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REPORT

OF THE

BORWTY-HIGHTH MEETING.

OF THE

LES
FOR THE|~ “¢

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

HELD AT

DUBLIN IN AUGUST 1878.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1879.

[Ofice of the Association: 22 Atpemarte Srreet, Lonvon, W.]

LONDON : PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARD
AND PARLIAMENT STREET

CONTENTS.

ara
Page
OssEcts and Rules of the Association .........ssscccssseesceressceaseeseeseeees yg? 6.4
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement..........ssecsseeeeeeeseeuees XXvili
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
PHOHGCMIENG seicececscececsevenpesesseeesescecacanasaresieses edocs regeaonendsnt ee onsatdes XXXV
MMC ENDGH 00.5. 25d shins acane cvsdsaausdocdwestaoTsos cicpavenavscataasuaene ai gueuse xvii
Peeires to the Operative Classes. .2.....sscecasesooscgeseessheceasiocenseveseiunes xlix
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at Annual Meetings............ 1
PREMIER A COOUNUL 25 csaiced een baled y sce 5 dacs Has cde tuinnidesa'vasleddsoegqansdsoacoweseses lii
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Dublin Meeting............... liii
SRHCOMBMANGCWOOUNCH DUST O10 sc... dectostsancedetecdhe steeds cathode ddaaddebelade slat lv
Report of the Council to the General Camnntttad si) Wee NG) Sats lvi
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports and
PROSCUTCHESEIM gS CLON COs. 5 eee ssn a Ueseeeias shies ec snWeeovsosnceeavoossedeicondeeresdess lyiii
NIE WOT Y MAT AN (He. on. ngccnede cave Sule sShacssacad¥ccnnaneshacseasascqdecn as Ixiv
Pldces of Meeting in 1879 and’ 1880............cc-ccseceoccseseaacscoecsecescdoveies lxv
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific
)SER]PORIES) cobos pedestiederncobcrneot sagan ons dudereicbonert dacesbon ddencheanetbose-auerEcnsane Ixvi
Arrangement of the General Meetings............sscsccsccscsscsecsccesescenseeeseees lxxy

Address by the President, Wii1t1am Sporriswoopk, Esq., M.A., D.O.L.,
MERWE tus. ety Ay ERE hase screcsceresaececes ccncoamodcte es coaedusecssncee 1

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Catalogue of the Oscillation-frequencies of Solar Rays; drawn up under the
superintendence of a Committee of the British Association, consisting of
Dr. Hueerns (Chairman), Dr. Dr La Ruz, Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, Dr.

J. Exmrson Reynotps, Mr. Sporriswoopr, Dr. W. MarsHatL Warts,
and Mr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY (Reporter)......c..csssssscccccssssescesentesceeees 3
A 2

iv CONTENTS.
Page
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayney, Dr. Farr, Mr. J.
W. L. Geatsner, Dr. Por, Professor Futter, Professor A. B. W. Kuy-
NEDY, Professor Cirrrorp, and Mr. C. W. Merrrirrep, appointed to
consider the advisability and to estimate the expense of constructing Mr.
BasBace’s Analytical Machine, and of printing Tables by its means. Drawn
up by Mr. MERRIFIELD ..........cesseeeescoesereeceeceeeesensceneceeesccesensesensceeees 92

Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Jourr, Professor Sir W.
Tomson, Professor Tarr, Professor BaLtrouR Srpwarz, and Professor
MAXWELL, appointed for the purpose of determining the Mechanical Equiva-
NOT MOMELCH UR ance cence fences snersnarense dss news cbs cecslesssie’ soe cee eae teem eeemaEe 102

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Fores, Professor Sir
Wit1Am THomson, and Professor Evererr, appointed for the purpose of
making arrangements for the taking of certain Observations in India, and
Observations on Atmospheric Electricity at Madeirva..............:s.:sceeeeeseeee 108

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir Wiri1aAm THomson,
Professor CLERK MAxweEtt, Professor Tarr, Dr, C. W. Sremuns, Mr. F. J.
Bramwe tz, Mr. W. Frovpn, and Mr. J. T. Borromrzy, for commencing
Secular Experiments upon the Elasticity of Wires. Drawn up by J. T.
BODO MMV cay caseee sere spate sce ssenacsce Danson «va sonveciesdasatery seas scGnee eee emateaeen 103

Report of the Committee on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known Alka-
loids, especially Veratria and Bebeerine ; the Committee consisting of W.
CHANDLER Roperts, F.R.S. (Sec.), Dr. C. R. AtpeR Wrieut, and Mr.

IN, [eb LUIS Gooneocaoosos Doauodododin uo adn obeeriocopes voceadacneds gus squsoracnéecqaonsaL: 105

Report on the best Means for the Development of Light from Coal-Gas of
different qualities, by a Committee consisting of Dr. WiittaAm WALLACE
(Secretary), Professor Dirrmar, and Mr. THomas Wits, F.C.8., F.1.0. ... 108

Fourteenth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cayern, Devon-
shire—the Committee consisting of Joun Evans, F.R.S., Sir Jon
Luszock, Bart., F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Grorer Busk, F.R.S.,
Witt1am Boyp Dawxtns, F.R.S., Witttam AysHrorD SanrorD, F.G.S.,
Joun Epwarp Ler, F.G.S., and Witr1am PrneEnty, F.R.S. (Reporter)... 124

Report of Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness and Mr. WimLIAM
Joxtiy (H. M. Inspector of Schools), reappointed for the purpose of investi-
gating the Fossils in the North-west Highlands of Scotland. By My.
IGUUN SCCICIALY cinssnsv'seiecweuesonssacsessceeeesticens <dresiesronaeageoas siddles cee 130

Fifth Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor A. S. Herscuet, M.A.,
F.R.A.S., and G. A. Lesour, F.G.8., on Experiments to determine the
Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geological
Aspects of the TivestagatiOn ...:.0..0:.50000yosseecossectivvescssesesseseedaset eee 138

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnes-LAwREnce,
CO. Spence Bats, Esq., H. E. Dressnr, Esq. (Sec.), Dr. A. Giiwrner, J. E.
Harring, Esq., Dr. Gwyn Jerrreys, Professor Newron, and the Rey.
Canon TRIsTRAM, appoiated for the purpose of inquiring into the possibility
of establishing a ‘Close Time ” for Indigenous Animals ................0ee0ee08 146

Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of arranging with Dr.
Dourn for the occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;
the Committee consisting of Mr. Drw-Smira (Secretary), Professor Huxiey,
Dr. Carpenter, Dr, Gwyn Jmrrreys, Mr. Scrarer, Dr. M. Fosrmr, Mr. F.
M. Batrour, and Professor RAY LANKESTER ............c.cccecceccececcocevacccce 149

Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Dr. Farr, Lord
AxsERDARE, Dr. W. Baty, Dr. Beppon, Mr. Brasroox, Sir Grorep
CampBeELL, Captain Ditton, The Ear or Ducre, Professor Frowsr, Mr.
Distant, Mr. F. P. Frttows, Mr. F. Garon, Mr. Park Harrison, Mr. J.
Heywi op, Mr. P. Hatrurr, Major-General Lanz Fox (Sec.), Inspector-

CONTENTS.

General Lawson, Mr. Groner SHaw Lerervre, Professor Lronr Layt,
Dr. WattEeR Lewis, Dr. Movar, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. ALEXANDER
REDERAVE, and Professor ROLLESTON *)5.0.0.0.) 0 gies eke sceesscst ooscatovecsecsesec

Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. W. WittrtAmson, Professor Sir
WittiAM TxHomson, Mr. Bramwet1, Mr. St. Jonn Vincent Day, Dr. C. W.
Sremens, Mr. C. W. Mrrrirretp, Dr. Nettson Hancock, Mr. F. J. Aen,
Mr. J. R. Naprer, Captain Dovetas Gatron, Mr. Newmarcn, Mr. E. H.
Carport, and Mr. Macrory, appointed for the purpose of watching and re-
porting to the Council on Patent Legislation .............ccccecesceeceeseeeeeeenee

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H. Bartow, Mr. H. Bus-
sEMER, Mr. F. J. Bramwett, Captain Dovenas Gatton, Sir Jonn
Hawxsuaw, Dr. C. W. Stmmens, Professor ABEL, and Mr. E. H. Carnurr
(Sec.), appointed for the purpose of considering the Use of Steel for Struc-
Ta SEa TED NO NC HO ea stake Ren en daedec aches «crater sec ls Sask scabs sabaneeneeiasttoaded cece ces

Report on the Geographical Distribution of the Chiroptera. By G. E. Doxzson,
MST. te aa cel Casals ning nnn aeeintis sn cineser se stuecn iad taeenituatae cate taacay ve

On Recent Improvements in the Part of Dublin. By Brypon B. Sroney,
M.A., M.R.LA., M. Inst. O.E., Engineer of the Dublin Port and Docks
Eee seer nes clctiesacdcs a tas leas tievis se steels > ae Qe stmeseve seca sbsbabeshionssseded@yateadee

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Caytry, F.R.S., Professor
G. G. Sroxxs, F.R.S., Professor H. J. 8. Surra, F.R.S., Professor Sir
Wiri1am Tomson, F.R.S., Mr. James GuatsHer, F.R.S., and Mr. J. W.
L. Guatsume, F.R.S. (Secretary), on Mathematical Tables ..................06+

Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor EvERErr, Professor
Sir Wirr1am Tomson, Professor J. CrprK MAxwe tt, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Professor Ramsay, Professor Gurxtn, Mr. J. GuatsHpr, Mr. PEneELLy,
Professor Epwarp Hutt, Professor Anstep, Dr. Ctempnt Le Neve Foster,
Professor A. 8, Herscuren, Mr. G. A. Lepour, Mr. A. B. Wynnn, Mr.
Gattoway, and Mr. Josrpn Dickrnson, appointed for the purpose of inves-
tigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in
various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Professor
SIMEON HSCCTOLMINY)) § coos, sin0teccvcsdaensjecdnestesmcas oregevaceesenaweawnesaencisesaqesenss

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Havenron, Professor
Lerra Apams, Professor Barrett, Mr. HarpMAn, and Dr. MAcALISTER,
appointed for the purpose of Exploring the Fermanagh Caves. Drawn up
by Mr. Tuomas Prunxert, Enniskillen, for Dr. Macatisrer, Secretary of
RLU Beas cb opt iva dws sais os'ddpn dese tuseaaansdenaatentsus¥ssdabweys iiiysd skeen’

Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor PrustwicH, Professor
Harkness, Professor Hugues, Professor W. Boyp Dawxrns, Rey. H. W.
Crosskry, Professor L. C. Mratn, Messrs. G. H. Morton, D. MackrnrosH,
R. H. Trppeman, J. E. Len, James Puant, and W. PEnGcELLy, Dr. DEANE,
Mr. ©. J. Woopwarp, and Mr. Motynevx, appointed for the purpose of
recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and
origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other
matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures for their
preservation. Drawn up by the Rev. H. W. Crossxxy, Secretary...........+.

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.—Part. IV.
mPeyelopment.’ By O. Spunce Bare,) F.LBAS.........cccecccscocccassecseevenenes

Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor RotiEsron, Major-General
Laner Fox, Professor Busk, Professor Bory Dawxins, Dr. Joun Evans,
and Mr. F. G. Hinton Price, appointed for the purpose of examining Two
Caves containing human remains, in the neighbourhood of Tenby ............

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir Wrru1aM THomson,

Mr. W. Frovpr, Professor OsBorNE REyNoLps, Captain Dovetas Garon,
and Mr. JAmus N. SHoorsrep (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of

157

183

209

vi CONTENTS.
Page

obtaining information respecting the Phenomena of the Stationary Tides in
the English Channel and in the North Sea; and of representing to the
Government of Portugal and the Goyernor of Madeira that, in the opinion of
the British Association, Tidal Observations at Madeira or other islands in
the North Atlantic Ocean would be very valuable, with the view to the
advancement of our Inowledge of the tides in the Atlantic Ocean ............ 217

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WiIDLIAM
THomson, Major-General Srracuny, Captain Doveras Garon, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. Rogers Fretp, Mr. E. Rozserts, and Mr. J. N. SHOoLBRED
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of considering the Datum-leyel of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, with a view to its establishment on a
surer foundation than hitherto, and for the tabulation and comparison of
Oth exM Dat UM=aMIATKS ace dc re. cs tas: eye seclese core aesesleecines clenpien ose Setne ee mtmeeemmcemecd le

Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships,
consisting of Mr. W. Frovupn, Mr. F. J. BRamwett, Mr. A. EH. FLEercuer,
Rev. E. L. Brrrnon, Mr. James R. Naprer, Mr. C. W. Mprrirrerp, Dr.

C. W. Sizmzns, Mr. H. M. Brunet, Mr. J. N. SHoorsrep (Secretary),
Professor JAmEs THomson, and Professor Sir WILLIAM THOMSON ............. 219

Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of further developing the
investigations into a Common Measure of Value in Direct Taxation, the
Committee consisting of the Right Hon. J. G. Husparp, M.P., Mr. Cmap-
wick, M.P., Mr. Morty, M.P., Dr. Farr, Sir Grorar Camppett, M.P.,

Mr. Hatxterr, Professor Jrvons, Mr. Newmarcn, -Mr. Swann, Mr. MacnnrL
Carrp, Mr, SterHen Bourne, Professor Lronzr Levi, Mr. Heywoop, and
Mir SEVATUETT (SECTCTATY): 5... .2.s.cs0cscameervensetecscsnessecssn dete tdesceseeenneedtae 220

Xeport on Sunspots and Rainfall. By Cuartes Metprum, F.R.S............... 280

teport on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the Year 1877-78, by a
Committee consisting of JAmus GuatsuEr, F.R.S., &e., R. P. Grua, F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., C. Brooxn, F.R.S., Professor G. Forbes, F.R.S.E., WaALrer
Fiieut, D.S8c., F.G.S., and Professor A. S. Herscurt, M.A., F.R.A.S.
(Reporter) ir .ih css sexcsteccaveceicigeaeavss's onpvest dua sons seach cicaet de ap tcaeatee teen EES.

Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jonny Luppock, Bart., Pro-
fessor PrestwicH, Professor Busk, Professor T. McK. Hueuns, Professor
W. B. Dawxtns, Professor Mratt, Rey. H. W. Crosskny, Mr. H.C. Sorsy,
and Mr. R. H. Tipprman, appointed for the purpose of assisting in the
Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave). Drawn up by Mr. R. H.
TIDDEMAN (Reporter))cccscsaces-cocauesescscs ese ect ececescasssesedecesicenoteed easement 377

Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. Gopwiy-Avstren, Professor Prust-
wicH, Mr. Davipson, Mr. Erurriper, Mr. Wrtrerr, and Mr. Torrey,
appointed for the purpose of assisting the Kentish Boring Exploration.
Drawn up by Ma; Gonwin-AUstEn: ....chece..cs+-:dssvec- aces sseeneateseseeeneeeanee 380

Fourth Report of the Committee for Investigating the Circulation of the
Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone, and Permian
Formations of England, and the Quantity and Character of the Waters
supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations; with
Appendix, by Mr. Rogurrs, on the Filtration of Water through Triassic
Sandstone; the Committee consisting of Professor Hutt, Rey. H. W. -
CrosskEy, Captain D. Garon, Mr. Gratsuer, Mr. H. H. Howertt, Mr. G.

A. Lrsour, Mr. W. Motynevx, Mr. Morron, Mr. Prnertty, Professor
Prestwich, Mr. James Prant, Mr. Mettarp Reape, Mr. W. Warraxker,
and Mr, Du RANG (REPOrberyity.c..h.c5 os cle eas cee gees ceesei'es ses vacencee eeReeene 382

Report of the Committee, consisting of James R. Naprer, F.R.S., Sir W.
THomson, F.R.S., W. Frovpz, F.RS., J. T. Borromriry, and Osporne
Reywotps, F.R.S. (Secretary), appointed to investigate the eflect of Pro-
pellers on the Steering of Vessels...............0265 cdbnisle wale eine acne Rete teen 419

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section AA—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Page
1. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature .............sss0000 33
2. Report of the Committee on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat............ 453
3. An Account of some Experiments on Specific Inductive Capacity. By J.

E. H. Gorpon, Assistant Secretary of the British Association ............ 455
On the Effect of Variation of Pressure on the Length of Disruptive Dis-
charge in Air. By J. E. H. Gorpon, Assistant Secretary of the British
JONSIEO EIS INO Scodeuaeangoadeebonondce cone peec aaeccinbBono Boon Seadtoncondaccoedacéedescer 455

. On the Absorption Spectrum of Chlorochromic Anhydride. By G.

_ Jounstone Sroney, M.A., F.R.S., Secretary to the Queen’s University

in Ireland, and J. Eerson Reynoxps, M.D.,}'.C.S., Professor.of Chemistry

gine: University of Diablin. -2.01:-cmssatesgeveactecranissestbovceudedsecteleeveevees 454

6. On the Flow of Water in uniform régime in Rivers and in Open Channels
generally. By Professor Jamzs THomson, LL.D., D.Sc., FARS. ......... 454

7. Note on the Pedetic Action of Soap. By Professor W. SranLEy JEvons,
TRCIRLISS | ooeiedeostosncae danenpocbcoc bop -b:Loc edBdicaercadsedudbaccedocdugaucd de: Secor borane 435

8. Motions produced by Dilute Acids on some Amalgam Surfaces. By Roprrr
(SATIS 10! a gdgeoce dose ego 20+ Ore Uucuer Lacon oat Jt Sericrecopomeces or Bac aEico case se acc aeccEcn 435
9. Note on Surface Tension. By Grorcr FRANcIS FITZGERALD ............++- 436

10. New Application of Gas for Lighthouses, illustrated by Models, full-sized
Apparatus, &c. By J. R. WIGHAM, M.R.LA, \..........cccsssccessseseeeeeeees 436

11. A Short Description of two kinds of Fog Signals. By J. R. WicHam,
BVP LAU res nutewenccriecteosenstecndcsloccciesseahs's ote sieniee sts eetamatompitacisene santsen see's 9 5c 4357
12, A New Atmospheric Gas Machine. By J. R. Wiewam, M.R.LA.......... 457.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.
1, Report of Committee on the Oscillation-Frequencies of the Rays of the

to

Solar Spectrum. By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY .........ccccceeeseeeceeeeeeeeceeees 458

General Results of some Recent Experiments upon the Co-efficient of
Friction between Surfaces Moving at High Velocities. By DoveLas
CA MONPE Cress yal): Callies JH OE Sp tQOGN cn etie cs «a teietia dcsia’scniga ae oledeebseeles qadsasiewls 438

On a Spectroscope of unusually large Aperture. By G. J. STONEY.......... 44]

. On the Support of Spheroidal Drops and allied Phenomena. By G. Jony-

stonr Sronry, M.A., F.R.S., Grorer F, Frrzerrarp, M.A., F.T.C.D.,
and Ricwarp J. Moss, Keeper of the Minerals in the Museum of Science
a0) velistis IDWS) 6) 5645 Aon t Shope ppcbonc et ap NnOnp het pric aadosnBee ped n écocs6 coeaeracee 441

vill ‘CONTENTS.

