, where it termi- nates. It is extensively quarried at Galmpton Creek, on the right bank of the Dart; but there are no traces there of such Red Sandstone dykes as have been already described. 3rd. The fact that the boulders at the Churston station, on the tableland known as Galmpton Common, were completely buried in the soil, may be taken as evidence that a considerable time has elapsed since they were lodged there; and this is borne out by the more or less corresponding condition of most of those at Waddeton. Nevertheless, if man has neither disturbed the specimen mentioned as occupying the very low position in the meadow nor those at higher levels, the general contour of the district can have undergone very little change since they were deposited where they now are, and the date of that event cannot be very remote geologically. 4th. Assuming the boulder formerly adjacent to the farmhouse, and broken up by Mr. Studdy, to have been 10 feet in mean diameter, that its form was spherical or nearly so, and that its specific gravity was 2-5, or not above that of common stone, it must have measured upwards of 500 cubic feet and weighed fully 36 tons, It is no doubt possible for such waves as ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 85 occasionally break on the British coast to move a mass having this volume and weight; but it may be safely concluded that they could never have transported it across a submarine valley having a depth at all approaching that of the valleys which now separate Waddeton from any area at present occupied by the New Red Sandstone formation. The very soft and friable character of their surfaces when first dug out of the soil renders it eminently improbable that if they had ever borne glacial scratches they could haye retained them, and forbids the attempt to come to any conclusions from the mere absence of such marks. _ The different levels at which they are found, the present configuration of the surface of the district, and the great weight of some of them, gives pro- bability to the opinion that the boulders have reached Waddeton from some part of the district lying between Berry Head and Galmpton Common, and that they were transported by ice, although no certain decision can as yet be reached. 2. The Scratched Stones of Englebourne. Mr. Pengelly reports that, under the guidance of Mr. Paige-Brown, he examined these scratched stones. The stones in situ were eight in number, all in that part of Mr. Paige- Brown’s property known as ‘“* Wise’s Englebourne.” ‘The first was in ‘The Meadow,” and all the others in a field called “Great Yackland.” They are all of fine-grained trap, of close texture, and extremely tough; one of them, which has been broken, displays a schistose fracture, and may be a trap ash. Their heights above mean tide do not differ very much, and are estimated at about 100 feet. The lowest specimen is about 6 feet above the bottom of the valley. No. 1, near the lower gateway of “The Meadow,” measures 2°5 feet in length, 1-5 in greatest breadth, and at least 1 foot in depth. No attempt was made to ascertain to what depth it penetrated the soil. It is angular, the upper surface smooth, with the edges and ridges rounded off, which is not the, case with the lateral faces. There are numerous grooves on it, quite distinct but not sharp; and whilst most of them are sensibly parallel, and have the direction 8. 40° E. and N. 40° W. magnetic, a few cross them in different directions. No. 2 (the first we inspected in “Great Yackland”) has had a portion broken off recently, but its further destruction was stayed by the proprietor. The remnant is larger than No. 1, and it is much more rounded than that mass. It has on it two sets of parallel grooves, one having the direction of E. 10° N. and W. 10° 8. magnetic, whilst those of the second or less nu- merous set cross them in the direction of the magnetic meridian. No. 3, not far from No. 2, is subangular, and has numerous grooves, all in the direction N. 20° W. to 8. 20° KE. magnetic. No. 4, a short distance from Nos. 2 and 3, has probably been disturbed by man. It has two systems of parallel grooves. _ No. 5, near No. 4, has also two systems of parallel grooves. No. 6, also near No. 4, does not appear to bear any grooves. No. 7 is some distance south of the group 4, 5, and 6. Its length and breadth are nearly equal; some of its edges are partially rounded, and it has two systems of parallel grooves. No. 8, near No. 7, has an almost square upper face, and does not appear to be scratched. Of all the specimens No. 2 is the largest and, undoubtedly, the most in- 86 REPORT—1875. teresting; and No.1 is probably the next in interest. They all rest on a slate subsoil, which crops up in certain places. That the stones have travelled some distance there cannot be a doubt; for whilst they are detached and trappean, they occupy an area having slate as its subsoil. That they have not travelled far is highly probable, from the fact that trap occurs in situ on almost every side of Englebourne, at distances varying from 3 miles to 2:2 miles, to say nothing of numerous remoter masses. Of those in the immediate neighbourhood, one of the largest, about 1°6 mile north, measures 1‘7 mile in length by 3 miles in greatest breadth, and is separated by the little river Harber from a much smaller mass on the west side of that stream. Their sizo is so inconsiderable as to leave no room for doubt as to their mobility under the action of waves or violent floods; but to this mode of transport there is the grave objection that, with the exception of No. 2, they are not sufficiently rounded, even though due allowance is made for their hard and tough character. It appears impossible to account for the grooves otherwise than by sup- posing them to have been produced by ice-transportation. That the famous granite boulder of Barnstaple Bay was ice-borne was shown in a previous Report. That Bovey Heathfield was, during a very recent geological period, cold enough to be the habitat of the arctic and alpine Betula nana is a well- established fact, and the thick accumulation known as the “‘ Head” on Bovey Heathfield is explicable on the glacial rather than on any other hypothesis; and were it not that glacial scratches have never been detected on the lofty tors of Dartmoor, where, if anywhere in Devonshire, they might have been expected, rather than on the low grounds about Englebourne, more certainty would attach to the opinion that these scratched stones are proofs of glacial conditions in South Devon, and that, as such, they contribute largely to the solution of the problem of the New Red Sandstone boulders of Waddeton, from 5 to 6 miles further east. HERTFORDSHIRE, Mr, R. P. Greg, F.G.8., reports a group of small boulders in the parish of Westmill, near Buntingford, in the N.E. of Hertfordshire, and 30 miles due north of Greenwich. About 1 foot and 23 feet. Several found in same field, some 50 yards or 8o apart. ‘ Much rounded to subangular, angular, and slightly oblong in general form. No groovings or striations visible. Nearest point certainly Derbyshire. 90 to 100 miles distant exactly N.E. The boulders are composed of ordinary Mountain-limestone, 320 feet above sea; about 70 feet above river Rib. No others have been noticed in Hertfordshire, except three or four in this one field, which lies ina slope, with east aspect, about 70 feet above the river Rib, which runs here to the south. Tke boulders in question were not exposed on the surface, but turned up in draining. Drains 3 feet deep. Soil a clayey loam overlying the chalk, which in these parts is more or less covered with clay and gravel to depths of 6 inches to 30 feet or more. ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, 87 NortrnGHAMSHIRE, The Committee has been favoured with the following report from the Rey. A. Irving, F.G.8., of the High School, Nottingham. ° 1. The boulder and clay deposits herein referred to are scattered over higher parts of the undulating country of the parishes of Plumtree, Stanton-on-the- Wolds, Kegworth, and Widmerpool, in South Notts. The new line of rail- way, along which they are exposed at present, may be traced on the map running to the west of Plumtree, then converging towards the turnpike-road from Plumtree to Over Broughton. The line runs for several miles near and almost parallel to this road. 2. The dimensions of the largest boulder measured are 4} x 2x1 feet. It is of Lias limestone, and near the surface of the ground at the top of the hill through which passes the cutting between Stanton and Plumtree. The smallest boulders are not bigger than a man’s fist. Quartzite pebbles of all sizes (as if from the Bunter) also abound in the boulder-deposits. 3. Those of the Lias limestone are generally angular or only slightly sub- angular. Those of Millstone-grit or Carboniferous limestone are generally rounded very much. 4, The direction of the longest axis of the largest boulder mentioned, and of several others observed in the same section, was very nearly due N. and §. 5. (a) The stris are numerous on certain boulders, but noé on any very great proportion of them. They are generally several inches in length, and seldom exceed a line in depth. (6) The strive are very variable with respect to the parts of the boulders striated. (c) The strise are generally in the direction of the longest axes. 6. (1) The boulders of Lias limestone, which greatly preponderate, are derived, in all probability, from the Liassic strata of the immediate neighbour- hood, upon which (as shown in the works of the tunnel at Stanton) the boulders partly lie. (2) The nearest Millstone-grit is found at Castle Don- nington and Stanton-by-Dale, in Derbyshire, on opposite sides of the Trent valley; the former place 12 miles south of west, the latter 12 miles north of west from the deposits in which they now occur. (3) The nearest Car- boniferous limestone which corresponds precisely with that of the boulders is at Ticknall, in Derbyshire, about 18 miles distant south of west. 8. The height of the group above the sea is about 200 feet. 9. The extent of boulder and clay deposits is at least several square miles, if we include the vast accumulation of drift which caps the tops of all the hills about the district, and is exposed in the road-cuttings as well as on the rail- way. In the cutting between Plumtree and Stanton the boulders are largest and most numerous, and are mingled with an immense number of quartzite pebbles, the whole being in some places so completely bound together as to be almost conglomeratic. In the tunnel (near Stanton) 70 feet of a true boulder-clay are passed through; but in this the large (Lias) boulders occur less frequently, and the pebbles are more thinly scattered. This tunnel penetrates the hill between Stanton and Bank House (Ord. map). The same kind of clay-deposit (or drift) is cut through by the cutting close to Rowhac Cover and by that near Widmerpool New Inn. This clay is extremely tenacious. 88 REPORT—1875. 10. Very few of the boulders are found at the surface. In that which is most characteristically a boulder-deposit (between Plum- tree and Stanton) the boulders are covered entirely by a later drift-deposit, composed mainly of red marl, as if from the Keuper, mingled with a smaller proportion of Lias clay, and containing a few specimens of rolled Gryphea. Here the boulder-deposit fills up a hollow in the Rheetic beds, the erosion of the strata having gone entirely through the Avicula-contorta beds into the blue-grey marls below. At the tunnel and further south the boulder-clay rests upon the Lias, LEICESTERSHIRE. Mr. J. Plant reports the following :— Block of porphyritic granite at Shakerstone, near Gopsall Park. 5x 4x14 feet. Height above the sea about 350 feet. No scratches or strie are at present visible, the block having been greatly worn by human agency. Identical in composition with the porphyritic greenstone of Whitwick, near Colville, at the N.E. end of Charnwood Forest, 7 miles from its present site. At the same village great numbers of blocks of all sizes (granite, syenite, greenstone, basalt) are to be found in the foundations of old houses, wells, and churches. Numerous Charnwood-Forest boulders, 7 miles due north of Mt. Sorrel, at Normanton, on spar. There is no doubt (as pointed out in a previous Report) that Charnwood Forest was a centre of distribution by ice of blocks of all sizes. Block of Millstone-grit at Hoby, near Melton, about 3x3 x3 feet. This grit is of peculiar composition, and full of large rounded pieces of quartz. It must have come from Durham and Northumberland. WORCESTERSHIRE. Bromsgrove district.—Ninety-three boulders have been examined in this district, many of them of considerable size. In addition to a few derived from local rocks, they appear to consist of three varieties of felspathic roek— (1) one variety compact, (2) one with small porphyritic crystals, and (3) one a decided ash. The colour of the rock is dark grey to light grey, some- times with a greenish tinge, but generally bluish. Evidences abound of a very great destruction of boulders in this district from time immemorial. Many have been buried to get them out of the way, and many broken up for building-purposes. It is impossible, therefore, to generalize upon their distribution ; but in the mean time it is very noticeable that no specimens of granite boulders haye yet been observed in the Bromsgrove district, although they occur so abundantly around Wolverhampton. The following is a list of the principal boulders in this locality. The Committee are under great obligations to Mr. G. Dipple, of Ford House, for his invaluable assistance. . Compact felstone (C. F. below), 2x 2x 3 ft., 275 feet above sea, corner of new road near station. Bee with quartz, 272 feet above sea, three fragments close to railway bridge. C. F., 2x2x2ft., 276 feet above sea, three boulders with fragments near Finstal House. Felspathic ash (F. A. below), 5x 32x 8 ft., 280 feet above sea. Another 100 yards up the E. road, 3x2 x 12 ft., with four smaller, FP, A., 83 x33 x 13 ft., Webb’s farm. ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 89 C. F. (almost hornstone), 2x13 x1 ft., near Stoke Elm and canal bridge ; another (felstone) near Meadow Farm. F. A. (greenish), 21” x 14" x 12", on road from Hanbury to Stoke, with two fragments of Wenlock limestone. F. A., 18” x15" 9", opposite Stoke church, with others smaller. F, A. (horny), 53’ x 4' x 2' 4", 273 feet above sea, at F ringe Green. Felstone (or ash?), six small, on new road to Bromsgrove, 270 feet above sea. Felstone (or ash ), five small, 292 feet above sea, near police station. Others similar at corner of Old Station Street, Hobbis’s Yard, Chapel Street, Mill Lane, Alcester Road, &c., at heights from 282 to 296 fect. Felspar porphyrite (F. P. below), 4’ 8” x 2' 6" x 1' 9", 410 feet above sea, Dog Lane, Catshill. F. A., 3'x2'x1' 8", 415 feet above sea, near Canister, with another almost as large. F. P., 6' 9” x 2' 9" x 1' 6", 585 feet above sea, near Woodrow, at corner of road to Lydgate Ash. F. P., 8’ 5" x4' x2’, angular, 700 feet above sea, near Whetty. Permian breccia, small boulders near Burcott. Felspathic ash, light grey, 3' x 2' x 13’, 380 feet above sea, at Burcott. Dolerite (? Rowley rag), 2’ x 1'6" x 1’, 280 feet above sea, corner of Perry Hall, opposite church, subangular; another, half a ton weight, reported as buried near. F. A., with quartz veins, subangular, 4’ x 2’ x1' 3” and 3’ x 1'3" x1’ 3”, with a large one, more than half buried, near Halfway House; 100 yards further, near gate, four others :—2' x1’ 6 x1’ 3", bluish ash, porphyritic ; 2' 6" x 1' 3" x 1’ 3", almost hornstone ; and two smaller F. A. F. A., a group of nine, near the cross roads, Woodcote Farm; largest 4' x 2' 4" x (boulder half buried), and 4’ x 3'6" x 1'10",subangular or angular. F. A. (subangular), 3’ 9" x 2’ 9" x 2! 6", road into Ran Dan Woods. Many others are found in walls, and some of great size are reported buried thoughout the district. Mr. C. J. Watson has pointed out a group of boulders between Northfield and King’s Norton. They occur in an excavation immediately above the letter d of Northfield on the Ordnance Map. Eleven large and some smaller are found within a radius of 20 yards; and many others are scattered through the fields immediately around and extending towards the railway. They are of felstone and felspathic ash. The specific gravity of one of them was 2°63, The following are the measurements of the largest of the group: —F., 6’ x 4’ x 3’; meee GG" 022) = FA Oe 1 6 VS BP. 3 4" x2! ey, 6! x 2" 6!" mabured); F.,5'x3'x 2'6"; F., 2°10" x2! 4" xP 11" 4 4x3! 6" Meacwpuried); 6 x3 x 2';-F.,2' 4° x 18" x I. Rev. J. M. L. Aston, Vicar of King’s Norton, reports a group of boulders of greenish felstone, some of which are worked into the masonry of the foundation of the church-tower and others imbedded in rubbish. They are subangular, and the exposed surfaces are often rounded. The largest is moe 6 x 1’ G6’. A boulder of compact felstone has been found in Cannon Hill Park, Bir- mingham, 6’ x 4’ 3” x 4’, rounded in parts and subangular, and to some extent smoothed and polished. It was dug out of valley-drift in making a lake. These Worcestershire felspathic boulders are probably from Wales. They are in positions which indicate that they have dropped from floating ice rather than been deposited by land-ice. Signs of land-ice in the Midlands must be looked for in boulder-clays at considerable depths beneath the general drift. 90 REPORT—1875. LANCASHIRE, Mr. Morton reports the following cases of isolated boulders :— 1. Hacking Hey, near Liverpool Exchange, parish of Liverpool. 4 ft. 6in. X3 ft. 3in. x 2 ft. Rounded or subangular. - It was found in an excayation in the boulder-clay, and has since been placed in front of the Museum, in William Brown Street, half a mile from its original position. Striated lengthways on one of longest sides. Strize on one side only. Striations parallel with the longer axis. Composed of felspathic breccia. Original position in the clay, 30 feet above the sea. Originally imbedded in the boulder-clay. 2. Kensington, near Liverpool (2 miles), parish of West Derby. Rounded boulder. 5 ft. 6 in. x 4 ft. x 2 ft. It was found in the boulder-clay close by, and placed close to the rock in its present position. Greenstone diorite in a decomposed state. About 200 feet above the sea. Originally imbedded in the boulder-clay. 3. Leasowe Castle, parish of Wallasey. A long rounded mass. 6 ft. 6 in. x 3 ft. x3 ft. It has been drawn up from the shore (which is boulder-clay), and de- posited, with two others, in the grounds in front of Leasowe Castle. Greenstone diorite, a rock of common occurrence in the boulder-clay around Liverpool. It has a strong tendency to exfoliate, and contains the mineral isorine. It was found several feet below high-water mark. It was probably imbedded in the poulder-clay, and exposed by aeetiedon 4. Leasowe Castle, parish of Wallasey. Rounded boulder. 7 ft. x 7 ft. x3 ft. It has been drawn up from the shore (which is boulder-clay), and depo- sited, with two others, in the grounds in front of Leasowe Castle. Striated on part of the longest sides. A striated surface, 3 ft. x 7 ft. x 7 ft. Grey syenite. It was found several feet below high-water mark. It was probably imbedded in the boulder-clay, and exposed by denudation. 5. Leasowe Castle, parish of Wallasey. A worn flat mass, subangular. 7 ft. x 7 ft. x 2 ft. 6 in. It has been drawn up from the shore (which is boulder-clay), and depo- sited, with two others, in the grounds in front of Leasowe Castle. A variety of felspathic ash, similar to the boulders which occur in the neighbourhood of Llangollen ; but it is a question if it comes from the same region, as they are supposed to have done. It was found several feet below high-water mark. It was probably imbedded in the poulder-clay, and exposed by denudation, ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 91 YORKSHIRE, Mr. Gibbins reports, at the N.W. of Bradford, a few whinstone boulders similar to the rocks at Scaw Fell, Cumberland, containing small garnets, To give completeness to their Report, the Committee propose to catalogue from time to time notices of remarkable erratic blocks which may appear. The following papers by Mr. D. Mackintosh, F.G.S., contain notices of the positions, dispersion, and derivation of many boulders in the North and West of England and in North Wales :—‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ for Nov. 1867, Terminal Curvature of Slaty Lamine in W. Somerset; for June 1869, Correlation of the Drifts of N.W. Lancashire &.; for Nov. 1872, Sea-coast Section of Boulder-clay in Cheshire; for Aug. 1873, The more remarkable Boulders of the N.W. of England &¢.; for Dec. 1874, Additional Remarks on Boulders, with a particular reference to those of North Wales. ‘ Geological Magazine’ for Sept. 1867, Railway Geology, from Exeter to Newton Bushell and Moretonhampstead ; for Aug. 1870, Dispersion of Shapfell Boulders; for Oct. 1870, Origin of the Drifts &c. of the Lake-district ; for Dec. 1870, Dis- persion of Criffell Granite &c. over the plain of Cumberland; for July 1871, Drifts of the W. and S. borders of the Lake-district, and the three Great Granitic Dispersions; for Jan. 1872, Age of Floating Ice in North Wales; for Sept. 1872, Glacial Drift of the Central Part of the Lake-district, up to 2800 feet above the sea; for Feb. 1874, Section of Preglacial White Clay and Sand near Mold. ‘Proc. of W. Riding Geol. Soc.’ for 1870, Drift-deposits of the West Riding of Yorkshire d&e. The perpetual destruction of erratic blocks going on throughout the country renders the Committee anxious to receive further reports. ‘The pro- blems to be solved are of large geological importance, and bear directly upon the extension of the ice-fields and the ocean currents, the elevation and sub- sidence of the land, and the divisions of the periods in the glacial epoch, Report of the Rainfall Committee for the year 1874-75. The Com- mittee consists of C. Brooxn, F.R.S., Chairman, J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., Rogurs Fiewp, C.H., J. Guatsuzr, F.R.S., T. Hawkstry, C.L., The Earl of Rossz, F.A.S., J. Smyrn, Jun., C.E., C. Tomunson, F.R.S8., G. J. Symons, Secretary. Your Committee have taken all the steps in their power to complete the reductional work already it hand, and have succeeded with two exceptions, each of which is only partial. The first, and one which is essential to the completeness of our work and invaluable to all future inquirers, is a list of all observations made in the British Isles from the earliest to the present time. The second is an abstract of about 800 position returns, which will indicate the value to be attached to the different current observations. Both of these works are in a very forward state. With a view to facilitate reference to our reports, and of placing before the Association an epitome of what we have done, our Secretary has em- bodied in this Report a précis of the rainfall work done by your Committee. 92 REPORT—1875. RAINFALL WoRK UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE Britisu Assocrarion. The first reference to the rainfall work which has now reached so full a development is a short note in the British Association Report, 1861, Sections, page 74, which is as follows :— “ On British Rainfall. By G. J. Symons. “The author directed attention to the very contrary statements current on the question—Is there any secular variation in the amount of British rain- fall? “ After quoting several of the most important opinions, he stated that, in the hope of finally settling the question, he had commenced collecting all known rain-registers, and had already tabulated [an aggregate of | more than 6000 years’ observations. “He proceeded to invite criticism on the mode of discussion which he in- tended to adopt, and also on a proposed method of delineation,—the rainfall in 1860, at 241 stations in Great Britain, being laid down on a large map as a specimen.” In 1862, Mr. Symons submitted a paper giving the monthly fall during 1860-61 at 453 stations, preceded by remarks that unless all gauges were accurate, well placed, and their heights above the ground and above sea- level known, their results were not comparable. This could only be thoroughly ensured by gauges being visited and tested im situ by some competent person. This paper also contained Tables comparing the mean rainfall of the two years 1860-61 with that of the ten years 1850-59, and a short one com- paring that of the above-mentioned ten years with several very long series of years. We reprint this short Table, as it remarkably supports the results subsequently obtained by entirely different methods, Difference between Mean Rainfall, as obtained from long series of years and from the ten years 1850-59. Period of Total Mean of | Mean of Differ- Division. | Name of Station. | observa- never the whole | ten years, ee tion. years. period. | 1850-59, ae in. in. II. Greenwich .........+.- 1815-61 47 25°42 23°16 -—9 vs St. Thomas, Exeter..| 1814-61 48 32°80 31:15 —5 VI. | Orleton, Worcester..| 1831-61 31 29°18 28°82 -1 VIII. Bolton-le-Moors ...| 1831-61 31 46°92 44:10 —6 IX. Halifax ...iccsecsescass 1829-61 33 32°38 30°71 —5 XY. Rothesay, Bute.,....) 1800-61 62 48°31 45-97 —5 This paper was printed tn evtenso among the Reports. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 93 In 1868 the only paper submitted was a short description of some ex- perimental gauges erected by Colonel Ward at Calne, Wilts; but Mr. Symons was requested to report upon the rainfall of the British Isles during the years 1862 and 1863, and the sum of £20 was placed at his disposal for the purpose of constructing and transmitting rain-gauges to districts where observations were not then made—the gauges to be sent within the British Isles, and the loan to be cancelled should the observations not be satisfactorily made. In 1864 the Report dealt with the steps taken to secure additional sta- tions, stated whither the gauges purchased out of the grant had been sent, reported the establishment, at the cost and under the personal care of Major Mathew, of an extensive series of stations in the Snowdonian district, as to the rainfall of which hardly any thing was known, and the testing in situ of a considerable number of rain-gauges. It concluded with the biannual series of tables of rainfall, viz. those for 1862 and 18638, and remarks thereupon. A grant of £30 for the same purposes as in the previous year Was passed. In 1865 an important Report was drawn up by Mr. Symons; it was divided into five principal sections: (1) what had been done prior to 1860 ; (2) what has been done since 1860; (3) what remains to be done; (4) a few particulars respecting the rainfall of the last fifty years and the fall in 1864; (5) a list of all stations in the British Isles at which rainfall obser- vations were known to have been made, with details respecting them. Sections (1) and (5) jointly give a nearly complete history of the rainfall observations made in this country from their commencement in 1677 to 1864, and notes of publications upon the subject. Section (2) explains the steps taken by Mr. Symons to collect and arrange these old observations, to pub- lish current ones, to examine rain-gauges ia situ and also, before despatch, to secure uniformity in records of rainy days (by the adoption of 0-01 in. of rain as the unit), and to secure tolerably equal geographical distribution for the stations. It also briefly notices the necessity for accurate determinations of the influence of elevation above the ground and of variations in the re- ceiving area, and states that experimental determination of these values was in progress. Also notifies the reestablishment of the mountain rain-gauges in the Western Lake-district and the new series in North Wales. Section (3) was devoted to what remains to be done, and need not be con- sidered at length. Much of what was then (1865) described as necessary has been accomplished, and will therefore be subsequently mentioned ; but quite as much remains to be done; e. g., the search for old records at the British Museum has been entirely stopped for several years, and the exami- nation of gauges zm situ has by no means reached its proper development. Section (4) gave « few particulars respecting the rainfall of the last fifty years and the full in 1864. This was the first approximation to the deter- mination of the fluctuation of the fall of rain over a large extent of country; _ but as it was followed by a far more elaborate and rather different investi- gation, its interest is merely historical and confirmatory. At this (the Birmingham) Meeting (in 1865) it was resolved that Mr. Symons should have the assistance and support of a Committee ; and the following were the members originally appointed :—J. Glaisher, F.R.S., Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S., Professor Phillips, F.R.S., Professor Tyndall, F.R.S., Dr. Lee, F.R.S., J. F. Bateman, F.R.S., R. W. Mylne, F.R.S., C. Brooke, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, Secretary. 