Page
5. On the Cause of Travelling Motion of Spheroidal Drops. By G. Jonn-
STONE STONMY MOA. AHS: 5 occecececscsctesspsrac nesses onoaie onmeospeseteeetaee 442
6. The Stanhope ‘‘Demonstrator,” or Logical Machine. By Ropert Hariey 442
7. Sur une nouvelle Méthode de Photographie Solaire et les Découvertes
qwelle donne touchant la véritable nature de la Photosphére. Par Dr.
a) NGAUS ESI Sores aenancdeaaiencieriatets os capers te o4 soe docsic pas eee e aaa eeee ee see 445
8. Sur la Constitution des Spectres Photographiques quand l’action lumi-
neuse est extrémement courte. Par Dr. J. JANSSEN ..........cscseseeeseees 445
9. Quelques remarques sur l’éclipse totale et la Couronne. Par Dr. J.
IANESWN) scondies tv cspssonGecas'sscingsacounw avery apie cdnvnety task «> shee ore 445
10. On a New Form of Receiving Instrument for Microphone. By W. J.
Mrrzar, C.E., Sec. Inst. Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland ......... 446
MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.
GENERAL SECTION.

_1. Report of the Committee on Atmospheric Electricity ............s.seceeseees 448
2. On Edmunds’ Electrical Phonoscope. By W. LAnD .............seceeceeee ene 448
3. On Byrne’s Compound Plate Pneumatic Battery. By W. Lapp............ 448
4. A Diagonal Eyepiece for certain Optical Experiments. By Professor G.

TQ IS75I|coagnadsenee “aaneosanodoBaIGeD Goa bbnoso. i Aaabaoosneansaceayoc EEA cbadoostavasaa. 449
5. A Clock with Detached Train. By Professor G. FORBES ...............2c0008 449
6. An Instrument for Indicating and Measuring the Fire-damp in Mines. By
ErOTessOr G.. WOBRBEA | j....0n.suussanaSueenaqesnaiin sis pcesileb=aen eda eney ye Sep eee REESE 449
7. On certain Phenomena Accompanying Rainbows. By Professor Srrvyanus
PSD HOMPSON, HD) SCr 61S. AL 4b. .ocseccss sles 6 edtiels cde¥s cobiesiktres saneee eee EEE 450
8. New Magnetic Figures. By Sitvanus P. Tompson, B.A., D.Sc., Pro-
fessor of Experimental Physicsin University College, Bristol............... 450
9, On Dimensional. Equations, and on some Verbal Expressions in Numerical
Science. By Professor Jamus Tomson, LL.D., D.Sc., PRLS. ............ 451
10. On Lead and Platinised Lead as a Substitute for Carbon and Platinised
Silver, in Leclanché, Bichromate, and Smee’s Batteries. By Epwarp T.
EVARDACAIN JB) Wi5.5 ole. yascemoeeh soacsies neds vec(eaehss saab eSmcacass os octet ees seme 453

11. On a New Form of Electro-Registering Apparatus. By Denny Lan .., 454

12. On an Isochronic Pendulum. By DENNY LANE ..............sccseseeeessseeeces 455

13. The Temperature of the Earth Within. By Wrttram Morris............... 56

14. On Sunspots and Rainfall. By C. MELDRUM ...................scescosecescoeee 457

15, On Lightning Conductors. By R. ANDERSON .............ssseseeceeceseesees 457

DrparRTMENt OF MATHEMArTIcs.
1. Report of the Committee on Babbage’s Analytical Engine .................- 457
2. Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables, with an Explanation of

or

the Mode of Formation of the Factor Table for the Fourth Million ...... 457

. Ona New Form of Tangential Equation. By Joun Casnry, LL.D., F.R.S.,

M.R.IA., Professor of Mathematics in the Catholic University of Ireland 457

. On the Eighteen Co-ordinates of a Conic in Space. By WitirAm Sporrts-

WOODE, FIRS Wie. 0cc., Presid Cnt, cerere-cccc-.-meerera-n- see sc eee eRe eee 462

. On the Modular Curves. By Professor H. J. S. SMrry «............cceeeeeee 463

bk =

Or

CONTENTS. ix

Page

. On the Principal Screws of Inertia of a free or constrained Rigid Body.
By Professor R. S.. BALL ...cccccssccssucssesecenesdteconsccssancasecdecesceoersreese 463

. On the Applicability of Lagrange’s Equations to certain Problems of Fluid
Motion. By Professor J. PURSER ..........ssecsscenscasencsescescescceseecceeseese 463

. On the Occurrence of Equal Roots in Lagrange’s Determinental Equation
of Small Oscillations. By Frepmrick PURSER, M.A. ...........eeeeeee neon ee 463

. On Halphen’s New Form of Chasles’s Theorem on Systems of Conics
satisfying Four Conditions. By Dr. T. Arncurr Hirst, F.RS. ............ 464

. On the Law of Force to any Point when the Orbit is a Conic. By J. W.
PG TPATES FLIER. MAME EVs Se cleats salain« seis/one siasehelscniaaanicsle vacise seo esiessisiapiniaseinssies 464

. Note on the Geometrical Treatment of Bicircular Quartics. By FREDE-
OHM ED ERATE VE Ass oataniaenes cm asec sects ence <mendds averesiossesacessiass' == lecpint dom 465
. On Quadric Transformation. By Professor H. J. S, SMe ................5 465

. On Certain Linear Differential Equations. By the Rev. Roperr HARiey,

SEE te Sec tacine cec uae och ante derens due 4-6» eb sale waren) le aeclo saleissieealtes easenisasiesdaisacce 466

. On the Solution of a Differential Equation allied to Riccati’s. By J. W.

PRC GAT SEER ITC AC BUTS. reais sive cie-e'selsjosine's sic aa oie cielacisnteogs ole es(ee(elesicinabedes’enrt a 469

. On Certain Special Enumerations of Primes. By J. W. L. GuAIsHER,

15 LURES RM EEC) > aR RR i Oat Se a maa RE 470

. Notes on Circulating Decimals. By J. W. L. Guaisuer, M.A., F.R.S.... 471
. Elementary Demonstration of the Theorem of Multiplication of Deter-

minants. By M. Fax, Docens of Mathematics in the University of
MO Re oe see ety cticlet ce tied sccteae stews aciecealiecisans eWeauassccs¥eccersanassseuvoseesese 47
7

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

DEPARTMENT OF ASTRONOMY.

. Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors. By JAmEs GuAIsHER... 477
. Report of the Committee on the Tides in the English Channel............... 477

. On an Equatorial Mounting for a Three-Foot Reflector. By the Earn or
ee Meds <dtetenp -bleeeie; weenie ac adenanrndawacavee rei s sdeseunaanes oo eseads nnn aes vn 47%
. On the Tides of the Southern Hemisphere and of the Mediterranean. By
Capt. Evans, R.N., and Sir Wiit1am THomson, LL.D. ........... cece secon 477
. On the Influence of the Straits of Dover on the Tides of the British
Channel and the North Sea. By Sir Wint1aAM THOMSON ........... cee 481
. On the Sun-heat received at the several Latitudes of the Earth, taking
Account of the Absorption of Heat by the Atmosphere, with Conclusions
as to the absolute Radiation of Earth Heat into Space, and the Minimum
Duration of Geological Time. By Professor S. HAUGHTON .............0004+ 482
. Researches made at Dunsink on the Annual Parallax of Stars. By Professor
UE ear na ssrecyiodssctipown debate en ted odie2 dean sasceasseop eno seinceens 482
. On the Precession of a Viscous Spheroid. By G. H. Darwin, M.A.,
iellow of (trinity College, Cambridge......+...isesc0.1qs+eseeccesseosseeeacounae 482
. On the Limits of Hypotheses regarding the Physical Properties of the
Matter of the Interior of the Earth. By Professor Hrnry HENNEssy,
ee crac aye RT oy fetal chon dean ge ss tecpcods tatu sry as0ceguptputaiuanderiare 485
. On the Climate of the British Islands. By Professor Hnnry Hennessy,
NID ssi ah apa MEM a UIA wu se Whitt an ven cack ones Dv Madea Me AePesadssee 485

x CONTENTS.

age

11. On a new Method of maintaining the Motion of a Free Pendulum in
VACUO. By DAVID GILL........ccccecccencccnesccoscenescusseeessenacetscecenseneceees 486
12. On Space Numbers: an Extension of Arithmetic. By B. H. Huvrow...... 486

Department or Puysicat Scrence.

1, Report of the Committee for commencing Secular Experiments on the
Blasticity of Wires...........sccsccsececceccscceceeceteceececcsnsseeescesensescescesens 486

2, A New Form of Polariscope. By Professor W1tL1aAM GRryiis ADAMS,
IM@AVESHVIR Ss. aeccesassctectcensecaensesarecccsceccwseps sass > etesintemesemmtmacten 486

3, A New Determination of the Number of Electrostatic Units in the Electro-

Magnetic Unit. By W. E. Ayrron and J. Perry. Telegram and Letter
to Sir W. THomson from Professor W. EH. AYRTON ........seeeeeeeeeceneen ene 487

4, On Apparatus employed in Researches on Crookes’s Force. By RicHarp
Jer MIGSS BIOS Io ce bet ccince caste vonclocS oslo seine ons Oh sietsielebate sels es/e deren 489
5. On Spheroidal Drops. By Ricwarp J. Moss, F.C\S. ........eeeeeeeeee esse seen 489

6, On the Spherical Class-Cubic with Three Single Foci. By Henry M.
JERFERY, MiAv ......0....csccccsscecccncoscscescsessseaccnreccecersterersnrascesececss 490,

7. On a Cubic Surface referred to a Pentad of Co-tangential Points. By
IEimymy#MGn IRR RER Yoo WGAS . chvansesacererercncese sates etslat teiscts anus menteee essen 491
8, A New Form of Trap-Door Electrometer. By Professor BARRETT ......... 495

9. On Unilateral Conductivity in Tourmaline Crystals. By Professor Siut-
vanus P. THompson and Dr. OLIVER J. LODGE «......eeseeeseeeeeeeeeneeteneens 495

10. On Gaussin’s Warning regarding the Sluggishness of Ships’ Magnetism.
By Sir WicLTaM THOMSON, F.RAS. .......ccecessecencesccecescnsesenscescaveenes 496

11. On the Electrical Properties of Bees’ Wax and Lead Chloride. By Pro-
fessors J. PERRY and W. H. AYRTON ........cccescscsscoscescssensseetesacencenes 497
12. Theory of Voltaic Action. By J. BROWN ......ssccssscssseceseceeeecescenesvens 498

13. Mutual Action of Vortex Atoms and Ultramundane Corpuscles. By
rofessor Gry HORDES stance sodudecesessaecac ease ec ocsece prienae cteetie sean ee aimee 498

Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Address by Professor Maxwertt Simpson, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President 4a

Ue SOCH ON ace. 2cn tr ceecuecGonascencae eaanrincbiecc asaie sic clneeset senate ie seems
. Report of Committee on some of the lesser-known Alkaloids .............++ Sk

ol

i

. Report on the best means of Developing Light from Coal Gas, Part I. ... 504
. On the Amounts of Sugar contained in the Nectar of various Flowers. By

Arex. SS, Winson, MUA, Bi Sc.eaalicacebtccsstcctincinsse-tt fercetnes ts eeaemeene amen 504

. On the Action of Chlorine upon the Nitroprussides. By Dr. Epwunp W.

Davy, Professor of Forensic Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland 505

. The Adulteration Act in so far as it relates to the Prosecution of Milk-

sellers. By Ernust H. Coon, B.Sc., F.R.C.S., Lecturer upon Experi-
mental Physics at the Bristol Trade and Mining School ...........:..0s-0008 506

. On some Fluor Compounds of Vanadium. By Professor H. EK. Rosco,

PhiD,, PRB ee cscs eee cee cae vs cede 507

CONTENTS. xi

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.
Page
1. Notes on Aluminium Alcohols. By Dr. Grapstone and ALFRED TRIBE... 508
2. On the Estimation of Mineral Oil or Paraffin Wax when mixed with
other Oils or Fats. By Wittr1am THomson, F.R.S.E. .........ccceecece neers 508

3. On the Action of Heat on the Selenate of Ammonium. By Dr, Ep-
munD W. Davy, Professor of Forensic Medicine, Royal College of
Pega eels pele Ara sere eatemeehoaanaesh'ascica iss goseetnesens dost ow voteaenetes cute teceone 509

4, A New Method of Alkalimetry. By Louis Sreponp, F.C.S..............00088 509

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.
1. Notes on Water from the Severn Tunnel Springs. By Witiiam Lanr

WAREUNMMRG bs. AG, Bs SCr, EROS: cadccssceccsesanceressecacsiescgsasescaseteseessees 511
2. On the Thetines. By E. A. Lurrs, Professor of Chemistry, University

CaP CMESTISUO Ls so semviect oa lajenenomer toccaen sae l dewe cela cecahe est’ etatineall tresses ceeaeG 511
3. On the Spectrum of Chlorochromic Acid. By G. JoHystonE Sronzy and

PEOCESOL J, LIMERSON HEYNOLDS) .0Jc000¢sas0scacsnassandnabadeotcasssedttsseeeeass 511
4, Summary of Investigations on the Pyridine Series. By Dr. W. Ramsay 511
5. On some of the Derivatives of Furfurol. By Dr. W. Ramsay ............... 512
6. Nitric Acid; its Reproduction from the lower Oxides of Nitrogen. By

FEvISEONAURD | Chee O TL OY: ercetatecis'a tates viseitnceiseaisstielesicaece sated tame daeateseianie deena 512
7. On some Substances obtained from the Root of the Strawberry. By Dr.

SPB EDHTPRON MEO) Sit penrectascescsescacustbetes afeatic resstestisessotcbescaretcesens 514
8. On a new Mineral White Pigment. By Dr. T. L: Putrson, F.C.8. ...... 514

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

1. On a Simplification of Graphic Formule. By Ottver J. Lopen, D.Sc. ... 516

2. On the Detection by means of the Microphone of Sounds which accom-
pany the Diffusion of Gases through a thin Septum. By W. CHANDLER

TRORETHOHIS), TEARS cetiecdb Sone: dascecc be docoueDaase Sppuecabeunco certo ond podeooe cee Baer nOes 517

3. A short Account of Baeyer’s Synthesis of Indigo. By Professor J. EMER-
Seemce MCT MN, ot US, scan ena vaidsn aden decwssenssdaxecqacduecanel Aataiinanens 517

4, Dr. Ramsay exhibited Victor Meyer’s Apparatus for taking Vapour Den-
sities of Substances with High Boiling Points..............cececeesee eee eeeeeeees 517

5. On the Condensation of the Gases hitherto called Permanent. By Pro-
HOSSOL AMES DM WAR HEU, cones sasescsierslceadtaveedtsccuedccectecneceteases «neces 517

6. Ona Method of Elementary Organic Analysis by a Moist Process. By
Professor WANKLYN and W. J. COOPER ..........ssccsccsecesccnccevceeeseeseees 517

7. On some Peculiarities of the Vartry Water, and on the Action of that
Water upon Boiler Plates. By Caries R. C. Ticusornz, LL.D., Ph.D.,

RE RM RE neta cau ieecnctackak a eRe Rescate eipnl vas sees “pin B ved Sa ganadn sah va adasonsi 517
8. On a New Process of Photo-Chemical Printing in Metallic Platinum. By
MMR BTS NTI at tsa) cash ae ends suse ph encore debntadns aie -Ghenwiisnierieew oodaiedlys 518

Section C.—GEHOLOGY.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Address by Mr. Jonny Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., President of
OMS CULM ves einai reine atganrades cna ptids ve foledelaetxiech <p side g So<sicy aehoebhet <pieeebse seas. 519

xii

CONTENTS.
Page
1. Sketch of the Geology of the Environs of Dublin. By Professor E. Hutt,
HURTS vaste aaijeceeush sdssiscastockee aeasentatsespeae tests slams meneeectes oeenere ee eeeenee 2
2, On the Ancient Volcanic District of Slieve Gullion. By JosspH Notan,
M.R.LA., &c., of H.M. Geological Survey of Ireland..............c.ceeseeesene 527
3. Notes on the Glaciation of Ireland, and the Tradition of Lough Lurgan.
By. VW... Alacer Wine TAMS ER ALS,, HOS... 0. ane baeeeeseeeceereeseseen 528
4, Notice of some additional Labyrinthodont Amphibia and Fish from the
Coal of Jarrow Colliery, near Castlecomer, County of Kilkenny, Ireland.
By Wittram Hetiier Batty, F.LS., F.G.S., M.R.LA., &¢., Acting
Palzeontologist to the Geological Survey of Ireland ...........sccecceeeesee ees 530
FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.
1. On the Exploration of Kent’s Cave. Fourteenth Report ...................+5 531
2, Sixth Report on the Victoria Cave, Settle ............cs-scseseoesesencendesceees 531
3. Report on Fermanagh Caves .............cseceeeeee We ais idset dain denna eeeeoeseac Meee oo 531
4, Fourth Report of Commission on Underground Waters.............sseseeeeees 5381
5. The Relative Ages of the Raised Beaches and Submerged Forests of
Torbay. By W. PENGELLY, F.R.S., F.G.S., &C. ...cccsscecesececestoncassn ces 531
6. Experiments on Filtration of Sea Water through Triassic Sandstone. By
TSAAGZEROBERTS, IH (GS. woacies sine neinsinctes as siecinnie weministioweieatnsh bet ebeate oot eee eee 532
7. On the New Geological Map of India. By V. Batt, M.A., F.G.S. ......... 532
SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.
1. On the supposed Radiolarians and Diatoms of the Carboniferous Rocks.
Sy Professor W. 0, WiILttaMson, FURS, .......<0500,+050sneantnanesemamaiene 554
2. On some Fossils from the Northampton Sands. By Jomy Evans, D.C.L.,
MEOH) AGGI6 4 nc dvied aos ode Seed sadkGullubsen ovdol fib bvauBedian esti teen seen eee 534
3. Notes on some New Species of Irish Fossils. By Writt1am HELiir
Batty, F.LS., F.G.S., M.R.IA., &e., Acting Palontologist to the Geo-
losieel Survey: oiEreland wre (iiss. Josssie shwes esas Wo auaeads sna. Saeeimae ea ee 535
MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.
1. On the Metamorphic and Intrusive Rocks of Tyrone. By Josnpa Noxan,
M.R.LA., &c., of H.M. Geological Survey of Iveland..................2.-see+e 556
2. On the Origin of Crystalline Rocks. By T. Srerry Hunt, F-.R.S. ......... 536
3. On Some New Areas of Pre-Cambrian Rocks in North Wales By Henry
HTS, MED, (HUGS. cccaesnatiscessctateesobtneccee Far seitonpeeeenssotentres eeeenee 556
4. On “Cervus Megaceros.” By WiILLTAM WILLIAMS ..........csscseceoeereeee 537
5. On the Rocks of Ulster as a Source of Water-Supply. By Writtram A.
TRAILL, M.A.I., H.M. Geological Survey of Ireland ..............--seeeeeeeeee 597
6. On the Occurrence of certain Fish Remains in the Coal Measures, and the
Evidence they afford of their Fresh-water Origin. By James W. Davis,
F.G.8., L.S., Hon. Secretary of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Socio tiy sctenttates-conacensotes tev ccnee cauccvedaubcles sive dokeieyscdeuees sess ee eh eee 539
7. On the Discovery of Marine Shells in the Gannister Beds of Northumber-
Jand.” By Gaga VL BBoum eB GiS.i5... i. oc Racocaeesew ness «cesccs sean eee 539
8. Report on proposed Kentish Explorations.................csscosscesecoscaneeneeees 540
9. Report on Fossils of N.W. Highlands of Scotland .............cseceeeeeeeeee ees 540