94, REPORT—1875. In 1866 a very long Report was presented by your Committee; the prin- cipal subjects may be briefly mentioned. In November 1865 a circular letter was sent to the Editor of nearly every newspaper published in the British Isles, with a request for its insertion in the next issue; the letter gave a brief outline of the necessity for rainfall observations, and invited communications from any persons who possessed old records or were willing to become observers. About 1400 of these circulars were issued, many hundred newspapers reprinted them, so that upwards of a million copies must have been circulated. This produced an enormous influx of letters and material additions, both to the store of old observations and to the list of current observers. The Report contained full details of all the gauges ex- amined in situ up to that date, viz. 166; also short notices of a series of inclined and tipping-funnelled rain-gauges erected at Rotherham by Mr- Chrimes, and on river-mists in the Thames valley. But the special feature of the Report, and one which is at present unequalled in this or any other country, is the determination of the fluctuation of the rainfall of England during 140 consecutive years, viz. from 1726 to 1865. As all the original data are given in the Report, it is open to any one to verify the conclusions arrived at. Lastly, the Report contained the usual biannual tables of monthly rainfall, In the 1867 Report the principal fresh subjects are notes respecting the desirability of establishing fresh stations in the vicinity of the Peak of Derby- shire and in the Eastern Lake-district, of the percentage of annual rain which falls monthly in different localities, and on an extensive system for ap- proximately determining the height of rain-gauge stations above sea-level. The Report also contains details respecting the examination of 75 stations visited during the year. The 1868 Report deals briefly with the results obtained by the inclined experimental gauges at Rotherham, and shows the similarity of monthly curves representing—(1) ratio of rainfall at 25 fect to that at 1 foot; (2) velocity of wind; (3) mean angle from vertical of falling rain. It then notices the removal of the Calne experimental gauges to Strathfield Turgiss. The Report proceeds to embody the results of the discussion of about 40,000 monthly values in order to determine the laws which regulate the monthly percentage of annual rainfall in different districts, and gives tabular state- ments of the results, and factors for eliminating the disturbing element due to the fact that the influence of elevation above ground varies with the time of year. The usual biannual tables of monthly rainfall are given, also a Table comparing the fall 186Q—67 with the average for 1850-59, raised by 5 per cent. in accordance with the Table published in 1862. A valuable paper by Professor Phillips was printed as an Appendix, in which he dis- cussed the quantity of rain falling in the Lake-district. The 1869 Report contains—(1) a code of rules for observers; (2) a sketch and description of Mr. Symons’s first pattern of storm rain-gauge, adapted for the accurate measurement of heavy falls of rain of short dura- tion; (3) an abstract and discussion of the results of the gauges erected, first at Calne and then at Strathfield Turgiss, to determine the influence of size and shape upon the amount of rain indicated by rain-gauges: there were twelve gauges, of which the diameters ranged from 1 to 24 inches; and the final result was that, excluding the gauge 1 inch in diameter, which everywhere collects less pro rata than any other, the gauges while at Calne ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 95 only differed 5-8 per cent., the largest quantity being recorded by those gauges which were most easily managed, viz. those 5, 6, and 8 inches in diameter, and that at Strathfield Turgiss they agreed still more closely, all but the l-inch and 24-inch agreeing within 1:5 per cent.; (4) the Report also contains the results of the visitation of 54 rain-gauge stations. In the autumn of 1869 our Secretary visited and examined every rain- gauge station in Cornwall, and also those in the Scilly Isles, and thirty-two of the Devonshire stations, besides personally starting several new ones on Dartmoor. The 1870 Report deals first with the establishment of thirty new stations provided with instruments by this Association, then proceeds to notice the above-mentioned extensive examination tour, 97 stations being reported upon. This is followed by a brief history of experimental determinations of the de- erease of rainfall with height, and a detailed description and thorough ana- lysis of the monthly results obtained at Calne. The Report also contains the biannual tables for 1868-69. The 1871 Report calls prominent attention to the necessity which exists for systematic inspection of stations. It then gives a specimen of forms which were issued to all observers, requesting particulars of the position and surrounding objects of their gauges. After brief notes upon the establish- ment of some new stations in North Derbyshire, and upon the results of some experiments with “Isolated level”? or “pit” rain-gauges, the Report pro- ceeds to notice the results of the discussion of all British rainfall registers which were absolutely continuous from January Ist, 1860 to December 31st, 1869—(1) with reference to their bearing on the question of the existence or otherwise of secular variation of rainfall in the British Isles, and (2) as data indicative of the distribution of rain over the country. The 1872 Report explains the steps taken in consequence of the strong representations made to your Committee at Edinburgh respecting the neces- sity for additional stations in the Highlands, viz. the establishment of ten stations principally on the west coast, through the cooperation of the Secre- tary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, and of about thirty along the Highland and Dingwall and Skye railways, through the kindness of the Directors of those companies. It announces the presentation by this Committee to the Scottish Meteoro- logical Society of a set of standard measures for the complete verification of rain-gauges, together with the necessary note-books, the understanding being that the Secretary of that Society shall from time to time communicate to this Committee the results obtained by its employment. It concludes with a dis- cussion of the rainfall of the years 1870-71, and the usual biannual tables. The 1878 Report calls attention to the existence of many districts where additional stations are necessary, but suggests the postponement of any special effort towards their supply until the revised edition of the list of © stations published in the Report of this Association for 1865 is completed. The original list has, mainly in consequence of the development of the work under the auspices of the Committee, become obsolete, as it does not contain more than two thirds of the data now collected. The new list will contain notes of all records known at the date of publication, and will be extremely valuable to future inquirers. The Report proceeds to state the result of the issue of the Position Iiquiry forms mentioned in the 1871 Report, upwards 96 REPORT—1875., of 800 of which elaborate returns were received. Although these returns would never remove the necessity for personal inspection, which all expe- rience, both British and foreign, shows to be essential, yet they are ex- tremely valuable as showing the districts in which that inspection is most needed. The monthly percentage of total annual fall during the decade 1860-69, as based upon more than thirty-eight thousand monthly amounts, is then thoroughly discussed, and the inquiry is supplemented by an analysis of several long registers, viz. seventeen registers which indi- yidually extend over 40 years, four which extend over 50 years, and one which exceeds 60 years. Lastly the Report gives the details of the inspec- tion of 63 stations. The 1874 (and last) Report opens with some remarks upon the comple- tion of the abstracts of the position returns and the difficulty respecting their publication, which arises from their very voluminous nature ; it then proceeds to the subject of the examination of gauges in situ, and dwells with satisfac- tion on the number inspected. The progress of the list of stations, which has been upwards of five years in hand, is stated; reference is made to the paucity of stations in Ireland ; and then details are given of the inspection by our Secretary of the East-Cumberland mountain gauges, which were pre- sented to this Committee in 1869, and have since been kept in operation at their expense. After mentioning a few minor matters, the Report proceeds to discuss fully the exceptional rainfall of 1872 and its many unprecedented features. The usual biannual tables for 1872-73 are then given, and the Report ends with the results of the examination in situ of 77 gauges. The foregoing outline of the contents of our Reports will give an idea of the very important work which has been accomplished under the supervision of your Committee ; but no one could fully realize its amount without going carefully through the various branches of work and considering what each implies. We may be permitted to give one illustration. The last line of the above narrative states that “the Report ends with the results of the ex- amination in situ of 77 gauges.” Now these stations range from Cumber- land to Southampton, from Kent to Devon; they are scattered over thirteen counties ; they include such difficultly accessible places as Walshaw Dean, Halifax, Dartmoor Prison, and Mardale Green, Haweswater, and have in- volved at least 1500 miles of travel in order to inspect them. We proceed to report what occurred at Belfast in 1874 and the work resulting therefrom. With reference to the engineering paper on the drain- age of the Shannon &c., considerable attention was drawn to the small number of rain stations in Ireland, which deficiency we had mentioned in our Report. Eventually, on our reappointment at Belfast, we were instructed to obtain additional stations in Ireland, and a special grant was entrusted to _ us for the purpose. Without entering into details respecting the steps which we took to obtain additional stations, it will be sufficient to mention that they were so success- ful that we received 190 offers of assistance. The acceptance of all these offers would have involved an expenditure far beyond the funds at our dis- posal; and your Committee were therefore reluctantly compelled to make a careful selection, resulting, however, in the establishment of 66 stations, many of them in localities of extreme importance. . i j wT hb te ht ae Se *! ne aw 44 F ora) ge emanates minAa toys y oh fF . ‘ aa, ‘ ae xy juli: Vlate Hil G In explan out of our sr at the exper Eason of Du London to I to the destin for 100 copi purposes, an bo best appr vent any dex them to repc satisfactorily series of stat the organizat our offorts hi of the list of We hoped th every possibl the Associati minate with ation. Cons: had every en amined ; the fect form th counties. Tho Positic final abstract lection of the: J.P. Batema: Tespecting the their Secretar vented any st As, in the ; should be left reappointmen Th conclusi work accompl 241 to nearly in-gauges h above ground haye been asc mately doterm 250 stations h have been visi | We have ob; accessible plac moreland, Wi When the wor an index to al attached to thi Your Comn the system of able success, ti 1875. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 97 In explanation of the large number which we have been enabled to erect out of our small grant, we are bound to state that several have been erected at the expense of private individuals, that we are largely indebted to Mr. Eason of Dublin, who not only gratuitously transmitted all the gauges from London to Dublin, but also subsequently despatched them by various routes to the destinations directed by our Secretary. We are also indebted to him for 100 copies of a map of Ireland, which has been very useful for working purposes, and generally for much assistance. As to the localities, they will be best appreciated by reference to the map (Plate III.). In order to pre- yent any dereliction of duty on the part of the observers, we have instructed them to report monthly; and we are glad to say that they are working very satisfactorily. We need hardly state that the organization of this large series of stations involved considerable expense, and occupied much time, as the organization of each station involved several letters. Subsequently all our efforts have been concentrated on the compilation of the revised edition of the list of stations and observations to which we have so often referred. We hoped that it would be completed for the present meeting, and have used every possible exertion to secure that object, so that we might not only show the Association precisely what we haye done, but also, if they wish it, ter- minate with partial completeness our labours in connexion with the Associ- _ ation. Conscious that without accuracy scientific work is useless, we have had every entry extracted in duplicate and every difference rigorously ex- amined ; the result, however, is that we are only able to present in its per- fect form the list for the first six divisions, which include twenty-seven counties. The Position returns have all been carefully reduced and analyzed, but the final abstract of them for publication has not yet been prepared. The col- lection of these returns haying been suggested by their eminent member Mr. J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S., your Committee were desirous to consult him respecting the manuer in which they could best be utilized, and instructed their Secretary to do so. Unfortunately, however, his severe illness has pre- vented any steps being taken in the matter. As, in the opinion of your Committee, it is not desirable that these works should be left in their present incomplete state, they are obliged to ask for reappointment. In conclusion, looking back over the past fifteen years, we find among the work accomplished the following items :—the number of stations raised from 241 to nearly 2000; the influence of size and shape on the indications of rain-gauges has been experimentally examined, and also the effect of height above ground; the laws which regulate the seasonal distribution of rainfall have been ascertained; the secular variation of annual fall has been approxi- mately determined ; a code of rules has been drawn up for observers ; nearly 250 stations have been started at the cost of the Association, and 629 stations have been visited and the gauges examined by our Secretary. | We have obtained and supported observations on mountain-tops and other in- accessible places where no observations had been made, in Cumberland, West- moreland, Wales, and Scotland, and also an extensive series in Ireland. When the works actually in hand are completed, we shall also have furnished an index to all observations hitherto made, and a guide to the value to be attached to the returns from at least a thousand observers. Your Committee cannot conclude without expressing their hope that, as the system of rain-gauges in Ireland has been established with such remark- aaa the labours of the Committee may be continued. 5. bi 98 nErort—1875. EXAMINATION OF 558. 560. 561. 562. 563. 564. 565. 566. 567. | Aug. Date of examination. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. 25. Aug. 17. COUNTY. Station. OWNER. Observer. SOMERSET. Literary Institution, Bath. THE INSTITUTION. Mr, Russell. WILTSHIRE. Tytherton, Chippenham. MAJOR GRITTON. Major Gritton. WILTSHIRE. Sunnyside, Trowbridge. W.J. MANN, ESQ. W. J. Mann, Esq. WILTSHIRE. Alderbury, Salisbury. REV. R. S. HUTCHINGS. Rev. R. 8. Hutchings. WILTSHIRE. Lower Woodford, Salisbury. H. HINXMAN, ESQ. H, Hinuman, Esq. WILTSHIRE. West Dean, Salisbury. RLV. W. EYRE, Mr. J. Moodee. KENT. Eltham Green (Field), E. J. C. SMITH, ESQ. E. J. C. Smith, Esq. KENT. Dartford (The Downs). Rk, F. JARVIS, LSQ. R. F. Jarvis, Esq. CUMBERLAND. Scotby, Carlisle. A, SUTTON, ESQ. A, Sutton, Esq. CUMBERLAND. Cemetery, Carlisle. J. CARTMEL, ESQ. Mr. Beil. ANTRIM. Linen Hall, Belfast. Mr, Maitiand. Maker’s name. Construction of gauge VIII. | Anon.......... sbi KIL. | Casella sissies RIT. | Casella .......08... MAT; «Casella «ibeeaei22 AD. || Kantiphtiss:.. tees. eee XII. | Casella ...... naan EE, | (NepRetti. iteeneaee XAT, | Apps s....-shasstens VIII.| Marshall ......... X. | Negretti&Zambra}ga.m.]o 8 IT, | Anons....... sian etens gam. Height of “tb gauge. 28 z S | Above anes “| ground level. ft. in. | feet. ga.m.| 8 7 75 ga.m.| I oO 157 gam.|o 8] 263 150 ga.m.| I Oo 140 gam.| I 0 80 140 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 99 RAIN-GAUGES (continued from Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1874, p. 117). 2 - | Equivalents of ed 8 water. oS Su ae a meee Seale | Grains, i=] si point. in. in. 6:00 7 710 6°00 2 1420 6:00 ) 2100 6'00 “4 2780 M 6000} °5 3450 4°95 I 49° 5°00 <2, 970 4°98 53 1460 5°Cco “4 1960 M 4°983| °5 2460 497 | ‘I 490 5°00 32 97° moO | <3 1470 5700 4 1950 M 4°993| °5 24.50 4°96 | ‘x 470 498 | °2 970 4'96 +3 1460 5700 | “4 1970 M 4°975| °5 2476 498 or 500 4°95 2 TORO 498 | 3 1495 4°98 4 2000 M 4973] °5 2500 4°97 z 49° 5°02 2 970 499 | °3 1460 oo, | 4 1950 M 4995| °5 2460 498 ‘I 445 5704 | “2 950 495 3 1450 4°96 | 4 1950 M 4970} *5 | 2440 498 | 1 450 5°01 Z 1000 5°00 *g 1480 wo i 1970 M 4'998| °*5 2480 800 ‘I 1255 7°86 *I9g2| 2400 ; °25 3100 1280 1390 1260 2520 Error at seale-point specified in previous column. in, correct. + ‘oor +'006 +orr +017 correct. +1003 +'003 +°002 correct. + ‘oor - +004 +'003 +006 "004. "004, +'002 "002 —'‘ool —"004. —"002 —"004. —"005 —"'007 —'o1o —‘oor +004 +005 +.006 +003 +1009 +006 +004, +'002 +:coz +'009 —"002 +'oor +'002 correct, —'Oor —‘ool +'oor — ‘oor —— "OO % correct. correct. Azimuth and an- gular elevation of objects above mouth of rain- gauge. Remarks on position &e. detheriadaseateasrasecs On thermometer-stand in grounds of Irstitution; corrected glass has been supplied. N.E. Shrubs, 32°. N.W. Fir, 28°. . Apple, 44°. .&8.58. HE. Prees,32° N.N.W. House, 22° -N.E. Trees, 25°. S.E. 25°. On lawn; best position available. In strawberry-bed, good open po- aa sition. 'W.S.W.House,40° W. Tree, 30°. N.E. Trees, 30°. E. WiureOs: §.8.E. Trees, 38°. E.N.E. House, 20°, Hi. Tree, 18°. W.S.W. Tree, 30°. Surrounded by vegetables and not firmly fixed ; observer promised that this should be carefully done. eee eer ee CCPC Pe CC eee rere errr errr ere rere rer sy In a field, quite clear and open ... Pere rrr N.N.E. House, 25°.) Fixed on lawa, in the stump of a S.&8.8.E. Trees,34°] tree. S.W.&W.S.W. Tr.30° N.W. Trees, 25°. E. Low Trees, 20°.| In garden, quite clear except as noted, A piece of ground 9 ft. X18 ft. is surrounded by an iron railing 5 ft. high, within which are all the instruments. In garden in centre of Linen Hal Buildings ; quite clear. Reference number. 557: 558. 559: 560. 564. 566. 6 Reference number 568. 569. 570. 571. 572 573: 574- 575: 576. 577- 57k. 100 Date of examination, _ [) | + Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug, Aug. 28. 29. 29. 31. REPORT—1875, COUNTY. tation. OWNER. Observer. ANTRIM. The Manse, Antrim. REV. J. H. ORR. Rev. J. H. Orr. ANTRIM. Queens College, Belfast. THE COLLEGE. W. Taylor. ANTRIM. Antrim Road, Belfast. THE CORPORATION. W. J. Smith, Esq. ANTRIM. Old Park. W. GIRDW OOD, ESQ. Mr, Armstrong. DOWN. Milltown, Banbridge. J. SMYTH, JUN., ESQ., C.E. J. Sinyth, Jun., Esq., C.E. DOWN. Milltown, Banbridge. J. SMYTH, JUN., ESY., CE. J. Smyth, Jun., Esq., CLE. DOWN. Corbet Reservoir. BANN RES. COMPANY. W. Sprott. DOWN. Bann Reservoir. J. SMYTH, JUN., ESQ., C.E. Mr. J. Burn. + DOWN. Bann Reservoir. ANN RES. COMPANY. Mr. J. Burn. DOWN. Waringstown. MAJOR WARING. Major Waring. DOWN. Waringstown. MAJOR WARING. Major Waring. Construction of gauge IIl. IV. IV. XII. Vii. Ve 1a EXAMINATION OF S Maker’s name. 5 = ae Casella ..::..qsesdclonsesouss ANON %.030.+--a0200s| O\8-S ANON, .00....00-2+000| 9 2.1. Casella: ....soscgeess 10a.m. Negretti &Zambra) 9 a.m. ANON. 4is<05 05 cimeeie seceende ADO tress 2000 teen 9 a.m, ANON sesassngs scepens gam Ist. Casella ......sss00 9 a.m * This mark denotes that the gauge has a deep Snowdonian rim, Height of gauge. Above Above ground.| eve) ft. in.| feet. Too} 647 Z orl, .A7o I o| 799° 1 o| 806 © g]| 100 6 © 109 6 0 109 © 10] 380 © 10] 380 o 8 310 a ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, ' RAIN-GAUGES (continued). 107 COMPAR NUNES SHUEW DY HU Scale- point. water, Grains. in. correct. +'003 + ‘oor +'006 correct, +'006 +°003 +'003 +’o09 +'008 —‘oor —*o02 +002 +-oor correct, +"004. +003 correct. -++'008 +’oIo ee ee ween tee eee ee eeeleeeeeeeeneasees correct, correct. correct. correct. correct. + oor ¢ —"0o2, — ‘oor correct. +°003 + ‘002 +004 +'002 +002 +'002 —"‘ool —'002 —'003 —*003 +002 Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an- scale-point | gular elevation of specified in previous column. ss objects above mouth of rain- gauge. N. Vicarage, 31°. W. Trees, 24°, N. House, 51°. Pee ee rere reesreneeeseeees 8. House, 31°. Ww. Treo, 35°. W. Houses, 39°. E 28°. 43°. ” NE.. ,. AAO e eee seen eee eeeennas E. Tree, 19°. Remarks on position &e, Close to No, 600, Clear, except as noted. Too much sheltered by house, but no better position obtainable ; quite clear in other directions. Gauge tested, but station not visited, Good position ; the measuring- glass was very faulty, and a new correct one was supplied. Good position on lawn ; clear ex- cept as noted. Very confined garden in centre of town. Close to No. 607. Very open position on large lawn. Close to No. 609. Reference number, | 6o1. 602, 603. 604.. 605. 606, 607. 608. 610. Tn kitchen-garden ; good position. | 611. Reterence number. | 612. 614. 615. 616. 617. 618. 619. 620. 621. 622. 108 Date of examination. 1874. Dec. 17. | Dec. 17. Dec. 17. Dec. 19. Dee. 19. Dec. 21. Dec. 21. REPORT—1875. COUNTY. Station. OWNER. Observer, WILTSHIRE. Marlborough College. REV. T. A. PRESTON, fev. T. A. Preston. WILTSHIRE. Marlborough College. REV, T. A. PRESTON. Rev, T. A. Preston. WILTSHIRE. Marlborough College. REV. T. A. PRESTON. Rev. T. A. Preston. CARMARTHEN. Asylum, Carmarthen. G. J. HEARDER, ESQ., M.D. G. J. Hearder, Esq., M.D. CARMARTHEN. Goal, Carmarthen. MR. G. STEPHENS. Mr, G. Stephens. GLAMORGAN. Tynant, Radyr. F. G. EVANS, ESQ. F. G. Evans, Esq. GLAMORGAN, Crockherbtown, Cardiff, W. ADAMS, ESQ., C.E. W. Adams, Esq., C.E. HERTFORD. Tyler Street, Hitchin, W. LUCAS, ESQ, Mr, W. Anderson. BEDFORD. Oaklands, Aspley Guise. E. E, DYMOND, ESQ. E. E. Dymond, Esq. BEDFORD. Oaklands, Aspley Guise. E. E. DYMOND, ESQ. EE. E. Dymond, Esq. CARDIGAN. Gogerddan, Aberystwith. SIR PRYSE PRYSE, BART. Sir Pryse Pryse, Bart. n EXAMINATION OF 2. Height S & 6 bo | _ of gauge. = ’ Oey | ————————— £3 Maker’s name. Be lop Abort aS ae mais sea- oO Brom level. ft. in.| feet. X. | Negretti&Zambralg am.|o 8 | 456 XI. | Casella ../.ca eco gam.| 1 0} 456 TL | Ladd .cis.0.0sevee: gam.| 1 3 | 456 X. | Negretti& Zambra} 9a.m.| 0 6} 180 X. | Negretti& Zambra|9ga.m.| 0 6 92 XII. | Casella ............19 a.m.]| 1 © | 100 XII. | Casella ............)9 am.} 1 0 35 ME | Apps teste. -sreasecee gam.| 1 3] 238 XIT. | Casella. ...... *t 490 “ODER lta seth bons -sssconenss This gauge was not in use. I ad- | 625. 5°or 2 980 +*002 vised its erection in an adjacent Seay 63 “oath +004 field, rather higher than No. 5O1 * 1980 -+-+'oor 624. M 5:000 < en +:002 : 5:00 | "I 500 SSS MINT to iodainc tence Good position in private garden | 626. 5°00 2, a +002 of school, 5°00 “3 14.00 +'oor 4°99 4 1980 correct. M 4998] °5 2470 +001 5°00 or 510 =="GO2 5 |tvcredusencacasbavae sis In kitchen gardens, 8. of the town | 627. 5°03 2 1020 —"co5 and unsheltered. 501 3 1500 —‘ool 5:01 4 2010 ='003 M 5012} ‘5 2500 —"oo2 4°98 Mh 500 "COT faccascaces eeeeeneneeeees Gauge not in use, but site chosen, | 628. prom |. 2 999 correct. and itserection promised. Quite 5°00 *3 mee —‘ool clear. 5°00 4 1960 +'oo1 M s:000] °5 2480 correct. 5°04 I 530 Z="OOO> |ic52s SroseaQBvsesceeaee In gardens, rather too near green- | 629. 4°98 | ‘2 1030 —'006 house; recommended itsremoyal? 5 bi 3 1510 —'003 to an unsheltered site, 4°9 ‘4 2000 —*oo1 M 5015) ‘5 | 2530 | —‘oo7 112 REPORT—1875. Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. E. Armsrrone and Dr. T. E. Tuorre, appointed for the purpose of investigating Iso- meric Cresols and their Derivatives. Drawn up by Dr. Anmstrone. Srncz the last Meeting of the Association a number of derivatives of para- cresol have been examined, and some attention has been given to the isomeric cresols ; but the investigation has meanwhile assumed a much wider aspect than originally intended, having become a study of the “ law of substitution ” in the phenol series, for reasons which may be briefly stated as follows. The examination of the derivatives of phenol, C,H, OH, carried on during the past four years by various chemists, has shown conclusively that substi- tution takes place in that compound in a very definite and simple manner. Kekulé’s theory, it is well known, admits of the existence of three isomeric mono-derivatives of phenol; and it has been found that the action of all reagents which lead to the production of substitution derivatives always gives rise to the simultaneous production of two of the three, the so-called ortho- and para-derivative. The third isomeric (so-called meta-) mono-derivative is seldom formed in any quantity, if at all; thus there is no evidence to show that it is produced in the case of the action of nitric or sulphuric acid, and it is formed only in very small quantity by the action of chlorine and bromine ; the action of iodine, however, appears to give rise to asomewhat larger amount of the meta-derivative. The further action of reagents on the ortho- and para-mono-derivatives leads ultimately to the production of dri-derivatives, and under ordinary conditions there is no tendency to the formation of higher substituted derivatives. In all the di- and tri-derivatives thus directly formed from phenol, it is found that the ortho- and para-positions alone are occupied ; so that employing the usual hexagonal symbol to represent phenol, what, in the absence of a better expression, may be termed the direction in which substitution is effected in phenol may be graphically represented, somewhat in the manner suggested by Huebner, by lines drawn within the hexagon, thus :— OH oe ot - (Ortho-position) HC“ 9°” § “~~ CH (Ortho-position) | = “oe (Meta-position) HC. TEE (Para-position) CH (Meta-position) It is evidently a problem of considerable importance to determine whether this very simple “law of substitution” obtains in the case of the homologues of phenol; and our experiments have all been instituted in the hope of con- tributing to its speedy solution. The behaviour of paracresol and of thymol has, to a certain extent, already been studied, and experiments with the isomeric cresols, ethylphenol, xylenol, and carvacrol are in progress. Paracresol derivatives—Paracresol, C, H, (CH,)OH, being formed from phenol by the displacement of the atom of hydrogen in the para-position by methyl, it should yield di-derivatives only if the “law” above discussed is capable of application, and would accordingly be represented by the symbol :— ON ISOMERIC CRESOLS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 113 OH OH \. , a Y, H + H + H H [ie Pe hee HC i HC i CH x x dig aA a: f ZA H (CH(® Phenol. Paracresol. So far as the action of nitric acid is concerned, it may be said that such is really the case ; but the behaviour with bromine does not appear to be in har- mony with the “law.” Thus paracresol is readily converted into nitropara- cresol ; and this compound evidently has the nitro-group in the ortho-position, since it is identical with the orthonitroparacresol recently obtained by Wagner from orthonitroparatoluidin. By the further action of nitric acid, orthonitroparacresol is converted into a dinitroparacresol, which, there is eyery reason to believe, has both nitro-groups in the ortho-positions ; it is not possible, however, to introduce a greater number of nitro-groups into paracresol. Similarly, by the action of bromine and iodine on orthonitro- paracresol, monobromo- and moniodo-nitroparacresol only can be obtained. The behaviour of paracresol with bromine has not yet been examined; but the action of bromine on potassium paracresolorthosulphonate, C, H,(CH,) OH SO, K, has been studied. From this compound, in the first instance, the corresponding bromoparacresolorthosulphonate, C, H, Br (CH,) OH SO,K,is produced; but on further treatment with bromine this is converted into ¢rebromoparacresol, and hitherto no intermediate product has been detected. The tribromoparacresol thus formed has not yet been sufficiently examined to enable an opinion as to its nature to be pronounced; it is a remarkably unstable compound, being de- composed and deprived of a portion of its bromine by mere dissolution in alco- hol. This behaviour is certainly remarkable, and may serve on investigation to throw light on the formation of a tri-derivative from paracresol, which at present we are inclined to regard as abnormal. Potassium bromoparacresol- orthosulphonate is readily converted by the action of nitric acid into a bromo- nitrocresol identical with that obtained by treating orthonitroparacresol with bromine. Thymol derivatives—Thymol being formed from phenol by the displace- ment of an atom of hydrogen in the ortho-position by the group propyl, and a second atom in the meta-position by the group methyl, it should ‘“ theore- tically ” furnish only di-derivatives, thus :— 2) ss ie) H Cc C HC Aa mS cH uc as C (CsH) fet betes i i HC CH (cHs)C H CH Ne a is fA H iy henol. Thymol. 