CONTENTS. Xill

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.
Page

. On the Influence of “Strike” on the Physical Features of Ireland. By

Epwarp T. Harpay, F.C.S., F.R.G.S.L., Geological Survey of Ireland 541

. On Haullite, a hitherto apnea Mineral ; a Hydrous Silicate of peculiar

composition, from Carmmoney Hill, Co. Antrim, with Analysis. By
Epwarp T, Harpmay, F.C.8., H.M. "Geological Survey. With Notes on

the Microscopic Appearances, by Professor E. Hurt, M.A., F.R.S.......... 542
5. The Progress of the Geological Survey of Ireland. By Professor Enwarp
HUit, M. j N° Tso A aD ae ea ae ale Re 543
4, Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks ..............ccsscescceeceeseeceesenes 545
5. The Geological Relations of the Atmosphere. By T. Srerry Hvnz,
LL.D., F. Te Ry boy eRe Oe SE 544
6. Report ‘of Committee on the Conductivity of Rocks .............cc.seceeeeeeee 545
7. On the Saurians of the Dakota Cretaceous Rocks of Colorado. By Pro-
(eto) LSBU RALD oy SMRE SAAS PRE eCEREC REPEL EET RCE EEE RPE RPE terra ts Spor sided A a ae 545

. Notes on Eriboliia Mackayi, 2» New Fossil from the Assynt Quartzite in

the North-Western Highlands of Scotland. By James Nrcot, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen ...... 545

. On the Influence that Microscopic Vegetable Organisms have had on the

production of some Hydrated Iron Ores. By M. AtpHonsE Gacus

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878,

1, On the Age of the Crystalline Rocks of Donegal. By Professor W. Kine, °
ee enemas enue a fea seo cae wecuniactdgn sep acc fecans ar seasaaeeareaesert ete 547
2. On the Correlation of Lines of Direction on the Globe, and particularly of
Coast Lines. By Professor J. P. O'REILLY ............0eepeeccececcessceeceece 547
8, Concerning the Extent of Geological Time. By Rev. M. H. Cuoss,
Ree Met nie tadaslaeiis ogi endaecxaninies c sone sma aeeh Suu Naa asc sad ca.ana cas Malewaaer 8g 548
4, On the Earth’s Axis. By Rey. Professor Haveuton, M.D., F.R.S. ...... 548
5. Geological Results of the late British Arctic Expedition. By Captain
FEILDEN, EA petiay Mies DY EAN ORD « .caan se sen syscnainshinseceb Hops doatgadns aes 548
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
DerparTMENT oF ZooLtogy AND Botany.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.
Address by Professor Wint1AM Henry Frowrr, F.R.S., F.LS., F.GS.,
PEROT OL UL CHSECULON maatamusssteddrencaserctosch -ateaeccedaces si cersedecedcsctetes 549
I. Report of the Close-time Committee. ...........0..00-cescsscessecsecescesscsseceees 558
2. Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Naples ............... 558
8. On the Geographical Distribution of the Chiroptera. By Dr. G. E.

MOPAR ON coc see cease ce aclhe a uiet nade satiate ckicaileh oetloaeidecadad obalals Slee alee eee. 558

. Notes on the Geographical Distribution and Migrations of Birds, &e., on

the Northern Shores and Lands of Hudson’s ‘Bay. By J. Raz, MD.,
Beas Dore Dy pnb: CheSvrete eetmemteate ti neste oicincaieletniscisies siecitetie;niiei.caeia ce cesldmebe ee geet « 558

xiv

12.
18.

—

anrtaoaarkwlhb

CONTENTS.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.
Page

_ Notes on a case of Commensalism in the Holothuria. By Dr. A. F.

ANDERSON .ccccecsecsecccccccsccvccscccssccccccccccscceccesenscescacsascccccconceacecens 559

. On certain Osteological Characters in the Cervide and their probable bear- -

ings on the past History of the Group. By Sir Victor Brooxg, Bart. ... 559

. The Habits of Ants. By Sir Jomn Luspock, F.R.S.......cccccceceeseeeseeeees 559
. On the Habits of the Field-Vole (Arvicola agrestis, L.). By Sir WALTER

ELLIOT, FURS. ....ce-ssececceceeessececceeeseseseceneeececeeaueseceeaaaeeseeaaausreess 559

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea. Part IBY.

—On Development ...........sccecssessseeceeansecneceneesesceeuaaessesscaesssaeoanees 561

. On the Willemoesia Group of Crustacea. By C. Spence Bate, F.R.S_ ... 561
. On the supposed Radiolarians and Diatoms of the Coal-measures. By

Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.............ccsccecccccescrscsensecescsccsess 564

. On the Association of an Inconspicuous Corolla with Proterogynous Di-

chogamy in Insect-fertilised Flowers. By Atrx. 8. Witson, M.A., B.Se, 564

. On the Nectar of Flowers. By Atrx. S. Wizson, M.A., B.Sc. ............ 667
. Notes on some Dimorphic Plants. By Arex. S. Wiison, M A., B.Sc...... 568
. Some Mechanical Arrangements subserving Cross-fertilisation of Plants

by Insects. By Arex. S. Witson, M.A., BiSG.stibessdescoets cede oesagernaeeees 568

. On the Stipules of Spergularia Marina. By AtexanpER Dickson, M.D.,

Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow ........++:++++++ 568

. On the Inflorescence of Senebiera didyma, By ALEXANDER Drcxson, M.D.,

Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow ...........+ss005 569

. On the Six-celled Glands of Cephalotus, and their similarity to the Glands

of Sarracenia purpurea. By ALEXANDER Dicxson, M.D., Regius Professor

of Botany in the University of Glasgow .........sssssecsseeesseesseceeceeeesouees 569
. Exhibition of Specimens of Isoetes echinospora. By ALEXANDER DICKSON,
M.D., Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow ......... 570
Some rare Scottish Alpine Plants. By Dr. I. Bayrgy Batrour ......... 570
Notes on Naiadacese. By Dr. I. BAYLEY BALFOUR ..........ccseeeeeseneroers 570
TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.
. The Vertebrata of the Permian Formation of Texas. By Professor
EDWARD .D, Cope, BiSsA. ...sccssesesc0scsecesassinsecusscgipnceWoseseeeesteeeeeetena 571
. Note on the Genus Holopus. By Sir WryvitLE THOMSON............0.:000008 571
. Note on some Deep Sea Radiolarians. By Sir Wyvitte THomson ...... 571
. On the genus Ctenodus (Agassiz). By Dr. R. H. TRAQUAIR .........2..0+ 571
. The Mammoth in Siberia. By Hunry H. Howorra, F.S.A. ............... 571
. Recent Additions to the List of Irish Lepidoptera, By R. W. Srxcnarr 572
. A Wryneck obtained in Ireland was exhibited by A. E. Jacop ............ 572

. Germinating specimens of Cardamine pratensis were exhibited by Dr. Joun

PRICE

CONTENTS. xv

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.

Page
epee by Eroressor LUXUEY, SoG. BS... 0... cscsccsneteosscssecssecsccecsasensesas 573
1. Notes on the Prehistoric Monuments of Cornwall as compared with those
poerolane 0) sy Mass ACSW. BUCKLAND! 32......scsesccececctessteccsssscoccecttes 578
2. Flint Factories at Portstewart and elsewhere in the North of Ireland. By
Rw IC NOW LES). cdscaieaaccsreccecee cas catadecescrecdecsdsocnaccce ccdeeeeegeeeecn att 579
3. The Prehistoric Sculptures of Ilkley, Yorkshire. By J. Romizry Aten 580

4,

Report of the Earth-works Committee ; being an account of Excavations
SRM ReC GO AIH pin H OPK GSIOHEsnoeercacncncesexacneuss tes tvisrenctivexausecsacs v<sesaree 580

. On Excavations at Mount Caburn, Lewes, Sussex. By Major-General

MeN EEE Ig So rae Serv ns sland iealeolonteoinarev'du'vs Jiewelwview elvealor Wo'eitubey Couee Sd cands 580

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

1. Methods and Results of Measurements of the Capacity of Human Crania.
EPVVLELIAM, EPANRY, HOWME, BSHAS. Js .ccceveeccesssetvsrocceseeeascnetecnovacess 581
2. Report of the Anthropometric Committee .............cs.seneescensecesecccenees 582
8. Ona Colour Scale. By HE. W. BRABROOK ............cscscceceeceecsccscescesees 582
4, Left-handedness. By Henry Morruman, M.D..............cecceceeceesececeees 582
5. On the Evils arising from the use of Historical National Names as Scientific
MerIns ety Ate Ly IGE WiAS nas cessetateaseessarsesscesccsaceassdetesced ce cesarateteoaee 583
6. On some American Illustrations of new Varieties of Man. By Professor
PANE WW RESON ULE)! ceccesscuaawccesastcee sect aceceteearconceestackt ace hebonts 583
7. On the Courses of Migration and Commerce, traced by Art Relics and
Religious Emblems By Jey HEN EID BL SLAG leicetececccndisceceesnss 583
TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.
1. Les Races Anciennes de lTrlande. Utilité de l’étude des traditions qui
les concernent pour V’ethnographie de l’Kurope primitive. Par Henrr
IU METIS jpa@getechanneeonnocoecrce Bela alelesiets siatenise suis ceecieatannslaneer eiveic ceiaae aaule waetecn 585
2. On some objects of Ethnological Interest collected in India and its Islands.
EPC ED CA Wy As OE Cre Siveccucsensenadeccsedsavscedneccen dient reersndeac ent su cccscd 588
3. Notes on the Tribes of Midian. By Captain R. F. Burton .................. 589
4, Notes on some Tribes of Tropical Aborigines. By T. J. Hurcurnson, late
ier Majesty's Const at Callao... .......c.csccas00<sesnqceyconssscepecsougecnscecas 589
5. On the Prehistoric Relations of the Babylonian, Egyptian, and Chinese
Characters and Culture. By Hypr Crarxg, V.P.A.S., V.P.S.S. ... 590
6. On the Spread of the Sclavs. By H. H. Howorrm ....... eee 590

. Report of Excavation of a Bone Cave near Tenby, 8S. Wales
. Inscribed Bone Implements. By J. Park Harrison, M.A...........0..0000 591
. The Primitive Human Family. By C. Srantzanp Waxks, M.ALI.......... 592

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.

. On Flint Implements in Egypt and in Midian. By Captain R. F. Burton 591
. Notices of an Expiring Race on the Bhutan Frontier. By T. Durant

SE aper CLELULD Ns caesar ea oe ee tare a Sots siobioe « ce cainenideenniccsctaocdese geassgcceutaoncae 591

Xvi CONTENTS.

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Address by Dr. R. McDonNELL, F-.R.S. ...5..00...sccseccateeseenscsccnseecensecsenses DOO
1, Observations on some Points in the Osteology of an Infantile Gorilla
Skeleton. By ALLEN THomson, M.D., LL.D., FURS. ......c..csccsseceeee eee 597

2. The Intrinsic Muscles of the Mammalian Foot. By D. J. CunnineHam,
M.D., F.R.5.E., Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of Edinburgh 599

3. On the Gill Skeleton of Selache Maxima. By A. MacanistEr, M.D. ...... 600

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

1. Phenomena of Binaural Audition. By Professor Srrvanus P. THompson,

Scop Au. paiewceraviescersrsepcescresstes sco'oo>>eancsip ine espe as eaieeee. aan emneee 601
2. On the Theory of Muscular Contraction. By G. F. .Frrzerrap, M.A. ... 601
3. On the Nervous System of Meduse. By G. J. Romanus, F.L.S............. 601

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.
1. On the Excretion of Nitrogen. Part 11—By the Skin. By J. Byryz

POWER Yee ance tects ove seinen eater sco aMerccsbiaeesee cv euee sss sasae>seapeenat sateen eee 602
2. Ona Direct Method for determining the Calorific Power of Alimentary

Substances. By J. A. Wank Lyn and W. J. COOPER .............sceeseeeeee 605
8. On the Aberrant Form of the Sacrum connected with Naegele’s Obliquely

Contracted Pelvis. By Atten Tuomson, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. ............ 605
4, Note on the Occurrence of a Sacral Dimple and its possible Significance.

By DAWSON TAT, FOR.O.S. -..000+00s 00s +osennesesasnbasnsasneansieeen a nenenEenee 606

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.

1. The Rate of Cardiac Hypertrophy. By Wuittram H. Srons, M.A.,
HHI OP Gitecalanicslgess aasenaench oOebee ctePee cian keaecp ise ines ious shee eae eee 608

Srotion E.—GEOGRAPHY.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 135, 1878.
Address by Professor Sir C. Wyvitte Tuomson, LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S.

F.R.S.E., F.G.S., F.L.S., President of the Section.............sscsscsscssssenss 613
1. A Journey on Foot through Arabia Petreea. By the Rev. F. W. Hot-

GAWD MI PAN IRR Crs en ces eceseu ass ase ares eitaasene re npacentdes: esmterh = seen ememe re 622
2. Survey of Galilee. By Lieut. H. H. Kironennmr, R.E., F.R.G.S. ......... 624

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.
1. Notes on some Geographical Variations on the Coast of France. By J. 8.

DPS LAGS, Sua Uh nc tceatentwe tende= digo coe te Sap pameb eh paket an 628
2. On Processes of Map-producing. By Captain J. Warurnousz, BC.S.,
Assistant Surveyor-General of India ...........c..sssceeecescseceecceecensseesses 628

3. Richthofen, Prejevalsky, and Lake Lob. By E. Drtmar Morean,
RRIGISS Go cepin watamtngeei se exces > 5aabe delsnp digs os ns lesan ba'seinc ok en ae meee 629

CONTENTS. XVii

: MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.
* Page
. The Land of Midian. By Captain R. Burton, H.B.M. Consul, Trieste ... 630
. On a Journey to Fez and Mequinez. By A. Learen, M.D., F.R.G.S.,
Uh oa Be open np sit 6 cb Gh Lr has Aie te Bir eo ee oe a A a 631

. On the Progress in the Official Report of the “Challenger” Expedition.
By Sir C. Wrvitie THomson, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. .......cccsecceeseeceees 635

- On the Characteristic Features of Alaska, as developed by the U.S. Survey.

Mamet. DVATTs Weer Otis vances 2eecec.2fshas.cbisbeccedseeeterecereacdeetasetiessdces 633

. On the Acquisition by England of Cyprus, and some Observations on the

Islands in the Levant. By J.S. PaEné, LL.D., F.S.A. .......cccceeeeeeeee 634

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

. On the Best Route to attain a high Northern Latitude, or the Pole itself.

2 TERT Leigh be 0S DA BBD x GS Be GS ee Me Alla 636
- Geographical Significance of North Polar Ice. By E. L. Moss, M.D....... 636

. Livingstonia.—The Opening up. of the Hast African Lake District. By
JAMES STEVENSON, F.R.G.S. .......ccccescceseeseees Pisce Seincccanioaiasat saya aaerens 636
mmevps.. by Major Witson, R.B. FRG. ...:.cveceseustasccacaceseconsesneeoes 637

5. On the Geographical Distribution of the Tea Plant. By A. Burret,

EMRE MENS erie ear aah 2Ire sev ac acca sade setae feLehc Saal uuic dias acs nochow neds 638

. Influence of the Straits of Dover on the Tides of the British Channel and

Morthisea, By Sir Wits THOMSON, FR.S,.......ccccciecrreseaesaeeasscee 639

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Address by Professor J. K. Ineram, LL.D., M.R.I.A., President of the Section 641

1, Report of Anthropometric Committee ...............sssscecesseecseensesseeacevece 658
2. On Canadian Statistics. By A. E. Bareman, F.\S.S. ..........cccccseecesceeess 658
3. How to meet the Requirements of Population displaced by Artizans’
mwellmgs Act, By Sir JAMES WATSON -.......00..ccescccececosserassgencesecesss 658
4, On the Boarding-out of Pauper Children. By Miss Isasenua M. Top...... 659

cr

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.

. On the Condition of Small Farmers, and their Position with reference to

the Land Question. By MuRROUGH O'BRIEN.............sccccseeceeessceneeeees 661

. The Creation of a Public Commission to purchase Land for Resale to

Occupiers in Ireland. By FRancts NOUAN ..........cccsssesecsccccessceuensceece 662

. Suggestions for a Bill to regulate Sales of Property. By Jamus H.

Sie wea He UIA Tar) Etna MSc Noyes tus ORs hedet odtdenace ces sanvcncaecesavousedes 662

- On the Application of Copyhold Enfranchisement to long Leases in Ive-

land, the assimilation of Chattel and Freehold Succession, and the
simplification of Transfer of Land. By J. H. Epa ............cc0cccceeeeeees 663

. On Impediments to the prompt carrying out of the principles conceded by

Parliament on the Irish Land Question. By W. Netrson Hancock,
NN Ae ce eeen Bie. oak coe eM ae een Use tots dota ost be anh acbigewargaaeeeeg debanadd 664
1878, a

XVlil CONTENTS.

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

-Page

1. Report of Committee on Common Measure of Value in Direct Taxation ... 666
2. The Pericdicity of Commercial Crises, and its Physical Explanation. By

EBrosessOr gin STAND YG RBV ONS y7E Abii, seve ofc s-iee0> ot eeneseentaste tetteamen tee esis 666

3. The Definitions of Political Economy. By Professor MAGUIRE ............ 667
4, Some Statistical Researches into the Poor Removal Question, with special
‘reference to the Removal of Persons of Irish Birth from Scotland. By

We inrmnsOne EEN COCK, WiDr. << .cses0ce sees seneed evlucneeeneceeeeeet seeds sees 667
-5.:On the Education and Training of;the Insane. By JosrpH Lator, M.D.,

Resident Medical Superintendent, Richmond District Lunatic Asylum
MDD PDT ew cios acest deauls sais ta saben assets cts'eiselessiees 5» noice Oaeenenet tece eet eee 667

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

. Some Remarks on the Desirability of Simultaneous and Identical Legisla-

tion for England and Ireland. By H. Li. JWPHSON.............ssseeeeeeeeeeeees 678

. On the Importance of raising Ireland to the Level of England and Scotland

in the matter of Industrial Schools and Compulsory Education. By W.

INBIUSONAELAN COCK GTi. Di ct.scccesecctdecsescccens sossevtestcs cites eaieeaeneneeee 674
3. On some Economic Fallacies of Trades Unionists. By Professor J. J.
SHAW als sastdeavics ncseridsuecscccadeuclblion sbeuftecessuededscae eneeMeeee ace atten eR aReeaneS 675
‘WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.
1. On the Social ‘Aspects of Trades Unionism. By J. H. M. Campsetr ...... 676
2..On Adam Smith’s Theory of Rent. By W. D. HENDERSON ..............000 677
‘Sgecrion ‘G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Address by Mr. Epwarp Easton, C.E., President of the Section ............06. 679
1, On River‘Gontrol. By J. CLARKE HAWKSHAW ...cceccsssscssccnssccssneocesoee 687
2, On the Effect of River or Arterial Drainage Works upon River Floods.

By James Ditton, Mem. Tnst©.BLL iit.. casecesenascesnen<stheessnaeeeeneeeanee 687
3. On the Control of Rivers. By W. Suetrorp, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S. ...... 690
4

to

. Recent Improvements in the Port of Dublin. By B. B. Sronny

. On Movable .and Fixed Weirs, with reference to the Improvement of the

Navigation, Mill Power, and ‘Drainage of Flood Waters of Rivers, with
especial Notice of the River Shannon. By J. Nevrizz, C.E., M.R.LA.,

Dundee io... cds scucsa+ssxoomsies xarale seicage te s\cleg@ee cece eons Renee ee 691

. The Rainfall of Ireland. By G. J. Symons, F.R.S. .........scseccssssseeoeess 692

. On the Hydrogeologieal Survey of England. By JosrrH Lucas, F.G.S.... 692
FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.

. On the Drainage of the Fenland considered in relation to the Conservancy

of the Rivers of Great Britam. By W.H. Wurerter, M. Inst. O.E.....:. 693

. On the Discharge of Sewage in Tidal Rivers. By Henry Law, Mem.

FE CUB: ons ans ae BbiaBiteete nig occa xa'eoss sencsin se tOk Mes APS vo Guia ociet nee ae a 695

CONTENTS. xix

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

1, Report of the Committee on the Patent Laws.............sssescesseeseveeesceess Oar
2. Report of Committee on the Use of Steel for Structural Purposes ......... 697
5. Report of Committee on the Steering of Screw Steamers ..............:eceeee 697
4, On the Steering of Screw Steamers. By Professor Ospornr REYNOLDs,

ernie oa 3 - 1) aes ceeaniad sie deens calles beaetiyscu (vans dawmiaednGes sae dcneceum 697
5. General Results of some recent Experiments upon the Co-efficient of

Friction between Surfaces moving at High Velocities. By Captain
TETAS CHAT TON | © Bey HekiSeccaces oovsssescesdacdeoscesedsstoceesccscoecsoedss nce 697

6. Recent Improvements in Telegraphic Apparatus. By W. H. PRexce...... 697
7. The Filtration of Salt from Sea Water into Wells in the Trias Sandstone.
MD ERMA TOTES coy ca. css s0aee geamateh sr otden ace Cacti GtVanacKep sscraccearsoranaasssesieeses 697
8. Description of a new Lift Bridge for the Midland Great Western Railway
over the Royal Canal at Newcomen Bridge, Dublin. By Brypon B.
Sunnie ACs MInst, OM, .cececesvsscssedecsnseeus ss dvasswescetacaeanesescarasien 697
9. The Irish Siren Fog Signal. By J. R. WIGHAM ...........cecceeeeeeeeeaeeees 698
10. A New Form of Mining Lamp. By Dr. Cuartzs BAtt...............:0006 698
TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.
1. Report of Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships ... 699
2. Report of Committee on the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey ......... 699
3. Report of Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel, &c.... 699
4. The River Shannon: its present State, and the Means of Improving the
Navigation and the Drainage. By Jamms LYNAM ............cccceeeeeeeeeeeees 699
5. On the Present State of Electric Lighting. By James N. SHoorsren,
Rarreem Vemlrin ta Osun iccucetessassssscstcssooseccetodsssiuadesneiuenveareeeraace 706
6. On a Process for Cutting through Sand-bars in Rivers and Harbour En-
eMC enbry | C. FSERGHRON, O51.) 6/0..0.cocceceerececcescrcsueccecseeeesceucseesccs 708
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.
1, On the Use of Wind Power for Raising Water, Disposal of Sewage, and
Drainage, with special reference to Ireland. By Jamzs Pricn, M. Inst.
1 Bag WIL ANETTA Gasdce decBaasaog-¢ debe Se Snse do saacHoSEcBon cos Pee Ee Nnccnaar cABReEEoB naar 709
2. A System of Ventilation by Means of Fans and Punkahs worked by Com-
ressed Air for use in Hospitals and Barracks in India and other Tropical
Himates. By the Hon. R. C. PARSONS .........0...cccccscsccesevccseseecssonces 710
3. On the Dublin Waterworks. By PARKE NEVILLE............ccesccseecsseceees 712
4, The Design-and Use of Boilers. By F. J. Rowan, M. Inst. M.E. ......... 712
5. On the System of Dredging usually employed in the United States. By
Ee CPERELUUMES BIG Sirtacete (cesb ater cecscscccndssccsessrdoceccssscosesescicosssetearncesoceis 713
On a New Ship-raising Machine. By THomas A. DILLON ............000008 713

a 2

Lis tek PLAT BS:

PLATES L, IL, anv III.

Illustrative of Mr. Brypon B. Stonzy’s Paper on Recent Improvements in the
Port of Dublin.

PLATE IV.
Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables.

PLATES V., VI. ap VIL

Illustrative of Mr. C. Spence Bate’s Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
of the Crustacea.

ERRATA IN THE PRESENT VOLUME.

P. 304, line 25 :—for M, (at 155+47) vead M, (at 160+49). [And in the Note
on p. 103, Vol. for 1872 of these Reports, for R. A. 160°, N. Decl. 51° vead R. A. 150°,
N. Decl. 61°; and fo7 R. A. 155°, N. Decl. 47° vead R. A. 160°, WW. Decl. 49° (the real
places in Greg’s and Heis’ lists of 1864 and 1867, of their radiant-points M,.)]

P. 304, line 38 :—/for over the town of Beckingham, near Market Harborough sad
over a point between Buckingham and Market Harborough.

ERRATA IN REPORT FOR 1877.
Page 75 (Sections), line 3 ¢¢ seq.,
Sor 88 read

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF

THE ASSOCIATION.

OBJECTS.

Tux Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.

Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to
become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to
conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner; to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-

_ cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become

————

Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the

General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Associa-

tion, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Memesers shall pay, on admission, the sam of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association which may be

Xxii RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.

AwnvaL Susscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis: but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at
any subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion
the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Asso-
ciation.

Assocrates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership
after intermission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5, Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’ )
pvice, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a com-
position for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a fur-
ther sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since
1845, a further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a compo-
sition.

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publi-

cation Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds -

as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum
as a Book Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume
for that year only. |

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.. XX1ii

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets)
any of the frst seventeen volumes of Transactions of the:
Association, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at
one third of the Publication Price. Application to be made
at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, Lon--
don, W..

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

Meetings..

The Association shall meet annually, for one-week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.

General Committee..

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall.consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A.. Permanent. MempBers.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association,.and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of. the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
be sent to the Assistant Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association.. The decision of the Council on the claims of any
Member of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee
to be final.

Cuass B. Temporary Memeers.

1. The President for the time being of any Scientific Society publish-
ing Transactions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him. Claims
under this Rule to be sent to the Assistant Secretary before the opening of the
Meeting.

2.. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates; altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Seientifie Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting. of the year, by.
the President and General Secretaries.

4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organizing Sectional Comnvittees.*

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.

* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.

XXIV RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,* and of preparing Reports
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting.

An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to settle the terms of their Report, after which their functions as
an Organizing Committee shall cease.

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.t

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.m., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 4.M. on the next day, in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.

2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organiz-
ing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.

* Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir,
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
pefore...... Ta pahls cammees ones guide , addressed thus—*“ General Secretaries, British Associa-
tion, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section ....... ” Tf it should be incon-
venient to the Author that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is
requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note.

+ Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.

{ These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXV

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of tne Association and
printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organizing Committee.* The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in
the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 a.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section should call at the Printing Office and
revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec-
tional Meetings, to the Assistant Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ez officio tem-
porary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xix), and will receive,
on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling
them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state
and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Com-
mittees for the execution of such Reports or researches; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
one of them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business.

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant Secretary for pre-
sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the
Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

* This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871.

XXvi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

NV.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sec-
tions must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they
can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by
the General Committee.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Individual or the Member first named of a Committee to whom a money
grant has been made must (previously to the next Meeting of the Associa-
tion) forward to the General Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the
sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains dispos-
able on each grant.

Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the
Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by
the General Committee.

No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General Com-
mittee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College,
London, W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to
time be required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scien-
tific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.

At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 P.M. the
Sections will close.

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXVli

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant Secretary.

3.—Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room. °

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

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PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

XXXV

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHSICS,

1832. Oxford...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1833. Cambridge |Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

1834. Edinburgh |Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS

1835. Dublin...... Rey. Dr. Robinson ......... ies

1836. Bristol...... Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.

1837. Liverpool...|/Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

1838. Newcastle |Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.

1839. Birmingham | Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

1840, Glasgow ...|Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.............

1841. Plymouth |Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......

1842. Manchester|Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.

1843. Cork......... Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.LA. ...

1844. York......... The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...

1845. Cambridge |The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.

1846. Southamp-|Sir John F. W. Herschel,

ton. Bart., F.R.S.

1847. Oxford...... Rey. Prof. Powell, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

1848. Swansea ...|Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......

1849. Birmingham | William Hopkins, F.R.S.......

1850. Edinburgh |Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

1851. Ipswich ...|Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.R.S., &e.

1852. Belfast...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.

1853. Hull......... The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.

1854. Liverpool...| Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.

1855. Glasgow .../Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.

1856. Cheltenham] Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

1857. Dublin...... Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA.

(1858. Leeds ......]|Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.R.S.

b2

Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

AND PHYSICS.

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. 8S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

W. 8. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G.
G. Stokes,

John Drew, Dr.
Stokes.

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine, Prof. Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,

Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,

Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.

C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S8.Smith, Prof,
Tyndall.

Stevelly, G.-G.

XXxvl

REPORT—1878.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Revy.N.Ferrers,Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G,
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
§. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H.J.S.Smith,
Rev. §. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. S. Herschel.

J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.

Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

James F. W. Johnston.

1859. Aberdeen...|The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.RB.S.
1860. Oxford...... Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
1861. Manchester|G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
E.R.S.
1862. Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.R.S.
1863. Newcastle |Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine
C.E., F.R.S.

1864. Bath......... Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

1865. Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.
F.R.A.S.

1866. Nottingham|Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

1867. Dundee ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

1868. Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

1869. Exeter......|Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.RBS.

1870. Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.
LL.D., F.R.S.

1871. Edinburgh |Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...

1872. Brighton ...|W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.B.S.

1873. Bradford ...|Prof. H. J. 8S. Smith, F.R.8.

1874. Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.

1875. Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

1876. Glasgow ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.B.S.

1877. Plymouth... |Prof.G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.

1878. Dublin...... Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
1832. Oxford...... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1833. Cambridge !John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1834, Edinburgh |Dr. Hope

Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

XXXVli

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY-

Date and Place

1835

1836.

1837
1838

Presidents

. Dublin......
Bristol ......

. Liverpool...

. Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840

1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.

1861.
1862.

1863.
1864.

1865
1866
1867
1868
1869

. Glasgow ...
Plymouth...

Manchester

Cambridge
Southamp-
ton
Oxford......
Swansea
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich ...
Belfast......

seeeerene

Liverpool
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Aberdeen...
Oxford......

Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

Bath.........
. Birmingham

- Nottingham
. Dundee
. Norwich ...

. Exeter

.| Prof.

Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.8. ......
Rev. Prof. Cumming

Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.

Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.

Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. .........
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A.........
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Rev. Prof. Cumming

eee eeeee

Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,

E.R.S.

...|Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......

John Percy, M.D., F.RB.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.

Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S8.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

Prof. W. A.Miller,M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. Lyon Playtair,C.B.,F.R.8.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S8.,
M.R.LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B.,F.R.S.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......

Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
E.R.S.

W.Odling, M.B.,F.R.S.,F.C.S.

Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
V.P.R.S.

H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.

T. Anderson, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.,
F.C.S.

Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.

Secretaries

Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.

Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera:
path.

Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.

Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.

Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.

Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.

R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

Dr. L.Playfair, E.Solly,T. H. Barker.

R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.

Dr.Edwards, Dr.Gladstone, Dr.Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- ~
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J.S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A.V.Harcourt, Prof. Liveing,R. Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F, Sutton.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

XXXVill

Date and Place

REPORT—1878.

Presidents

1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.

1874.
1875.

1876.
1877.
1878.

Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol ......
Plymouth...
Dublin

seeeee

FDWispElsiphCGsanseHtR, 9. -oscees

Prof. H. E. Roscoe,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.

B.A.,

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....

Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.

F, A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S.

Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S,

Secretaries

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

..|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

...|Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, untin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.

. Oxford

. Dublin
. Bristol

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

seeeee

. Liverpool...

. Newcastle. .

. Birmingham

. Glasgow ...

. Plymouth...

, Manchester

. Cambridge.

. Southamp-

ton

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.

Bere este eee eeeeres

....-.|John Taylor.
. Cambridge ./G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......| W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
. Edinburgh .| Prof. Jameson

Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates,

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

Reto eGnithithy pees .tesenesens cee

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geography, R. 1. Murchison,
E.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geography, G.B.Greenough,
F.R.S.

C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhope.

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geography, G.B.Greenough,
F.R.S.

Charles Lyell, F.R.S.—Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.

H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.

Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soe.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Leonard Horner, F.R.S.—- Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, S. Stutchbury, T.
J. Torrie.

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
graphy, Captain H. M. Denham,
RN.

W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-

land, Charles Darwin.

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.

Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.

Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norten,
Prof. Oldham.—G'eography, Dr. C.
T. Beke,

i a i te el

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS..

Date and Place

XXXIx

Presidents

Seeretaries

1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea...

1849. Birmingham

Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.

Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.
Sir Charles
F.G.S.

Lyell, F.RB.S.,

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
| Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
‘Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay.

J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.

Oldham,

1850. Edinburgh*|Sir Roderick I. Murchison, A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,

1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast......

1853. Hull.........
1854. Liverpool..

1855. Glasgow ...

1856. Cheltenham

1857. Dublin

1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter ......

1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh

...|Archibald Geikie,

F.R.S.

SECTION © (continued).

Lieut.- Col.
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S.

Portlock, R.E.,

Sir ReI. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.R.S. “pat

Sir Charles Lyell, LL. D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S.,. F.G.8.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.

F.BS.,

- F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,8.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. Nicol.

— GEOLOGY.

...| WilliamHopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.|C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod;

Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdan,.
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.

Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, .
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.

Nicol.

Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rey.. J. Longmuir,.
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt..
D. C. L. Woodall.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T..
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert.

Jones, H. C. Sorby.

KH. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Themas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly..

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
sor, G. H. Wright.

Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.

Rey. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, .

Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood, .
W. Boyd Dawkins, G..H. Morton. .

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. McKenny:
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

* At ameeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved “ That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Secticn, under the title of the ‘Geographical and Ethno. -
logical Section,’” for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxix.

xl

Date and Place

1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.

Brighton ...
Bradford...
Belfast......
Bristol......
Glasgow
Plymouth...
Dublin

earns

REPORT—1878.

Presidents

Secretaries

F.G.S.

...|Prof. John Young, M.D. ......

Weibencelliy. HAR. S.s.-csenvsese

F.S.A., F.G.S.

Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,|L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
-F.RB.S. Topley, Henry Woodward.

Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,|L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
F.RB.S., F.G.S. Topley.

‘Prof. .Hull. M.A., F.R.S.,|/F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
F.G.S. R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
ley.

J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

“BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

“COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.
1858.

1839

1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.

1845.
1846.

+1847.

Oxford
Cambridge*
Edinburgh .

neeeee

Liverpool...
Newcastle

. Birmingham
Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
Manchester

Cambridge
Southamp-
ton
Oxford

Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...

Prof. Graham

He Renee were ere eeetene

A Wiens eM GU eaivie. coaeences neceete
Sir W. Jardine, Bart. .........

Prof. Oxren; Hitt.ssecesceres ves
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......
John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.
William Thompson, F.L.S. ...

Very Rey. the Dean of Man-

| chester.

Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....

Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S,.

|H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.

Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.

Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S.
Rootsey.

C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.

J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.

E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.

Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

J.Couch,Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.

G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.

SECTION D (continued).—zOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

_ [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. xxxviii.]

1848. Swansea ...|L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........|Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
nto): t | frey, Dr. Lankester.
‘1849. Birmingham | William Spence, F.R.S. ....../Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

“ ‘At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p- XXXVili.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.

1862.
1863.

1864.
1865.

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

1870.

1871.

Edinburgh
Tpswich

Belfast......
Hull
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Aberdeen..
Oxford......

Manchester

Cambridge
Newcastle

sere e ees

Birmingham

Nottingham

Dundee

Norwich ...

Liverpool...

Edinburgh

...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,

|Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,

.| Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.

.|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. B.S.

Presidents

Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.

F.R.S.
IW. Osilloys eeeccaaccarestacosmn
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S. |

F.R.S.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S

Prof. Huxley, F.B.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

Dr. John E. Gray; F.R.S.

T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.

xli

Secretaries

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.

Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.

Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.

Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.

| William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.

Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.

Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele,

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

.|W. 8. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.

L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

.|Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.

P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.

B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.

Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.

H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

SECTION D (continued).—BIOLOGY.*

Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
—Physiological Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.

—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.

Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.— Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.— Dep.
of Ethno., J. ‘Evans, F.R.S.

Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof. WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.

Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8S. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, EK. Ray Lan-
kester.

Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.

* At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved :—“ That the title
of Section D be changed to Biology ;”” and “That for the word ‘Subsection,’ in the
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ besubstituted.

xlii

REPORT—1878.

Date and Place

Presidents

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast

seeeee

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...

1878. Dublin

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S8.

Prof. Allman, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.

P. L. Selater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-
land, M.D., F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.B.S.

A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Zool. and
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.

J.GwynJeffreys, LL. D.,F.R.S.;
F.L.8.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S.

Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol., R.

McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries

Prof. Thiselton- Dyer, H. T. Stainton,

Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.

W.T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.

E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge
1834, Edinburgh

OO tema w een eneeeeeens

Oren enneeenee

Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.

SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol ......
1837. Liverpool...

1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...

1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester

1843. Cork
1844 York

st ereeees

Dre Pritchards..cccessesed seosaee?
Dr, Roget wh. Ras. ce: sodeeenet ne
Prot. Wi Clark, MoD" peecesese

Th. Headlam, (MeDs psn tee.
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....
James Watson, M.D. .........

P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. B.S.
Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.

Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ..
|J. C. Pritchard, M.D. .........

Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

Dr. Symonds.

Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid. ,

Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8.
Sargent.

Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

.| Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

xlili

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
1845. Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ......|Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...)C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
ton gent.
1847. Oxford* ...| Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......|Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
j Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow ...! Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ..... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,|C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen...) Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford...... |Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D.,|Dr. R. M*‘Donnell, Dr. Edward
F.L.S. Smith.
1861. Manchester Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L.& E.| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge |C. E. Paget, M.D................ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle |Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
1864. Bath......... Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J. 8. Bartrum, Dr, W. Turner.
F.R.S.
1865.Birminghm.} Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,|Dr. A.-Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
F.R.S. Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

{For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,

p. Xxxiv. ]

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1846.Southampton| Dr. Pritchard...................+ Dr. King.
1847. Oxford...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.
WS WATSCA®.5e)|ldcecesoccocectcsccdsscdesecscacanaesase G. Grant Francis.

1849. Birmingham

Dr. R. G. Latham.