1875. I 114 REPORT—1875. The behaviour with bromine is in accordance with this view, inasmuch as we find that thymolparasulphonic acid (formed by treating thymol with SO,HC1) is converted by the action of bromine into bromothymolparasulphonic acid, which, on further treatment with bromine, is entirely transformed into dibromothymol. It must not be forgotten, however, that Lallemand has pre- pared such compounds as trichlorothymol and trinitrothymol; and these bodies certainly deserve reinyestigation. Since meta-derivatives are under certain circumstances produced directly from phenol, it is obvious that the “law” under discussion is not an absolute but merely an approximate expression of experimental observations, the ap- proximation to truth being, however, very close; and the results thus far obtained appear to indicate that in this sense the “ law ” is equally applicable to the homologues of phenol. ; First Report of the Committee for investigating the circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian Forma- tions of England, and the quantity and character of the water supplied to various towns and districts from these formations. The Committee consisting of Professor Hutu, Mr. B. W. Binney, Mr. F. J. Bramwe tt, Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Professor Green, Profes- sor Harkness, Mr. Hower, Mr. W. Motynevx, Mr. C. Moors, Mr. G. H. Morton, Mr. R. W. Myunz, Mr. Prencenty, Professor Prestwicnu, Mr. J. Puant, Mr. J. Metztarp Reapg, Rev. W. S. Symonps, Mr. Tytpun Wrieut, Mr. Wuitaxer, and Mr. C. E. DeRance (Reporter). \ Your Committee, endeavouring to carry out the investigation with which you have entrusted them, have specially directed their inquiries to obtain- ing information as to the thickness, character, sequence, and water- bearing properties of the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations, and to the nature and chemical composition of the waters derived from these rocks. As special knowledge and local influence are required in each particular area, your Reporter obtained the consent of the following mem- bers of your Committee to undertake the charge of districts :— In the north-west of England Prof. Harkness, F.R.S., Messrs. Binney, F.R.S., Morton, Mellard Reade, and your Reporter. In the north-east, Prof. Green and Messrs. Howell and Fox Strang- ways. In the Midland counties, Messrs. J. Plant, Molyneux, Tylden Wright, and the Rey. H. W. Crosskey. In the south-west of England, Messrs. Pengelly, F.R.S8., C. Moore, and the Rev. W. 5. Symonds. Through the courtesy of Professor Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., Director- General of the Geological Survey of the United K ingdom, and Mr. Bristow, F.R.S., the Director of the English branch, instructions have been given to the officers of the Survey to give your Committee any information or sections they may require. The sections thus obtained from Mr. Clifton Ward are incorporated in the present Report; a large number of others have been promised in the N.E, of England. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 115 The following circular form of inquiry was drawn up and approved by the whole of your Committee, and nearly a thousand copies have been distributed by them. But your Committee regret to report that, owing to the action of certain Corporations and Companies seeking additional Parliamentary powers, information has been withheld from the Committee, as well as by individuals and firms; but your Committee venture to hope that, in the event of their being reappointed, these difficulties may be overcome, and that much addi- tional promised information relating to areas at present reported on will be received. Name of Member of Committee asking for information Name of Individual or Company applied to 1. Position of well or wells with which you are acquainted. 2. Approximate height of the same above the mean sea-level. 3. Depth from surface to bottom of shaft of well, with diameter. Depth from surface to bottom of bore-hole, with diameter. 4. Height at which water stands before and after pumping. if Number of hours elapsing before ordinary level is restored after pumping. S. Quantity capable of being pumped in gallons per day. 6. Does the water-level vary at different seasons of the year? and how? Has it diminished during the last 10 years ? 7. Is the ordinary water-level ever affected by local rains? and if so, in how short a time? And how does it stand in regard to the level of the water in the neighbouring streams or sea? 8. Analysis of the water, if any. Does the water possess any marked peculiarity 2 9. Nature of the rock passed through, including cover of drift, with thicknesses. 10. Does the cover of drift over — rock contain surface-) springs ? 11. If so, are they entirely kept out of the well? 12. Are any large faults known to exist close to the well? 13. Were any salt springs or brine-wells passed through in making the well? 14. Are there any salt springs in the neighbourhood ? 15. Have any wells or borings been discontinued in your neighbourhood, in consequence of the water being more or less brackish? If so, if possible, please give section in reply to query No 9. r2 116 REPORT—187 5. The following form has been circulated amongst scientific and practical men, to obtain information as to the position of wells and borings. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. UNDERGROUND WATER COMMITTEE. “ Scientific Club, '7 Savile Row, London, W. nA ate 115) “ Dear Sir,—As it is of great importance to obtain, as far as possible, all the information in reference to wells, borings, and waterworks in, or obtaining their water supplies from, the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations of England, I write to ask you to kindly fill in this sheet with the names and addresses of Individuals, Firms, or Companies likely to afford information, mentioning, under the name, the well or waterworks with which they are connected, and return it to me. “ Should you have yourself sent the circular form of inquiry to any of the names in your list, please put ‘8S’ against them in the sent column, and ‘ R’ in the returned coiumn to those who have sent you back the form filled up. **T am, dear Sir, ‘Yours faithfully, “ Cuartes EK. De Rancz, F.G.S., Secretary of the Committee.” No. Name. Address. Sent. | Returned. Should the Committee be reappointed, it is proposed next year to report on the water-bearing properties of the New Red Sandstone and Permian of the whole of England. 2. The nature and chemical character of the water met with, including the results obtained by the analysis made for the River Pollution Commissioners not yet published. 3. The effect of these waters on the sanitary condition of the people using them. 4. The depth at which these waters occur in various districts where wells are now carried out, and the probable depth at which such waters will occur in districts not yet availing themselves of these waters for a supply. In the present preliminary Report information from Devonshire, Leices- tershire, Lancashire, and parts of other counties are described. DEVONSHIRE. Torquay.—Dr. Colt, of Maidencombe, describes a well at his house, 250 feet above the level of the sea, which yields a very constant and good supply of water from the Red Sandstone at a depth of 91 feet, the top water being on an average 13 feet 6 inches from the bottom, falling to 9 ft. 6 in. during the dry seasons of 1868, 1869, and 1870, after very severe pumping for the use of neighbours and their cattle. A fault occurs 300 yards, near which a shaft was sunk 130 feet deep to obtain water, without success. Teignmouth.—Dr. Lake, writing to Mr. Pengelly, states that a brook rising —— ee —™” ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 117 in the Greensand area of the Haldons, runs through the Combe valley above Teignmouth, a large part of the water being received in a small reservoir for the supply of that town; the remaining portion of the water left in the stream, after flowing down the natural channel, is conveyed in a culvert through the grounds of Myln Villa, after which it flows to the river Teign. During the severe drought of 1870 nearly the entire supply of this stream was taken by the reservoir, and only twenty gallons of water per minute entered the high end of the culvert at Myln Villa; but notwithstanding that, no less than fifty gallons per minute were discharged. Wells were sank to secure more of this excess supply, which was found. Tiverton.— At Tiverton Mr. H. 8. Gill informs Mr. Pengelly that the surface of the water in the wells at the Parish Church and of St. Peter Street is 10 feet below the level of the ground, while at the other end of the street, which is at a slightly lower level, the water has to be pumped up 35 to 40 feet, and of much harder quality than that derived from the shallow wells, which are, however, affected by heavy rains, during which the deeper well- water remains clear and sparkling, especially in a well near the Town Hall, about 270 feet above the sea. Dawlish.—Dr. Baker informs Mr. Pengelly that the springs are believed to trend with the valley N.N.W. and 8.8.E.; breaking at right angles to this line, the wells have to be sunk to a level a little below that of the sea. A well at Captain Lampen’s on the North Hill, 171 feet above the sea- level, was sunk 175 feet through sandstone, gravel, and sand rock, of which 100 feet had to be penetrated before water was found. In a well (Mr. Turner’s) 50 feet lower down the hill, 73 feet deep, the water suddenly disappeared in March 1875; but some water was reached on sinking an additional 5 feet. In Mr. Marshall’s well, recently sunk close to the edge of the cliff, on the opposite side of the valley, at a height of 70 feet above the sea-level, water was reached at 75 feet, beneath a hard pan of red sandstone; when pumped dry, five minutes’ rest yields sufficient for thirty minutes more pumping. At Oaklands, on the 8.W. hill, a well is now being sunk at an elevation of 200 feet; a surface-spring was met with at 42 feet, which has been cut off, and the well is now in hard conglomerate at 65 feet. Near the Station, Hatchers Hotel, and along the railway, an abundant supply of surface-water is found in the gravel at a depth or 14 feet, which supply appears to be pounded back by the sea; these surface-springs vary much in quantity, and are lowest in July. The wells are bricked, and 3 feet 9 inches diameter. Bramford Speke.—Mr. Gamlen, of Bramford Speke, near Exeter, informs _ Mr. Pengelly that there are 16 wells in that village, of which 14 are from 45 to 52 feet in depth ; the top water of one of these is maintained to a level only 14 feet below the surface of the ground, rising to within 6 feet in winter. The wells are in fine orange-coloured sandstone, overlaid by clean gravel ; the bottoms of the wells are below the level of the Exe, but the water is derived from the high ground to the west. SoMERSETSHIRE. At Taunton Mr. Moore reports the deeper wells 75 feet in depth, situated 100 feet above the sea; Dr. Alford states these are with difficulty pumped dry ; the water is derived from the New Red Sandstone, and contains 6 grains per gallon of sulphate and carbonate of lime. 118 REPORT—1875. Wells at Wellington and Somerton yield constant supplies of hard water, unaffected by local rain. At Wembdon, 60 feet above the sea, a well in the Red Sandstone, 30 feet deep, yields a plentiful supply of water, which is also the case at Wells, a well 33 feet deep, at a point 70 feet above the sea. LEICESTERSHIRE. The deep wells of Leicester reach a maximum depth of 90 feet, and derive their water-supply from the Upper Keuper Sandstone, which dips 8.E. at a low angle from the outcrop, or Davies Hill, towards the town and river, which Mr. Plant considers must drain off a large portion of the supply held by the sandstone, which consists of from 20 to 50 feet of sandstone, “‘separated by beds of stiff red clay varying in thickness from a few inches to six feet.” The water in these wells is free from organic impurity ; permanent water-level is about the mean height of the water in the river. These wells are tubbed or bricked to keep out surface-springs in the Drift ; and one is reported capable of yielding 250,000 to 300,000 gallons a day ; another, emptied in 10 hours, was restored to its normal level during the night. Mr. Plant reports that a number of shallow wells in the town are being gradually closed by the authorities, being under 30 feet in depth, and their supply derived from drift deposits more or less charged with organic im- purity. Mr. Plant states the supply from the New Red Sandstone to be very con- stant, though limited in quantity, from the smallness of the collecting-area at Dayies Hill. The present supply given to the town is from ‘streams flowing from the Hills of Charnwood Forest, stored in two large reservoirs at Thornton and Cropston.” Mr. Plant sums up the result obtained by him in Leicestershire by stating that the supply of water from the Upper Keuper Sandstone (nowhere more than 50 or 60 feet thick) is small but permanent. All the deep wells of the town of Leicester being supplied from this source, the water is pure but hard from sulphate and carbonate of lime. In both the eastern and western districts of the county the supply is from the Lower Keuper Sandstone, which is in some places probably 600 feet in thickness. The water is pure but not free from hardness, but the supply is abundant and permanent. Where the Bunter and Permian beds are penetrated, the supply of water appears to be enormous and entirely unaffected by dry seasons ; it is pure and perfectly soft. These results may be tabulated thus :— Formation. Supply. Hardness. 1. Upper Keuper Sandstone. Not abundant. Sulph. and carb. of lime. 2. Lower _,, i Abundant. Not so hard as 1. 3. Bunter beds. More abundant. Nearly soft. 4, Permian beds. Most abundant. Soft. The SrarrorpsHrreE returns not being complete, Mr. Molyneux defers sending them until next year; but as previous to this inquiry he had published much information regarding the water-supply of Burton-on-Jvent, your Reporter has thought it well to briefly allude to his results. The large number of journals of borings placed at Mr. Molyneux’s disposal by Messrs. Allsopp and Sons and Messrs. Salt and Co. have enabled him to ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 119 establish the following sequences of deposits in the valley of the Trent, near Burton, in descending order :— 1. Old alluvial deposits, | Re aie Sa } In the bottom of the valley. 3. Terrace-gravels. 4, Stratified sands, gravels, and } On the slope of the valley. peat of fluviatile origin. 5. Drift sands and gravel. . L 6. Boulder-clay. } On the top of the hills. 7. Rheetic beds. B ROUPer MOEIS) 65 ve esi ses. 1000 feet thick. 9. Keuper Sandstone ........ DPN tos 10. Bunter Conglomerate...... BOO ae. 11. Coal-measures, All the Burton wells previous to 1856 were sunk in the valley-gravels, and were not more than 20 feet deep ; in that year Messrs. Ind, Coope, and Co. sank a well 24 feet in depth in Station Street; and since then all the old brewery wells have been deepened, and are now carried down to the underlying Keuper beds. To obtain a supplementary supply to that afforded by the gravels and the top of the Keuper deposits, Messrs. Bass and Co. bored through 194 feet of gypsum marls with bands of hard sandstone; but it only produced one gallon of water per hour. In 1867-68 Messrs. Allsopp and Sons sank 28 feet through gravel and bored 102 feet, with a similar unsuccess. The various borings carried out by these firms and Messrs. Salt and Co. prove the existence of two faults in the very centre of the valley, bringing up the Keuper Sandstone, with a vertical downthrow towards the river of no less than 1100 feet, the whole of which enormous mass of strata has been denuded away. Mr. Molyneux gives the three following analyses—(1) of water from an arte- sian boring in Keuper marls 70 feet in depth, (2) of water from a well 30 feet deep in yalley-gravels, on the east side of High Street, in the time of the old breweries, and (3) of a well on the west side of that street. I ai i i i ee ee | No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Grains in an Grains per Grains per | imperial gallon. gallon. gallon. Sulphate of lime ............ 70-994 25-480 7-050 Carbonate of lime ......... 9-046 18-060 15°526 Carbonate of magnesia ... 5-880 9-100 2128 Sulphate of magnesia ...... 12-600 0-000 0-000 Sulphate of soda ............ 13-300 7-630 3689 Chloride of sodium ......... 9-173 10:010 6636 Chloride of potassium...... 966 2275 13-447 Chloride of magnesium ... “000 0-000 7350 Carbonate of magnesium... Protoxide of iron........:... 1-218 900 Trace Warbonate of manganese...) ° > te.t. ety) ole aed Trace Mine ecid (88 lime-salt)ic. yoy Tey lik ees Trace Aen ee cis vce accnsoe bce 1:120 840 1-904: Total solid residues ,.. 124-297 74-295 57-730 120 REPORT—1875. With the exception of the wells in the Keuper Marls at Hornington, all the borings prove these marls to be non-water bearing at Burton, the water found coming from the sands beneath them. Mr. Molyneux is therefore of opinion that the large amount of calcareous ingredients found in the artesian wells is derived from the vast area of Keuper Marls with gypseous aggrega- tions occurring in the old area of Needwood Forest, to the west of the valley, the gypsum-charged water flowing along lines of natural underground drainage in a north-easterly direction, until its progress is checked by the great north and south Trent-valley fault, and a portion of the water forced up into the overlying gravels, where it becomes mixed with the ordinary sur- face-water of the valley, which it charges with the calcareous elements which give it the materials necessary to the production of Burton beer. Mr. J. P. Griess, F.R.S., informs Mr. Molyneux that the gypsum derived from the water used in brewing 1000 barrels of ale would be 250 pounds; so that, assuming Burton produces annually 1,400,000 barrels of ale, no less than 350,000 pounds of this mineral will be drank with the beer in the various parts of the world. Of the water derived from the Burton valley-gravels, and used in various operations of brewing, probably not less than 1,050,000 pounds of gypsum will be disposed of, which Mr. Molyneux considers will not re- present one tenth of the actual amount of gypsum being annually carried to the sea. And it is believed that many local subsidences which have taken place in various parts of Needwood Forest are due to the fracture and sink- ing of gypsum-beds corroded by underground streams. The water recently obtained by several of the large brewing firms from the Keuper Sandstone and Bunter beds rose 23 feet above the level of the valley, proving the great height of the sources of supply. These waters were softer than those from the marls or from the valley-gravels, the proportion of sulphate of lime being much less. LANCASHIRE. At Manchester Mr. Binney has experienced great difficulty in obtaining returns ; in fact out of twenty sent out only three have been returned. In one of these a well and boring at Ayecroft, 433 feet in depth, is stated to produce about 180,000 to 200,000 gallons per day; but the well is only pumped for two or three weeks at a time, chiefly in dry weather. The well is 70 yards from the river Irwell; and when that river rises, the water in the well rises also. Prof. Hull states that in 1863 from 60 to 70 wells in the New Red and Lower Permian Sandstones of :Manchester and Salford yielded not less than six million gallons per day, used for factories, breweries, bleaching and dye works. As the collecting-area is only 7 square miles, covered with houses and paved streets, a large part of this supply must be derived from infiltration from the rivers Irk, Medlock, and Irwell. As the water thus derived is useful for commercial purposes, while that in the rivers is little better than sewage, the great natural filtering-properties of the New Red Sandstone are here remarkably shown. . Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., found the water from the deep wells of Manchester, in the Permian and Bunter Sandstone, to yield 8 grains of sulphate of lime, and six of carbonate. Well-water rom the south side of Manchester, analyzed by him in 1865, contained :— ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 121 grains. @hlorideoflsodimms 5./7. serds0 test os 4°83 Rulphate, Oi sda fissure wis alee alo ploeicis se 7:33 Carbonate ‘of:soda’ s/c es. bso eee es 7°35 ss Olplimen tse ee aes Sali, 3 SU EILAPMORIA 027 rata’ stetave, e's" +¢ 5:29 34:57 The following section of a well and boring at Seedly Print- Works, given by Messrs. Binney and Hull, is of value, as showing that while the Upper Permian series attain a thickness of 128 feet, the Lower Permian Sandstone is but 12 feet 6 inches, though at Collyhurst, 23 miles to the east, it has expanded to a thickness of 250 feet. feet mememt. §=Boulder-clay oo 2 ois i ee ee. TES 61 Peeltridsts Soft red sandstone OL Se he oe le ee ae 139 3. Upper Permian. Marls, sandstone, and beds of limestone.... 128 4. Lower Permian. White rock, red sandstone .............. 123 SEMMEMHISINIGASUTES 2.0 cic silos +s sve so 's.8 a s'acioe tin 86 0808 1s 0 SMe 30 3704 The whole of the Permian formation, as proved by various wells and borings, is subject to great variation of thickness, due probably to uncon- formability. In the borough of Salford Mr. Binney has recorded a large number of borings for water at the factories and printing works ; one of these, at Messrs. Dewhurst Dawson’s Croft, Greengate, gave :— feet 1. New Red Sandstone. Red and streaked sandstone...... 180 2. Upper Permian. Red marls, with 4 thin beds of lime- BlLone: and oneioh Orb irs. all siaascqeae he, j eas slels sith 210 3. Lower Permian. Soft bright red sandstone, bottom not reached. In a boring at the brewery near Albert Bridge, the following sequence occurred :— feet DV Antinee UNTAtONES Lele. OL. Bo el. oth ald 470 Upper Permian. Red marls with limestone ........ 120 Lower Permian. Red sandstone and clay .........- 10 These borings point to the Lower Permian Sandstone as the source of the water in the deep wells of the Salford district. At Ordsall a boring 460 feet in depth failed to reach the base of the New Red Sandstone, and the water at the bottom of the bore became so salt that the work was given up: this is probably the only instance of salt water being met with in the sandstones of the Trias, though it commonly occurs in the marls. East of the Manchester coal-field is a tract of New Red Sandstone, 2 miles in width, in which is situated the Gorton Waterworks, where a well 210 feet is capable of yielding 600 gallons per minute, notwithstanding the greater part of the drainage-area is covered with impermeable Boulder- clay. 122 REPORT—1875. The New Red Sandstone in the Liverpool and Preston district consists of the following subdivisions :— feet, }. Lower: Keuper Sandstone ...... /:4s0%_ apneleits 400 2. The Upper Mottled Sandstone ........,......... 600 Fp CDEP CGS on: o).0:0"'0; 9i9r'e a'0xm.s plaperebasareesteap hae aoeeaetele 800 4, Lower Mottled Sandstone.........0cccceecenees 100 Permian beds thin and unimportant. In a section first described by your Reporter in the railway-ecutting at Orrel, near Waterloo, the upper beds of the Keuper Sandstone consist of beds of fine-grained sandstone, separated by seams of grey marl, throwing out springs, maintaining the characteristic which gives to the Keuper Sand- stone in the Midland counties the name of “‘ waterstones ;’” between these water-bearing beds and a patch of overlying Keuper Marls let in by a fault a conglomerate bed occurs similar to that occurring at the base of the Keuper. A small well at a private house to the 8.W. yields a good supply of water from the water-bearing bed; but it is probable that a large well sank into these rocks would afford a valuable auxiliary supply for Waterloo and Seaforth. The Upper Mottled Sandstone consists of rather hard yellow sandstone, sometimes used for building, which yields a good supply of water in a well at Scarisbrick, of the Southport Waterworks, 70 feet above the sea-level. Nearer Ormskirk are two other shafts sank, by the direction of Mr. Hawksley, in the lower beds of the Upper Mottled Sandstone ; in one of these, the Pilot shaft, a good supply of water is obtained; but in the other, a few yards distant, no water was obtained, and the Company are now engaged in driving a heading in hopes of finding some. At Ormskirk Brewery a powerful spring, known as the “ Bath Spring,” supplies not only the brewery but the town itself. The top of the well is about 134 feet above the level of the sea, is 36 feet in depth, and yields 33 gallons per minute. The late Mr. Robert Stephenson, reporting on the supply of water to Liverpool in 1851, considered the New Red Sandstone of that district, which consists of hard Pebble-beds and Upper Mottled Sandstone, to be generally very pervious, deep wells drawing their supplies from distances of more than a mile; and he appears to have considered the whole mass as nearly equally permeable in every direction, except when fissures or faults filled with ar- gillaceous matter divide the field into water-tight compartments; and he showed that the yield of no well can be permanently increased by sinking, tunnelling, or boring, except so far as the contributing area is thereby enlarged. The mass of the Liverpool wells draw their supplies from the sandstone at a level between high- and low-water mark ; and when the uniform pressure of the column of fresh water, which prevents any ingress of the fluctuating tidal water, is interfered with by excessive pumping, the general top-water level is lowered, and Mr. Stephenson pointed out that a reverse action ensues and the brackish water obtains a slight advantage. As larger and larger quantities of water are pumped, ‘the current of brackish water gains in head; and it appears to be gradually reaching further and further inland; the wells at Bevington Bush, Soho Square, Hotham Street, and other places have had to be abandoned; but whether it will be able to penetrate the faults which divide the Liverpool area into a series of different water-bearing belts is exceedingly doubtful. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 123 The high permeability of the New Red Sandstone is remarkably shown in the Green-Lane well of the Liverpool Corporation waterworks, of which the details were furnished to Prof. Hull by Mr. Duncan, the resident engineer. The well was sunk in 1845-46, at a point 144 feet above the sea-level, to a depth of 185 feet, or 41 feet below the sea. The yield was then 1,500,000 gallons per day. A 6-inch bore, sunk 60 feet from the bottom of the well, increased the yield to 2,317,000 gallons. In June 1853, the supply having slightly fallen off, the bore-hole was deepened a further 384 feet, when the yield increased to 2,689,000 gallons. In June 1856 the bore-hole was widened, and carried a further 101 feet, when the supply rose to 3,321,000 gallons per day. In the first boring, as pointed out by Prof. Hull, the increase was at the rate of 17,783 gallons per foot, in the second it was only 9789 gallons per foot, and the third only yielded 6277 additional gallons per foot; so that increase of depth gives so rapidly a diminishing ratio of volume, that a zero- point would be soon attained. The large volume of water in this well is believed to be due to the existence of a large fault, which acts as a duct for the underground waters over a large area. The water from the Green-Lane well was analyzed in 1850 by Mr. Phillips, and one gallon contained :— grains. Carbonate of LIMe....05.. s «stat. BLIORIERS QE eel es 5°26 fihloridefof Sodimm. jersist. srcwiethia ls 2s ats te eie’el de srbcel 2°66 Balpnarenn sede elie Wiis oLlesaie ices cba. 2:23 STARE, yal SMS He ache ie ie eee eRe oe heii 0°64 MUPMBMIC TORGLOL, GCs. 10% reese aioe s om Uw ee aot 2°81 13-60 Mr. Isaac Roberts, who has given much attention to the wells of Liverpool, found by experiment that one square foot of compact sandstone 103 inches in thickness, of average coarseness, allowed the following quantities of water to pass through it per hour :— At a pressure of 10 Ibs. to the square inch 43 gallons, 2) ” 20 bE) 9 me 29 ” ”? 46 ”? ”? 19 9? the increase being nearly directly as the pressure. Mr. Roberts examined the Liverpool sandstone microscopically, and found it to consist of roughly rounded grains of quartz attached at the points of contact with a siliceous cement. When a block of this sandstone is immersed in water, the grains do not absorb but attract the water into the spaces between the grains by capillary attraction—sandstone of ordinary coarseness taking up no less than ;4, of its own weight of water, of which ;/; runs away by the influence of gravity, the remainder being held in the cavities of the stone by capillary attraction. Mr. Roberts describes seven wells which he has sunk or deepened at Liverpool, and gives information concerning them, which clearly proves the gradually lessening amount of rainfall which can make its way into the ground through the large extent of area in Liverpool covered with buildings 124 REPOoRT—1875. or streets, which has caused the underground water to no longer flow from the sandstone towards the sea, but to allow a current of tidal water to set in towards the land, which gradually increasing in volume, the water in these wells becomes vearly more and more charged with salts. A well at (1) Earl Street, 350 yards ‘from the Mersey, was perceptibly affected by the tide, the top water sinking to low-water level at low tide, the bottom of this well being 32 feet below high water. In a well at (2) Rainford Square, 500 yards from the river, the bottom of which is 76 feet below high-water mark, the supply is abundant; and Mr. E. Davis, F.C.8., found by analysis that it contained Mineral matter per gallon .................. 231-00 Organic matter eo REGR by Ete wakllte seaes B 1:75 232-75 The mineral matter consisting of :— Chloride of calcium. Sulphate of lime. Ps magnesium. 35 magnesium. Bs potassium. Carbonate of lime. 3 4 sodium. es magnesia. Oxide of iron. Nitrate of ammonia, trace. The large quantities of salts in this well render it unfit for generating steam, for which it was formerly used. In the water from a well (3) at Johnson Street, 850 yards from the Mersey, Mr. Phillips, of London, found the following salts per gallon :— DRIpiate Of NMG yo ote ne on rib wma ien Tees 8-80 GAIDODALCIOR ING *o.9 014) s.aio ¢ieucie.c 1d cicuntots Speen 24-33 Ohiloride OF MMs nas. oiShe ale tae kc Sesie schon 5:05 a TEP TLOSIALIN Senate) ote leeet aie tose mie nent 20-80 a SOU UIT 44 sees seers lash arte eae 55°79 114-77 The analysis was made in 1850, up to which time the water was suitable for brewing, but afterwards became so brackish that its use had to be discontinued. A well in (4) Wellington Street, about 1200 yards from the river, was sunk in the Keuper Sandstone to a depth of 71 feet below high water. An analysis of the water from a neighbouring well, made in 1865, gave 117-70 grains of solid matter per gallon, consisting of :— grains. Pope aE MIPAIG Ne care es heey eo cc sans a ois 29°50 Chilonidekoi inte eerie cr. ey aete Seis cece he ree 4-00 5 TRACTAOSTUT EY stares wes oie aed ys Soe pe ete 33°60 - LIL) ihe aed alee ne EES 47-60 CarbOnaip i Memmi e's .