1850. Edinburgh | Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

1851. Ipswich ...{Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw.
1852. Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,|R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.R.S. . Shaw.
HSooe eal), .....5.: R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
1854. Liverpool...) Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.

1855.
1856.
1857.

Glasgow ...|Sir J. Richardson,

F.R.S.
M.D.,
F.R.S.

Cheltenham|Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,

sneer

K.C.B.

Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres. R.I.A.

Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

* By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were

incorporated under the name of “Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’’ (see p. xxxvi). The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.

+ Vide note on page xxxvii.

xliv

Date and Place

REPORT—1878.

Presidents

Secretaries

1858. Leeds ...... Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,|R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Calla-
F.R.S. ghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
1859. Aberdeen...|Rear - Admiral Sir James] Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. ton Shaw.
1860. Oxford...... Sir R. I. Murchison,* D.C.L.,|Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
F.R.S. Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1861. Manchester|John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

1862. Cambridge | Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... J. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr.
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T.
Wright.

1863. Newcastle |Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,

F.R.S. C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

1864. Bath......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.

F.R.S. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

1865. Birmingham | Major-General Sir H. Raw-|H. W. Bates, 8. Evans, G. Jabet, C.

linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.| R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

1866. Nottingham|Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.

LL.D. H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

1867. Dundee ...|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S. |H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Stur-
rock.

1868. Norwich ...|Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,/T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark-

F.R.S. ham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continwed),—GHOGRAPHY.
1869. Exeter ...... Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,/H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
LL.D., F.R.G.S. J. H. Thomas.
1870. Liverpool...|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,/H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
K.C.B., LuL.D., D.C.L.,} Mott, Clements R. Markham.
F.R.S., F.G.S.
1871. Edinburgh | Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. |Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan,
J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston.
1872. Brighton ...| Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
1873. Bradford ...|Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.|H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.
1874. Belfast...... Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,|E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
F.R.G.S. Thomas.

1875. Bristol...... Lieut. - General Strachey,|H. W. Bates, EH. C. Rye, F. F.
R.E.,C.8.L,F.B.5S., F.R.G.S.,| Tuckett.
F.L.S., F.G.S.

1876. Glasgow ...|Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S....... H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.

1877. Plymouth... |Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, ©.B.,|H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, E. C. Rye.

F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
1878. Dublin...... Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-|John Coles, E. C. Rye.
son, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........(J. E. Drinkwater.
1834. Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

xlv

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1836
1837

SECTION F.—STATISTICS.

1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.
. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon.........

1838
1839

1840
1841
1842

1843.
1844.

1845

. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........

. Birmingham| Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........

. Glasgow ...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,
F.R.S.

. Plymouth...} Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......

. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...

Cork’... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...

BYOTK. ccccesse Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,
F.L.S.

. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl] Fitzwilliam

1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............
ton
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L.. F.R.S.

1848. Swansea ...

J. H. Vivian. M.P., F.R.S.

1849. Birmingham| Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton......
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
1853. Hull......... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.
1854. Liverpool.../Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........
1855. Glasgow .../R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...
SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC
1856. Cheltenham| Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P.
1857. Dublin...... His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.1A.
1858. Leeds ....... Edward Baines .........ssee0ee
1859. Aberdeen...|Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
1860. Oxford...... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......
1861. Manchester | William Newmarch, F.R.S....

1862. Cambridge | Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
1863. Newcastle .| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....
1864. Bath......... William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
1865. Birmingham Rt. Hon, Tord Stanley, LL.D.,
1866. Nottingham prof 3 - H. T, Rogers......2..0..

W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.

Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.

F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.

Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.

Rey. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.

Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock.

J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.

J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.

Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.

Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.

Edward Cheshire, Wm. Newmarch.

KE. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.

SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch,

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof, Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.

Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
EK. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T.
Rogers.

H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.

R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

xlvi

REPORT— 1878.

Date and Place

Presidents

1867.
1868.
1869.

Dundee ....
Norwich ....

Exeter

seeeee

. Liverpool...

71. Edinburgh
72. Brighton...

73. Bradford ...

1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.

1841.
1842.

1843

1844.

1845.

5. Bristol

. Belfast......

. Glasgow ...

7. Plymouth...
. Dublin

we eeee

Bristol
Liverpool...
Newcastle

Birmingham
Glasgow ..

Plymouth
Manchester

se eeeneee

Cambridge

1846,Southampton

1847.

1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.

1857.

Qxford! <2...
Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh

Liverpool...
Glasgow ..

Cheltenham

.|M. E. Grant Duff, M.P.

..|Sir John Robinson

Aves oe

Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.
Actuaries.

Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O’Hagan

seen eeee

emer e ter eerenease

James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S.,
Pres.8.5.

Sir George Campbell, K.C.S8.L.,
M.P.

Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.

Secretaries

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy,
Charles T. D. Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, Frank P. Fellows,
Hans MacMordie.

F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.

A, M‘Neel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett,
Dr. W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W.
Jack,

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rey. Dr. Robinson
Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......

Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.

Penne eeenenee

John Taylor, HRS. \.nvs-ss--sn.
Rev. Prof. Willis, F'.R.S....

Prof, J. Macneill, M.R.LA ...

John Taylor, F'.R.S. ............

George Rennie, F.R.8.

Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Rey. Professor Walker, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Rey. Professor Walker, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

Robert Stephenson, M.P.,
E.R.S.
Revah HODINSONC.seccsce eee

..| William Cubitt, F.R.S..........

John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, C.E.,
E.R.S.

John Scott Russell, F.R.S.

Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S..........

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.

W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Webster.

J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.

Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

.|J. F, Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.

Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Kingsley.

William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

John Head, Charles Manby.

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.

James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.

John Grantham, J. Oldham, J.
Thomson.

L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J.
Thomson.

C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M.
Jeffery.

Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

Date and Place

1858. Leeds

1859.

1860.

1861. Manchester

1862.
1863.

Cambridge
Newcastle
1864. Bath.
1865. Birmingham

Hee eeeene

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

seeeee

1868.

1869.
1870.

Exeter ......
Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ...

1874.

1875.

feweee

seneee

LIST OF EVENING

Presidents

William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, O.E., F.R.S....

Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. ........

Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.RB.S.

G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..........
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.

Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E.

ee eressee

W. H. Barlow, F.B.S. .........

Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.

-|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......

Edward Woods, C.E.

Edward Easton, C.E.

LECTURES. xlvii

Secretaries

J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.

R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.

.|B. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W.
P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F, Iselin, M.
A. Tarbottom.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Tselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.

|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.

King, J. N. Shoolbred.

'H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J.

P. Smith.
\H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, E.
H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J.
N. Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.

|W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar, J.
N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N,
Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

List of Evening Lectures.

Lecturer

Charles Vignoles, F.R.S.......

Sir M. I. Brunel
R. I. Murchison.............000..
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S..........

Orem ere reeeree

DT HODINSON'. <<<. ..cssens see «ae
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Dr. Falconer, F.RB.S.............

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .....
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........

Subject of Discourse

The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.

The Thames Tunnel.

The Geology of Russia.

The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea,

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

Geology of North America.

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

-|Geology of Russia.
...| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.

Valley and Delta of the Mississippi,

xlvili

REPORT—1878.

Date and Place

1846.

1847.

1848.

1849.

1850.

1851.

1852.

1853.

1854,

1855.

1856.

1857.
1858.
1859.

1860.
1861.
1862.

1863.

1864.

Southamp-
ton—cont.

Swansea ...

Birmingham

Edinburgh

Ipswich ...

Belfast......

Liverpool..

Glasgow ...

Cheltenham

aeeeee

Aberdeen...

Oxfordee.<e:
Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

Bathe sccsss

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

Wi R GLONC, PHS... cnesesses

Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.5.......

Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....
John Percy, M.D., F.R.5.......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
DresHaraday, gatas s.ckerss ese
Rey. Prof, Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

Dr. Mantell, F.R.S.

Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.B.S.

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Robert: Hunt, ELR.S........s000.

.|Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Col, E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. .....

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H. Rawlinson

se eeeeeee

W. R. Grove, E-R.S. <.........5.
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.8.

Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F. R.S

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ..

=
8.

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G.B.Airy, F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prot, Odling, HIBS. ui iesc.sen.
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......

James Glaisher, F.R.S.

Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. ......c0000.
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ...

Properties of the Explosivesubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting Stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.

The Dodo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.

Passage of the Blood through the

.|Electrical Discharges

minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.

.| Extinct Birds of New Zealand.

Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.

Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.

Recent discoveries in the properties
of Light.

Recent discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

.| Progress of researches in Terrestrial

Magnetism.
Characters of Species.

..| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the pre-
sent time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

.|The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa.

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands.

in highly
rarefied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun.

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

.|Recent Travels in Africa.

a
J
3

1876, Glasgow

Date and Place

1865, Birmingham

1866, Nottingham

1867. Dundee......

1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast ......

1875. Bristol ......
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...

_ 1878. Dublin ......

1867. Dundee......

- 1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter ......

1870. Liverpool...

1872. Brighton .
1873. Bradford

1875. Bristol ......

1878.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES. xlix

Lecturer Subject of Discourse

J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........| Probabilities as to the position and

extent of the Coal-measures be-

neath the red rocks of the Mid-

land Counties.

William Huggins, F.R.S. ...|The results of Spectrum Analysis

applied to Heavenly Bodies.

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......| Insular Floras.

Archibald Geikie, F.R.S....... The Geological Origin of the present

Scenery of Scotland.

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.|The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.

J. Fergusson, F.R.S.........066+ Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. .........| Reverse Chemical Actions.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL. D.,F.R.S. | Vesuvius.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....|The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. | The Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, |Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
LL.D., F.R.S. tion with Naval Architecture.
HY. A. Abel, FUR.S.........ces00s- Some recent investigations and ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
E. B. Tylor, F.R.S. .....,......| The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilization.
Prof, P. Martin Duncan, M.D., | Insect Metamorphosis.
E.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford............ The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.|Coal and Coal Plants.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S. |Molecules.
Sir John Lubbock,Bart.,M.P.,|Common Wild Flowers considered
E.R.S. in relation to Insects.
Prof, Huxley, F.R.S. ...0..... The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.|The Colours of Polarized Light,
F.J. Bramwell, F.R.S.......... Railway Safety Appliances.

ao ELOL alto Hob Malle asecsass Force.

Sir Wyville Thomson, F-R.S. |The Challenger Expedition.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,/The Physical Phenomena connected

E.R.S. with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.
Prof. Odling, F.RB.S............. The new Element, Gallium.
G. J. Romanes, F.LS..........| Animal Intelligence.
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S. ............ Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of

* Chemical Action.

Lectures to the Operative Classes.

Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. | Matter and Force. .

Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. |A Piece of Chalk.

Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...|Experimental illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum,

Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,| Savages.

E.R.S.

.. | W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.|Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
...|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L.,F.R.S.| Fuel.
1874. Belfast ......

Prof. Odling, FVR.S..........665 The Discovery of Oxygen,
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |A Piece of Limestone.

...|Commander Cameron, C.B.,|A Journey through Africa.

_ 1877. Plymouth...

RN.
W. H. Preece....e....s00e Beaeeace Telegraphy and the Telephone.

c

REPORT— 1878.

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

New Life
Members

Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Old Life
Members
1831, Sept. 27 ...| York ........seseeeeee The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
1832, June 19 ...| Oxford .......0.....+. The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.5.
1833, June 25 ...| Cambridge .........| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L.......
1835, Aug. 10 ...| Dublin ..............+ The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
1836, Aug. 22 ...| Bristol ............++ The Marquis of Lansdowne ...
1837, Sept. 11 ...} Liverpool ............ The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.
1838, Aug. 10 ...] Newcastle-on-Tyne| The Duke of Northumberland
1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
1840, Sept. 17 ...| GlasZOW «ess .eeeees The Marquis of Breadalbane... Pr,
1841, July 20°..| Plymouth ...........- The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 169
1842, June 23 ...) Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton...... 303
1843, Aug. 17 ...| Cork .....s..s.seeeeeee The Earl of Rosse, F'.R.S....... 109
1844, Sept. 26 ...| York .......scseesseeee The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ... 226
1845, June 19...) Cambridge ......:.. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. 313
1846, Sept. 10...) Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241
1847, June 23 ...| Oxford .........s0.+++ Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart....... 314
1848, Aug. 9 ...| Swamsea .......+0+0+ The Marquis of Northampton 149
1849, Sept. 12 ...] Birmingham......... The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 227
1850, July 21...) Edinburgh ......... Sir David Brewster, K.H....... 235
1851, July 2 ...| Ipswich............--- G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal 172
1852, Sept. 1 ...| Belfast .........se+++ Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.8. 164
1853, Sept. 3 ...| Hull -| William Hopkins, F.R.S. ...... 141
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238
1855, Sept. 12 ...| Glasgow ............ The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ... 194
1856, Aug. 6 ...| Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D. 182
(SANs BAH PSO NT oibtiay Bass erAcconpso The Rev. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. 236
1858, Sept. 22 ...| Leeds.........sseseeres Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L.... 222
1859, Sept. 14 ...) Aberdeen ............ H.R.H. the Prince Consort ... 184
1860, June 27 ...| Oxford ............... The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ... 286
1861, Sept. 4 ...| Manchester ......... WilliamFairbairn, LL.D.,F.R.S. 321
1862, Oct. 1 ...| Cambridge ......... The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A. 239
1863, Aug. 26 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne| Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. 203
1864, Sept. 13 ...| Bath .......... Rar a Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. 287
1865, Sept. 6 ...| Birmingham......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. 292
1866, Aug. 22...) Nottingham......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207
1867, Sept. 4) ...) Dundee.........-..0.5. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167
1868, Aug. 19...| Norwich ............ Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. 196
1869, Aug. 18 ...| Exeter ............00: Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L....... 204
1870, Sept. 14 ...| Liverpool ...... ..... Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... 314
1871, Aug. 2 ...| Edinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. 246
1872, Aug. 14 ...| Brighton ............ Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... 245
1873, Sept. 17 ...| Bradford ............ Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.RS. 212
1874, Aug. 19 ...| Belfast ............... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 162
1875, Aug. 25 ...| Bristol ............00+ SirJohnHawkshaw,C.E. “E. B.S. 239
1876, Sept. 6 ...| Glasgow .........00+ Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. 221
1877, Aug. 15 ...| Plymouth ............ Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. 173
87S; Aug. 14...| Dalim cos ....cccn ce W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S. 201

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS.

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

Old
Annual
Members

New
Annual
Members

Attended by

Asso-
ciates

Ladies

1100*

60*
331*
160
260
172
196
203
197
237
273
141
292
236

* 524
543
346
569
509
821
463
791
242

1004
1058
508
771
771
682
600
910
754
912
601
630
672
712
283
674

For-
eigners

Total

353

900
1298
1350
1840
2400
1438
1353

891
1315

1079

857
1320

819
1071
1241

710
1108

876
1802
2133
1115
2022
1698
2564
1689
3138
1161
3335
2802
1997
2303
2444
2004
1856
2878
2463
2533
1983
1951
2248
2774
1229
2578

Amount
received
during the
Meeting

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OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
DUBLIN MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATIOCS AND PHYSICS.

President.— Rev. Professor Salmon, Dl, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor R. S. Ball, LL.D., F.R.S.; Rev. Professor S
Haughton, LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor Henry Hennessy, F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A; Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.; General Menabrea; Rev. Dr.
Molloy, M.R.I.A.; Rev. Professor S. J. Perry, F.R.S.; Professor
John Purser, M.R.I.A.; Professor H. J. S. Smith, M.A., LL.D.,
F.R.S.; G. Johnstone Stoney, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA. ; Professor J. J.
Sylvester, LL.D., F.R.S.; Sir Wiliam Thomson, M.A., LL.D.,
F.R.S.; Rev. Professor R. Townsend, F.R.S., M.R.LA.

Secretaries.—Professor John Casey, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA.; G. F. Fitz-
gerald, M.A., F.T.C.D., MRI.A.; J. W. L. Glaisher, M.A., F.R.S.;
Oliver J. Lodge, D.Sc.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.

President.—Professor Maxwell Simpson, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Apjohn, F.R.S., F.C.S.; Wm. Crooker,
F.R.S. ; Professor Dewar, F.R.S.; Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.; Sir
R. Kane, F.R.S.; Dr. Longstaff, F.C.S.; Professor J. Emerson Rey-
nolds, M.D., F.C.S., M.R.I.A.; Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.; Professor
Rowney, F.C.S.; Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.

Secretaries —W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S8.; J. M. Thomson, F.C.S.;
C. R. Tichborne, M.D.; T. Wills, F.C.S.

e

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Rev. Maxwell Close, F.G.S.; Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S.; Sir R. Griffith, Bart., LL.D.; Rev. Pro-
fessor Haughton, LL:.D., F.R.S.; Professor T. M‘K. Hughes, M.A.,
F.R.S.; Professor Hull, M.A., F.R.S.; J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D.,
F.R.S.; W. Pengelly, F.R.S.; H.C. Sorby, F.R.S., Pres. G.S.

Secretaries —H. T. Hardman, F.C.S.; Professor J. O’Reilly, C.E.,
M.R.I.A; R. H. Tiddeman, M.A., F.G.S.

SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents—W. Archer, F.R.S.; Professor Alexander Dickson ;
Lord Gough; Sir Joseph Hooker, K.C.8.I., Pres. R.S.; Professor
Huxley, Sec. R.S.; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. ;
Professor Macalister, M.D.; R. M‘Donncll, M.D., F.R.S.; Dr. Allen
Thomson, F.R.S.; Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Dr. R. J. Harvey ; Dr. T. Hayden; Professor W. R. M‘Nab,

*M.D.; Professor J. M. Purser, M.D.; J. Brooking Rowe, F.L.S.;
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S. ;

liv REPORT—1 878.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Professor Sir C. Wyville Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E.,
E.G.S., F.L.S.

Vice-Presidents—Captain R. F. Burton, F.R.G.S., H.B.M. Consul, Trieste ;
Sir Walter Elliot, K.C.S.I., F.R.S.; Sir Rawson W. Rawson, K.C.M.G.,
C.B., F.R.G.S.; The Right Hon. Lord Talbot de Malahide, F.R.S. ;
Captain Verney, R.N., F.R.G.S.; Major C. W. Wilson, C.B., R.E.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

Seeretaries—John Coles, F.R.G.S., Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. ;
H. C. Rye, F.Z.S., Librarian R.G.S.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Professor J. K. Ingram, LL.D., M.R.1.A.

Vice-Presidents——The Attorney-General for Ireland, M.P.; Dr. Burke ;
Sir George Campbell, K.C.8.L., M.P., F.R.S.; Lord Emly ; W. Neil-
son Hancock, LL.D., M.R.I.A.; G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P.; John
Lentaigne, C.B.; Right Hon. M. Longfield, LL.D.; Sir James
Watson.

Secretaries —W. J. Hancock, F.I.A; Constantine Molloy, M.A.; J. -T.
Pim.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Edward Easton, C.E.

Vice-Presidents—C. Bergeron, C.E.; F. J. Bramwell, C.E., F.R.S. ; Pro-
‘fessor Downing, LL.D.; Captain Douglas Galton, OC.B., F.R.S.;.
Howard Grubb, F.R.A.S.; Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S. ; Robert
Manning ; Parke Neville, C.E.; B. B. Stoney, H.C. ; Professor James
Thomson, C.E., F.R.S.

Seeretaries—A. T. Atchison, M.A.; R. G. Symes, M.A.; H. Trueman
Wood, B.A,

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1878-79.

PRESIDENT.
WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODH, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D,, Pres. R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS. °

The Right Hon. the Lornp Mayor oF DUBLIN. The Right Hon. the EArt or Rossz, B.A., D.C.L.,

The Provost oF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN. F.RB.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA.

His Grace the DUKE OF ABERCORN, K.G. The Right Hon. LORD O’HAGAN, M.R.I.A.

The Right Hon. the EARL oF ENNISKILLEN, D.C.L.,} Professor G. G. STokus, M. Ie D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.1.A. Sec. R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
PROFESSOR G. J. ALLMAN, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L‘S., M.R.ILA.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Grace the DuKE or DEVONSHIRE, K.G., M.A.,| The MAsTER CUTLER.

LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Professor T, H. HuxnEy, Ph.D., LL. D., Séc. R.S.,
The Right Hon. the Earn Firzwi11AM, K.G,, F.L.S., F.G.S.
F.R.G.S. Professor W. ODLING, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.

The Right Hon. the HARL OF WHARNCLIFFE,F.R.G.S.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT SHEFFIELD.
H. Cumron Sorsy, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. J. F. Moss, Esq.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT SHEFFIELD.
HENRY STEPHENSON, Esq.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ABEL, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. LEFEVRE, GEORGE SHAW, Esq., M.P.
ADAMS, Professor W. G., F.R.S, my MASKELYNE, Professor N. S., ERS.
Bartow, W. H., Esq., F.R.S. NEWTON, Professor A., F.R. 3.
BRAMWELL, F. J., Esq., C.E., F.R.S. OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir E., C.B., F.R.S
CAYLEY, Professor, F.R.S. PENGELLY, W. ; Hsq., FR. s

Hyans, Captain, C.B., F.R.S. PRESTWICH, Professor J., F.R.S.
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. RAYLEIGH, Lord, F.R.S.

Farr, Dr. W., F.R.S. ROLLESTON, Professor G., F.R.S.
Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S. Roscog, Professor H. E., *B.RS.
FrRovupDE, W., Esq., F.R.S. RUSSELL, ADins Me haa ae RS.
GLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. SANDERSON, Prof. at, S. Burpon, F.R.S.
Heywoop, J., Esq., F.R.S. SMYTH, WARINGTON W., Esq., F.R.S.
Huears, W., Esq., F.R.S,

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. DovaLas GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.
Pump LUTLEY ScLATER, Esq., M.A., Ph, D., F, R.S., B, L.8., 11 Hanover Square, London, W.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General Secretaries for the present and former years, the late Assistant
General Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

General Sir EDWARD SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir PHILIP DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G:S.

Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS,
The Duke of Devonshire. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, P.C.L.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.| Dr. Carpenter, C.B., F.R. e
Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal. | Sir William R, Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.G. Prof. Tyndall, D. ‘O.L. ay HRS.
The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll. Professor Stokes, M.A., D.C.L. Prof, T. Andrews, M. D., F.R.S.
The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.S. Prof, Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F, Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Dr. Michael Foster, F.R.S.

Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S. George Griffith, Esq., M.A.

AUDITORS.
Warren De La Rue, Esq., F.R.S. | Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S. | Professor G. C. Foster, F.R.S.

lvi REPORT—1878.

Report of the Council for the Year 1877-78, presented to the General
Committee at Dublin on Wednesday, August 14, 1878.

The Council have received Reports during the past year from the
General Treasurer, and his account for the year will be laid before the
General Committee this day.

The following Resolution was referred by the General Committee at
Plymouth to the Council for consideration, and for action, if it should seem
desirable, viz. :—

“That the question of the appointment of a Committee, consisting of
Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr.
Rogers Field, Captain Douglas Galton, Mr, R. B. Grantham, Mr.
Baldwin Latham, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, and Mr. G. J. Symons,
for carrying on Observations on the’ Rainfall of the British Isles, be
referred to the Council for consideration, and action, if it seem
desirable ; and that the sum of 150/. be placed at the disposal of the
Council for the purpose.”

The Council having considered the Resolution, and having placed
themselves in communication with Mr. Symons, decided that it would not
be desirable to appoint the proposed Committee, as, under the system or-
ganised by Mr. Symons, the grant which had been made in former years
by the Association could be discontinued without detriment to science.

The General Committee adopted last year certain modifications of the
Rules of the Association, which had for their object the exclusion of un-
scientific or other unsuitable papers and discussions from the sectional
proceedings of the Association : and the Council have, during the past year,
further considered this question.

The Council are of opinion that the existing Rules of the Association,
with the additions hereto subjoined, will afford, if carried out in their in-
tegrity, a sufficient guarantee for the exclusion of unscientific and un-
suitable papers :—

1.—That the appointment of Sectional Presidents, Vice-Presidents,
and Secretaries be made either a year in advance or at such early
period as the Council may find practicable:

2.—That no paper received after the commencement of the Meeting
shall be read, unless recommended by the Committee of the Section,
after it has been referred and reported upon.

At the Meeting of the Association held at Plymouth, invitations’ were
laid before the General Committee, for the year 1879, from Swansea and
from Nottingham.

The invitation from the Mayor and Town Council of Nottingham to
meet in that town in 1879 was accepted ; and it was understood that it
would be preferable to defer the meeting at Swansea until 1880.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lvii

In the course of the Autumn the Council received a communication
from the Town Council of Nottingham, to the effect that it would not be
convenient for them to receive the Association in 1879.

The Mayor and Town Council of Sheffield have intimated to the
Council that they are desirous of receiving the Association in 1879; and
invitations from the Mayor and Town Council of Sheffield, and from the
Scientific Bodies in that town, will be laid before the General Committee
in due course.

The invitation from Swansea for 1880, received last year, will be re-
newed on the present occasion ; and it will be in the recollection of the
General Committee that an invitation was received last year from York,
proposing that the fiftieth anniversary of the Association be held in that
city in 1881.

In accordance with a recommendation made by the Committee of
Section D. at Plymouth, and adopted by the General Committee, the
“Rules for Zoological Nomenclature,’ drawn up in 1842 at the instance
of the Association, have been reprinted and published.

The following men of science, who have attended meetings of the
Association, have been elected Corresponding Members :—

Professor H. L. F. Helmholtz, Dr. Lindeman, Bremen.
Berlin. Professor Moissonet, Paris.

Dr. H. Kronecker, Berlin.

M. Akin Karoly, Pesth.

The Council have nominated the Duke of Abercorn, K.G., and the
Earl of Enniskillen, F.R.S., as Vice-Presidents of the present Mecting;; -
and they submit these nominations for confirmation by the Geueral
Committee.

The following are the names of the Members of Council for the past
year, who, in accordance with the regulations, are not eligible for re-elec-
tion this year, viz. :—

Mr. De La Rue. Lord Houghton.

Professor Maxwell. Colonel Grant.
Professor H. J. S. Smith.

The Council recommend the re-election of the ordinary Members of
Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—

Abel, F. A., Esq., F.R.S. *Lefevre, George Shaw, Esq., M.-P.
*Adams, Prof. W. G., F.R.S. Maskelyne, Prof. N. S., F.R.S.

Barlow, W. H., Esq., F.R.S. ‘| Newton, Prof. A., F.R.S.

Bramwell, F. J., Esq., F.R.S. Ommanney, Adm. Sir E., F.R.S.

Cayley, Prof., F.R.S. Pengelly, W., Esq., F.R.S.

Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. Prestwich, Prof. J., F.R.S.
*EHvans, Captain, F.R.S. *Rayleigh, Lord, F.R.S.

Farr, Dr. W., F.R.S. Rolleston, Prof., F.R.S.

Foster, Prof. G.C., F.R.S. ~ Roscoe, Prof., F.R.S.

Froude, W., Esq., F.R.S. Russell, Dr. W. J., F.R.S.
*Glaisher, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. Sanderson, Prof. J. B., F.R.S.

Heywood, J., Esq., F.R.S. Smyth, Warington W., Esq,
Huggins, W., Hsq., F.R.S. E.R.S.

lviil REPORT— 1878.

The Council regret that pressing engagements compel Mr. Griffith to
withdraw finally from the position of Assistant-General Secretary after:
the present meeting of the Association, and take this opportunity of ex-
pressing ‘their high estimation of the value of the services which Mr.
Griffith has rendered to the Association during a period of sixteen years,
and of the serious loss which his retirement will occasion to the Council
and to the Association. Mr. Griffith remains an ex-officio Member of
Council, as a former general officer, so that the Council trust they may
still retain the benefit of his experience.

In accordance with the Report of last year, the Council will propose to
the General Committee that the post of Assistant Secretary be filled by
the election of Mr. J. EH. H. Gordon.

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Dusur Meeting in Avueust 1878.

[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the
Secretary, except there is a specific nomination. ]

~ Involving Grants of Money.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor G. G.
Stokes, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr.
‘James Glaisher, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher (Secretary), be reappointed ;
and that the sum of 150J. be placed at their disposal for the purpose of
calculating Factor Tables of the fifth and sixth millions.

That a Committee, consisting of Professor Sylvester (Secretary)
and Professor Cayley, be appointed for the purpose of calculating Tables
of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms; and that the sum of
501. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor G Forbes (Secretary),
Professor Sir William Thomson, and Professor J. D. Everett, for the pur-
pose of making certain observations in India, and observations on Atmos-
pheric Electricity at Madeira, be reappointed; and that the grant of 151.
that has lapsed be renewed.

That the Rey. Dr. Haughton and Mr. B. Williamson be a Committee
for the calculation of Tables of Sun-heat Coefficients; that Mr. B.
Williamson be the Secretary, and that the sum of 301. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule (Secretary), Professor
Sir William Thomson, Professor Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and
Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, for effecting the Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of Heat be reappointed ; and that the grant of 65.
that has lapsed be renewed.

That a Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forbes (Secretary),
Professor W. G. Adams, and Mr. W. E. Ayrton, be appointed for the pur-
pose of improving an instrument for detecting the presence of Fire-damp in
Mines ; and that the sum of 301. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. W. E. Ayrton (Secretary), Dr. O. J. Lodge, and Mr, J. HE. H.
Gordon be appointed 1 Committee for accurately measuring the specific

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lix

inductive capacity of a good Sprengel Vacuum; and that the sum of 40/.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Glaisher (Secretary),
Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. Charles Brooke, Dr. Flight, and Professor A.S.
Herschel, on Luminous Meteors be reappointed ; and that the sum of
201. be placed at their disposal.

That a Committee, consisting of Mr. David Gill (Secretary), Professor
G. Forbes, Mr. Howard Grubb, and Mr. C. H. Gimingham (with power
to add to their number), be appointed to consider the question of im-
provements in Astronomical Clocks ; and that the sum of 301. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. W. Chandler Roberts, Dr. C. R. A. Wright, and Mr. A. P.
Luff be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Chemical Com-
position and Structure of some of the less-known Alkaloids; that Dr.
Wright be the Secretary, and that the sum of 251. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.

That Dr. Wallace, Professor Dittmarr, and Mr. T. Wills be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of reporting on the best means for the development
of Light from Coal-gas of different qualities; that Mr. Wills be the Sec-
retary, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at their disposal for the pur-

ose.

That Professor W. G. Adams, Mr. John M. Thomson, Mr. W. N.
Hartley, and Mr. James T. Bottomley be a Committee for the purpose of
investigating the law of the ‘“ Electrolysis of mixed metallic solutions and
solutions of compound salts ;” that Mr. John M. Thomson be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 25]. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. John Evans, Sir John Lubbock, Major-General Lane Fox,
Mr. George Busk, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Mr. Pengelly, and Mr. A. W.
Franks be a Committee for the purpose of exploring Caves in Borneo ;
that Mr. Evans be the Secretary, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Hull, the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Captain D. Galton, Mr.
Glaisher, Mr. G. A. Lebour, Mr. W. Molyneux, Mr. Morton, Mr. Pengelly,
Professor Prestwich, Mr. Plant, Mr. Mellard Reade, Mr. Roberts, Mr. W.
Whitaker, and Mr. De Rance be a Committee for the purpose of investi-
gating the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the Permian, New Red
Sandstone, and Jurassic Formations of England, and the Quantity and
Character of the Water supplied to towns and districts from those forma-
tions ; that Mr. De Rance be the Secretary, and that the sum of 15/. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Godwin-Austen, Professor Prestwich, Mr. Davidson, Mr.

_ Etheridge, Mr. Willett, and Mr. Topley be a Committee for the purpose

of assisting the Kentish Boring Exploration; that Mr. Willett and Mr.
Topley be the Secretaries, and that the sum of 1001. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose. -

That Dr. J. Evans, Sir John Lubbock, Mr. E. Vivian, Mr. W.
Pengelly, Mr. G. Busk, Professor W. B. Dawkins, Mr. W. A. Sandford,
and Mr. J. H. Lee be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the Ex-
ploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay ; that Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 1001. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. J. Evans, the Rev. T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. Carruthers, Mr. F.
Drew, Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., Mr. G. A. Lebour, Professor L. C. Miall,
Professor H. A. Nicholson, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Mr. HE. B. Tawney, Mr. W.

lx REPORT—1878.

Topley, and Mr. W. Whitaker be a Committee for the purpose of carry-
ing on the Geological Record ; that Mr. Whitaker be the Secretary, and
‘that the sum of 100/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Rev. Dr. Haughton, Professor Leith Adams, Professor
Barrett, Mr. Hardman, and Dr. Macalister be a Committee for the pur-
’ pose of exploring the Fermanagh Caves; that Dr. Macalister be the Sec-
retary, and that the sum of 5/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Rev. Maxwell Close, Professor W. C. Williamson, and Mr.
W. H. Baily be a Committee for the purpose of collecting and reporting
on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of
Treland ; that Mr. W. H. Baily be the Secretary, and that the sum of 201.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Spence Bate and Mr. J. Brooking Rowe be a Committee for
the purpose of exploring the Marine Zoology of South Devon; that Mr.
Spence Bate be the Secretary, and that the sum of 20/. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Stainton, Sir J. Lubbock, and Mr. E. C. Rye be reappointed
a Committee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Litera-
ture ; that Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of 100/. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. M. Foster, Professor Rolleston, Mr. Dew-Smith, Professor
Huxley, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Sclater, Mr. F. M. Bal-
four, Sir C. Wyville Thomson, and Professor Ray Lankester be reappointed
a Committee for the purpose of arranging with Dr. Dohrn for the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station at Naples during the ensuing
year ; that Mr. Dew-Smith be the Secretary, and that the sum of 75/. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Sir Victor Brooke, Professor Flower, and Mr. Sclater be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of assisting Professor Leith Adams in preparing
Plates illustrating a Monograph on the Mammoth; that Sir Victor
Brooke be the Secretary, and that the sum of 17/. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.

That Mr. Sclater, Dr. G. Hartlaub, Sir Joseph Hooker, Captain J. W.
Hunter, and Professor Flower be a Committee for the purpose of taking
steps for the investigation of the Natural History of Socotra; that Mr.
‘Sclater be the Secretary, and that the sum of 100/. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.

That Professor Rolleston, Major-General Lane Fox, Dr. John Evans,
Professor Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. Edward Laws be a Committee for the
purpose of exploring certain Bone Caves in South Wales; that Professor
Rolleston be the Secretary, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.

That Major-General Lane Fox, Professor Rolleston, and Mr. F. G. H.
Price be a Committee for the purpose of exploring Ancient Earthworks ;
that Major-General Lane Fox be the Secretary, and that the sum of 25/.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Major-General Lane Fox, Mr. William James Knowles, Dr. Leith
Adams, and the Rev. Dr. Grainger be a Committee for the purpose of con-
ducting Excavations at Portstewart and elsewhere in the North of Ireland;
that Mr. Knowles be the Secretary, and that the sum of 15/. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. Farr, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Brabrook, Sir George Campbell, Mr.
F. P. Fellows, Major-General Lane Fox, Mr. Francis Galton, Mr. Park

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxi

Harrison, Mr. James Heywood, Mr. P. Hallett, Professor Leone Levi, Sir
Rawson Rawson, Professor Rolleston, and Mr. Charles Roberts be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of continuing the collection of observations on the
Systematic Examination of Heights, Weights, &c., of Human Beings in
the British Empire, and the publication of photographs of the typical
Races of the Empire ; that Mr. E. W. Brabrook be the Secretary, and that
the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir William Thomson,
Major-General Strachey, Captain Douglas Galton, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr.
Rogers Field, Mr. E. Roberts, and Mr. J. N. Shoolbred, be reappointed
for the purpose of considering the Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of
Great Britain, with a view to its establishment ona surer foundation than
hitherto, and for the tabulation and comparison of other Datum-marks ;
that Mr. James N. Shoolbred be the Secretary, and that the sum of 104.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships,
consisting of Mr. W. Froude, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. A. E. Fletcher,
the Rev. E. L. Berthon, Mr. James R. Napier, Mr. C. W. Merrifield,
Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. H. M. Brunel, Mr. J. N. Shoolbred, Professor:
James Thomson, and Professor Sir William Thomson, be reappointed ;
that Mr. James N. Shoolbred be the Secretary, and that the sum of 500.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. James R. Napier, Sir William
Thomson, Mr. William Froude, Professor Osborne Reynolds, and Mr. J. T.
Bottomley, for the purpose of making experiments and of reporting on the
effect of the Propeller on the turning of Steam-vessels be reappointed (with
power to communicate with the Government) ; that Professor Osborne
Reynolds be the Secretary, and that the sum of 100. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir William Thomson,
Dr. Merrifield, Mr. W. Froude, Professor Osborne Reynolds, Captain
Douglas Galton, and Mr. James N. Shoolbred (with power to add to their
number), be reappointed for the purpose of obtaining information respect-
ing the Phenomena of the stationary Tides in the English Channel and in
the North Sea, and of representing to the Government of Portugal and
the Governor of Madeira that in the opinion of the British Association
tidal observations at Madeira or other islands in the North Atlantic
Ocean would be very valuable, with the view to the advancement of our
knowledge of the tides in the Atlantic Ocean; that Mr. James N. Shool-
bred be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10/7. be placed at their disposal:
for the purpose.

Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir William Thomson:
(Secretary), Professor Clerk Maxwell, Professor Tait, Dr. C. W. Siemens,
Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. W. Froude, and Mr. J. T. Bottomley, for continu-
ing secular experiments upon the Elasticity of Wires be reappointed.

That the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. Huggins (Secretary), Mr.
J.N. Lockyer, Professor J. Emerson Reynolds, Mr. G. J. Stoney, Mr. W.
Spottiswoode, Dr. De La Rue, and Dr. W. M. Watts, for the purpose of
preparing and printing Tables of Oscillation-frequencies be reappointed.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Everett (Secretary),.

.

Ixii REPORT—1878.

Professor Sir William Thomson, Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pen-
gelly, Professor Kdward Hull, Professor Ansted, Dr. Clement Le Neve
Foster, Professor A. S. Herschel, Mr. G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne,
Mr. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, and Mr, G. F. Deacon, on Under-
ground Temperature be reappointed.

That the Committee consisting of Professor G. C. Foster, Professor
W. G. Adams, Professor R. B. Clifton, Professor Cayley, Professor J. D.
Everett, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Lord Rayleigh, Professor G. G. Stokes,
Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr. Spottiswoode, and Professor P. G. Tait
be reappointed, for the purpose of endeavouring to procure Reports on the
progress of the chief branches of Mathematics and Physics; and that
Professor G. Carey Foster be the Secretary.