\. ss ss 5's «sa om ene 2-00 ronsalarnidatacueeee: cot cs... oes Sen ee 1:00 117-70 (Analysis made by Messrs. Huson and Audle for Mr. Westworth.) An analysis of the Corporation well at Bootle, about 1800 yards from the river, made in 1850 by Mr. Phillips, gave 24 grains of solid matter per ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 125 gallon, consisting of :— g rains. Palpbate of lime ws dade doe lapis sixes). cia’ 3°31 Carbonate: of limGiceesfst oaedern ey. She avs seeedld Sate. 7:10 PAE: 7, casas ath LOR 5 btw Be gid wie 6°93 Phibride Ofasmditinths 350.43 5h eee Ve. BET. oo de ss 3°37 REIT Cebi., caso SRE evel e @ av0-'e 5's 8 aeRO AA hed: ¢ 0-48 WRreanic MaLtens setae. Lidia. South See. Bs seta 2°81 24-00 Mr. Roberts gives the two following analyses, as showing the source of the increasing salinity of the Liverpool wells to be due to the percolation of the river and not to any natural hardness. Analysis A was made in 1850 by Mr. Phillips, of well-water in Great Howard Street, Liverpool, 200 yards from the docks. Analysis B was made in 1869 by Mr. A Norman Tate, F.C.S., of halftide-water, procured from the Mersey by Mr. Roberts, at the South Landing-Stage. A. Be grains. grains. Ganbonate of lime’. s2.5. 26.55.36 wes 28-70 0-64 OP MGONORIA 5 os Sales dd ss 0:00 0:80 Sulphate BMLneey OMA. Phe Atel. 144-00 56°44 a Ofmasmesia . kk eee es 0-00 113-14 Chloride of magnesiom hfaee Salat 209-00 85:60 ae OU MOMEBNOIN + 2 6x66 ob a F as. 3 0:00 5°32 5 ORO CMMI es eho ccc eh neers 531-00 1295-50 Le ae eee ene 0-32 0-64 ‘Alkaline nitrates) 3202 0000 ve ob. : sf trace Iodides and bromides .............. oe trace DIMPOMIG SRULLOE oy. ho sc ees alge es 1:30 not det. 914-32 1558-08 In South Lancashire Mr. Mellard Reade has collected valuable information, and reports a well at Cronton near Prescot, yielding 800,000 gallons a day, 407 feet in depth; a well at the Iron Works, Garston, yielding 240,000 gal- lons per day, 351 feet in depth; a well of the Widness Local Board, with bore-hole 300 feet in depth, yielding 63 million gallons per week of 7 days. In Cuxsurre no returns have as yet been received by Mr. Morton, and he therefore defers reporting on the Wirral wells until next year. For compa- rison with other districts, it may be well to reproduce the following details. In sinking the well at Flaybrick Hill in Cheshire, 3400 yards from the Mersey, water began to weep into the well through cavities in the sandstone at 10 feet above high-water mark ; above that level Mr. Roberts, who sank the well, states the Keuper Sandstone was free from water; as the depth increased the yield of water became greater, until at 55 feet below high- water mark 350,000 gallons were supplied in 24 hours, which quantity, by a subsequent bore-hole and adit driven to cut a fault by the direction of Mr. Bateman, C.E., was increased to 1,600,000 gallons in the same time. Professor Hull states that this and the other wells belonging to the Tranmere Local Board, the Birkenhead Commissioners, and the Wirral Water Co., yield together not less than four million gallons. 126 REPORT—1875. Norru-zast or EneLann. Yorxsutre.—Prof. Green and Mr. Fox Strangways defer sending the Yorkshire returns, as they are as yet very incomplete. The following sections of wells in the New Red Sandstone of Yorkshire were collected by Mr. Clifton Ward, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey, and forwarded by him to Mr. Whitaker. Probable thickness of New Red and Permian in the Leeds and York district :— feet Tri Keuper (red and blue binds with stone and beds of ein labast ; 400 1300 feet. alabaster)ie ke oc. eS oe Oeics eae ee 3 Dinter (Heil Sandstone) 22.04. YP. Ae 900 rape Se aii Wpperienrares:,. OPC Te. ae thickness unknown A aa wk} Upper weempaudiie (8) 22S Ao NAR ee about 40 300 feet Maddie arise’, 67, 2A. bv, Sete 0 to 30 REM. | Hower, Dimestdtie 2)! 6.22201, Saw oes 200 Ascertained thicknesses from rocks, borings, &c., but not all representing total thicknesses :— é feet. Trias { Kieuper:'.. i rsce gees cds beet ONIN ve oe 285 —> © | Bonter Sandstone: sss os ¢2 0s 5505 004 ke eee 700 Upper Maris «<3 aie eens Fee thickness unknown Pome { Upper Tiimestone........0 2:5. . Peele de Ah ye about 30 teh LGB) © Fl | Se ee: oe ora hore. 1 aie 0 to 30 \ Lower RaMestone 5 .5>5%%5> Pere ees one 170 A boring through Magnesian Limestone (Lower) at Tadcaster, 170 feet of Lower Limestone was pierced to the underlying Millstone-grit (rough rock). Wells and Borings in the New Red and Permian of Yorkshire. Well at Selby :— feet. in Warp atid Gays silnss sjosea tye sams aes) 50 10° 0 Rimone Clay shuns) sated siswid- gid & bb 10 6 Seats atid Slaves wie bx shee ois a wpe. g 14 8 Strong clay .......... ej Weak, exatalelonsys os 7 10 ON EE IR 1 eR lg A ARE cee aie foul! Grey sand or loose water-sand ........ 7 9 Med eam fois Otic: eines sls We ieblae v 6 6 dadarated phd: swe, n)- Lewes wih sien, Ji 136 Rad Sandstone nwsis it ais Waal. daisies i -s 54 6 Red clay and Fuller’s earth with pipe-clay 5 0 } 262 ft. 6in. red: Samson cyst fasia ieee 5 owe ce a oie 203 0 : 330°0 (Particulars from Mr. Wainright, Holgate Lane.) The water is hard (as if from Magnesian Limestone) ; 243,000 gallons are pumped up every 24 hours, and the supply is constant. The water stands highest at 12 at noon and 12 at night, only varying about 2 inches at these hours, but 8 or 9 inches between these hours. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. UDF At the other end of the town (from the Selby Waterworks) there is another well 380 feet deep, still in Red Sandstone ; the water stands very near the top. Another well at Cawood is about 300 feet deep; some years after its sinking, at 11 in the morning of a certain day, the water fell considerably, while at the same hour the Selby well gave an overwhelming supply. Well sunk by Mr. Swale at Walmgate Bar, York :— feet. in. DPR PARG SOOT chaise. ooo 5,0 oles 4 oss ences nee 24 0 MOCK Said eerie ar pee 2 33 DBM Rebalbans lhe Few vt Years afar Om crerecerer stares 9 Peeweied) tied Sandstone 2.0... . ccc eee eee nes 6 feet. Gsunk) Sand... <.n2: ote. ae Po, 15 (Bored) Blue stone with a layer of “ Plaster” at BARDON Gs G * la wyatt wnonaie WR Sed 60 Blue and brown stone .............-5. 225 300 (Am not sure about these measures.—J. C. W.) Sinking and boring at Saltmarsh, 1834:— Swed feet. Harthy 137 See. ere ie hae alison lk Se 36 Qaickvehd= Pape VEAL NGS Pes pe eS Ca 18 White and blue plaster and red marl ............ 126 TUCO MAE |. Seo Roe ae ete sat. «ss Se eee 33 } 201 MEEALIOATL . t« dnl daw aac i « oa Ka a ke Bae Bs 42 Piatt Wad SARASLONG! Mey f Me brahsrn deci hay SAM os ee. 60 128 REPORT—1875. Boring at Reedness, upon the estate of Mr. John Egremont. Superin tended by Mr. John Walker, C.E. (commenced Oct. 7, 1835) :— feet. in. ENG OS ih is 2S re, ome creates 69 6 BAT ya S555 0 2 nto po lA AE aah Me 272 2 PAUINUEEY ons safes is ‘argh a8 heime/le lv ocd ye 687 2 1028 10 (N.B.—I have all the details of this boring.—J. C. W.) Mipptesporover, Boleckhow and Vaughan, 1861, sunk and communicated by Messrs. T. Docwra and Son. Shaft 178 feet, the rest bored :— feet. IMG ADIEPOMEN 5% '.0). 50s 0s 5 o's a's os OR 1 PAA URES ois ore. 5 2 v0 os Cine wale ate Ae 8 Rand dalat waters vcs. clemiae abynele dass - Bebe 10 RUST VART RA TOLER CE Mind inci ci signs, win < 0/0. 0% Sp » ae Re 10 Sand ayith water! ins 0 -'« sis elste's Gate oe 11 Clay wath ‘gy psuni, TY .\.)0i5..'s «ss ease coe a Gy PRU WALES. <<. Heer s ois snot mte terme 2 Red sandstone with gypsum................ 50 AG PPLE SUEY FAS ie = PO oc o's 1's tare eapecev soe 6 Sweied: Red gointiston, a. ttle py paar)... NS. eee 5 REN SPOS IU Sct sas, o- ¥cine) sree) bras SoRUOMERORNS 1 ede TVA ones Ges ite Sos pings cys ee eee 4 5 WM SypSUlly. : sa ee. ee 10 Blue and white stone \..... .. .sf5).' eae 24 | Red sandstone, no gypsum ..... .......... 720 SourH-west or ENGLAND. Name of Member of Committee asking for information, W. Pengelly, La- morna, Torquay. Name of Individual or Company applied to :— Mr. Shepherd and Sons, Exeter. 1. Bridge Mills, Silverton, near Exeter. 3. 20 ft., diameter 5ft., total depth 237 ft.; bore-hole 6in. diameter. 4. 214 ft. 5. 100 gallons per minute. 9, Sand 94 ft. 8in.; rock 26 ft. 11 in.; marl 29 ft. 4 in.; clay and greensand 30 ft.; gravel 4 ft. 9in., water; hard clay 16 ft.; rock 15 ft. 10in. Mr. W. S. 8. Gamlen, Bramford Speke. 1. In the village of Bramford Speke, Exeter, on a slight eminence at the foot of a long slope of gently rising ground. 2. 140 feet. 3. 52 feet; diameter 4 ft. Gin. 4. 4 to 5 feet generally ; the water returns to this level in about 5 hours. 5. Can- not say. 6. About 1 ft. 6in., higher in winter: I do not think it has varied in quan- tity. 7. Only gradually by autumnal rains. The surface of the water is about 2ft. above the level of the river Exe. 8, None. Very good drinking-water, slightly hard and containing carbonic acid gas. 9. Drift of sandy loam 3 to 9 ft., of water- worn gravel 3 to 7 ft. ; total cover of drift about 13 ft., then New Red Sandstone to bottom of well, in beds of about 10 ft. of loose sand, 2 of coarser ditto, and 27 of pretty solid sandstone, but not firm enough for building-stone. 10. About 15 feet below surface of the drift-soil springs occur. 11. No: they are slight in summer. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 129 Mr. George Pycroft, Kenton, Exeter. 1, Well situated in my house, on a hill-side one mile from tidal river Exe. 2. 80 ft. 3. 70 ft., diameter 4 ft. 4. 13 ft.; do not know, but by two days’ pumping I once reduced the level to 3 feet, and it then rapidly refilled. 5. Not known: well never exhausted. 6. Yes; it varies from 6 ft. in excessively dry seasons to 13 ft. 7. Yes. Icannotsay, but certainly in6 hours. The bottom of well'about 10 ft. above mean sea-level. 8. Not known, but not hard; excellent for washing and drinking; well filled to a few feet of the top with carbonic acid; water frequently contains well-shrimps. 9. New red conglomerate; no cover of gravel or drift. 10. No cover of drift. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. Mr. George Pycroft, Kenton, Exeter. 1. Powderham Castle, right bank of Exe. 2. 30ft. 3. 50 ft., diameter 3 ft. 4. Not known; never exhausted. 5. Not known. 6. Not known. 7. Is affected by local rains, but how rapidly or to what extent not ascertained ; is 20 ft. below the level. oer ee 8. Saline matters...... 14:19 (less) IRC age eccstecs 0:62 14:81 Degree of hardness .. 7:80 9. Light porous red sandstone. 10. No. 11. No, 12. No. 13. No. 14. No, 15. No. Mr. Robert Blackburn, Trews Weir, near Exeter. 1. Within 50 yards from the river Exe. 2. 20 ft. above sea-level at Exmouth. 3.920 ft. depth of well, and 250 ft. 9 inches bore. 4. Not ascertained. 5. 500,000 gallons in 24 hours. 6. In winter average height of water 2 ft. above summer level. 7. Not affected by rain. 8. Analysis of spring-water at Trews Weir: one imperial gallon contains :— ains. Organic matter (including ‘168 oxidizing organic matter) .... 32 Carbonate of lime............. SOOO On Ode One oO Cite 11°61 Pelohate of lime: .y0.5.cic5secy se aiegelereasyptnvers ritiaherssles or tas 5:01 Carbonate of magnesia.......... Socio Mpiacaeibon vida HEREC . 5:25 Nitrate of magnesia ........00.0.0 00. ABU OCE CO GOO CDA 6:92 SE LOE PNG etre 5 5 sik Ceo wee PR ee ‘Al Chloride of potassium ...........000. nibeseterNiotele a skate el eiatePane ‘79 Chloride of sodium ...... Parsharniglevale Sdclarale diane, cctv eveeiaee wee. 5:59 Oxide of iron and alumina ...... Apanor Bralereneverercers saveyeraat Bee sl ks Ge: i le Acescely Reterarchercrortets else teria Total residuum (gained at 140° C., hardness before boiling 273°) 36:80 9. Red sandstone, rain-drift. 10. No. 12. None. 13. Not known. 14. No. 15. None that we know of. Dr. Lake, Teignmouth. 1, Four wells in garden of Myln Villa, Coomb, West Teignmouth, sunk in 1874 by Teignmouth Local Board as an extrasupply for town. These wells are in the bottom of a valley not far from a culvert which was built to carry the water of the brook running in the valley; they are therefore independent of the brook, and are supplied by springs breaking forth out of the rock in their sides and in those of the adit connecting them. 2. The surface of ground about 100 ft. above mean tide. 3. 30 ft., diameter 5 ft. 5. No certain means yet of ascertaining this. 8. Analysis by Professor Frankland in parts per 100,000 :—Total solid impurity 40-00; organic carbon ‘056; organic nitrogen ‘008; ammonia ‘001; nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites ‘530; total combined nitrogen ‘539 ; chlorine 3:20; hardness, temp. 11°4, perm. 11°-1, 9. See plan. 10. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. Dr. Symes Saunders. 1. The well at the Devon County Lunatic Asylum, Exminster, 2.150 feet. 3.114 875. z 130 REPORT— 1875. feet in depth; bore 70 feet; diameter of shaft 6 feet, ditto of bore4 inches. 4. 20 feet before reduced by pumping to 8 feet; restored in 10 hours. 5, 30,000 gallons. 6. Yes; in January and February rises occasionally 20 feet. 7. After continuous rain level is affected and water rises 8 or 4 feet. 8. Analysis by Voelcker appended. 9, Red Sandstone, 10. Yes. 11. No. 12. No. 13. No, 14. No. 15. No. Composition of two samples of Water sent by Dr. Symes Saunders, County Lunatic Asylum, Exminster. Water icon Nesari ae. vol . rd. An imperial gallon on evaparation left residue, dried at 260° ra ope ‘ Es Warshe p'evcas sem PEELE cn hvala etibis ey cae CU) deh choo 16:95 An analysis of the residue gave by direct determination :— Organic matter aud loss in heating .........0+.e+eeeees ws isa 1:40 Oxides of iron and alumina, traces of phosphoric acid ...... ‘24 "25 BD ale wie viele os lace aN iaiehla ee: neers s Omen » Minis role 3:24 Magnesia .......... SEPA atyiotd sts With saree oeel, Qa @ MO ee 1:49 SSO NITIC ACO in ssis ss eee RT IRee ost leo Rise slea oles HOG ODE “72 74 RPIUOTING Bri esas pe css ae a «bees RO IC DICER EOI bi G0 2:20 2:21 SOLO GLO MSIL CH sie. hic otest atatetcl slate Roe ere e's" 00 5 aires israel ‘90 “81 Alkalies and carbonic acid (not determined separately) ..,. 6:59 6:81 PAL TERING POF PAN ON 4 vers access We eva eee ore eo ais 16°61 16:95 Oxidizable organic matter per gallon ....,..... pili tutes? Seo 272 According to the usual mode of combining the constituents of waters, the composi- tion of the two samples may be represented as follows :— General Composition of two samples of Water in use in the Deyon County Lunatic Asylum, Exminster, ~ An imperial gallon contains in grains :— Well-water. Water fom Te in *Organic matter and loss in heating.........+++e0000% 1:39 ; Oxides of iron and alumina and traces of phosphoric acid 24 25 Sulphate of lime .....6....... titi cris ate acinar So at 1:22 1:25 verona Of Die 251. kaise ss sete tee snc: ag eee 4:87 Carbonate of rhhphesia 2) 2s cides ct beatees eae 3°06 Fi if Chloride of sodium :...... Sree crnene te ietere ete setetete terete eters meena 3°63 Carbonates of ‘potash and soda... .. ec sei ec sees ete eee § 152 1:63 Soluble gilica.......00.5% Rear vhs chit ye kk TREN 90 81 16°61 16:95 *Including oxidizable organic matter .iissseeeeeeevee ‘176 272 : AuGusTus VoELCKER, Ph.D. 11 Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, Noy, 2nd, 1866. Mr. Henry John Carter, Budleigh-Salterton, Devon. 1, All the wells at Budleigh-Salterton are in the New Red Sandstone above the great Pebble-bed. 2. Do not know. 3. Depth of our own well 37 feet; diameter 3 feet inside the revetment at the top: I know nothing of any other. 4. Do not know; water drawn up by bucket three or four times a day; bucket cylindrical iron 153 by 133 in. measurement. 5. Do not know; there is always 4-6 feet of water in our well. 6. Do not know; well about 150 years old. 7. Do not know; must be, I should think, 40-50 feet above either at the bottom, with the strata inclined south- east. 8. No peculiarity ; comparatively pure compared with that from the land spring, which is so hard that it is only used for washing potatoes and the like, 9. New Red Sandstone; drift variable in thickness, under 10 feet I should think. 10. Yes, at our house for 6-8 months in the year. 11. Entirely kept out, I believe. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS, 131 12. Do not know. 13. Not to my knowledge; well 150 years old. 14. Not to my Imowledge. 15. Not to my lnowledge; but the water in many of the wells neat the sea, which are comparatively shallower, is very “ brackish,” Dr. Albert Baker, Dawlish. 1, In the valley or town, and on the hills on each side of the valley or town of Dawlish. 2. From 5ft.to 200ft. 3. Varies from 30 to 180 ft.; diameter in sand 3 ft, 9in., in stone or rock 4 ft. 9in.; bore-holes not in use. 4. The average from the “mother” or “main spring” is 7 feet, and if pumped out refills in 7 or 8 hours everywhere. 5. To be calculated. 6. Very little when the “mother” spring is struck; there is very little difference, if any, observed in the past 10 years; increase of population 500 to 600. 7. Only the shallow wells of 14 to 20 feet, which is all from drainage through the lower bed of coarse gravel ; this not more than 1 or 2 feet below the stream orsea anywhere. 8. Not very hard; contains a good deal of sulphate of lime (Sorby’s), which decreases as you ascend the brook; in many of the low levels it is brackish, but varies very much in adjoining wells. 9. Generally red sandstone until you reach 60 or 70 feet. The layers run from sandstone to coarse gravel like beach, with veins of fine sand, then large flinty stones and gravel, coarse and large; should hard pan of sandstone be hit, the water will be retained by it, or if bored through it wells up so fast very often that all further sinking is stopped and a permanent sup- ply of 7 feet deep is obtainéd ; at about 40 to 50 feet above the sea water is readily gotat 35 feet, but is generally believed to be branch springs and surface percolation together, very pure, but not always permanent. It is believed that any well pumped out would refill to 7 feet in from 10 to 12 hours. The various beds vary from 1 to 10 feet or more in thickness; sandstone always predominates in the deep wells. The only well requiring blasting is at “Oaklands,” now 65 feet deep and in very hard conglomerate red rock: this well is 200 feet above the sea-level. 10. Yes, many in yarious places, 11. Not generally near wells, but used as open springs and con- sidered yery pure. 12. No. 13. Never heard ofany. 14. No. 15. Never heard of any ; and the brackish water gets bitter as you get deeper, and is very variable in most places, It appears to me entirely dependent on the loose gravel-beds, which vary in depth and thickness considerably, and no doubt allow the sea-water to pers colate through them in high tides, dry seasons, and such like. Rey. J. Lightfoot, Cofton, near Dawlish. 1. On Cofton Hill, on the right bank of estuary of the Exe. 2. About 92 feet, 3. Depth 71 feet, diameter 3 feet. 4. Height of water 19 feet; no sensible dif- ference after pumping. 5. Not known. 6. Do not know; the water hasneyer failed. 7. Do not know; about 40 feet above mean sea-level. 9. Light porous sandy rock. 10. No, 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. Mr. John Watson, Torquay, 1. Compton Farm, Marldon, near Torquay. 3. 90 feet deep, 5 feet diameter ; no bore-hole. 4. It is used for the ordinary purposes at the farm-house, and has never been exhausted. 6. 10 feet in winter and 6 feet insummer. 7. No stream nearer than half a mile, 8. Hard. 9, 10 feet of earth and drift, and the remainder red sand- stone. 10. No, 12. No, 13. No, 14 No. 15. I haye no knowledge of any. Dr. J. A, Colt. 1, At my house at Maidencombe, 2. About 250 feet. 3. 91 feet deep, 3 feet diameter; continued to bottom of well. 4. Ordinary height of water 13 feet 6 inches ; no perceptible difference, unless after two or three hours’ pumping in dry weather. 5. Several hogsheads have been pumped in a day without more than 2 inches fall, 6, No, excepting in the dry seasons of 1868, 1869, and 1870, after severe pumping to supply cattle and neighbours, when it fell to 9 feet 6 inches in October 1870. 7. The level is not affected to any evident extent by local rains. 8. It con- tains a small quantity of lime. 9. The cover of red-marl drift is about 12 feet thick, and afterwards nearly solid red sandstone rock, with here and there a layer of lime- stone cobbles cemented in the sand. 10. No surface-springs ; the well is flagged over with large slate flags, 11. Yes, 12. No, not nearer than 300 yards, where a well 130 feet deep refused to hold water. 13. None, 14. No, 15. No. 3 a 132 REPORT—1875. -Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. C. Moore, F.G.8., Bath. Name of Individual or Company applied to :—- Mr. W. W. Stoddart, F.G.S., Bristol. 1. In the city of Bristol. 2. From 10 feet to 200feet. 3. From about 60 feet to 300 feet. 8. Can give agreat number of analyses made for sanitary purposes. A large number of the Bristol wells are reached by tidal water. 9. Some Triassic marls; some through ditto and Coal-measures, many through peat and gravel. 10. Yes. 11. No. 12. Yes, in Pennant rock. 13. No. 14. No. 15. Yes; will try and get section of the 300-foot well mentioned in No. 3. Mr. Stuart, Braysdown Colliery. 1, Braysdown Colliery, near Bath. 3.500 yards. 6. Does not vary. 8. Analysis by Mr. Biggs of water from bottom of pit :— ers. SHINO Wb pat Girevn Dikanah APIO OMOEA: 25°76 Sulphuric acid ............ (ane Repel RO LIORENGEE ee ete atetelslcis cis efeieyrisis ettiale ae 412-05 ime’ as carbonate... ... 0. scis cerns 62°67 IMBONIESION occ ce cies sss sane 28 Sia - 16:09 OO BianyetePeue winje cifegeis seve avesey sya lacohsiadeys eiai= 332'06 Solid residue after ignition per gallon. . 920°80 Specific gravity .........+.- 1:010 Very salt. 9. New Red Sandstone, Coal-measures. 10. Surface-springs are kept back, but occur on various points. Mr. D. Brown, Twerton coal-pit, near Bath. 1. No. 2 pit (sinking), Twerton. 3. Depth from surface to bottom of shaft 125 yards ; diameters 14 ft. x 11 ft. inside welling. 5. About 16,800 gallons per 24 hours. 6. Water increases slightly in rainy seasons. 7. Top spring in gravel-hed 4 ft. 6 in, be- low water-level of brook; bottom spring 60 ft. 9 in. from level of water in brook. 8. 112'8 parts per 100,000 of chloride of sodium, estimated purposely by Charles Ekin, £.C.8S., Bath. 9. Section. ft. in. Alluvial and yellow clay...........00005 war's Gravel (Spring) :.6... «401. fsteewotent. iteees 1 0 ; -__ f Blue clay and plastic shales (with spring).. 64 0 Blue or Lower Lins {ive Leg ste 0 : White Laas 52... sinh. deh © actae ottets i afte ae 10 Rheetic heds...... 1 Rhwtic Badd pice. 25, cl bode ce ee 23 0 Now; ed Marl! OP Os. . sauna . 186 0 10. Yes. 11. No. 12. No, 13. The lower spring was rather salt. Dr. H. J. Alford, Tangier House, Taunton. ~ 1. Generally within a few yards of dwelling-house, 2. From 60 to 100 feet. 3. Various, from 25 to 75 feet. 4. In some instances in deep water there is difficulty in pumping it dry; it generally fills again in 12 hours. 7. The shallow wells are so affected. 8. On analysis the water is somewhat hard, containing sulphate and carbonate of lime; about 6 grains of lime per gallon. 9. New Red Sandstone eravel subsoil of few feet. 10. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No, The Rey. O. T. Harrison, Thorn Falcon, Taunton. 1. Thorn Falcon, Taunton. 3. 25 to 45 feet. 8. Very hard. 9. Red marls; spring derived from a sand-bed beneath. Mr. T. H. Dickinson, Ringweston, Somerton. 1. About 200 yards W.S.W. of Somerton church. 2. About 95 feet above the river. 3. Depth 1293 feet, diameter 3 inches. 4. 47 feet from the surface no varia- * Giving 1008 grains common salt per gallon, or 1440 grains ditto per 100,000. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 1338 tion is noticeable. 5, Have never tested, but have taken over 3600 in that space of time. 6. Has not been tested. 7. Do not think it is. 8. Sulphate of lime ...... 76°40 Carbonate of lime...... 53°81 | nins per gallon. Carbonate of magnesia. , 12:26 9. The White Lias is said to be from 90 to 99 feet down; no information in further detail can be given; another well is to be sunk soon about a 4 of a mile west of this, and a note of the strata will be carefully taken by Mr. Thomas, of Somerton, under whose direction it will be sunk. 10. There are surface-springs } of a mile west, which supply a good deal of water after rain and various pumps; but I do not appre- hend that much goes into this well, and no particular precautions have been taken, 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. Mr. Edward Tylor, Wellington. (These answers are given by Mr. Robert Knight, Wellington.) 1. Centre of town of Wellington. 2. 230 feet. 3. Well 48 feet deep, 6 feet diameter. 4. Ordinary pumping does not alter the level perceptibly. 5. 120, 6. There is usually 2 feet less of water in the summer: no diminution has been noticed in this well. 7. Is not affected by rain, and is too remote from streams or sea, 8. Water pure, particularly “hard.” 9. Loose sandstone covered by about 2 feet of clay. (There is a saying common amongst the country people here, to the effect that the breaking of the springs in winter is in some manner influenced by the winds of the previous March.) 10. There is no surface-spring within a + of a mile of this well. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. Well-sinkers say that within the last 20 years the general level at which water is reached has sunk 1 or 2 feet. Mr. J. M*Murtrie, F.G.S., Radstock. 1. Tyning Pit, Radstock. 3. Diameter of pit 8 feet; depth to chief spring or feeder 200 feet. 4. Before pumping, about 90 feet; after pumping, 200 feet. 5. 864,000 gallons. 6. It varies a few feet in level summer and winter ; the quan- tity does not diminish. 7. Local rains increase the feeder; the water rises to the level of the brook in the valley, ft. GR aasres Sai Lie ie ae Te SL Rheotic .....+..+....,about 18 / IRGC MAN St csocsa ofa ture nat die.e .. 165 200 10. No drift. 11. No drift. 12. None. 13. None. 14. None, 15. None. Mr. Wilkins, Writhlington. ‘1. Kilmersdon Coal-Shaft New Pit. 2. Kilmersdon Pits, one 8 feet, one 10 feet ; the 10-foot pit is down 42 fathoms 1 foot 6 in. to a hard stone; 4100 gallons of water per hour come into the pits. 4. Water rose 33 yds. in 24 hours, and stood at that point. 5. 24 hours, 98,400 gallons. 6. This spring rises when the wind is high, but not at any other time, though I have watched it many years. The above ae is what we call “the red-ground spring,” and lies from 20 to 24 fathoms under the Lias beds. 8. Stain red, and when in a vessel the sediment of the water is very red, The wateris hard. 9, Brown clay, Lias and clay, black and blue marl and marlstone 13 fathoms; 34 feet red ground with “lists” of blue stone and conglo- merate 4 feet; ditto 1 foot, then red ground 4 feet, then conglomerate again. [Surface beds Middle Lias, about 3 to 4 feet thick. . Base of Lower Lias ............ 37 feet ,, Base of Rheetic beds........... + Oit, 4in.,, All the beds above the Coal-measures are very thin in this district—C. M.] 10. Yes, lias springs, 11. Yes, 12. Yes; fault called the 100-fathom fault. 13, In coal-mea- sures the water is very salt. 14. One in the Foxcote pit between the first and second series of veins. Iknow none but Foxcote. 134, REPORT—1875. Mr. E, Barham, Bath, Bridgwater. 1. At Wembdon. 2. 60 feet. 3. 30 feet. 4. Plentiful supply except in very dry summers. 5, Cannot state precise quantity. 6. It is level in the summer; three or four years ago there was a partial failure of water in August or September. 7. No immediate effect is produced by rain, however heavy. The bottom of the well is higher than any other stream in the neighbourhood. Ihave no analysis of the water ; it is very clear tolook at and very hard; it “rocks” kettles and sometimes when boiling looks “milky.” 9. The well is entirely situate in the red sandstone, which at the point in question is a band of conglomerate rock, the imbedded rock being, I should think, portions of the Quantock formation. 10, There are no surface- springs in the immediate neighbourhood. 12. There is a fault running from near the well past Connington to Charlwick. 13.No. 14. No. 15. No. The Rey. M. Drummond, Wookey Vicarage, near Wells. 1, West of Wells, Somerset. 2. About 70 feet. 3. 33 feet. 4. 5-feet level does not alter under ordinary usage. 6. Varies from 3 feet in driest to 12 feet in wettest weather, but no diminution in the supply. 17. No, probably about level with the river Axe. 8. No analysis; always clear. i ft. 9; Red marl: ciii ccc diis rier: 30 Word Yeah. ede ee. ees Pane Redstone. A large body of water finds its way, by means of smaller holes and fissures in the _ Carboniferous limestone of the Mendip Hills, to the lower levels. Thus a spring rises in the Bishop’s Palace Garden at Wells which brings coal with it, some of which Ihave; and a large stream emerges from under the Carboniferous limestone at Cheddar. 10. No drift; all the neighbourhood full of land-springs. 11. Yes. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. Mipranp Counties. Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. James Plant, F.G:8. Name of Individual or Company applied to :— Messrs. Fielding & Co. ° 1, Leicester. 2. 210 feet, mean tide Liverpool. 3. 75 feet, 8 ft. diameter; no bore- hole. 4. 35 feet, in working reduced to 10 feet and restored in 10 hours. 5, 250 to 300 thousand gallons. 6. Not observed; some 10 feet. 7. Not seen; well when full about same level as water in river Soar. 8. Sulphate and carbonate of lime ; pro- portions not known. ft. SD SOlL! viterentis arena ccopaieye auerelie ..... 2-6 (there are two wells). Drift (clay and sand) ............ 10 CU an Sane kt tee etn Pees 1.» 30 *Upper Keuper sandstone ...... ieveceo 75 10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None known. 13. No. 14. None known. 15. No. Messrs. Hodges and Sons. 1. Leicester. 2. 206 ft. above mean tide Liverpool. 3. 90 ft., 9 ft. diameter, bottom 12 feet diameter ; heading driven into sandstone to increase supply.. 4. 50 feet ; emptied during ten hours, restored in 14 hours. 5. No estimate. 6. Not observed (only sunk 5 years). 7. Not observed, about same level as rivert. 8. Sulphate * Thin “wayboards” of red and grey marl and red, white, and grey sandstone alternating and full of ‘‘ripple-marks ;” beds 4 to 6 inches. t The river Soar, near the town, runs through the “ Upper Keuper sandstone” beds, cutting: them down to the red marl below; the town of Leicester is partly built on these upper sandstone beds, but drift lies over all, a a 23 ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 135 and carbonate of lime, proportion not stated. ft. 9. Dil, . Fart Pa ak orih girs x dw aibe ws . 10 Red marl .s.ssesscieees cab eolies, OO Upper Keuper sandstone ........ .» 45 90 10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None known. 13. No. 14. None lmown. 15, No. Messrs. Pickard and Sons. 1. Leicester. 2. 206 feet, mean tide Liverpool. 3.75 feet; no bore-hole; mean width of shaft 8 feet. 4.30 feet; emptied in 10 hours, restored in a night. 5, No estimate. 6. Not observed. 7. Not observed same (about) level as river. ft. 9. Drift eepeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeereeee eeer 15 Riedsmarki gsc /ag a eagays, 308 ctecenes, 20 Upper Keuper sandstone ........ 35 75 10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. Noneknown. 13. No. 14. Noneknown, 15. No. Messrs, Everhard and Co. (Brewery). 1. Leicester. 2. 203 feet, mean tide Liverpool. 3. 50 feet, diameter 7 feet. 4. 15 to 20 feet. 5. Not estimated. 6. Not observed. 7. No. 8, Sulphate and carbo- nate of lime, proportion not known. ft. 9; Drift (clay, &C.) .vevececccseenci 30 Upper Keuper sandstone .,....+. 20 50 10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None. 13. None. 14. None. 15. No. Messrs. Rust and Co. 1. Leicester. 2. 208 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 80 ft., diameter 9 ft. 4. 40 ft. 5. No estimate. 6. Not observed. 7. Not observed. 8. No analysis, simply “ hard. ft. OS. Baily .m . orsiices deetebe nadine 10 Drift (clay, sand, and gravel) .... 30 Upper Keuper sandstone .....4.. 0 80 10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None. 13. None. 14. None, 15, No. ~ Messrs, John Knowles, Mansfield. 1. Nuneaton, centre of the town. 2. 210 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 30 ft., 8 ft. diameter ; bore 82 ft., 4 in. diameter. 4. 105 ft.; no pumping done. 5. 250,000 gallons in 24 hours. 6. No (not more than 8 ft. at most); stands permanently 6 ft. above level of river Anker. 7. Cannot say. 8. Hard. ft. ‘9, Drift (sand, gravel, and clay) .... 18 1 gs phd bee EERE 12 Lower Keuper sandstone ........ 80 Permian (or Carboniferous)...... 2 112 10. Yes, 11. Yes, by “tubbing.” 12. Great triassic fault (running from N.W. to S.E.) within 200 yards west of well. 13. None, 14. None, 15. None. f— ) 136- REPORt—1875. Mr. R. C. Sinclair, C.E., Messrs. Howes, Dye Works. 1. City of Coventry. 2. 220 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. Well 17 ft.; bore 120 ft., 7 in. diameter. 4. Always flowing over top of well, pump cannot lower it. 5. Half a million gallons in 24 hours. 6. Made 1866; never varied since. 7. Not affected by rains; level of water always 4 ft. above level of river, which runs close by. 8. No analysis; quite clear and bright; no incrustation left on boilers; water considered ‘ soft.” ft. OFDM. ist eka lec sot Eee. al Redisandstowomentas geen eae hs 1 Conglomerate (Bunter ?).......... Permian sandstone, very variable in colour and hardness............ 119 137 last 2 ft. 6 in. a light grey sandstone so hard that the “drilling” cost 2 guineas per inch. 10. Yes. 11, Yes. 12. None near this well. 13. None. 14. None nearer than Hinckley and Leamington.’ 15. None. Mr. R. C. Sinclair, Coventry Canal Company. 1. Hawkesbury Pumping-station, 4 miles N.E. of Coventry, 2. 252 feet, mean tide Liverpool. 3. 120 feet deep, 10 feet diameter. 4. Before pumping 110 ft. ; after 10 days and nights constant pumping 95 ft. ; fills up in 3 hows to 110 ft. 5. In 24 hours 14 million gallons for weeks together. 6. Is perceptibly lower after long drought. 7. No; when engine is not pumping the water stands nearly to the top of well. 8. No analysis ; water very pure, and leaves but little incrustation in boiler. ft. 9. Driftisccadee cee sete folentate Rta ts oO) Lower Keuper sandstone ........ 90 120 In sinking through the sandstone but little water was met with until the bottom bed, ‘‘a very hard white sandstone,” was blasted; the water then burst in; the men had to escape, leaving all the sinking-tools at bottom, and the water rose at once to the above height. 10, Afew. 11. Yes. 12. Yes, both east and west. 13. No. 14. No. 15. None. Hinckley Local Board. 1. The “Holy Well,” Hinckley, Leicestershire. 2. About 380 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. Shaft 20 ft. Bore 520 ft. diam. 6,, diam. 1lin., 90ft. 10 12 v ze 105 540 ft. 4. Estimated at 420 ft. 5. No estimate. 6. Not observed; well not used. 7. Not observed. 8. 100 thousand gallons* contain 98 lbs. of sulphate and carbonate of lime (proportion of carbonate not stated) and 23 Ibs. chlorine gas. ft. 9. Drift (pebbly clay, sand, and gravel)...... 150 Rediman lier teraiiey cise stays.ajejn } ols,aaeiee 20 Lower Keuper sandstone (viz. thin beds of clay and gypsum alternating with thick beds of red, grey, and white sandstone),. 370 540 10. Numerous (wells in use all from drift springs). 11. Imperfectly. 12. None * Rivers Pollution Commission. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 137 known. 13. See analysis (“Holy Well” was asalt spring). 14, None known elsewhere (there are other wells noted for medicinal properties). 15. No. Elmsthorpe Boring. 1. Elmsthorpe, Leicestershire. 2. 300 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 1400 ft.; bore 8in., Gin., 4in., 3in. 4. 800 ft., constant. 5. 800 ft. 6. Permanent level 800 ft. 7. Not observed. 8. None. ft. ‘ 9: Deis. «is Naaby onthe ob ony eeeO \l ERE GETNATU Es ity araita «iavetoreraaiaiays to sleis 120 ie) Lower Keuper sandstone ........ 330 Coal-measures..... ot fers Ree cle, these dipping 70° all through. 10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12, 3 miles west great fault in trias (Lower Keuper sandstone), 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. Lindridge Colliery Company. 1, Lindridge Hall, Desford, Leicestershire. 2. 400 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 120 ft., shaft 10 ft. diameter. 4, Water runs over top of shaft. 5. Obliged to put engine down before. 6. Sinking shaft deeper. ft. \Z <), JUNG Soop on ad plop oii. ated C OR aCIC ey GOOG. aL 2 /N Wipper Menper sandstone: ..6.5 062 occ e cetaceans ves 20 Red marl (marl with thin bands of gypsum)........ 44 by boring. Lower Keuper sandstone waterstones.............. 204 10. Yes. 11. Yes, 12. East and west fault (downthrow to south) at Huggles- cote, 6 miles west. 13. None. 14. No. 15. No. Austy Paper-Mill Company. 1. Austy, Leicestershire. 2. 225 ft.,mean tide Liverpool. 3. Shaft 102 ft., dia- meter 8 ft.; bore 85 ft., diameter 3 in. 4. No water; bottom of bore gypsum. 5. No water. 6. No water. 7. No water. 8. No water. ft. 9, Drift, stiff brown “ boulder ” clay with many rounded pebbles.. 70 187 10. Yes, all shallow wells in villages. 11. Yes. 12. None; is about 1 mile from “joneous rocks” at Groby. 13. None. 14. None. 15. None. Hathern Boring. 1. Hathern, Leicestershire. 2. 90 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3.320ft.? 4. Water most abundant, height not observed. 5. Not known. 6. Not known. 7. Not known. 8. Not known. ft. 9. Drift......... i ed oie 10 yn Redirnianls sereaeresicwshercs atisaes « 110 Lower Keuper sandstone ...... 140 , Bunter conglomerate ........44 60? 820 10. Yes,many. 11. Yes. 12, 3 miles west of fault in trias. 13. None. 14, None. 15. None, . (Chilwell Boring. 1. Chilwell, Leicestershire. 2. 95 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 450 ft.; bore 6 in., 5in., 4in., 3in. 4. Up to the top of bore-hole. 5, Great abundance, and conti- nuous. 138 REPORT—1875, ft," ins 9. Drift. . mr 1d hes Upper Keuper sandstone.. 53 0 Red marl..... Oi reee ». 53 4 Lower Keupersandstone:: 115 0 Upper Bunter (?) ...... 110 4 Conglomerate ........+. 30.8 Lower Bunter.......... 44 4 WP ETMIA Sercteyeveyeussosersieys SD aaah 435 9 10. kes. 12. Great number N.E, and W. 13. Greatnumber. 14. None. 15. None. Spinney Hills Company. ee Humberstone, near Leicester. 2, 180 ft., mean tide Liverpool. 3. 600 ft.; bore 8in., 6in.,5in,4in. 4. 400 ft. 5. No estimate. 6. No. 7. No. 8, None. ft. 9 Drifticcciccctvccccseeescicees 6 Rhetic..... sO TA #8 HN cE ID Upper Keuper sandstone ...... «. 100 Red marl with bands of gypsum ., 250 Lower Keuper sandstone ........ 232 600 10. Yes. 11. Tube all the way. 12, None. 13. None. 14. No. 15. No. Norru-west oF ENGLAND. Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. EK. W. Binney, F.R.S. Name of Individual or Company applied to :— Messrs. Bayley and Craven, Agecroft. . 70 yards from River Irwell. 2. Not known. 312 ft. it is 18 in. diameter. State th Selb feo SiascudarnphVinieue Aeheja toute ‘ b. Bore-hole 455 feet deep from surface.» OE ” . * ” ” A ” 4. a. 16 ft. from bottom of well before pumping, and 4 ft. from bottom of well after pumping; 4. 5 or 6 hours. 5. About 180,000 to 200,000 gallons. 6. a. As we eay ump for two or three weeks during dry weather, we have not noticed this; 6. Yes, probably because not worked continuously, 7. a. We have not noticed this ; b. The water rises in the well if the river is high. 8. No analysis; the water contains a considerable quantity of iron. 9. Stratification in bore-hole only. ft. Réd Tock Ws is ces eee ee tenets ee eens cee coe e LILO Byer eR Stents e @'s.0)0 f96 0 Sevicsccsves . 114 ap oy USS Wl conoveemoauneddpoumdooodDtn 76 3 9) Soft, with various veins of white sandstone AL OMM SLO MO Mee PUNICKi a sis ae siete sieregs tiene » 9 very hard, with various saddle beds ...... 45 by) gp ee SOL with veins of white sandstone ...... 12 ae een vather hardscccecsc eves veee es sigomage tls) » 9) Soft, with veins of white sand striz ..... . 23 413 NGL AOWD “ii vs Feyemeiee etre poniaeee or ex 433 * % There i is an error of 10 feet somewhere in this stratification: it is copied exactly from Messrs. Mather and Platt’s report when the bore-hole was made. ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS, 139 10. We believe so. 11. No, 12. We have heard of one. 13. No. 14. No. 15. Not that we know of, Messrs. Andrew & Co. 1, Mount-Street Mill, Harpurhey. 2. See Ordnance Survey. 6 ft. above the high- way well. 3. 64 yards deep, 7 feet diameter; bore-hole 44 yards deep, 9 inches in diam. for 26 yards, 8 inches for 18 yards: total depth 108 yards, 4. 20 yards from surface ; can empty the well; rises to its level in six hours, 5. 300 gallons a minute, night andday. 6. No. 7. No; above streams 26 to 28 yards. 8. None; hard, chiefly lime. 9. Various, chiefly soft red sandstone, soapstone. [Middle Coal-measures.—E. W. B.] 10. Yes, to a comparatively small extent. 11. No. 12, — not aware [one of 4000 to 5000 ft. close to.— EH. W. B.]. 13. No. 14. No, 1S. No. Messrs. Langworthy, Brothers & Co. Mr. John Taylor, Engineer. 3. 12 yards deep, 6 ft. Gin. diameter, 5, Plant of four bore-holes, 33 in. diameter ; three of them 60 yards deep and one 180 yards; yields 20,000 gallons per hour perpetually if the pumps are kept at work. Another plant of two bore-holes 60 yards ~ deep, 33 in. diam., 8000 gallons per hour for about 60 hours per week, 98. A deposit of lime. 9. See enclosed skeish of rock &c. passed through to make the bore-hole that is 180 yards deep; it was bored in 1870 and 1871. I think it is the only sketch beyond 60 yards deep that is just in our immediate neighbourhood. 10. No. 12. One is supposed to be on the west side of the 4-hole plant, about 100 yards distant. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. Mellard Reade, C.E., F.G.S. Name of Individual or Company applied to :— Mr. Thomas 8. Stooke, C.E. 1. Township of Whiston, Lancashire. 2. 190 feet. 3. 75 yards, 9 feet diameter ; bore-hole not made. 4. Works in an incomplete state, as shown by sketch of pre- vious date. 5. 1,000,000 gallons. 6,7. Works in an incomplete state, as shown by sketch of previous date. 8. Water not analyzed. 9. Red Sandstone, 3 ft. (no cover). 12. Yes. 13. No. 14, No. Mr. Robert Winstanley, C.E., Ince Waterworks, Golborne. 1. Golborne, Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire. 2. Ordnance level, 125 ft. 3. Well 150 ft. deep, 9 feet diameter ; bore-hole 300 ft., 3 in. diameter. 4. 80 ft., 120 ft.; 6 hours. 5. 240,000 gallons, 6. Works established four years; no per- ceptible change.. 8. Hard water, 11°. : ty ft. 9: Surface coal ..........80 0003 WR Sate Sesto atstone Rie 2 ; Mark wis. OR Oh Et fee Ge een ee eee Pe wm «OD RE a8 6 Waiis £5, Uia, 3) FT Ade pissed ids Bane Deets eas: Gravel &c. eine cigieneer’.> ath SHOHB a auch oot Une “19 Red rock, pebble-beds......+...00005 veveseeeecees ASL 150 10. No. 12. Not known. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. ' ‘Messrs. Gaskell; Deacon, & Co. 3. No. 1 shaft.30 feet deep, 5 feet diam.; bore-hole 275 yds., average 3 in. diam. No. 2 shaft 39 a 12 ” ” Fd es 59 . 9 ia yo J51 yds., 9 in. diam. 140 , REPORT—1875. 4. We pump* almost continuously, except at Whitsuntide, when water slowly rises to old level at surface. 5, Total quantity now pumuer from three wells 493,913, or, say, 500,000 gallons per 24 hours. 6. (a) No. (6) We fancy so, but have no evidence. 7. (a) Yes. (6) In aboutamonth. (c) Slightly by rise and fall of tide. No analysis lately ; no peculiarity ; good ordinary quality for domestic and manufacturing purposes. 9. Surface, 45 feet of brown clay; quicksand, 18 feet; 135 feet of clay and boulder-clay; red sandstone. 10. Yes. 11. No. 12. Yes; supposed to cut a fault. 13. No. 14. None in the immediate neigh- bourhood. 15. No; but we know of one or two wells which were sunk close to the river (which is tidal) which were affected by the entry of brackish water through the quicksand. Widnes Local Board Waterworks. 1. Two wells (A and B) at Litton, near Widnes, about 100 feet apart. 2. About 10 or 15 feet. 3. A, 50 feet, 10 feet diameter, without bore-hole; B, 30 feet, 10 feet diameter, with 24-inch bore-hole 300 feet from surface. 4. A, pumped con- stantly and hard; cannot state; stands about 40 feet from surface in bore-pipe in B. 5. 6} million gallons per week (of 7 days). 6. Cannot state. 7. Yes, in about 10 days. 8. Dont know of any; nothing particular; very clear, and very slightly “hard.” 9. Soft shaly rock and sand. 10, No indication of surface~ springs. 12. None known. 13. No. 14. No. Believe that one or two have, much nearer the Mersey than ours. The Board’s wells are about 2 miles inland. Mr, E. Timmins, Engineer and Contractor, Runcorn. 1, Stock’s Well, Cronton, near Prescot. 2. 45 feet. 3. Shaft 50 feet deep, 10 fect in diameter; 1 boring 4 inches diameter, 407 feet deep ; 1 boring 24 inches dia- meter, 307 feet deep from surface. 4. Before pumping flows over at surface; for- merly four hours (six years ago), now twelve hours (July 1875). 5. 800,000. 6. It has diminished. 7. The yield of water increases after several days’ rain. The flood-water from “ brooks” will rise to within 2 feet of top of well. The brook or sea has no influence upon the well. 8. The water is soft, very pure, and good for domestic purposes. ft. in. SESS, SERRE rl canter ta CiRORGRRNN tabe-e ores ation & 1 6 Red clay with boulder-stones .......... Sialanye ean 28 6 d Dyres aril LIEN (CT TEC CS Biro Geis yet aloo Son Dehn weg N: 6 0 The further sinking and boring soft red sandstone..., 371 0 Total depth from surface .,........ 407 0 10. No. 11. No. 12. None been ascertained. 13. No. 14. No. 15. None. Mr. E, Timmins. 1, At the Iron Works, Garston. 2. About 15 feet. 3. Shaft 100 feet deep, 7 feet diameter, and ‘chambered at bottom to 14 feet diameter. One boring 6 inches diameter, 351 feet 6 inches from surface 4. Before pumping 10 feet from surface, after pumping 80 feet from surface, with hore-valve open; eighteen hours before ordinary level is restored after pumps cease working. 5, 240,000. 6. The water- level varies, and has diminished. 7: The yield of water will increase after a month’s wet weather, and is not affected by the brooks or sea. 8. The water is moderately hard but very pure, and good for ordinary purposes, ft. in. Slam sont ooo oan cle setae is aia auehet ele seine Lae Red clay with boulder-stones ...... Paede bono alleys 10 The further sinking and boring red sandstone........ 884 6 Total depth from surface .......... 851 6 10. No. 12. No. 13. None. 14. None. 15. None. * During pumping the water is about 35 feet from the surface, ON THE STEERING OF SCREW-STEAMERS. 14] _ Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. C. E. DeRance, F.GS. Name of Individual or Company applied to :— . Mr. Matthew Brown. 1. Pole-Street Brewery, Preston, Lancashire. 2. 123 feet. 3. 90 feet, diameter 4 feet. 4. 12 feet G inches before, 5 feet 1 inch after, and rises to 12 feet 6 inches in 40 minutes. 5. 1015 gallons per hour. 6. No. 7. No. 8. Cannot tell, inas- much as there is a small supply of water at a higher level than the main spring; and this small supply when analyzed contained 30 per cent. of saline and mineral impurities, the mineral being chiefly iron; and I estimate this small supply, apart from the main spring, would fill a pipe of 1 inch diameter, continually falling into the bottom spring or well. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No, 15. No. ee APPENDIX. The information collected by Mr. Moore, F.G.S., in the Bristol, Bath, and Radstock coal-field, though not coming strictly within the limits of New Red Sandstone inquiry (the water being chiefly derived from the red marls above it or the Coal-measures), is of interest, as showing the water-bearing properties of these strata. At Twerten Coal-pit, Twerton, near Bath, 16,800 gallous of water are thrown out every 24 hours by a spring in the Lower Lias, at a depth of 72 feet from the surface; the water was found to contain 112°8 parts per 100,000 of chloride of sodium, by Mr. Ekin, F.C.8., of Bath. At Braysdown Colliery, 500 yards in depth, a constant volume of water is met with, which Mr. Biggs found to contain 1008 grains of common salt per gallon, or 1440 grains per 100,000: the water appears to be derived from the Coal-measures, and is very salt indeed. The wells in Bristol, Mr. Stoddart, F.G.S., reports to Mr. Moore are from 60 to 300 feet in depth, situated on heights of from 10 to 200 feet above the sea-level; but the water is derived either from the red marls or the Coal- measures lying beneath; and some of the wells are reached by tidal water. On the Steering of Screw-Steamers. By Prof. Ossorne Reynoxps. [A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.] Tere does not appear, as far as my observation goes, to be any particular difficulty in steering screw-steamers so long as they are going ahead under steam, but rather the other way ; they then seem to be better to steer than almost any other class of ships. Great difficulty often occurs, however, when they are stopping, starting, or otherwise manceuvring. Their vagaries are then so numerous as to give the idea that there is a certain degree of capri- ciousness and uncertainty about their behaviour. This is, of course, mere fancy ; and did we but know them, it is certain that there are laws which these steamers follow under all circumstances. In the hope of arriving at these laws, I have been investigating this subject now for twelve years as opportnnity offered ; and I had come, as I thought, to some leading facts, when the failure of the ‘ Bessemer’ to enter Calais Harbour on the 8th of May last seemed to establish them. It will be remembered that the ship entered between the piers at a speed of 12 or 13 knots, the tide running strong right across the mouth of the Fil 142 ? _/ wevort—1875. harbour, that on her entering between the piers the. engines were reversed, and that the ship turned, under the influence of the current, in spite of her rudder; so that Capt. Pittoch, in his letter to the ‘Times,’ attributed the accident entirely to her failing to steer at the time. On reading of the accident I thought it would be a good opportunity to call attention to the subject of steering steamers ; and I wrote a paper, which was published in the ‘ Engineer’ of June 4th, 1875, in which I explained why the act of stopping a ship must necessarily affect her power of steering— pointing out that when a ship is stopping the water will be following her stern relatively faster than when she is moving uniformly, and consequently that the effect of the rudder will be diminished ; ‘that the longer the ship the greater will be the difference; also that this effect’ is greatly increased when a ship is stopping herself with her propellers, as was the ‘ Bessemer’; for then not only is the retardation of the vessel much more rapid, but the water has a forward motion imparted to it by the propellers, which motion, if the propellers are near the rudder, may be greater than that of the ship, under which circumstance the effect of the rudder’s action will be reversed. Since publishing this paper in the ‘ Engineer’ I have carried the investiga- tion further ; and the object of the present paper is to give .an account of some experiments on model boats driven by screws, and the conclusions to which these experiments have led me. ; Two models were used in making these experiments; the one 2’ 6” long, driven by a spring, and the other 5’ 6”, driven by steam. In both models the rudders were broad in proportion to the boats. In the clockwork model the rudder was almost close to the screw, there being no stern-post. In the steam model there was a wide stern-post, and the rudder was an inch and a half behind the screw. : Both boats went straight with their serews driving them ahead and with their rudders straight, and they both answered their rudders easily with their screws going, turning in circles of from four to six feet radius. When the screws were stopped and the boats carried on by their own way, they both answered their rudders, but much more slowly than when their screws were going, the smallest circle being now, as near as I could estimate, from twelve to fifteen feet radius. In order to try the effect of the serew when reversed on the steering of the spring-model, the model was towed by a cord attached (as shown in the accom- panying figure) to a point T amidship about one third of her length from her stern, so that the towing had little or no tendency either to keep her straight or turn her. The rudder was then set at an angle of 45° or thereabouts, so as to turn her head to the right, towing was commenced, the boat turning in a circle to the right. The screw was then started in the reverse direction ; whereupon the boat ceased to turn to the right, and commenced turning to the left to an extent depending on the slowness with which she was being towed. When towed very quickly, at from two to three miles an hour, she came nearly straight forward, but at the fastest speed showed no tendency to turn to the right. ‘ ON THE STEERING OF SCREW-STEAMERS. 143 The rudder was then set so as to turn the boat to the left, and the opera- tion was repeated with very nearly corresponding results so long as the screw did not race ; but the action of the reversed screw on the rudder when set to the left was not so great as when set to the right. This difference led me to suppose that the screw itself might exert an influence to turn the boat to the left when it was reversed, although it had been found to exert no such influence when going ahead. This was at once shown to be the case by setting the rudder;straight and starting the screw reversed ; the boat immediately turned to the left, but not fast unless the screw raced, then she turned very rapidly. These direct effects of the screw to turn the ship appear to me to account for several of the anomalies which have hitherto beset the subject ; and further on in the paper I shall discuss them at length. The steam model was provided with paddles as well as screw, and the screw could be reversed without reversing the paddles, in which case the paddles overpowered the screw, and the boat moved forward somewhat slowly. In this boat the screw was so deeply immersed that it would not race, and it had no direct effect to turn the boat when reversed like that of the spring model. When the screw was reversed and the boat drawn slowly forward by the paddles, the effect on the rudder was almost to destroy its action, it having only a slight power to turn the boat in the opposite direction to that in which it would have turned the boat had the screw been going ahead. Practically the boat had lost all power of steering. Coupled in this way with the paddles the screw turned but slowly, the engine being held up by the opposing actions. On releasing the paddles and allowing them to turn freely, and applying the whole power of the engine to the screw, the model behaved almost exactly as the spring model had done, showing when towed against the screw a strong tendency to turn in the opposite direction to that in which the rudder was set. The screw was then set full speed ahead; and when the boat had acquired way the rudder was set, so that she began to turn rapidly to the right; the screw was then reversed, and by the time the boat had lost all forward way she had turned to the left through an angle of 30°, so great was the effect of the screw on the rudder when stopping the boat. This completed the list of the experiments, which, however, were repeated over and over again with exactly the same results. Conclusions to be drawn from the experiments.—The general conclusion is that in serew-steamers the effect of the rudder depends on the direction of motion of the screw rather than on the direction of motion of the boat. Or we have the three following laws :— 1. That when the screw is going ahead the steamer will turn as if she were going ahead, whether she have stern-way on or not. 2. That when the screw is reversed the rudder will act as if the vessel were going astern although she may be moving ahead. 3. That the more rapidly the boat is moving in the opposite direction to that in which the screw is acting to drive it, the more nearly will the two effects on the rudder neutralize each other, and the less powerful will be its action. It would appear reasonable to suppose that a boat may move fast enough to overcome the effect of the reversal of the screw ; but this was not the case with the models. ‘ The effect of the screw to turn the boat independently of the rudder.— It seems to be supposed by some that a screw necessarily tends to force 144 REPORT—1875. the stern of the boat in a direction opposite to that in which the tips of its lower blades are moving. ‘This is undoubtedly the case when the screw is racing or acting in broken water (7. e. water mixed with air), also when the screw is not completely covered with water. When, however, the screw is properly immersed and is working in unbroken or continuous water, and is not affected by dead water, it has not the least tendency to moye itself laterally whatever it may have onthe ship. Under these circumstances the screw-shaft can exert no lateral pressure on its bearings; and in ships with fine runs this is the case. Owing to the effect of the dead water, however, it may happen that even when the screw is properly immersed it will tend to move laterally. If the water be following the ship faster above than below (which it often is), the upper blades of the screw will have more work to do than the lower, and con- sequently they will have to meet with greater lateral resistance ; and hence upper and lower resistances will not balance, but there will be a lateral thrust transmitted to the bearings. Besides the lateral pressure which may be transmitted through the bear- ings, the screw may also tend to turn the ship by the lateral motion which it imparts to the water, which is again communicated to the ship or the rudder, If the form of the ship and the rudder were symmetrical above and below the screw-shaft, then the effect of the lateral motion which the screw imparts to the water below would exactly balance the effect above the screw- shaft; but owing to the fact that the surface both of the ship and the rudder is in general much greater above than below, the water which is driven laterally by the upper blades has much more surface to act upon than that which is driven in the contrary direction by the lower blades, and therefore drives the stern of the ship laterally or tends to turn the ship. This effect is in the opposite direction to that which arises from the unequal rate at which the water is following the ship as long as both the ship and the screw are going ahead; and consequently these two effects tend to counteract each other. When, however, the screw is reversed, and the vessel is still moving forwards, the two effects are in ‘conjunction ; and consequently they are more likely to become apparent and important. This was the case in the experi- ments with the spring model. When screwing ahead she went straight enough, but when towed ahead with the screw reversed she turned to the left. In this case the effect was small; and I imagine that it must always be so, particularly when the ship has a fine run. In the steam model, of which the run is very fine, the screw-way very large, and the screw small (being only three inches while the boat draws five), the effect of the screw to turn the boat when not racing was altogether imperceptible. I conclude, there- fore, that these effects maybe left out of consideration with reference to steering ; and in opposition to a popular notion I derive law 4. 