That Mr. C. W. Merrifield be requested to report on the present state
of knowledge of the Application of Quadratures and Interpolation to
Actual Data.

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. Spottiswoode, Professor G. G.
Stokes, Professor Cayley, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Professor Sir William
Thomson, Professor Henrici, Lord Rayleigh, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher
(Secretary), on Mathematical Notation and Printing be reappointed.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir William Thomson
(Secretary), Professor Tait, Professor Grant, Dr. Siemens, Professor
Purser, Professor G. Forbes, and Mr. David Gill, for the Measurement
of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity be reappointed.

That a Committee, consisting of Captain Abney (Secretary), Pro-
fessor W. G. Adams, and Professor G. C. Foster, be appointed to carry
out an investigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light.

That Professor A. S. Herschel, Mr. J.T. Dunn, and Mr. G. A. Lebour
be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of making experiments on
the Thermal Conductivities of certain rocks; and that Professor Herschel
be the Secretary.

That Mr. R. J. Moss, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Professor Hull, Dr.
Moss, R.N., Mr. Pengelly, Dr. Leith Adams, Professor O’Reilly, and Mr.
John Evans be a Committee for the purpose of obtaining information
with regard to the mode of occurrence of the remains of Cervus Megaceros
in Ireland; and that Mr. R. J. Moss be the Secretary.

That Professor Prestwich, Professor Harkness, Professor Hughes,
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, the Rev. H.W. Crosskey, Professor L.C. Miall,
Messrs. G. H. Morton, D. Mackintosh, R. H. Tiddeman, J. E. Lee,
J. Plant, W. Pengelly, Dr. Deane, Mr. C. J. Woodward, and Mr. Moly-
neux be a Committee for the purpose of recording the position, height
above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest
connected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation ;
and that the Rev. H. W. Crosskey be the Secretary.

That Mr. C. Spence Bate be requested to continue his Report “ On the
present state of our knowledge of the Crustacea.”

That Sir George Campbell, M.P., Lord O’ Hagan, Mr. Morley, M.P.,
Mr. Chadwick, M.P., Mr. Shaw Lefevre, M.P. Mr. Heywood, Mr. Hallett,
Professor Jevons, Dr. Farr, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Mr. Hammick, Professor
Leone Levi, Professor J. K. Ingram, Dr. Hancock, and Mr. J. T. Pim
(with power to add to their number) be a Committee to continue the
researches into the Incidence of Direct Taxation, with special reference to

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTED. lxiii

Probate, Legacy, and Succession Duty, and the Assessed Taxes; and that
Dr. Hancock be the Secretary.

That the Committee consisting of Dr. A. W. Williamson, Professor
Sir William Thomson, Mr. Bramwell, Mr. St. John Vincent Day, Dr. C.
W. Siemens, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Dr. Neilson Hancock, Professor Abel,
Mr. J. R. Napier, Captain Douglas Galton, Mr. Newmarch, Mr. E. H.
Carbutt, Mr. Macrory, and Mr. H. Trueman Wood be reappointed, for
the purpose of watching and reporting to the Council on Patent Legis-
lation ; and that Mr. F. J. Bramwell be the Secretary.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.

That Dr. Dobson’s paper ‘‘On the Geographical Distribution of the
Chiroptera” be printed in eatenso among the Reports.

That the paper by Mr. Bindon B. Stoney, on “Recent Improvements
in the Port of Dublin,” be printed in extenso among the Reports, with such
plans and diagrams as may be deemed necessary by the Council.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action of it seem
; desirable.

That the attention of the Council of the Association be called to the
fact that the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Science have
been altogether disregarded in the Act lately passed to enable the Trustees
of the British Museum to remove the Natural History Collection to South
Kensington, and that the Council be requested to take such steps in the
matter as they shall think most desirable in the interests of science.

That the question of the reappointment of the Committee, consisting
of the Rev. H. F. Barnes, Mr. Spence Bate, Mr. H. E. Dresser ( Secretary),
Mr. J. EH. Harting, Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Professor Newton, the Rey. Canon
Tristram, and Mr. G. Shaw Lefevre, for the purpose of inquiring into the
possibility of establishing a “ close time,” for the protection of indigenous
animals, be referred to the Council for consideration ; and that the Council
be empowered to take such steps in the matter as they shall think most
desirable in the interests of science,

That the question of the appointment of a Committee, consisting of
Mr. James Dillon, Mr. Edward Easton, Mr. P. Le Neve Foster, Captain
Douglas Galton, Mr. T. Hawksley, Sir John Hawkshaw, Professor Hull,
Mr. Robert Manning, Professor Prestwich, Professor Ramsay, Mr. C. E.
De Rance, the Earl of Rosse, Mr. W. Shelford, Mr. J. N. Shoolbred,
Mr. John Smyth, jun., Mr. G. J. Symons, and Mr. A. T. Atchison
(Secretary), for the purpose of conferring with the Council as to
the advisability of urging Government to take immediate action to pro-
cure unity of control of each of our principal river basins, be referred to
the Council for consideration and action if it seem desirable.

lxvi REPORT—1878.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes
by the General Committee at the Dublin Meeting in August
1878. The Names of the Members who would be entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants wre pre-

Jiwed.
Mathematics and Physics.
*Cayley, Prof.—Calculation of Factor Tables for the Fifth £
Ree REM AVLTNITOTIN ts. ah pect eee end settee e «a +a EERE ee see 150
Sylvester, Prof.— Tables of Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraic Wormish ce .bh: secckcasbece.d. o0s6 eee see hun Pee teeeee 50
*Forbes, Prof. G.—Observation of Atmospheric Electricity
at: Madeira (renewed ji! 4.3202 sess 2:42 t rae sacewate eet eens

Hanghton, Rev. Prof.—Tables of Sun-heat Co-efficients ... 30
*Joule, Dr.—Determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of

edb renewed)! 0230 ee hceee pee eicce the ernc eee ae dase Sh. 65
Forbes, Prof. G.—Instrument for Detecting the Presence of
Mire-dasnp in. Mines. .:. sa) Besestme gash? critsk Poe cate ceek epee 30
Ayrton, Mr. W. E.—Specific Inductive Capacity of a good
Sprengel WV acum ..i.0: Maesteg eve ageteeloss beste s cscaes perce 40
Glaisher, Mr.—Luminous Meteors ................0. 20 eeeceecee ees 20
Gill, Mr. D.—Improvements in Astronomical Clocks.......... 30
Chemistry.
*Roberts, Mr. Chandler.—Composition and Structure of some
Of the Jessen wa eA RAIOIds oo. cess: cocnthpne-kpane ns cinmesies 25
*Wallace, Dr.—Development of Light from Coal-Gas of
differemb Ommlitves io. arecle <:4e-winwceepme resis ~aeb EARS PemeeeNe eh 10
Adams, Prof. W. G.—Electrolysis of Metallic Solutions and
Solutions of Compound Salts .............::csceeseeeececeeees 25
Evans, Dr. J.—Exploration of Caves in Borneo ............. a OU
*Hull, Prof—Circulation of Underground Waters _............ 15
*Godwin-Austen, Mr.—Kentish Boring Exploration (re-
MEW) 112. 2:civas «bebe he » afennbios beestyl-ekiw inh )layitettap «'sniwen eaten » 100
*Evans, Dr. J—Kent’s Cavern Exploration ..................++. 100
*Byvans, Dr. J.—Record of the Progress of Geology ..........., 100
*Haughton, Rev. Dr.—Fermanagh Caves Exploration ........, 5
- Close, Rev. Maxwell.—Miocene Flora of the Basalt of the
North of Mrelancl cere cent -eueee so eeatirese reese cicisi>-lsigeteree
Carried forward. .......s00 +0 seesee- Eizencises sceeedieneme 880

* Reappointed.

(=)

co]

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. lxv

Biology.
£ 2. d.
TG LORWET {EER ee. «oti ied cutee con segiede nasal’ 880 0 0
Bate, Mr. Spence C.—Marine Zoology of South Devon ...... 20 0 0
*Stainton, Mr.—Record of Zoological Literature ............... 100 0 0
*Foster, Dr. M.—Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ... 75 0 0

Brooke, Sir Victor, Bart.—TIllustrations for a Monograph on

RMU ATT LEG St FS rename mee nese 2 ge hath ig wae ma gna cade Seine vais LA. “0

Sclater, Mr.—Natural History of Socotra ..............-:0+:0e LOGO" 0
*Rolleston, Prof.—Exploration of Bone-caves in South Wales

i aE ly FOO WEG) 6... ida Meee nctbnaeidatsowcaiededaeaes 50 0 0

*Fox, General Lane.—Exploration of Ancient Earthworks ... 25 0 0

Fox, General Lane.—Excavation at Portstewart and else-
where in the North of Ireland ...................2eeeeceneoe ees GeO) 0)

Statistics and Hconomic Science.

*Farr, Dr.—Anthropometric Committee ................46060eeee 50 0 O
Mechanics.

*Thomson, Sir W.—Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey .. 10 0 0
*Froude, Mr. W.—Instruments for measuring the Speed of

ETS CLP) RAR ne er ER aOueOs (0
*Napier, Mr. J. R.—Steering of Screw Steamers ............... Or OO
*Thomson, Sir W.—Tidal Observations in the English

TEED Tih GEES alae ir ae ee ic mer ape a eerie Ca 10-0 0

£1412 0 0

* Reappointed.

The Annual Meeting in 1879.
The Meeting at Sheffield will commence on Wednesday, August 20, 1879.

Place of Meeting in 1880.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1880 will be held at Swansea.

1878. d

lxvi

REPORT—1878.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.

SS ates
1834.
Tide Discussions .........+0+++- 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions ............0+ 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
£167 0 0
1836. i
Tide Discussions .........se006+ 163 0 O
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,

CUCY alm tiers suicatinekiacfvnainesintenne ©. 50 0 O
Experiments on long-con-

tinued Heat: <ici..seseronens LF IELS 0
Rain-Gauges sedess-ss-ceassdrven’ 913 0
Refraction Experiments ...... Wy OPO)
nar NUtAION ...ccrss wascn ass 60 0 0
PHETMOMETEIS., sexceaneees-o snes sy en 10)

£435 0 0

1837.

Tide Discussions ........... ace 204 To O
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
nar baHON ve..005escee cece 70 70"30
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Mides at Bristol. sccsscacesces oe DO ORO
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations...... 30 0 0
IBATOMELEES sersecreretyss= ene s 1118 6

£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ............... 29) ORG
British Fossil Fishes 100 0 O
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

ULOW) Wee eccvecessscccssse we ieee LOOM ROMO
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservationof)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
IBTIS TOM MINT CS estes che coseekeeas 50 0 0
(GrowbhObeelants: {os..0c.cces<es 75 0 0
Maclin aRIVeTSi as o.st.seteseea cece 3) (ONG,
Education Committee ......... 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level............ 267 218) 1a
Steam-vessels............scccceees 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee... 31 9 5

£932 2 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 10" 10; 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c. ..........0. 63 10 0

5 Ue
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides peepee ssesccencess 35 18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ PAA LES}
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 7
Cast-Iron Experiments......... 100 0 0
Railway Constants ............ 250 caun
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 4
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste...... 171 18 6
Stars in Wacaille —......o.cwpece 1 OO
Stars in R.A.8. Catalogue 166 16 6
Animal Secretions...... PO 10 10 0
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ..........0+00- 1629.10
Cast and Wrought Iron 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
Kingussie ...+00..+... Boeescans 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles .......+..0...+.+- 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ............... 50 0 0
£1595 11 O
er ae ee serene aed

1840.

Bristol LiGES ivicessersseeeees eter 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ............ 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ............ 8 13 0
Tide Discussions ............... 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level............ ool Sal
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 24210 0
Stars) (Macaiile).....c.-c0r-s ene 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) .........+6.00+ 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air ..........c0156 15 15 0
Water Onviron a.nsee wees cee, 10°00
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... t Oro
Meteorological Observations. 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population............ 100 0 0
School Statistics ..........1.... 50 0 0
Hormsior Vessels |. 5.ss.1.--<-s0% 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
PTOI GY bb ee ces wesevaateseseeete 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
AULSE Ly HOU bees ianiecias sm asteeeey 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4

1841.

Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0

Meteorology and Subterra-
neanTemperature ..........++ 8 8 0
ActinOMetErS ...,.....0s0+s000000 10° 0%.0
Earthquake Shocks ............ Liners 0
JAcrid (POISONS =. ..accstdmssp ae snes 62 0).0
Veins and Absorbents +........ 3 0 0
Mud an Rivers! <\icesvsstaesesses) | ROO MENG

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£. %: «da.
Marine Zoology ............s0.00. 1512 8
Skeleton Maps ............se000. 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille) .................. toh O
Stars (Nomenclature of)...... Liege 6
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 40 0 0
Water on Iron ..............0006 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations

@t IMVeErness .......5.sececcees 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations

MEBOUGHIOM OL )) -sesccsccesans 25 0 O
Fossil Reptiles ............s0000 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ..............+ 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............... 38 1 0
Forms of Vessels .....1......... 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations

BPE LV MIGUUI. Ficdccce..de-scees 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

BURMO Ma Necsessaessrcteccsetseeesec 100 0 O
ides ab Werth! tt. islets: 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations...... 9-6 3
CEH OF MVCN. oi:)cce lesen seee'ese 5 0 0
Radiate Animals ............... 2 0 0

£1235 10 11
oe
1842.

Dynamometric Instruments... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Ptder ab Bristol .........0-ese+es 59 8 O
Gasesiom EACHE .. ......:...c-00s 30 14 7
Chronometers .........s00s..00 2617 6
Marine Zoology.............0000. Lbs 0
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 O
Statistics of Education ...... 20 0 0

Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

PeME se rcaecscsccssstsacep ess 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............... 161 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication

BEMMISELIOLL) cece. ssccecece>ne <es 210 0 0
Horms of Vessels ............... 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

10/3. 3) See eee eeeree 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

PEE VATOULE os. tcc ccccenn sees 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments ...... 90 0 0
Mforce Of Wind .1....0<0..-0cc00s 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 0 O
VatAL Stabistics ... 0 ..5....s.s0e. 50 0 O

- Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843.
_ Revision of the Nomenclature
BMEES. cee cedaasedssascaseiesceee 2 0 0

Bites a,
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
HOPI Hees. ceecastencees sence 120 0 0
, Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
L PAINVETMESS weneciiceveeteweevvedes tit Mee es
Meteorological Observations
ab PlymoGubhieeicccersscecs + ce 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological
Anemometer at Plymouth. 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
MOU... aereagrestcsdsedadsnecs 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
QDSCEVALIONS csseceacoceseees 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities .../....... ... 39 6 O
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness ........0sssececes 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... LS, Geet
Establishment at Kew Obser-
vatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 1383 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
MOONS) s%.desten edges sneeecctect rs Ses 70)
Oxidation of the Rails of Rail-
Way Sstieasssuesetanrdtactsaettues 20 0 0
Publication of Report on Fos-
SLIME Dbl edacecccetcest ss scese ee 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
Way: SEChIONS:..tecescsseeee es 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks’. .2fNssestncceeseateees 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
ClahURe ectearecce tte. es ee eee 2 LO OF 20
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology ..............0005 10 0 0
Marine Zoology ..........0csc0e0: 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
. Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0
WitaliStatistics ....5.....cccc 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 O
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator ........sses 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
Of Materials: .........scacenses 60 0 0
£1565 10 2

xviii

REPORT—1 878.

th Ak
1844.
Meteorological Observations

at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at

IP] ymonthy Seeccessss mesa stil. 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation .............500 Pay islet) 25
Publication of the British

Association Catalogue of

SLICERS) kant ae uoncnneeh ode socreee 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the

East Coast of Scotland ... 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature

OL SUANS seesess vaesbee es 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment in Kew Observa-

HOLY: woescaecnssekebeouceehre asses 7 Ais ite
Instruments for Kew Obser-

WabOL gee tsecra stone van bheha viacae Sere 3)
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature

Tere ANG ccoaversseeeaeeeesnte ap UW 10)
Coloured Drawings of Rail-

way Sections ..........seseeees 1b 17116
Investigation of Fossil Fishes

of the Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of

HKarthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0O
Radiata and Mollusca of the

/®igean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 O
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 O
Marine Zoology of Devon and

Conniwalll). se. .ccssss-sesnnees tose 10% 0,0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

Of Seeds... .ctuvseuterehouccaers 9) (Opis.
Experiments on the Vitality

OL SCCdS:.. sesueneee serene 1842 8 7 3
HxOvLe AMOpl irae weneeeeeethoa LB: OF nO:
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 O
Completing Experiments on

the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ..... LOE FOR ,O
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals ...... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-

rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 O

£981 12 8
1845.
Publications of the British As-

sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations

at IMVerness emescccesmicseers 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-Operation .......s.sceseeres 1616 8
Meteorological Instrumentsat

Hidinburphieesncntreaseteerae 18) LE 9
Reduction of Anemometrical

Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0

£ 8. id.
Electrical Experiments at

Kew Observatory ............ 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-

ment in Kew Observatory 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0

“Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ............... 1b 10s 40
Microscopic Structure of

Shellsits..: ..scesk waseepeieas ofis 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... TBAS i 2) +O) oi
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 O
Physiological Action of Medi-

CINES Goh eeeeaecee nea sics eee eeRae 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York........... 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 15 14 8

£831) 9 19
ee
1846.
British Association Catalogue

OL StATSy sien ccecenecs ese 1844 211 15 0
Fossil Fishes of the London

Clay aigisntts as nev se« sees teepeee 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 0
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-

WHE TCT S srecsenmstsie som siastes= ana TL ea)
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 =3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race

1844 7, 6 3
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0 0
£685 16 O
EE ere
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829............ 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CINES Speeepeeesasccansvosesseoree 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0O
Atmospheric Waves ............ Go a3
Vitality of Seeds ..:........... aT i,
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6

£208 5 4

GENERAL STATEMENT.

ers
1848.
Maintaining the HEstablish- .
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11

Atmospheric Waves ............ weLON 9
Vitality of Seeds ............... Cys 50,
Completion of Catalogue of

BENS MR ts fidtcesscsssces.aeceeped 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... ou OO
On Growth of Plants ......... 1oe90n0

“£275 1 8

1849.
Electrical Observations at

Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0
Maintaining Establishment

BCU temedcicec seca cesc ss sv. ve 76 2 65
Vitality of Seeds ............... Carol
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical

IYEFIOMRENEs. dsc cose scecaciesssss 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-

metrical Observations ...... LIB eet broad}

£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the UHstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0 0
Meteorological Instruments,

PACES sis sar cvinscscsesciacesess 25 0 0

(£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

Gneludes part of grant in

ERED rg ctaviosscesscsctecsgeseses 309 2 2
Mheory Of Heat .....0c0c.102.0.06 20
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants............... 56 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries..,...... LUPO
Researches on Annelida ...... 107.0) 0

L391 ONT
SS
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

Cineluding balance of grant

TOTPLSOU)cxaetaner s deweicsnicces's 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-

LOM OL MELCAU vecuinasneinssccwess bi 2,9
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

BVECLEL, . sansivasnas salusedteette acy 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7

Lo ssnd.
1853.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 165 0 0
Researches on the British An-
MOMGANP. ndacdevseseseadsacetscse 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast
GLAS COuLANG ya euavevev nests ie 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... Bat Ord
£205 0 0
1854,
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
FOLMEM OTANI)... .cecsessnraeess 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... Ie SOF £0
Effects of Temperature on
Wroueit Ione c.cacueeesesetes 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical
PHCNOMOEN Aas. scacenisussaeds 10 0 0
British Annelida ..........ss00 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... by 23
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect of the Moon 11 8 65
Vitality of Seeds .,..........00. TOM aie wel
Map of the World............0.. 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0
£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
A RoI anesorode & 75 0.0 i
{enpei4 EPROM oid aR
Strickland’s Ornithological
PV MOMYINIS ir. Jonentsisedesinneees 100 0 0
Dredging and Dredging
HORUS es saeeceee esedasscledoioclags 9 13) 9
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical
IPDENGMEN Ai aeresesesedacadses 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0
L734 139
1857.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350

Earthquake Wave lEHxperi-
AMIONMIUSI. fovicten clacacsa Coaaaacanes 40
Dredging near Belfast......... 10

Dredging on the West Coast
Of Scotland).....cfs cede tudes 10

Of SOS

lxx

£ 8. a.
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... 10 0 0
Experiments on Flax ......... Sin OWRO
Natural History of Mada-

PASCAL) 2. cesses peemeeenaeeaeienee 20 0 .0
Researches on British Anne-

ite Fiera gsnecoa secs soos acgead= ne 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

TRAD aL 68. isSacemaauenopdeanbocnao sb LO ORO
Temperature of Mines......... iaowO
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations............ De:
WHE BOAUS!. sci 50csccecnctsneseees Bb 00

£507 16 4
1858.
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

INL GHGS Ye dea oieeteleciemeotvielasieclesenae 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

Gin SCObLANG wecaerecnesiecs seen ees 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... oD Om0
Vitality Of Seeds: va..0.....0000. Bayo) 30
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

IBY, he -ernadaeisconiocssapogs soseo 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

HEVOMAS ec sasscsctecsssceesteesens 20 0 O
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

TUG eeepeehse= se sss eee tee aarat 10 0 0

£618 18 2

1859.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... bey 0) 20
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 O
MrisbeLaNTCata ee ancscsacsveces DO, 10
Manure Experiments ......... BORO MO
British Meduside ............... benOrPTo
Dredging Committee ......... br OM O:
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and

West of Ireland............... LOS Ors 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 O
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 207.0
Balloon Ascents.........ceesss++- 39 11 0

£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 O
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 0

REPORT— 1878.