4. That when not breaking the surface the screw has no considerable tendency to turn the ship so long as the rudder is straight. The effect of racing.—Although the direct effect of the screw is insig- nificant when it is not racing or breaking the surface, this is not the case whenit isracing. It then exerts a very decided and important effect ; and it is doubtless experience of this which has given rise to the popular notion above referred to. In the experiments with the spring model when the screw was drawing air down, the stern always showed a tendency to move in the opposite direction to that in which the tips of the lower blades were moving, even when the boat was going ahead at full speed and the quantity of air very ON THE STEERING OF SCREW-STEAMERS. 145 small ; and when the screw regularly raced, frothing the water, its effect to turn the stern of the boat was very great. The screw of the steam model was so deeply immersed that it would not race ; but if the stern of the boat was raised by a string it then raced, and the effect of the screw to turn the stern of the boat was the same as with the spring model. The screw of the spring model showed a much greater tendency to draw air when reversed (the boat being towed) than when it was driving the boat ahead; but its greatest tendency to race was when the boat was stationary, or nearly so. This latter tendency I have observed in large steamers; in fact I have never seen a large steamer start or reverse her screw when moving but slowly without frothing the water. It appears, therefore, that the effect of racing on the steering may be stated in the fol- lowing laws :— 5. That when the screw is frothing the water, or only partially immersed, it will have a tendency to turn the stern in the opposite direction to that in which the tips of the lower blades are moving. 6. That when the boat is going ahead its effect will be easily counter- acted by the rudder; but when starting suddenly, either forward or back- ward, at first the effect of the screw will be greater than that of the rudder, and the ship will turn accordingly. 7. That if when the boat is going fast ahead the screw is reversed, at first it almost destroys the action of the rudder, what little effect it has being in the reverse direction to that in which it usually acts. If, then, the screw draws air or breaks the surface, it will exert a powerful influence to turn the ship. In accounts of collisions it may be frequently noticed that there is con- trary evidence given of the steering of one or both of the ships (if they both happen to be steamers). In the instance of the collision between the ‘ Ville du Havre’ and the ‘ Loch Earn,’ the captain of the ‘ Loch Earn’ stated that the steamer altered her course almost at the last moment, thus rendering the collision inevitable. The officers of the steamer asserted that such was not the case; they state, however, that the screw was reversed just before the collision. In this case, therefore, the evidence is to show that the reversal of the screw caused the steamer to change her course, either by its direct effect or by its action on the rudder. The latter effect would be sufficient to explain the facts; and my experiments leave no doubt but that this must have taken place. With regard to the former I have no evidence ; although, considering that the ship was moving rapidly at the time, it seems probable that the screw may have raced on being reversed, and added its direct effect to turn the ship to its effect on her rudder. In this case, therefore, the reports of what took place are strictly in accordance with what was to be expected from my experiments; and I think that from the light these throw upon the subject in many cases, the accounts may be less con- tradictory than they have hitherto appeared ; and I am in hopes that in the future these experiments may assist not only in the discovery of the causes of accidents, but, as these become recognized, in the prevention of the acci- dents themselves. As an illustation of how important a clear conception of the whole cir- cumstances of the effect of the screw on the rudder may be, I will read an account with which I have been kindly furnished by Mr. Henry Deacon ; from which account it appears that a ship was saved by a combination of accidents, which led to her being handled in the very manner in which she 1875. L 146 REPORT—1875. would have been had the conduct of the officer in charge been governed by the laws laid down in this paper. Mr. Deacon says :— “ T have been reading your communication to the ‘ Engineer’ of the 4th inst. about the ‘ Bessemer’s’ steering, and think the following narrative may have some interest for you. A friend of mine came from Philadelphia, U.8., early in May to Liverpool in the 8.8. ‘Ohio.’ To avoid ice the vessel went out of her course 160 or 170 miles, and encountered very bad weather. The captain spent one or two days without taking off his clothes; and whilst laying down one day, leaving the chief officer in command of the deck, amongst fogs and rain, an iceberg was sighted right ahead and quite close when seen. The officer stopped and reversed the engines, and put the helm hard round, The cessation of motion awoke the captain, who rushed up the bridge. The excitement had spread, the officer’s orders had been strictly obeyed. The captain took all in at a glance, put the engines on ahead at full speed, and the ‘Ohio,’ breaking through the thin ice always skirting the icebergs, passed so close to the solid mass, that my American friend, who is fond of horses and was on deck, says he could have struck the ice from the ship with a tandem whip. The captain afterwards explained the matter thus :—the steering-gear was the now usual parallel screws, é. ¢. exerting the least force when the rudder is most moved, but of course retaining the rudder in any position with little or no effort. To put the rudder hard round when the ship is under full way and the engines working is an almost physical impossibility ; but to putit hard round when the engines are stopped, and especially to put it round when they are reversed, is comparatively easy. The chief officer’s order, therefore, enabled the rudder to be put round to the utmost ; he both stopped and reversed the engines. The captain’s arrival and comprehension completed the mancwuvre. The ‘way’ was but slightly interrupted, but the helm was put hard round and the ship turned from her course in the shortest possible distance. “T have all this at second hand from my friend; but this fact of the easy movement of the helm whilst the ship was under way with the engines reversed appeared to be one well understood ; and of course if no power be required to move the helm, no power can be exerted in steering the vessel ; and the whole tale seems to me so illustrative of your remarks on the ‘ Bessemer,’ that I venture to trouble you with it.” Second Report of the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour, consisting of Lord Hoveuton, D.C.L.,; F.R.S. (Chairman), Jacos Brurens, THomas Brassry, M.P., Frank P. Fettows, ARCHIBALD Hamirton, Professor Lronz Ley, A. J. Munpenia, M.P., WM. Newmanrcu, /.R2.S8., Lord O’Haean, R. J. INetis Paterave, Pro- fessor THorotp Rogrrs. Drawn up by Professor Luonx Levi, F.S.A., FSS. Your Committee appointed to inquire into the economic effects of combi- nations of labourers or capitalists, and into the laws of economic science bearing on the principles on which such combinations are founded, have already stated in their preliminary Report, made last year, the course they ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 147 have thought fit to take in order to ascertain the exact views held by both employers and employed on the subject in question. Although the general objects of such combinations, whether of capitalists or labourers, are well known, both from the written rules which bind them together and from the action taken from time to time, your Committee have deemed it desirable to come into personal contact with some representative men from both classes, with a view of finding whether they do now stand by the rules of their Unions and how far they are prepared to defend them; and for that purpose your Committee resolved to hold a consultative private conference of employers and employed in the presence of the members of the Committee, where they might discuss the questions involved in the resolution of the British Association, with a view of reporting thereon to the same. The points more especially inquired into were the following :— . ist. What determines the minimum rate of wages ? 2nd. Can that minimum rate be uniform in any trade? and can that uni- formity be enforced ? 3rd, Is combination capable of affecting the rate of wages, whether in favour of employers or employed? 4th. Can an artificial restriction of labour or of capital be economically right or beneficial under any circumstances ? For the discussion of these questions your Committee had the advantage of bringing together a deputation from the National Federation of Associated Employers of Labour, consisting of Messrs. R. R. Jackson, M. A. Brown, H. R. Greg, Joseph Simpson, J. A. Marshall, R. Hannen, and Henry Whitworth ; as representing labour—Messrs. Henry Broadhurst, Daniel Guile, George Howell, Lloyd Jones, George Potter, and Robert Newton (Mr. Macdonald, M.P., and Mr. Burt, M.P., having been prevented from attending); and on the part of your Committee, Lord Houghton, Professor Rogers, Mr. Samuel Brown, Mr. W. A. Hamilton, Mr. Frank Fellows, and Professor Leone Levi were present. Many are the works and documents bearing on the questions at issue. Of an official character we have the Report of the Royal Commission ap- pointed “to inquire into and report upon the organization and rules of trade- unions and other associations, whether of workmen and employers, and to inquire into and report on the effects produced by such trade-unions and associations on the workmen and employers and on the relations between workmen and employers and on the trade and industry of the country.” Of an unofficial character we have the Report of the Committee of the Social Science Association “ on the objects and constitution of trade-societies, with their effects upon wages and upon the industry and commerce of the country.” Of special works we have the late lamented Professor Cairnes’s ‘ Leading Principles of Political Economy,’ Mr. Thomas Brassey’s ‘ Work and Wages,’ and Professor Leone Levi’s ‘ Wages and Earnings of the Working Classes.’ The chief functions of combinations, whether of capital or labour, being to operate on wages, your Committee were anxious to ascertain by what criterion the parties interested ordinarily judge of the sufficiency or insuf- ficiency of existing wages. The first test of the sufficiency of wages is the relation they bear to the cost of the necessaries of life. ‘ The minimum of wages,” said Prof. Rogers, “is the barest possible amount upon which a workman can be maintained; that which, under the most unfavourable cir- cumstances, a man is able to obtain.” But the minimum thus estimated can only be, and is, submitted to under circumstances of extreme necessity. “ T belicve the minimum rate of wages,” said one of the representatives of L2 148 REPORT—1875. labour, “ is that which, under the worst circumstances, the worst workman gets from the worst master.”’ We cannot, therefore, take the minimum rates so considered as a proper basis for the sufficiency of wages. How far insufficient wages in relation to the cost of living in the United Kingdom is a cause of the large emigration which is taking place from year to year it is not possible to establish * ; but doubtless the prospect held out in the distant colonies and in the United States of America of considerable improvement has been for some time past, and still is, a strong inducement to those in receipt of insuf- ficient wages in this country to emigrate to other lands. Your Committee are desirous to point out in connexion with this question that not only has the cost of some of the principal necessaries of life greatly risen within the last twenty years Tt, but that, in consequence of the general increase of comfort and luxury, many articles of food, drink, and dress+ must now be counted as necessaries which some years ago were far beyond the reach of the labouring classes ; whilst house-rent, especially adapted for the labouring classes, is considerably dearer. If, therefore, the cost of living be taken as a guide to the rate of wages, it would not be enough to take into account the cost of the mere necessaries of life. A higher standard of living having been established, it is indispensable to compare the wages of labour with such higher standard. Your Committee are not satisfied, however, that it is pos- sible to regulate wages according to the scale of comfort or luxury which may be introduced among the people, and are compelled to assert that it is an utter fallacy to imagine that wages will rise or fall in relation to the cost of such supposed necessaries or indulgences. A better test of the sufficiency of wages is the relation they bear to the state of the labour-market; and tested by that standard the minimum rate of wages which workmen are at any time prepared to accept is the least which they think they are entitled to have under existing circumstances, the * The average number of emigrants in the last ten years from the United Kingdom, from 1862 to 1873, was 230,000 per annum. In‘1873 the total number was 310,612, and in 1874 241,014. The emigration to the United States decreased from 233,073 in 1873, to 148,161 in 1874. + The prices of the principal articles of food in the five years from 1852 to 1856 and 1868 to 1872 are shown in the following Table :— Wheat. |Mutton.| Beef. [Potatoes. Butter. | Cheese. | Tea. | Sugar. per qr.| per Ib. | per lb. | per ton, per lb. | per Ib. {per lb. | per Ib. & da.) d. d. 8. d. d, &, "ase ae 1852-56] 62 0; 562 | 510 105 || 1856-58) 11-41 650 | 210) 0 5 1868-72} 54 8} 635 | 615 110 || 1871-73) 10°38 | 6 1 6] 0 3} 1873...) 58 8} 768 | 7:03 138 1874 ...155 81 656 | 639 140 Report of Local Government Board. Report of Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages. i $ The consumption of articles of food and drink per head in 1864, 1873, and 1874. was:— Bacon. | Cheese.| Rice. |Sugar.|Tobacco. | Wine. | Malt. ES ae omen pirits. | Spirits. _—————— | | = 1864...) 3-77 | 313 | 5-72 | 3683] 1-29 |o 1873 ...| 9:07 | 4-69 |11-37 | 51-59! 1-41 | 0: 1874 ...| 784] 503 |1018 | 5637] 144 | 0 ts ae : 3 ie . ] 9 2 6 | 1:98 0-91 0°32 3 | 1:94 0:94 0:32 ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 149 trade-unions guiding them as to the state of trade and the value of labour at the time. Unfortunately, however, what workmen think themselves entitled to have docs not always correspond with what employers find themselves able to grant. Primarily the wages of labour are determined by the amount of capital available for the purposes of wages in relation to the number of labourers competing for the same. But the amount of capital employed in any industry is itself governed by considerations of the relation of the cost of production to the market-price of the produce (that is, to the price which the consumer is able or willing to give for the same)—the cost of production including the cost of materials, the value of capital, the cost of superintendence, and the wages of labour. Objection was taken at the Conference to this method for arriving at the rate of wages; and it was urged that instead of taking the price of the article produced or the interest of the consumer as the basis of the calcula- tion, the first ingredient in the cost of the article should be the price to be paid to the workman in producing it. But aserious consideration will show that the employer cannot ignore what the consumer can or will pay any more than tho share which the value of capital, the cost of superintendence, and the cost of the materials have upon the cost of production; for he must cease producing altogether if he cannot both meet the ability of the con- sumer to purchase his article and successfully compete with the producers of other countries. Your Committee think that it is not in the power of the employer to control the proportion of the different elements in the cost of production, each of them being governed by circumstances peculiar to itself. The value of capital as well as the value of the raw materials are regulated by the law of supply and demand, not only in this country but in the prin- cipal markets of the world. The cost of superintendence and the wages of labour are likewise governed by the relation of the amount of capital to the number seeking to share in the different employments. The employed say, ** We must have certain wages. We care for nothing else. Labour is our property. We set our value upon it. If you will have our labour you must pay what we ask for it; and if such wages should require a rise in the market-price let the consumer pay it.” What, however, if the consumer will not or cannot pay sufficient price to enable the employer to pay such wages? What if he can get the article cheaper elsewhere? Must not production cease if there be no market? And where will. be the wages if there be no production ? Nor should it be forgotten that a general rise of wages pro- ducing an increase of the cost of all the commodities of life reacts on the masses of the people, and thus far neutralizes the benefit of higher wages. Disagreements between employers and employed are often produced on the subject of wages by the fact that allthe elements of the case are not within the cognizance of both parties, experience showing that, in making a demand for an advance of wages or for resisting a fall, workmen are of necessity groping in the dark as to the real circumstances of the case. One of the chief advantages supposed to result from the organization of trade-unions is the competency of their leaders to give solid and practical advice to those interested as to the condition of the labour-market ; and we haye no doubt that this duty is in the main honestly performed; but it is very much to expect that such leaders should universally possess large and liberal views enough to vindicate the exercise of their enormous power, and such constant and accurate knowledge of the various facts of the case as would enable them to be an almost infallible authority. On the other hand, were it possible for employers, who are not in the dark in such matters, to make 150 REPORT—1875. known to their own workmen the grounds of the action they propose taking before the resolve is carried into execution, your Committee are convinced that many disputes would be avoided, and much of the jealousy which now exists between the parties would be removed. The recent lock-out in South Wales illustrated the need of such a course. Had the facts which Lord Aberdare elicited from the principal colliery firms in Glamorganshire been made known previous to or simultaneously with the notice of a fall, it is a question whether such a widespread calamity would have occurred. It is, perhaps, a natural but unfortunate circumstance that employers are seldom found to take the initiative in allowing a rise in wages when the state of the market permits it as they are in the case of a fall, and spontaneously to offer what they must sooner or later be compelled to grant. A more prompt and politic course on their part in this matter would go far to neutralize the hostile action of trade-unions. Your Committee were anxious to ascertain how far is it in the mind of the employed that the employers obtain for themselves too large a share of profits at their expense. Your Committee wero assured that no such . doubts are entertained, though cases were produced supporting such sus- picions by reference to the time of the great rise in the price of coals in 1878, when workmen’s wages did not, in the opinion of the representatives of labour, rise to any thing like the proportion of the masters’ profits *. Your Committee admit that in cases of great oscillations in prices, the share par- ticipated either by the employers in the shape of profits, or by the employed in the shape of wages, may be for a time greater or less than their normal distribution would justify. And it is possible that some portions of these extra profits may be unproductively spent or so employed as not to benefit the parties more immediately concerned, and even used in totally alien speculations. Yet, in the main, the working classes must receive, in one way or another, a considerable advantage from them, there being no doubt that the largest portion of such extra profits will be reinvested in the ordinary industries of the country. In the end, however, wages and profits will be divided among the producers in proper proportions; and if at any time profits or wages should be larger than they ought to be, we may be quite sure that ere long the competition of capitalists will tend either to the lowering of prices or the raising of wages, so as to make profits and wages gravitate towards each other. Immediately allied to the question of the determination of a minimum of wages is that of their uniformity. In the opinion of many trade-unions, all workmen of average ability in any trade should earn the same wages, the average ability of each man being understood to have been determined in advance by the fact of his being admitted as a member of the union. Buta man is subject to no examination, and is generally admitted upon the tes- timony of those who have worked with him, whose evidence must fre- quently be fallacious and insufficient. Nor does it appear that the rejection is absolutely certain even if the applicant should not be deemed a man of average ability, the acceptance or rejection of the party being always optional with the lodge to which he is introduced. Your Committee are therefore not satisfied that any guarantees exist that every member of a * Mr. Halliday’s evidence before the Committee of the House of Commons on coals was that, though the custom was to give to workmen a portion of any rise of prices in the shape of increasing wages, the proportion being an additional 2d. a day for every 10d. a ton, the rise in wages was often ld. per ton only, and sometimes nothing, whilst when the price rose 2s. 6d. to 5s. a ton, the wages were only increased $d. a day. ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 151 union is able to earn a fair day’s wages for a fair day’s work; and they cannot, therefore, agree in the proposition that all workmen should be entitled to uniform wages on the ground of uniform ability. But another reason has been alleged for the uniformity of wages, which is still less tenable than the former, viz. a supposed uniformity of production independent of skill. The right of the workman to a uniform standard of wages was stated to be the production of an article which, though demanding less skill to perform, is of equal utility, and is proportionally as profitable to the employer. Your Committee must, however, entirely demur to the principle that, in the apportionment of wages, no account should be taken of the skill brought to bear on the execution of the task, since a system of that nature would act as a premium on inferiority of workmanship. Again, by another test should the right of each individual to earn certain wages be determined, and that is by his productive capacity. Professor Levi asked whether that was taken into account when the workman was assumed to be of average ability ; and the answer was that the amount of production depended largely upon the skill. “The more skilful a man is the more he will produce.” But whilst in so far this answer was correct, it contradicted the principle embodied in the preceding test ; the answer ‘itself did not take sufficiently into account that skill is not the only element in effectiveness of labour. There are qualities of mind, judgment, and even of heart, disposition, and of moral character, which go far to increase or diminish the efficiency of labour ; and of such qualities the employer is, of necessity, a far better judge than any union can be. That under ordinary circumstances wages in any trade should tend to uniformity is quite possible. The facility of communication and the extension of intercourse of necessity equalize prices and wages; but any attempt to compel uniformity of wages among any large number of men of varied capacity must of necessity prove a source of disappointment. Much, again, may be saidin favour of a common standard of wages in any industry, as avoiding the embarrassment necessarily encountered in any attempt to adjust the rate to the exact worth of each individual. Yet it is impossible to ignore the fact that whilst a uniform rate is sure to operate unjustly in favour of persons who may be wanting in fairness of dealing or capacity for workmanship, in the nature of things it is almost incapable to _ exist over a wide area, having regard to the varieties in the prices of fuel, carriage, house accommodation, or of the means of livelihood, as well as in the cost of yaw materials and in the processes employed as affecting the rate of production of each individual. On the whole, your Committee find that an absolute uniformity in the rate of wages in any trade, though to a certain extent convenient, is neither just nor practicable, whilst any effort to compel uniformity in the amount of earnings of any number of individuals must prove fallacious and wrong as an illegitimate interference with the rights of industry. A still more important question in connexion with the subject is how far combination of any kind can affect permanently or temporarily the rate of wages. Upon this, as might be expected, the most divergent opinions are held by the representatives of capital and labour. The employers of labour, standing on the solid principles of political economy, deny that combinations can, under any circumstances, affect the rates of wages, at least in any per- manent manner—the argument adduced being that if workmen are entitled to higher wages they are sure to get them, since, under the law of supply and demand, whenever it is found that profits trench unduly upon wages fresh capital is sure to be introduced. which provides for the raising of wages. The REPORT—1875. The employed, on the other hand, confidently appeal to past experience, and point to the fact that almost every increase of wages has been due to the action of trade-unions. They say that without combination workmen cannot secure the market-price of their labour, but are to a certain extent at the mercy of their employers; that in trades where one establishment employs a large number of workmen the employers can discharge a single workman with comparatively slight inconvenience, while the workman loses his whole means of subsistence; that without the machinery of com- bination the workmen, being dependent upon their daily work for their daily bread, cannot hold on for a market. Your Committee are not prepared to deny that combinations can render useful service in matters of wages; but they think that it is impossible for them to frustrate or alter the operations of the laws of supply and demand, and thereby to affect permanently the rates of wages. Combinations may hasten the action of those laws which would undoubtedly, though perhaps more slowly, operate their own results. The limited power of combinations is in effect admitted by the workmen themselves. ‘We do not say,” said one of the workmen’s representatives, “ that trade-unions can absolutely interfere with supply and demand, because when trade is very bad they cannot obtain the standard; when it is good they easily raise the standard. What they do is, they enable workmen sooner to strike at the right time for a general advance. They get the advance sooner than if they were an undisciplined mob, having no common understanding; and when trade is receding, the common understanding enables workmen to resist the pressure put upon them by their employers. It helps them in both ways, and the workmen find they can act together beneficially.” The ground here taken by the working men is not at variance with sound economic principles. But there is yet another way in which trade-unions may prove useful, and that is by rendering wages more sensitive to the ‘action of the state of the market, and so preventing the influence of custom to stand in the way of the operation of supply and demand; for there are such occupations, as agriculture, where custom often exercises imperious rule even upon wages. As it has been well said by M. Batbie, “ Wages do not change unless the causes for the change exercise a strong influence. Ifthe conditions of supply and demand do not undergo a great change, wages continue the same by the simple force of custom. ‘The variations of wages are not like those of a thermometer, where the least clouds are marked, where one can read the smallest changes of temperature. They may rather be compared to those bodies which do not become heated except under the action of an elevated temperature, and remain quite insensible to the slight modifications of the atmosphere. Until a great perturbation takes place in the conditions of supply and demand, no one would think of changing the rate of wages” *. After making every allowance your Committee cannot admit that combinations have any power cither to raise permanently the rate of wages or to prevent their fall when the conditions of trade require the same, as recent experience abundantly shows ; and whilst admitting that combinations may be bene- ficial in accelerating the action of economic laws, your Committee cannot be blind to the fact that they produce a state of irritation and discontent which often interferes with the progress of production. Limited as is the power of combinations to affect the rates of wages, still more limited is their power to affect materially the progress of productive industry. The Royal Commission on Trade-Unions reported that it was * See M. Batbie’s article on “ Salaires” in Bloek’s ‘ Dictionnaire de la Politique.’ ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 1538 extremely difficult to determine how far unions have impeded the develop- ment of trade, whether by simply raising prices or by diverting trade from certain districts, or from this to foreign countries. The representatives of capital at the Conference alluded to endeavoured to prove that certain branches of trade have permanently been injured by the unions. Whether the fact can be established or not, it is undeniable that British trade has enormously increased within the last twenty years, and that the exports of manufactured goods are on a larger scale now than they were at any former eriod *, : What is perhaps most objectionable in combinations of labour is the method they often pursue in order to operate on the rates of wages ; for they are not content with making a collective demand on employers for a rise, but endeavour to force it, or resist a fall, by restricting the supply of labour and increasing the need of it. One such method, explained at the Con- ference, seems to your Committee peculiarly objectionable. A representative of labour said, ‘That when depression of trade comes, by means of associated funds, the men are liable to say to the surplus labourers ‘stand on one side, you are not wanted for the time being; if you go on with your labour at half price, it will not mend the trade: we will not let you become a drug on the market, putting every other man down, but we will sustain you.” In three years, your Committee were informed, over £100,000 was thus paid for unemployed labour, in the hope that undue fall in wages would be pre- vented by keeping labourers out of the market. Your Committee are of opinion that the artificial prevention of a fall of wages, when such a fall is necessary and inevitable, is economically wrong, and can only have the effect of still more injuring the condition of workmen, since by so doing they only throw hindrances in the way of production, which is the parent of all wages. Equally objectionable in your Committee’s opinion,.as interfering with the _ freedom of labour and with the general economy of production, is every regu- lation of such trade-unions that excludes from employment in the trades all who have not been regularly apprenticed, or any rule which should set a limit to the number of apprentices. Professor Cairnes, commenting on the monopoly thus advocated by trade-unions, said, “It is a monopoly, more- over, founded on no principle either of moral desert or of industrial effi- ciency, but simply on chance or arbitrary selection ; and which, therefore, cannot but exert a demoralizing influence on all who come within its scope— in all its aspects presenting an ungracious contrast to all that is best and most generous in the spirit of modern democracy.” The only other question on which your Committee will report is whether an artificial restriction of labour or of capital can, under any circumstances, be economically right or beneficial. It is, indeed, scarcely necessary to say that any restriction of labour cr of capital having the effect of limiting pro- * The following were the quantities of some of the principal articles of British pro- duce and manufacture exported from the United Kingdom in 1854 and 1874 :— Tnerease. 1854. 1874. per cent. Goalk and. coke. ..:.s0v 6. de > ° > « * 2H a é “EP Bie a a BDea = aR eee ey Far cae T ‘3 a u s z k 3 NOE = tle DS) CEREE Sp > Ciesr HH a I ! Sas6 ps t Sb, ) EREEEE Ce a {= 4 | ee Poe = 4 Bea rt 2 = a z = fesse ia fe s < = = rita z | = 2 | EEE BEELER ELE (= 4 a> x > > x 2k = x +4 x Ro: P: mae {2 Cy a i it ; E g ia < | t é i =e a a | ia i Bs f i. 2 é Fs AGS = 5 3 B Fi 2 it be = E fs Ea 3 6 7 > A * x 2 ug 3 = x S ° > x ae . Oa ee ON THE DRAINAGE-AREA ETC, OF THE RIVER AVON. 183 fiting the anchorage, tends to lessen the power of the tide to keep open a good deep channel in the Severn. Examination of the soundings tends to confirm this opinion ; there is an evident shoaling of the water in the Severn immediately above the mouth of the Avon. The limits of this paper will not, however, permit the bringing forward all that might be said on this subject, or the opportunity of showing the natural as well as commercial requirements and facilities which the district afforded for carrying out such a work. The scheme received, for various reasons, considerable local opposition, and was ultimately left in abeyance. The great outlay (about £1,000,000) which has been recently, or will very shortly have been, made on dock-works connected with the Avon, and the separate vested interests which have consequently arisen, have placed serious financial difficulties in the way of its speedy revival. Within the last few years the Corporation have, through the author, as their engineer, made many improvements in their existing dock-works, ‘The old lock entrances, which were not adapted to the trade of the present day, have been supplemented by two new locks, of larger dimensions, laid at a deeper level than the old ones, and provided with all modern appliances of “hydraulic and other machinery for quick work. It would be out of place to attempt to give here all the details of construction of these works. The ordinary and some special difficulties were met with and overcome. These chiefly arose from unsatisfactory foundations, and from haying to work in confined spaces surrounded by water, portions of the wall of the approach to the outer entrance-lock requiring to be built in trenches on the river-bank, within the line of high water, at a depth of 53 feet. In the bottom of the lock excavations much trouble was experienced from springs of water from the gravel bursting up through the foundation level of the lock. These were overcome by building in at intervals along the lock inverts pipes reaching down into the gravel, each fitted at the top with a very light gun-metal valve, which, lifting easily with pressure from beneath when the tide is low, permits the water to escape, and closes again when the pressure becomes greater from above. These relief-valves have acted very satisfactorily. The lock-gates are mostly of wrought iron, made on the arch principle, and partly buoyant. In their design some special features have been adopted, which may be seen in the working drawings laid before the Section for inspection by any Members feeling interest in the subject. The gates work remarkably weil and keep practically water-tight, a somewhat unusual success in. double skin lock-gates. Other drawings and details of the dock-works are also open for inspection. Improvements are also being carried on by the Corporation in the removal of some of the projecting points of rock, and the deepening of the bed of the river. The general line of slope to which it is proposed ultimately to re- duce the bed is shown on the longitudinal section of the river (Plate VII.). Another important work being carried out inside of the harbour is the formation of a new quay, about half a mile long, the construction of the retaining-wall of which may be a matter of some interest. It is being built in a trench, without a coffer-dam, partly within and partly along the edge of the water of the harbour. With the exception of the face, which is of dressed stone, and the coping, which is of granite, the whole of the wall is of concrete, laid in steps and beds alternately of blue lias lime and of Portland cement concrete, the object being to gain the advantage of the comparative cheapness of the lime, and the more quick and certain setting of the cement. 184. REPORT— 1875. A drawing of this work is shown with the others. The two separate portions of the work are found to bond well together, and the system is one which admits of rapidity of construction, and without much skilled labour. In addition to the dock which has been alluded to as under construction on the Gloucestershire side of the Avon, there is also another dock on the Somersetshire side at Portishead. As details of each of these docks have already been laid before the Section, it is not necessary again to give the particulars which the author had prepared respecting them. Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnes, H. E. Dresser (Secretary), T. Harzanp, J. E. Harrine, Professor Newton, and the Rey. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the possibility of establishing a “ Close Time” for the protection of indigenous animals, and for watching Bilis intro- duced into Parliament affecting this subject. Your Committee have again to express their regret that, notwithstanding every exertion on their part, they were unable to obtain the introduction into Parliament, in time to allow of its being successfully carried, of the Bill which their former Reports have indicated to be most desirable ; but at the same time they have great pleasure in stating that Mr. Henry Chaplin, M.P. for Mid Lincolnshire, holds out to them the hope that he will at an early period of the next session bring forward such a measure. ' Your Committee continue to receive assurances of the efficient working of the Sea-birds Preservation Act of 1869. In view of the proceedings likely to be taken in the ensuing session, as above stated, your Committee respectfully solicit their reappointment. Report of the Committee appointed to Superintend the Publication of the Monthly Reports of the progress of Chemistry, the Committee consisting of Professor A. W. Wittramson, J. R.S., Professor Franx- LAND, F.R.S., and Professor Rosconr, F.R.S. Tue Committee have much pleasure in reporting that the Chemica! Society has continued to publish the monthly reports of the progress of Chemistry, which were commenced five years ago by the aid of a grant of money from the Association, and also raised by donations from members of the Society. These reports have been edited by Mr. Watts, to whose earnest and assiduous labours much ofthe success of the reports must be attributed. A considerable number of chemists divide among themselves the labour of preparing abstracts of the chemical papers which have been published in the course of each month. In spite of the smallness of the remuneration offered to these gentlemen, the expense of publishing the abstracts is: very considerable, and has ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE coast. 185 become a scrious strain upon the resources of the Society, more especially now that the aids from the Association and from private sources have already been continued for the period which had been assigned to them. The Committee have reason to believe that these abstracts supply an important need for the advancement of our science, and that they are highly valued by the members of the Society and other chemists. They confidently trust that the Society may be able to carry on the im- portant work which has been thus auspiciously commenced; and they con- gratulate the Association on the service which it has rendered to science by supplying to that enterprise the aid which was absolutely needed in its infancy. Report on Dredging off the Coast of Durham and North Yorkshire in 1874. By Grorce Srewarpson Brapy, C.M.Z.S., and Davin Rosertson, F.G.S. A srmr account of the dredging undertaken by us on the coast was presented to the British Association last year, but no attempt was then made to give lists or detailed observations. The following Report embraces lists of all that came under our notice in the groups of Mollusca, Entomostraca (Ostra- coda and Copepoda), Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, Spongozoa, and Foraminifera. Amongst Echinodermata our captures did not include any species requiring special notice, whilst among the larger Crustacea (Decapoda) the only species of unusual occurrence in the district were Stenorhynchus longirostris, Fabr., Portunus depurator, Linn., and Ebalia tumefacta, Mont. Several species belonging to an interesting group of minute Crustaceans not hitherto noticed in the British seas (Isopoda Remigantia of G. O. Sars) were taken, but we are not yet able to name more than one or two of them with certainty. Special attention was given to the Acarides, a large number of which were obtained, and amongst them some previously undescribed species which have been figured and described by one of us in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for the present year. But the greatest number of novelties occurred amongst the Copepoda, 28 species of this group being new to science, and 11 new to British records. The Mollusca, Ostracoda, and Foraminifera of the Northumberland and Durham coasts had been so fully investigated by the Dredging-Expeditions of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field-Club, undertaken with the help of the British Association in the years 1862, 1863, 1864, that little was left to be done in those branches. But, as might be expected, notwithstanding that much of the ground had already been well searched, we are now able to add to the number of species noted in the previous Reports, while, on the other hand, some species contained in the earlier lists are absent from ours*, To the list of Testaceous Mollusca prepared by the late Mr. Alder from the * It must be noticed, however, that the area embraced in our dredgings of last year 1874), though of nearly similar extent, is not quite identical with that investigated by the 'yneside Field-Club in the years 1862-64. ‘The present Report refers to the coast of Durham and the northern part of Yorkshire as far as Scarborough, while those of the earlier expeditions embraced the seaboard of the two counties of Durham and Northumberland, thus reaching nearly sixty miles further north, while, on the other hand, our last year’s explorations went about thirty-five miles further south than those of ten years ago. REPORT—1875. 186 Berd * eee ccecenvecleceveccccces SOR eee el eee eee eens eC eccveceseclcocccdcccses OPP eee eee eee ee HK He * * HEN OF eae UK HE * see rereevveslecesrcsceres|sencenececes % see eeereeweslecteereesene x% seers Lona “eyesuoja ——y HHH [rreeeereesssseerre Door ‘esorpided vopraoyyso * Pere eee eee ee eee eee eee sauor “euu1ou0d * seesewrrenealecccrerevecslesseeeseeeeelseneeceseaesleenssteeeeeelsanscrstsseslsenessccsseslecsevseeneee|seuseuesesee ay (ours) vyesun —, ee ceeeebseeees % MK % Pave seeeeree Caner) 11sauoe —— *% i “"* (emonT) stsuauTpouUN(T —— & * goat % He sonieisy sles s| nae ocesensihelseeceveaders|soececces ses) vevscenesterlushooncousdd|soverccedaes|anc cost eee cvacecaccth rae Apoug “eyeroeulo B P 5 re ¥ eK Pare * + Bild cme Sap i Ii ala te aaane ceric ae qyaerdu0sg ¥ HH HH KK KK x* eee eweeeels * ” ee we iii ee ee 190 FORAMINIFERA (continued), REPORT—1875. "By GG awe | pue s[peys weyomq fysnoroqgreg FO | "ey LT “m10}30q Apurs | f Ysnoroqreog FO * "By CZ pxayd -ue vunihoprg pue souoys {Aug s pooyy uIqoy Fo sop G * mK OK HH * HH HH HH * * “ey Oe ‘seydydooz pur stjeqs : uayouq ‘Avg s pooyy * to ee Ee : (UB RS Eo SR ICL 5 ROE SGGme Piedeos Ong : : pue oars osa1vy ae * x ae ee Ne ea 5 BUD Pew YO seyrut g 3 6 ‘yoarasd | pue syjeys wexoaq 2 Ex ie sae FO seru g "eT QZ ‘pues Appnui ‘ jood of oi ae tye it -oyeyT FO sop ¢ : 2s aur "ey OG "TPA | :* “vas esivod f uaptT * oe = : opseg Yo sep ¢ | te : f ULIOTJMEPT JJO soylur g "eI OG “pues ATjoavas | "el OG *jaavas ATTEYS : ULOTJMLTT YO So[lUt F * "Ry ce ‘pus Appnur ‘Ry OF *Aypoaras £ puey : Wleveg JO soya ZT -rapung FO sepium O¢ ‘ey CGP ‘pues Appnut : purl | ~IopuNg Yo sopim OZ HH * KX "ey oo ~pues nuynuohay 88 (Z9-09 ‘soy Gg ‘Td ‘ey ‘di 4d ‘ZogyT ‘wuIssopy *[eJouOTY ‘metoy) vzuonseg q poqtaosop ATsnoraogd wnsoy v st (9 ‘vy “Sy “QT 1d ‘ETP ‘a “po “joa ‘egg ‘SURAT, “Tlt[q) seuOP pur caxIeg Jo ‘ngnurbumu-ouchruy vuabyT ,,—: kpeag “q “TT ‘APL OIF 00 SuTMoTLOF OY} oavy om soroods siq} 07 yoodset YITAA 4. 191 “ROSNTLOP, 94} YIM Cyay oyqunyea Ayenba acy weantoyy “PL “VY "AY OY} 07 pur ‘eaosrururedoy Jo soroods THZIQnOp TIM oowejsissv opqunqea sty tof Apvag -g “FT “APL 0} poyqepur Apyuoas ore oA * nec eee teen eweeeneeg estate resletatesess|seeeesaeslessseseeelsscseseeslesuseesee 4% SRP e meee enews a teen neel eee ewnneeaeaeee Reyes” ena ‘epi siny % stent ee eelewereteeslseewereee| ss raweseseeeseseessennes “QuOopT “emngvorpiquim xe ue x *% % x HK sa teeeeee eras % * se eeeeeee % HM tere ee ew een neraeee “MH £ Lr ‘epnssoadap UTUOTUO NT ra *% * 4K ee vars * ren yee [ttre teee|eeeee eres % * OIE COBO. Fy p WT ‘eqejound-07e1.19s * weet teen lve eter eet ewelaceeeeranleeeeeseer|seeregaes * Seer eer eee ees seeeeeses ees eaibe ip one’s Sone Tgene oer See” Zar: ‘edst10 eyjouoysATOg *VCINITANWA Ny Aproe sy ¥ ae On SHY ‘saprououlme eurno1ed¢. x see ereeenerlsanccereslececeseeslsssserssslsceseseeslereseceesl(sersssseslscsseeseslseseeetanelsessseeesleossssseslecsvesersiseees eee ccececeeeres fiposg ‘snpionty snaodouty, » . . eee ween “172M “epiqra *% *% eee eee BYES Hx HK 4H eee eee ee eee eee eee UuUyy “TLtBo00g BI[V}O% slewecerccelcccceroee|eceeeseerlseesetens[seesssesslseerseess|seeeveges|eessesessseeseesenssssesees fyuony ‘sues[njot Pare *% ¥x Ke | HHH #% % HH 4 ¥x 4 He *H wee [°° “8" vayn 4 “eTNYeqo] VUlpnyvouNnLy, He He ** * 4% pa xx xx * Hee [etesteee] ie [reeccereeteceeseeecdecreeeees sala ar SISUaUBIAOPI POUL VUTTNGLOUB % eeeee Pee elecereceeeleeeeeesesiseessssesisacceee wale ween eels eweee - % UP eee CPSC e eee eee es CeCe eer eee eee eee eee eee eee eee) “UUM ‘2008.14 90 % LO SE OI G7 ‘s1uepnqoys VUIG.LOOST(T MH PTee Tee eee eee eee eee eee ee ween “040 ‘ByevAo Pee ‘ 040 qq ‘soprodnd ie see eeeeee x 3646 Bras ovacceccs a aaa arava’ % KK Yee peewee we eeeereesessee "940 “BYVUISABUT eu eee eerveccese a 2 f ‘eydoaysAjod BUTLINOULE A . ik a CO IC LS a oe 7 9 ‘pons dd wel ee WO ‘snqo0.4 HEN | KRK eH #K en #4 xx "4% x% He fressseees| sea, : se" goupsfagy “BTNIVLOVS VLLETN4XaT, * ome w teense weer reel tee w ee ees lace ew eres lessee esse se eeess es leeass esse HOES seer lseeeeseeslessnaeees peaecn ney ee ie CD ‘saprloy[nq BULIODIQOLD * PTE eUECET TSR EEE EEE ee eeeer Ce ee eee Cees ee eC Sees Teer eeerere rere rrest rr eee e sere ee eee) * x PTeReRT ERIC EE TORE eee eee eee "040 ESd9ATUN BUTTNGIO ‘VaINTUmDIGOTH ATraLE YT eeeseelecvceeesr] acy ** or * “wo9z “wuvitusiqagQ —— Peer rer rer ee eee eee rr re cere errs oh tye Seronecwecescosscncecceconseswase "1M. ‘BAGOULOO —x ee erences % .. * ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE COAST. Co ee eens x See een ene leeeeeneeeleweeweeeeieeenee —- 192 REPORT—1875. three years’ dredgings of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field-Club, we are now able to add 21 species. From the same dredgings 19 species of Ostracoda were catalogued by Mr. Norman, but five years later the number was increased to 47 by Mr. G. 8. Brady. Our present list includes 71 species, one of which, Cytherideis Hilda, is new to science. The Rey, A. M. Norman, who accompanied us during part of the dredging- expedition, has kindly examined and reported on the Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, and Spongozoa. Among the Polyzoa is one interesting form new to the British seas, Bugula fruticosa, Packard ; one Hydrozoon new to the east coast, Lafoéa pocillum, Hincks ; and two undescribed sponges, Hymeniacidon virgulatus and Halichondria virgea, both of which are here described by Dr. Bowerbank. The Foraminifera from the earlier dredgings were ably worked out by Mr. H. B. Brady, and numbered 70 spccies, a total subsequently increased to 74, or perhaps rather more. The list will now, with the additions we have made, comprise 94 species, or rather more than 60 per cent. of the recorded British Foraminifera. But apart from the number of specics obtained there is much of interest in their distribution, as may conveniently be seen in the annexed Tables. It was shown by Mr, Alder* that the Testaceous Mollusca of the Northumber- land coast present a distinctly boreal character, which is shared more or less by the whole invertebrate fauna; but it may be remarked with regard to the Ostracoda that this character is by no means so apparent. It will be seen from the Table that Cythere lutea, C. viridis, C. angulata, Cytheridea pune- tillata, and Cytherura nigrescens are absent or rare. All these species are characteristically boreal, and strongly represented in the Posttertiary (« Gla- cial”) clays of Scotland. At the same time it is interesting to note that although Cythere luica and Cytherura nigrescens are absent or rare in the dredgings from this coast, they are extremely common between tide-marks, where they must be subject to much greater variation of temperature. But if a low temperature were specially congenial to these species, we should expect to find them further out at sea, where they certainly lived in great abundance during the deposition of our Posttertiary clays. It is a curious fact that these two species are confined almost entirely to the littoral and Laminarian zones of the cast coast, but are abundant in deep water on the west, as, for instance, in the Frith of Clyde. On the whole, then, we must conclude that the Ostracoda and Foraminifera of the north-east coast of England do not present that marked arctic character which has been noticed in a considerable group of the Northumbrian Mollusca; but that there is, on the contrary, a marked absence of some typically northern forms which are abundant in the warmer seas of the western coast. Nor can we suppose that a cold arctic current is the only or even perhaps the chief agent in the con- tinued existence of this peculiar Northumbrian molluscan fauna, else we could scarcely fail to have had an equally well-marked development of arctic types amongst other groups of invertebrata whose organization renders them even more easy of distribution. We must therefore, in the absence of more accurate information, look to some strictly local circumstances as having been the chief causes of the retention of the species in question over particular circumscribed areas, * Natural-History Transactions of Northumberland and Durham, 1865. ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE coast. 193 TESTACEOUS MOLLUSCA. The letters c, me, r, mr, signifying common, moderately common, rare, moderately rare, refer only to the hauls in which the species were taken. Those marked * are new to the district. BRACHIOPODA. Argiope capsula, Jeff. 4 miles eff Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fathoms ; bottom broken shells and zoophytes. CoNCHIFERA. Anomia ephippium, Linn.: mr. Small in most of the gatherings where the ground was hard. — , var. aculeata, Mill.: mr. Small in most gatherings on hard ground. Pecten pusto, Linn.: me. 4~6 miles off Hawthorn and Redclitf, 20-30 fa.; gravel and dead shells. —— opercularis, Linn.: mr, The living all small in various gatherings. — tigrinus, Mill.: mc. Off Hawthorn, Staiths, Redcliff, and Robin Hood’s Bay, 20-87 fa.; gravelly. similis, Laskey: mr. 5 miles off Redcliff, 50 fa.; gravel and dead shells. striatus, Mull.: mr. Off Castle Eden and Redcliff, 20-30 fa.; gravelly. varius, Linn. Dead, off Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravel, dead shells, and zoophytes. Mytilus pe Linn.: r. Dead shell, off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells. modiolus, Linn.: me. Small, none above an inch, 6 miles off Hawthorn, 37 fa.; sandy gravel. Lima Loscombii, G. B. Sow.: mr. Hawthorn and Redcliff, 20-37 fa.; sandy gravel and dead shells. subauriculata, Mont.: mr. 5 miles off Redcliff, 30 fa.; sandy gravel and dead shells. Modiolaria discors, Linn.: mr. 6 miles off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. nigra, Gray: r. Dead valves, off Staiths, 25 fa. ; gravelly. marmorata, Forbes. In the Ascidia mentula, off Seaham, 35 fa.; gravelly sandy mud. Crenella decussata, Mont.: c. 14 miles off Seaham, 35 fa.; sandy mud. Arca tetragona, Poli: ry. Small, 5 miles off Castle Eden, 20 fa.; coarse gravel. Nuculus nucleus, Linn.: Hawthorn and Redcliff, 20-30 fa. ; sandy gravel and dead shells. —— tenuis, Mont.: c. Fry 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; muddy sand. nitida, Sow. Dead shell, with the last. Leda (caudata) minuta, Mill.: me. In most of the gatherings. *Pectunculus glycymeris, Linn. A dead shell, 5 miles off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells. Cardium echinatum, Linn. Dead valves, 5 miles off Robin Hood's Bay, 30 fa. ; ravelly. ious Gmel.: yr. With the above. edule, Linn,: r. Dead valves, off Durham coast. fasciatum, Mont. Off Hawthorn and Castle Eden, 20-27 fa. ; sandy gravel. norvegicum, Spengl.: mr. Dead valves, 6 miles off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. Lucina borealis, Linn.: yr. 8 miles off Staiths, 25 fa.; sandy gravel and dead shells. Axinus flecuosus, Mont.: r. 5 miles off Hartlepool, 35 fa. ; muddy sand. *Diplodonta rotunda, Mont. 6 miles off Hawthorn, 37 fa.; sandy gravel. Keliia suborbicularis, Mont.: mr. Off Hawthorn and Redcliff, 20-30 fa.; sandy avel. _ Montacuta substriata, Mont.: me. Off Redcliff and Robin Hood’s Bay, 80 fa.; gravel and dead shells. Cyprina islandica, Linn.: mr. Small, off Marsden and Redeliff, 30-33 fa. ; gravel and muddy sand. Astarte suleata, Da Costa: c. 5 miles off Hartlepool, 35 fa.; muddy sand. compressa, Mont.: mc. With the above. triangularis, Mont.: mr. With the above. 1875. “: o *. 194 REPORT—1875. Venus exoleta, Linn. Dead valves, 6 miles off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. lincta, Pult.: mr. Off Marsden, 33 fa.; muddy sand. fasciata, Da Costa: me. Off Redcliffand Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravelly. casina, Linn.: me, and large. 14 miles off Seaham, 35 fa.; sandy mud. ovata, Penn.: me. Large, off Hartlepool and Redcliff, 30 fa.; muddy sand and gravel. gallina, Linn.: me. Off Redeliff, 30 fa.; gravelly. Tapes virgineus, Linn.: me. Off Hawthorn and Castle Eden, 20 fa.; sand and gravel. Lucinopsis undata, Penn.: r. Off Hartlepool, 36 fa. ; muddy sand. Tellina crassa, Gmel. Off Hawthorn, dead shells, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. * tenuis, Da Costa: mr. Off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells. —— pusilla, Phil.: mr, With the above. *—— fubula, Gron.: me. Large, off Seaham, 35 fa. ; sandy mud. Psammobia tellinella, Lamk,: mr. 14 miles off Seaham, Hawthorn, 35 fa.; sandy mud and grayel. ferroensis, Chem.: me. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. Mactra subtruncata, Da Costa: r. Castle Eden, 20 fa.; gravelly. elliptica, Brown. Off Hawthorn and Redcliff. *—— stultorum, Linn. A valve, off Scarborough, 17 fa.; sandy. - Scrobicularia prismatica, Mont.: me. Off Seaham, 35 fa, ; sandy mud, alba, Wood: ry. With the above. Solen pellucidus, Penn. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa. ; muddy sand. *. ensis, Linn, A broken yalve, off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravelly. Thracia papyracea, Poli: mr. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. , var. villosiuscula, Macq.: r. With the above. Neera cuspidata, Olivi. One young, covered with sand, off Seaham, 35 fa.; sandy mud. Corbula gibba, Olivi: me. Off Sunderland and Seaham, 35-45 fa.; muddy sand. Mya truncata, Linn. Valves, and some fry between Castle Eden and Redcliff, 20-35 fa.; gravelly. Saxicava rugosa, Linn.: me. None large, in most of the gatherings. arctica, Linn.: r. Redcliff, 30 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. *Pholas crispata, Linné. Fragment of large shell, between Castle Eden and Redcliff, 20-35 fa. ; gravelly, SOLENOCONCHIA. Dentalium entalis, Linn.: ¢, and large, Off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel and other gatherings. *—— tarentinum, Lamk.: ry. Small, dead, off Hartlepool, 35 fa.; muddy sand. GASTEROPODA. Chiton cinereus, Linn.: ry. Off Staiths, 25 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. marmoreus, Fabr.: r. Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravel and zoophytes. Tectura virginea, Miill.: yr. Off Castle Eden, 20 fa. ; coarse gravel. Emarginula fissura, Linn.: mr. Off Redcliff, 80 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. Capulus hungaricus, Linn.: mr. Small, off Seaham and Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa.; sandy mud and gravel. i *Trochus magnus, Linn.: ry. Dead, off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. tumidus, Mont.: me. Off Redcliff, 30 fa. ; gravelly and dead shells, mostly small. : cinerarius, Linn.: r. Off Castle Eden, 20 fa. ; coarse gravel. Montacuti, Wood: yr. Off Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells, millegranus, Phil.: c. Otf Castle Eden and. Redcliff, 20-30 fa.; gravel and dead shells. —— szizyphinus, Linn.: ec. Off Castle Eden and Redcliff, 20-30 fa.; gravel and dead shells. *. , var. Lyonsti, Leach. With the above. *LZacuna crassior, Mont.: r. Off Castle Eden, 20 fa.; coarse gravel. —— pallidula, Da Costa: vy. Off Staiths, 25 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. Rissoa punctura, Mont.: me, Off Marsden and Seaham and Hawthorn, 20-35 fa. ; sandy gravel. > ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE COAST. 195 Ziussoa parva, Da Costa: me. Durham and Northumberland coasts, 20-30 fa, —_—— , var. interrupta. More common. striata, Adams: me. In most of the gatherings. vitrea, Mont.: r. Off Hawthorn, 35 fa.; sandy gravel. soluta, Phil.: me. Obtained with the above. Caecum glabrum, Mont.: me. Off Seaham and Redeliff, 30-35 fa.; sandy mud and gravel. Turritella terebra, Linn. Off Marsden and Seaham, 35 fa. ; muddy sand. Scalaria Trevelyana, Leach: me. Off Redcliff and Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fa. ; avelly. ss Aclis ee Titton : r. Off Scarborough, 17 fa. ; sandy. *Odostomia rissoides, Hanley: r. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. * acuta, Jeff.: mr. Oif Hartlepool and Scarborough, 25-35 fa.; muddy sand and gravel. — unidentata, Mont.: r. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa.; sandy gravel. obliqua, Alder: ry. Off Marsden, 35 fa.; muddy sand. * + , var. Warren, Thompson. Off Hawthorn. —— indistincta, Mont.: me. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravelly. ——— interstincta, Mont.: r.. Off Castle Eden, 20 fa.; gravelly. —— spiralis, Mont.: mc. Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa. ; gravelly. --— laciea, Linn.: me. Redcliff, 30 fa.; gravel and dead shells, * acicula, Phil.: me, Oif Hawthorn and Scarborough, 20-25 fa.; sandy gravel. Stilifer Turtont, Brod.: my. Off Sunderland and Seaham, 20-35 fa.; on spines of Echinus pictus. ELulima distorta, Desh.: c. Off Hawthorn, 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. » var. gracilis. With the above. bilineata, Alder: me. Off Seaham and Hartlepool, 35 fa.; muddy sand. Natica islandica, Gmel.: r. Off Redcliff, 80 fa.; gravel and dead shells. grenlandica, Beck: yr. 20 miles of Sunderland, 45 fa.; muddy sand. —— Alderi, Forbes: me. Small, in most of the gatherings, Montacuti (Montagui), Forbes: mr. In a few of the gatherings, Velutina levigata, Penn.: mr. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravel and zoophytes. Aporrhais pes-pelecani, Linn.: me. Off Marsden and Sunderland, 33-45 fa. ; muddy sand. Buecinum undatum, Linn. Obtained with the above, the shells thin and small with high ridges. Trophon truncatus, Strom: me. Redcliffand Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fa.; gravelly. Fusus gracilis, Da Costa: me. 7 miles off Marsden, 30 fa. ; muddy sand. antiquus, Linn.: me. With the aboye, mostly small, some large. propinguus, Alder: mr. Off Marsden, 33 fa. ; muddy sand. Wassa incrassata, Strom: me. Hawthorn and Redcliff, 20-80 fa. 3; sand and ravel, Defrancia linearis, Mont.: me. Redeliff, 30 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. * purpurea, Mont. Obtained with the above. Pleurotoma brachystoma, Phil.: mr. Off Marsden, 33 fa. ; muddy sand. turricula, Mont.: me. Off Redcliff, 30 fa. ; gravel and dead shells. Trevelyana, Turton: me. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 30 fa.; gravel and zoophytes, Cyprea europea, Mont.: r. Dead shell in several gatherings. Cylichna umbilicata, Mont.: me. Castle Eden and Redcliff, 20-30 fa. ; gravelly. cylindracea, Penn.: c. With the above. * Utriculus mammillatus, Phil.: mr. With the above. —— truncatulus, Brug.: me. Off Sunderland and Redcliff, 30-45 fa.; muddy sand and gravel. obtusus, Mont.: r. Off Sunderland, 45 fa. ; muddy sand. *Acteon tornatilis, Linn.: me, All small, none more than + inch, off Hawthorn 20 fa. ; sandy gravel. Philine scabra, Miill.: mr. Off Marsden, 33 fa. ; muddy sand. PIEROPODA. *Spirialis retroversus, Flem.: x. 5 miles off Redcliff, 80 fa.; gravel and dead shells. 02 196 REPORT—1875. Subclass ENTOMOSTRACA. Order CoPpEPODA. Calanus finmarchicus (Gunner). Occurs in almost every dredging. longiremis (Claus). One specimen found in a depth of 35 fa., off Robin Hood’s Bay. Dias longiremis, Lilljeborg. Abundant in many dredgings, and occurred more or less in all. Temora longicornis (Miller). Occurred in most of the dredgings. Isias clavipes, Boeck. In a depth of 35 fa., off Robin Hood’s Bay. Centropages hamatus (Lilljeborg). Found in many of the dredgings. Cyclops littoralis, Brady. In a depth of 45 fa., 20 miles east of Sunderland. Thorellia brunnea, Boeck. Off Robin Hood’s Bay and Staiths, 25-35 fa. Cyclopsyllus elongatus, nov. gen. et sp. In a depth of 27 fa., off Hawthorn; sandy bottom. * Misophria pallida, Boeck. In company with the preceding species. Lophophorus insignis, noy. gen. et sp. One specimen taken in the same dredging as the preceding. Longipedia coronata, Claus. Abundant in almost every dredging. Ectinosoma curticornis, Boeck. Almost always in company with the preceding, and equally abundant ; both species prefer sandy ground. *—— Sarsit, Boeck. Off Robin Hood's Bay, 35 fa. erythrops, nov. sp. In depths of 20-35 fa., off Hartlepool, Red Cliff, Staiths, and Robin Hood’s Bay; but always scarce, —— tenuis, noy. sp. Off Hawthorn, 27-37 fa. Zosime (?) fusiformis, nov. sp._ Off Red Cliff, 35 fa. spuvilosa, noy. sp. Off Hartlepool. *Bradya typica, Boeck. Four specimens, off Hartlepool ; sandy bottom. Spio brunnea, nov. gen. et sp. Off Hawthorn, 27 fa. ; sandy bottom. *Amymone falcata, Norman. Off Marsden, 25 fa. ; off Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa. longimana, Claus. One specimen, taken off Hawthorn, 27 fa. * spherica, Claus. One specimen, off Red Cliff, about 35 fa. Pterothrix sordida, nov. gen. et sp. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; muddy sand : and 5 miles off Hartlepool; sand, Tetragoniceps longiremis, nov. gen. et sp. In 80 fa., off Staiths and Robin Hood’s Bay. *Stenhelia rostrata? (Claus). In 35 fa., off Red Cliff and Robin Hood’s Bay. hispida (Norman). Off Marsden, 30 fa. (?) ama, Brady. Off Marsden, Seaham, Staiths, and Red Cliff, 20-30 fa. *Ameira longipes, Boeck. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; and off Staiths, 35 fa. curticornis, nov. sp. Off Marsden, 30 fa.; 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa. ‘Idya furcata (Baird). Occurred more or less commonly in all the dredgings. Delavalia refleca, nov. sp. 5 miles off Hartlepool; sandy bottom. robusta, noy. sp. Off Staiths and Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fa. Laophonte dubia, noy. sp. Off Marsden, 30 fa.; off Hartlepool. Hodgw, Brady. Off Hawthorn, 27 fa. ; and off Hartlepool. a: Cletodes pectinata, nov. sp. Off Sunderland, Seaham, Hartlepool, Red Cliff, and Robin Hood’s Bay, in depths of 20-45 fa. —— propingua, noy. sp. Off Marsden, 25 fa. longicaudata, noy. sp. 5 miles off Hartlepool; sandy bottom. submgra, nov. sp. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa. Harpacticus chelifer (Miiller). Off Marsden, 25 fa. ; muddy sand. crassicornis, noy. Sp. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa. Zaus ovalis (Goodsir). Off Staiths and Red Cliff, 30-35 fa. Alteutha bopyroides, Claus. Common in all the dredgings. Thalestris longimana, Claus. Dredged off Scarborough. helgolandica, Claus. 6 miles off Hawthorn, 27 fa. rufocincta, Norman, Off Hawthorn and Red Cliff, 27-35 fa. *Dactylopus flavus, Claus. Off Hawthorn, Red Cliff, Staiths, and Robin Hood’s Bay, 27-85 fa. — tisboides, Claus. Off Red Cliff and Robin Hood’s Bay, 80-35 fa, * ON DREDGING OFF THE DURHAM AND N.-YORKSHIRE COAST, 197 Dactylopus tenuiremis, nov. sp. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; and off Red Cliff, Staiths, and Robin Hood’s Bay, 30-35 fa. nanus, nov. sp. 20 miles off Sunderland, 45 fa.; muddy sand. cmetus, Claus. Off Red Hill, 35 fa. Rhizothrix curvata, noy. gen. et sp. Off Robin Hood’s Bay, 35 fa. Jurinia minuta, noy. sp. Off Hawthorn, 27 fa. re Cyclopicera nigripes, nov. sp. In many dredgings, 3-5 miles off shore, in depths of 20-35 fa. *Notodelphys agilis, Thorell, 1 specimen, off Hawthorn, 27 fa. Lichomolgus fucicolus (Brady). In several dredgings from Marsden to Scarborough, 20-35 fa, liber, noy. sp. Off Marsden, Scarborough, and Hawthorn, 20-27 fa. Thorellit, nov. sp. Off Marsden, Hawthorn, and Robin Hood’s Bay, 20-35 fa. ee errogue orbicularis?, Boeck. Off Red Cliff, Staiths, and Robin Hood’s Bay, 4 —E—————— eee 20-35 fa. Solenostoma scutatum, Brady and Robertson. Off Red Cliff, Staiths, Robin Hoed’s Bay, and Hawthorn, 27-35 fa. Ascomyzon calvum, noy. sp. Off Staiths, 30 fa. ornatum, nov. sp. Off Scarborough and Robin Hood’s Bay, 16-35 fa, we Dyspontius Normani, noy, sp. 3 specimens taken, 6 miles off Hawthorn, 27 fa. ; sand. / The number of Copepoda noted in this list is 63, of which 28 are new to science, and 11 (marked here with an asterisk) are hitherto unrecorded as British species. It is but right, however, to add that several of these, though undescribed, were previously known to us. Still the result of the dredging in this department is extremely interesting, more especially in the considerable number of new species which it has brought to light belonging to the curious groups called by Thorell Peecilostoma and Siphonostoma. ‘The list of marine Copepoda published by Mr. Brady in 1872, in the ‘N atural-History Trans- actions of Northumberland and Durham,’ and including all then known as inhabiting the shores of those two counties, both littoral and pelagic, comprised only 49 species; so that our present list of 63 species taken over an area of similar extent, and from dredged material only, must, we think, be looked upon as highly satisfactory. The dissection and delineation of these minute’ creatures is extremely tedious, and we have not as yet been able to complete the work so far as to warrant us in giving descriptions of the various new species. On the Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, and Spongozoa. By the Rev. A. M. N onMAN, M.A. Pouyzoa. Scrupocellaria scruposa (Linn.). scabra (Van Ben.). Cellularia Peachii, Busk. Menipea ternata (Ellis § Sol.). Bugula avicularia (Pallas). purpurotincta, Vorman. Habellata (J. V. Thompson). Murrayana (Bean). fruticosa, Packard. Fiustra foliacea, Linn. truncata, Linn. Carbasea papyrea (Pallas). Gemellaria loriculata (Linn.). Membranipora pilosa (Linn.). —— Flemingii, Busk. Lepralia reticulata, Dacg. auriculata, Hassall. —— concinna, Busk. —— linearis, Hassall. ciliata (Lenn). ——- nitida (fabr.). Peachii, Johnst. ventricosa, Hassail. Cellepora avicularis, Aincks. —— ramulosa, Linn. dichotoma, Hincks. Crisia eburnea (Zinn.). denticulata (Zamk.). Crisidia cornuta (Linn. ). 198 REPORT—1875. HyDROzOA, Hydractinia echinata (Fleming). Sertularella polyzonias (Zznn.). Eudendrium ramosum (Zinn.). —— tenella, Alder. Tubularia indivisa, Zinn. Diphasia rosacea (Zinn.). ——- coronata, Abildgaard. attenuata, Hincks, Clytia Johnstoni (Alder). | —— fallax (Johnston). Obelia geniculata (Linn.). | tamarisca (Linn.). longissima (Pallas). | Sertularia filicula, Lis § Sol. Campanularia Hincksii, Alder. —— abietina, Linn. —— verticillata (Linn.). fusca, Johnston. Lafoéa dumosa (fV/eming). | Hydrallmania falcata (Zinn.}, pocillum, Hincks. | Thuiaria articulata (Pallas). Calycella syringa (Zinn.). | thuia (Zinn). Filellum serpens (Zassail). | Plumularia pinnata (Zinz.). Coppinia arcta (Dalyell). | setacea (Zilis). Halecium halecinum (Zinn.). —— Catharina, Johnston. —— Beanii, Johnston. | —— frutescens, Ellis § Sol. SPonGozOA, Grantia ciliata, Johnston. Hymeniacidon ficus (Johnston). Polymastia robusta, Bow. Halichondria panicea, Johnston. —— mamillaris (Johnston). virgea, Bow., n. sp. Microciona fictitia, Bow. Isodictya lurida, Bow. Hymeniacidon coccineus, Bow. Spongionella pulchella (Sowerby). —— virgulatus, Bow., n. sp. +] 3 Among the Polyzoa is Bugula fruticosa of Packard*, first described by Packard from Labrador, and subsequently by Smitt from Spitsbergen and Finmark, but not previously found in our seas. I entirely agree with Smitt in considering it to be a form, though a very interesting one, of Bugula Murrayana. It differs from the ordinary state of that species in being more delicate in structure, the branches and branchlets much narrower, commonly with only one or two rows of cells, and the cells armed with only few spines, typically one only at the superior and outer angle. The Hydrozoon Lafoéa pocillum, Hincks (Hist. Brit. Hydr. Zooph. p. 204, pl. xi. fig. 2), is a recently described species, which has not previously been found on the east coast. Its known habitats were Labrador and Oban. Two Sponges are pronounced by Dr. Bowerbank to be undeseribed, and subjoined will be found descriptions which have been drawn up by that gentleman. He has named the species /ymeniacidon virgulatus and Hali- chondria virgen. * Halichondria virgea, Bowerbank, n. sp. “Sponge massive, sessile, more or less nodulous. Surface smooth. Oscula simple, dispersed. Pores inconspicuous. Dermal membrane abundantly spi- culous ; tension-spicula acuate, very long and slender, numerous, fasciculated ; retentive spicula bidentate, equianchorate, large, few in number, and the same form, small and numerous. Skeleton—rete more or less regular ; fibres rarely multispiculous, seldom more than trispiculous; areas large; spicula subfusiformi-acuate, basally spinous. Interstitial membranes spiculous ; spicuiz same as those of the dermis; tension-spicula of rare occurrence ; retentive spicula rather numerous, * Menipea fruticosa, Packard, List of Labrador Marine Animals, p. 9, pl. i. fig. 3, = Cellularia quadridentata, Lovén, MS. 1834 ( fide Smitt), =Bugula Murrayana forma guadri- dentata, Smitt, Kritisk Forteckning éfyer Skandinayiens Hafs-Bryozoer, p. 292, pl. xviii. figs. 23-27, OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 199 - “Colour, in the dried state, dark purple. «“ Hab. Coast of Durham, 30 to 35 fathoms (Rev. A. M. Norman). « Examined in the dried state.” “ Hymeniacidon virgulatus, Bowerbank, n. sp. “ Sponge virgultose, slender. Surface smooth. Oscula simple, dispersed. Pores inconspicuous. Dermis abundantly spiculous; spicula acuate, slender, same size as those of the skeleton, dispersed. Skeleton rather open and cavernous; spicula acuate, long and slender. “Colour, in the dried state, cream-white. “ Hab. Coast of Durham, in 20 to 30 fathoms (Rev. A. M. Norman). “ Examined in the dried state.” Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1874-75, by a Committee, consisting of Jamus GuatsuEr, F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, R. P. Gruc, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., C. Brooke, F-R.S., Prof. G. Forszs, F.R.S.E., Wartzr Fuicut, D.Sc., F.G.S., and Prof. A. S. Herscuet, F.R.A.S. Tux operations of the Committee during the past year were restricted to col- lecting and recording occasional observations of meteors, without renewing periodical requests to observers to watch for the meteor-showers of best known dates and characters of annual recurrence. The list of collected accounts of luminous meteors is therefore less ample, but not less remarkable and important, than in former years. The falls of aérolites (as will be seen in the concluding Appendix) whick have been placed on record since the last Report are more than ordinarily numerous and interesting. A mass of meteoric iron fell on the 24th of August, 1873, at Marysville, California, and is one of the very few metallic irons the actual descent of which has been witnessed. In the following month, on the 23rd of September, 1873,-a number of meteorites fell near Khairpur, in the Punjab; and it is also related that in the month of December in the same year, while the British army halted on the banks of the Prah, an aérolite fell in the market-place of Coomassie, and was regarded by the native population as a portent of evil. On the 14th and 20th of May, 1874, aérolites fell at Castalia, in North Carolina (U.S.A.), and at Virba, in Turkey, the last of which was noted in the last Report; and examinations of both of these meteorites have now been made. The last stone-fall of the past year took place near Iowa (U.S.A.) on the 12th of February, 1875 ; and of this meteorite also special analyses were made in the United States, of which some unforeseen results were lately announced by their author, Mr. A. W. Wright, as will be described in the last part of this Report. In comparison with meteoric irons, it was found that this meteorite gave off, by gentle heating in a vacuum, carbon oxides as occluded gases in greater abundance than hydrogen, which is the principal gaseous constituent of meteoric irons ; and it was observed that the electric spectrum of the gaseous products resembled very closely that found most frequently in comets, and even in one condition to exhibit most distinctly the green nitrogen line coinciding with a conspicuous line in the sun’s corone. A meteor of unusual size appeared over Victoria, in Australia, on the 14th of 200 REPORT—1875. April last, which if not aérolitic was yet of the largest class, and detonated with a violent explosion. Further remarks in the same Appendix describe recent researches on meteorites, and some new links which they establish between aérolites and terrestrial rocks. In England no detonating meteor has been recorded sinee the last Report ; and the brightest meteor that was observed occurred on the Ist of Sep- tember last, taking its course over the north of England or Scotland, where clouded skies must have prevailed, as its flash was like that of lightning even in Cornwall, where, as in Lancashire, its bright luminous streak remained visible, at no great apparent altitude, among the northern stars of the Great Bear. Other bright meteors oecurred also on the 2nd and 16th of September, on the 11th of October, on the 17th of December, and subsequently on the 9th of March, 12th of April, and 2nd and 4th of May in this year, of several of which duplicate observations are recorded in the lists of the first two Appendices of this Report. A meteor burst witha loud detonation over Paris and its neighbourhood on the 10th of February last, which was of great size and brilliancy, and left a cloud-like streak of light on its track for more than half an hour. No duplicate observation of it was obtained in England; but from the numerous French descriptions of its appearance, its real path and height may be expected to have formed at the present meeting in Nantes of the French Scientific Association a subject of examination and discussion. Another fireball, according to French scientific journals, fell at Orleans on the 9th of March, and of this two good observations appear to have been obtained in England (in London and in Essex), which may assist to determine its real height. During the annual meteor-showers of the past year very unfavourable weather generally prevailed for recording meteor-tracks, and few meteors were seen on those nights when the usual expectations of their appearance were entertained. On the 19th of October and 12th of December, 1874, and on the 19th—21st of April, 1875, the annual star-showers of those dates were scarcely perceptible, or were represented by so few conformable meteors as to make the scareity of the October, December, and April star-showers during the past year a marked feature of their periodical display, and no appearance of the January meteors could be observed on account of obstinately cloudy skies. The August star-showers of 1874 and 1875 were, however, of great brilliancy, and afforded a great number of excellent observations. Duplicate descriptions of some of the meteors were obtained, and the radiant- point was noted, its position appearing to have been this year more con- fined to the normal place near n Persei than it had been recently observed. Descriptions of these meteor-showers are added in the third Appendix of this Report. A thorough examination of all the observations collected by the Committee since the publication of the Metéor Atlas in 1867, with the view of extending and correcting the list of general and occasional meteor-showers which it embraced, from the best data furnished by recent observations, has been con- tinued with satisfactory results under the care and direction of Mr. Greg; and the projection of all these useful materials is now nearly completed and exhibited on maps. A supplementary Table of radiant-points contained in the pages of this Report represents the results of his examination ; and a number of interesting consequences are drawn from them of the position and identity of some star-showers, which had been a subject hitherto of questions and discussions. The scattered radiant-region belonging to the August meteors in Cas- LEE — = = OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 201 siopeia and Perseus appears to be accounted for by a distinct radiant-point in Cassiopeia, of which the principal date coincides only partially with the 10th of August, and whose shower again presents a prominent and distinct appearance on the 23rd of that month. Most of the general meteor systems described in the former Atlas are found to be confirmed, and some very distinct radiant-points not previously recorded have at the same time been added to its list. APPENDIX. I. Mereors povsLty OBSERVED. On September Ist, October 11th, and December 17th, 1874, and of April 12th and May 2nd, 1875, accounts of the appearance of large meteors were received, which had been pretty generally observed, and of which from their magnitude it may be hoped that more abundant particulars will be obtained. The following descriptions of the first two of these large meteors were collected from published sources by Mr. Wood, together with some other appearances of large meteors and meteor-showers of interest during the past year. Mr. Wood’s observation of the fireball of April 12th, 1875, and those relating to the other doubly observed meteors above mentioned, will be found in the fireball list of the next Appendix, together with some examples of doubly observed shooting-stars during the bright shower of the August meteors in 1874. It has not been attempted to submit these comparative observations to regular reduction and calculation, partly as those of the large meteors are too uncertain to afford useful determinations of their real heights, and (in the case of the shooting-stars) in the expectation that a closer examination of the descriptions received of the August meteor-shower in 1874 will continue to furnish further examples of them of which the present may be regarded as instances of only the most conspicuous occurrence. Among the few records of the periodical meteor-showers that have been received (without solicitations from the Committee), during the past year, no other cases have presented themselves in which determinations of a meteor’s real height might be obtained by the combination of distant ob- servations. Newsparer Accounts oF Merrors. Aughton, Lancashire.—* A large meteor seen September Ist, 8.49, in the $.S.W., descended the west margin of the Milky Way. ‘Trended a little more west. ‘Train of light 25° long, lasted one minute.”—Tmes, Sept. 5. Louth.—Meteor moved from S$. to N. Bristol Meteor appeared 3° under » Urse Majoris. W. to E.”— Times, Sept. 3. Birmingham.—* About 8.15 p.m. on Sept. 1st a bright meteor emerged from the Constellation of the Great Bear, and took a 8.W. course. The period of transit was several seconds, but the splendid light left in its track illuminated the heavens for a considerable time.”—Birmingham Daily Post, Sept. 3. [For descriptions of this large fireball at Bristol and at Bude, Cornwall, see the List in Appendix II.] Nottingham.— Meteor of Sept. 2nd, 10.53. See ‘ Times,’ Sept. 4th. Birmingham.— October 11th, 8.55. Large meteor, very! brilliant. >lst mag. \>1st mag. eneeee > Ist mag.* UL ..b..scrscccceves \Ist mag.* ......--- secrete cerereeenes Pe eeeeeeceee wee ve ree eeeeeeeen AND DOUBLE OBSERVATIONS OF OBSERVATIONS © Colour. Intense gold colour. Pale violet colour. Orange- yellow. Orange- yellow. tl ewer ereeeeeeeoeres red. eee eenee HO eee newer ereearee Pere cesereee 3 seconds 1°5 second 1°5 second ..../0°5 second 0°5 second Duration. eee e eerie ne eeeae 0°7 second ... see eee meee eee ereee 1:0 second ... 15 second ... 0°5 second .. 1:5 second .. 0°5 second ...! 0-5 second .. .../From 176°+75° Position, or Apparent Path. a é= Descended he- tween the tail of the Bear and Arcturus. From 219°+13° to 185 + 2 ARERR meee rere eee et renee ...(From 321°+15° to 310 — 5 ...|From 3249+ 7° to 312 —13 «-|From 330°+57° to 300 +47 From 333°+38° to 314 +50 Passed across a [? B] Aquarii. > a= éo= 350°+51° 307 +27 311°+36° 301 + 7 261°+68° 236 +41 334°+48° 307 +11 260° 480° 250 +65 ‘From 31°+32° to 29 +24 to 190 +62 o@u OF LARGE OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. METEORS, SHOOTING-STARS, 1874-75. 205 Length of Path. To near the|Fell vertically ............ wavaseer horizon. Peete ee eeeereseree as | eee errr rrr BA taasne-<..). f [Ree weer e ee eeeaee weet we eee | .|Perseid Direction or Radiant-point. seeeee POOP e meee ee tea nse e sean eerseenes Ore Perseid eee e ewe reer e snes eet eeeesseseseeeeees Appearance, Remarks, &c. Nucleus like an elongated drop ; burst as it approached the horizon with a profusion of sparks. (Seen also at Bushey, Watford, like a magnesium light, bursting into three green and three white stars. The flash of light was noticed by Mr. Lucas at the Radcliffe Ob- servatory, Oxford; see these Reports, 1873, p. 373.) Followed by a short yellow train and yellow sparks at the end of| its course. Seen by another observer to rise almost from the horizon at its first appear- ance. Exploded with a loud noise; caused a superstitious terror among the natives of Mysore. Two fine meteors following each other nearly together, leaving streaks for about 3 seconds. Several others nearly at the same time. Left a streak. [This and the next meteor identical with the last pair. ] Left a magnificent streak for 8 seconds. Four other meteors in 2 minutes. Left a streak for 2 seconds. Per- seld (?); position of apparent course not well observed. Left astreak. [Identical with the last. | eaten ee eeenae POO eee eer eneeeeeee weeee .|Perseid....... scasheaucvesccsnadsents eee ee errr OOP e ee ee eter teen eeeeeresees PGYREIGI evs coxecsve coXesesersirx ..../Left a streak 7 seconds Left a streak brightest in middle of its course for 44 seconds. Left a streak for 2 seconds. [Identical with the last. ] Left a long streak brightest in the middle of its course for 8 seconds. Left a streak for 4 seconds; Per- seid. [Identical with the last meteor. | Caen eet eenes Mviecasse.-...-.-|Radiant 77 Persel......cccsssscesee Seasessieteneieg Gan cauavengbecenscsonecsys. Observer and Reference. J. C. Jackson. ([W. Darby.] ‘ Astrono- mical Register,’ No- vember 1870 (mis- printed in the former’ Report, ‘September 1870”). H. Corder. ‘Madras Times,’ Aug. llth. ‘ Astronomical Register,’ November 1874. A. S. Herschel. J. E. Clark. A. S. Herschel. J. E. Clark. A. S. Herschel. J. E. Clark. A.S. Herschel. J. E. Clark. J. E. Clark. W. H. Wood, 206 REPORT—1875. a EEE EE eee Date. (G be a oe Place of Apparent Col Durati Position, or | ; Teal time). Observation. Magnitude. tages alate Apparent Path. 1874.;h m s Aug-1012 7 30 |Newcastle-on- |=2nd mag. ......|/¥ellow......... 1 second ...... From % Cygnito 3° Tyne. | preceding e Del- phini. 1110 41 O {Birmingham ...)/=1st MAX secnce Wellownscsssc: l second ....../From 33°+66° toy 27 pe 72 MEM ORAT. 0) |[DId.. 2. cicnnesoecee ==SGi magic, ....+-+<|MelOns ce << 0°75 second...|From 32°+65° | to 25 +70 1110 43 0 Tooting, Surrey .|=12 mag.x....0..0.[WHItG ..cecscec[eccnscseceeseoneee From 157°+62° | | to 165 +57 1111 30 0 [Birmingham .../=2nd MODE FPiviies da] soos 8 Nichols’ Pilgrimages - 22 Nicholls’ Poor Laws - ax 5 Nicolas’ Historic Peerage Nimrod - - - - Lndex. Nordhoff’s Communistic Societies - - - OtpLondon- - - Ormathwaite’s Astronomy Owen’s Modern Artillery Oxenham’s Latin Elegiacs PALGRAVE’s Taxation —— Banking- - Palliser’s Brittany - Monuments - Parkinan’s Great West Parkyns’ Abyssinia Peek Prize Essays Peel’s Memoirs” - Percy’s Metallurgy Phillip’s Wm. Smith Yorkshire - Philip’s Literary Essays Philosophy in Sport ~ - Pick’s French Dictionary Pope’s Works Sees Per (Eee eee ne en Porter’s Damascus - Prayer-Book - - - Principles at Stake - Privy Council Judgments Puss in Boots - - - QuARTERLY Review - Rae’s North Wind - Rambles; Syria - - Ranke’s Popes - - Rassam’s Abyssinia - Rawlinson’s Herodotus —,,Ancient monarchies — Russia in the East Reed’s Shipbuilding - Rejected Addresses - Rennie’s Peking, &c, - Reynold’s Life - - Ricardo’s Works - - Robertson’s Church His- tory - = cS - Liturgy - - - Robson’s School Archi- tecture - - = Robinson’s Palestine - — Physical Geography — Alpine Flowers - —— Wild Garden - —— Sub-Tropical Garden Rowland’s Constitution — Laws of Nature - ScCHLIEMANN’s Troy” - Scott’s Architecture - —— University Sermons Scrope’s Central France Selwyn’s Colloquies = - Shadows of Sick Room Shah of Persia’s Diary - Shaw’s Tartary - ~ - Shirley's Parks - - Simmons’ Court Martial Sinclair’s Old Times - Smiles’ ‘Popular Biogra- phies = =) 9-5 = — Boy’s Voyage - Smith’s Bible Dictionaries Smith’s Class. Dictionaries3, 26 —— Ancient Atlas - —— Educational Course (3) Smith’s Smaller histories 30 28 27. — Ancient History - 3 — Nile = fim aint aig) Somerville’s Life - - 6 —— Physical Sciences, &c. 17 Southey’s Book of Church 15 Spalding’s Tale of Frithiof 22 Stanhope’s Histories - 4, 5 Belisarius - - 7 — Pitt - - - 7 Miscellanies - - 25 Stanley’s Sinai - - 10 Bible in Holy Land 10 Eastern Jewish and Scottish Church- - 5 — Canterbury - ae, fai —— Westminster Abbey 5 —— Sermonsin East - 16 — Bp.,Memoir- - 6 Arnold - - - 6 — Corinthians - - 16 Stephen’s St. Chrysostom 6 Stories for Darlings - 29 Street’s Architecture of Spain) =" go 0g Architecture in Italy 19 Student’s Manuals 26, 27 Styffe’s Iron and Steel - 18 Swainson’s Creeds = 36 Swifts Life - - - 7 Sybel’s French Revolution 5 Symonds’ Records of the Rocks- —— - Sy ae i) THIELMANN’s Caucasus _10 Thoms’ Longevity- - 18 Thomson’s Sermons eb" 26 Tocqueville’s State of France - - - 5 Tomlinson’s Sonnet - 23 Tozer’s Turkey & Greece 10 Tristram’s Land of Moab 10 Twiselton’s Tongue - 18 Tyler’s Primitive Culture 2x Tylor’s History of Man- kind - - - - ‘2% VamBeEry’s Travels - 8 Van Lennep’s Asia Minor 9g — Bible Lands - my srg: Vatican Council - - 16 WEIGALL’s Princess Char- lotte - - - - 7 Wellington’s Despatches 5 Whymper’s Alaska =) ae Wilberforce’s Essays - 21 — Life - - - 7 Wilkinson’s Egyptians - 3 Wilson’s Life & Diary - 8 Wood's Oxus - - - 8 Words of Human Wisdom 22 Wordsworth’s Athens - 9 Greece - = Ji 1G Yuue’s Marco Polo - 8 ZINCKE’s United States- 11 ‘ nm rian a an Ra! Pe et : irae. ‘ 7 1 ae } iat Wie) iy vy Ly, \ ag i rare Hae SE tise t, : HAs Boy att Tiel ERK ety ; nas ie au Wi ata's ene? + Se ates be, a ESSE ‘ spo SS.