£3, @.
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of

Plarits \.. /.\cneeeeeemantebasdarpes 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility

OL ASAlts) wesetceeepeeeeeeesecces 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents

of |Mannres. . ...22:eeeeerteess 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNTS: (052 5U-ccmsestetesvene 3) AG

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the MHstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory... 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and Kast

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 0

1861......£22 0 ae (ayes 5
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 O
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 0O
Fossils of Lesmahago ......... Log i050
Explorations at Uriconium.., 20 0 0
Chemical AlOyS: 722. .cscsescace 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-

ACHIONS,. vale ncs toe ce exes soaeeneep 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

DGC) cesoisess suns saeecamassseeennie BOs a0)
Dip Cincle ey sons acess teeeee eee 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

DIOHS AW escansmasseneneseerace net 50 0 0
PLisONMDICh: .sacssseswenseesraasess 20 0 0
Gauging of Water......:.....066 10 0 0
Alpine Ascents ........ eneegasee 6 5 10
Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the KEstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
PatenuWodws seccs.srectececortesns 213600
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0 O
Natural History by Mercantile

INISTITISRE ie -sascesrccesccee eres 5 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the

PIU oa eanseeareacenenense seiner ene 150 0 0
Rocks of Donegal............... 25° 0:_0
Dredging Durham and North-

mmMpPerland ee weecs.s:<tsceecsces 25 0 O
Connexion of Storms oo SO EOeEO
Dredging North-east Coast

Olsseouland: 2......s.ccmee 699° 6
Ravages of Teredo ..........0. 311 0
Standards of Electrical Re-

SIGUA GE: S.cplan.s's ous casepeaets 50 0 0
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10) 05.0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£) vs. cd.

Dredging the Mersey ......... DiOer0
PEWISOP DICT 9 Ve ccecesssececesesenls 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............... 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0
Thermo-Hlectric Currents ... 5 0 0
£1293 16 6

1863.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

CIEISIES)) ypeeciipogsabhaponoadcene: 25 0 0
RUMEHOACU wcdvecsncgthoceseonect ca. 25 0 O
RIOR HOSSUS) rcanecssscessnsses ss 20 0 0
BM MOIN ET casts aencccsceececsasress ss 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal Soacaanecee Oe ONO
PEEROM EO ICDs on s..ceeecadascesieo ne 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

TETLSIINS' Qogepiscepansobrc mos daddoce 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of

BCD ULATION aces rc sscsss0sccst osetia 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland

BNO GOUTAAM” ...sacseccss sess 17 310
Dredging Committee superin-

MEMOCNCE hs vacsnccesassesssesse LOMO EO
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 O
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ......... 10 0 O
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
—— Construction and Distri-

MON <a seeccee sss essteavasaacses 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 17 0 0
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph ............ 100 0 O
Thermo-Electricity ............ 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ ORE)
PROTO Aiccteesssscsseessicesencescs 10 0 0

£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
ee HOSSIIS (0.08 ssichsiesteoeess- 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

HEPES ae patiesestdses oss de-sbesninn 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 O
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Re-

BISUATICE! |p erase smabteepecscbess 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 1070.0
EEVONOIGA) So ..c0sc seb seeaseeacesec 10 0 0
Askham’s Gift .....eccsso0 sewn OO On O
Nitrite of Amyle ...... concen 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 0
Rain-Gauges ......cescscssseovees 1915 8
Cast-Iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0

£ 8. d.
Tidal Observations in the
EIN VEBET Te ciscsdonscceteacuaeste 50 0 O
SPeCtraMeRAYS. <c.cesacvocdsduboods 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..........+- 20 0 O
£1289 15 8
1865.

A

Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600

0 O
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 0
ELV OTOIAA Jecucn res dcesct cs Seeteeses 13 0 0
Rain= Gat ges iiaiiceratseaecvesteds 30 0 0

Tidal Observations in the
UUM er ces rweciccaseeateccseske 6 8 0
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 20 0 0
rishi ioral 2. eadencseceste ech ca 25 0 0
American Mollusca ............ Seo 0
Orgpanie ACidS seuss ieseeseee ved: 20 0 O
Ling ula Flags Excavation... 10 0 0
Eurypterus Raises satceteeeh ete a 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ...... 30 0 0
Oyster Breeding .............0. 25 0 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 0
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 0
Niarin en alta, tegseceky peeeeee see 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 30) 0

Resistance of Floating Bodies
AMA WA LCDs ee vedbiic naciesee'e oa oe 100 0 0
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ............ 40 0 0
£1591 7 10

1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13

Balloon Committee ......
Metrical Committee

50

Sem ewseneees

British Rainfall.................. 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 15
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
‘Chemical Constitution of
CAStITON Ueccchshorsscarcastee 50
Amyl Compounds ............... 25
Electrical Standards............ 100
| Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200

Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

and Cornwall ..........0..c0006
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 26
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50
Dredging the Mersey
Resistance of Floating Bodies

LM Waiters .avadecexaeeese eas
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

cals 20

sewers CUP e were seeeeereenee

o f=) oocoo ooooo oooococo

i) f=) oooo oooco oooooooro

Ixxii

£ 8. d.
Rigor Mortis .....sseeseeseeeeeees 10: 10: 0
Trish Annelida ............--2++ 15 ns) 0
Catalogue of Cramia .........-.. BORO GIO

Didine Birds of Mascarene
Tslands....csssecescscsscserees paren 10. 20
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0 0
£1750 13 4
Se

1867.
Maintaining the LHstablish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,

PAlee me rensucsecsace saad sees 50
Lunar Committee ............64. 120
Metrical Committee ...........5 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
British Waiitalye wcsesseceenss 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-Beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-

HEOMAScapasweecacinsesncases ceecee 100
Electrical Standards............ 100
Ethyl and Methyl series ...... 25
HOSA OTUSHACED: fesee cence n<se 25
Sound under Water ............ 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75

Do. Plant Beds. 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Pate eA WS! osccucostckivsesee ses 30

£1739

Pr OCOOoOorcCoOOCoO oooocooocoococooco So

corcooooocoeoco ocooocoococococoooco =)

1868.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600

Tunar Committee.......2......0. 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record........+...6 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
British Rainfall ....... podetocased 50
Luminous Meteors.............+. 50
Organic ACidS ............se000 60
Fossil Crustacea.........0-ssese0. 25
Methyl Series........ aodcuecnons 25
Mercury and Bile .............+ 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone (ROCKS) -c.cnes..s. Sennett 25
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ...........- 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
MOSSiL OTA) cacnees seesteeeepatese 25
Tidal Observations .........+.- 100
Underground Temperature... 50

Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances...... 5

o oooococooocoo qoqooococoocoo

=} coocoocoooo ocoooooocoocoooo

REPORT—1878.

£ 8. d.
Secondary Reptiles, &c. ...... 30 0 0
British Marine Invertebrate
Tae PR apsasoac aceasoeebdauen 100 0 0
£1940 0 0
1869.
Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee ............... 50 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record ....... eee naeale 100 0 0
Committee on Gases in Deep-

Well |W abr nccnee sas saec est eemte 25 0° 0
British Raimtalietce:....1sascesee 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

COG) <cscvecmneeintes spcddodechediinc 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 0
Steamship Performances...... 30 0 0
Chemical Constitution of ,

Castilton trercres. seca erceenens 80 0 0
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100 0 0
Methyl" Series... ...-+-veccdersrn 30 0 0
Organic Remains in Lime-

SEONG LOCKS rane saseeressssneates 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10 0 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 O
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 30 0 0
HOsSsUWOVaelescsascteenecann- seed 25 0 0
Tidal Observations .........++. 100 0 0
Underground Temperature... 30 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... OO)
Organic ACidS ..........s.++.++ 12500
Kiltorcan Fossils ............++- 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

(TCG) 0 fy BaP book nocuber incomes 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ......... LO™*0* 0
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0

£1622 0 0
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25° 0°30
Zoological Record..........+-.+. 100 0 0
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 O
Mars 1D. BUSHES! \.sasesetesenee set 10 0 0
Chemical Nature of CastIron 80 0 0
Luminous Meteors .........06+ 30 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0
British! Rainfall ly, sce sceense 100 0 O
Thermal Conductivity of

TON, 'G6C. lcs acacceh eases eenesseeee 20 0 O
British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 0
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ..........++ 15. 0' 0
ossull WITOra «\... vec ececeedeeeeens 95510: 0
Tidal Observations ..........+- 100 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Kiltorcon Quarries Fossils... 20 0 09

:

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 38. d.
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ......... 50 0 O
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0
Onny River Sediment ......... 3.0 0

Mechanical Equivalent of
LOA cseacyaiecs tue eveis<<cise ens 50 0 O
£1572 0 0

1871.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0

Monthly Reports of Progress
DRCHEMISHIY. vaseccasne cvavnees 100 0 O
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 O

Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 O
100): 7 10 (0) eee 25 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
British Fossil Corals ........, 25 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... 7 2 6
British Rainfall.................. 50 0 O
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ............668 25 0 0
Methyl Compounds ............ 25 0 O
Tnnar Objects ,........caccoeces 20 0 O

Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing .............6 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 20 0 0
Moab Explorations ............ 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .........6+ 40 0 0
£1472 2 6
Sa SS

1872,
Maintaining the HEstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory 300
Metrical Committee............ 75
Zoological Record............... 100
Tidal Committee ............... 200

Carboniferous Corals .........
Organic Chemical Compounds 25

Exploration of Moab............ 100
Terato-Embryological Inqui-
IES ieccuaceecttacescccceesetso nics 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
Heat in the Blood............... 15
Fossil Crustacea «............., 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
Diunar Objects. ifs eeec. 20
Inverse Wave-Lengths......... 20
British Rainfall......... 4ecetiane 100
Poisonous Substances Antago-
ERUSEUE a5, «cs esntee rete edad ec cbs 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
stitution, &c. . adeosase, 40
Mathematical Tables. sacs see 50
Thermal Conductivity of Me- ~
ANEMS Sealers: dacasscacecetactoies 25
£1285,

ojo CO SG ocecocoeocoeoo coceces

oe oo Sco qeococoocedcce -cooocece

lxxili

£3. a,
1873.

Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 200 0 0
| Tidal Committee ............... 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants ............... 25 0 0
Wave-Lengths ...............00. 150 0 0
British Rainfall.................- 100 0 0
Essential Oils..........5....000008 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables: ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants ..........6. 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 Q
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0

Timber Denudation and Rain-

FALL sakecsien, sssssereve Wecdseadus 20 0 0

Luminous Meteors...,............ 30 0 0
£1685 0 0
1874,
Zoological Record........... .., 100 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0O
Elliptic Functions............... 100 0 0
Lightning Conductors......... 10 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS... 2257.2 Sedesasestscvees 10 0 0
rer ae longs Instructions,

BESCPELUCEELEE her coer een 50 0 O
Kent’ s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ......... «» 30 0 0
Intestinal ae corpeeer » 15 00
British Rainfall..,......... seve 100 0 O
Essential Oils.........c.ccccseee - 10 0 0
Sub- Wealden Explorations ... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Mauritius Meteorological Re-

SCATCHY .. cuscesververssecess cs ssoee 100 0 0
Magnetization of Iron ....... - 20 0 0
Marine Organismg..,.... aeaeecas 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot

Wands, v.oreestesteersiee tees 210 0
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0

| Trades Unions ........:..eeee0ss 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone-Corals 25 0 O
Erratic Blocks .............0060 10 0 0
Dredging, Durham and York-

shire Coasts ...........sescees 28 56 0
‘High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3.6 0
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

Measures.......sseceeee dentcencd’ Lane

£1151 16 0

1875.
Eliptic Functions ............... 100 0 O
Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 O
British Rainfall.................. 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..........., 30 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 0

Ixxiv

£ 8. de
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric ACid........+00+008 10 0 0
Isometric Cresols ..........-.0+ 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid

HYSHOS)....cccscncesesescerereons 0 0
Zoological Record........+-+0+ - 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 O

£960 0 0

1876.

Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
British Rainfall; ;5.25..622c...c06 100 0 0
OUTS Maa Werstccvcccccsccsscensces 916 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Isomeric Cresols ..........0+0++ 10 0 O
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate or Ethyl Sodaceto-

BCCLALC) sscevecessnsspeoosstnaews 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid..........++0+ 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave,

Settle cvecspacieopacshanss bevy ss 100 0 0
Geological Record............+«+ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

ROCKS iis 1s .s50s000> sucenseonyeos 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record........s..0+0+ 100 0 O
WlOse TIME... ...sweduevespe's eee 5 0 0
Physiological Actionof Sound 25 0 0
Zoological Station......... “hope 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 O
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam Vessels ...........- 5 0 O

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in

Mamerals ioe aasvcnees se scr esrcsas 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ...,........ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS teceenenenecasnescsseesss se. AG ari
Zoological Record...........se06 100 0 0

va

REPORT—1 878.

cS ER
Kent’s Cavern ...cssecsseseceees 100 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ....... «ee 30 0 O
Elasticity of Wires .........+- 100 0 0
Dipterocarpz, Report on...... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

TH Gaitda)s-e decisis tenes eeeeeeeiatte 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt

and Nickel ...;csssserswsenes SO. 0
Underground Temperatures 50 0 0
Settle Cave Explanation...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone ........ ss. 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACetAtC s.r cecssceesecsees idee PLOMO IRD
British Earthworks ...........- 25 0 0
Atmospheric Elasticity in

TGA i... cawwaccuseeeeunesede des / 16 00
Development of Light from

Coal=2AS ...eecseseessecsnccsesss 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid.......0+ses0e. 118 0
Geological Record..........++ -« 100700
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-

phoric Acid, &e......... isstvee 15 0 0

£1128 9 7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record........++0+++ 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-

mena by means of Syphon

ReECOLGEL ...00..0.cccrsceocsscees 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground

Watters........crcccceceseensee cnn 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical

Impulses through Nerve

Structure........ccccccecssrssers 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table

of Fourth Million....... osvee At 00)),0) 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and

Structure of less known

Alkaloids.........00+-seesscereee 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record ....... sesensss 100 (0, 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS denies .ccrcessu eh poncesies aann 416 6

| Luminous Meteors..........0++e+ 10 0 0
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6

GENERAL MEETINGS. lxxv

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, August 14, at 8 p.m, in the Exhibition Palace,
Professor Allen Thomson, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President, resigned the
office of President to William Spottiswoode, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see
page l.

On Thursday, August 15, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place at the Royal
Dublin Society’s rooms.

On Friday, August 16, at 8.30 p.m., in the Exhibition Palace, G. J.
Romanes, Esq., F.L.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘‘ Animal Intelligence.”

On Monday, August 19, at 8.30 p.m., in the Exhibition Palace,
Professor Dewar, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “ Dissociation, or
Modern Ideas of Chemical Action.”

On Tuesday, August 20, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place at the Royal
Irish Academy.

On Wednesday, August 21, the concluding General Meeting took
place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants
of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Sheffield.*

* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 20, 1879.

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ADDRESS

OF

WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esa.,
Me. DOT, GbeDity .FB.8:54/., BRAS, 3 EBS:

PRESIDENT,

ON LOOKING BACK at the long array of distinguished men who both in this
and in the sister countries have filled the chair of the British Association ;
on considering also the increased pains which have been bestowed upon,
and the increased importance attaching to, the Presidential Address ; it
may well happen when, as on this occasion, your choice has fallen upon
one outside the sphere of professional Science, that your nominee should
feel unusual diffidence in accepting the post. Two considerations have
however in my own case outweighed all reasons for hesitation: First, the
uniform kindness which I received at the hands of the Association
throughout the eight years during which I had the honour of holding
another office; and, secondly, the conviction that the same goodwill
which was accorded to your Treasurer would be extended to your Presi-
dent.

These considerations have led me to arrange my observations under
two heads, viz., I propose first to offer some remarks upon the purposes
and prospects of the Association with which, through your suffrages, I
have been so long and so agreeably connected; and, secondly, to indulge
in a few reflexions, not indeed upon the details or technical progress, but
upon the external aspects and tendencies of the Science which on this
occasion I have the hononr to represent. The former of these subjects is
perhaps trite; but as an old man is allowed to become garrulous on his
own hobby, so an old officer may be pardoned for lingering about a
favourite theme. And althongh the latter may appear somewhat un-
promising, I have decided to make it one of the topics of my discourse,
from the consideration that the holder of this office will generally do
better by giving utterance to what has already become part of his
own thought, than by gathering matter outside of its habitual range for
the special occasion. For, as it seems to me, the interest (if any) of an

1878. A

2 REPORT—1 878.

address consists, not so much in the multitude of things therein brought
forward, as in the individuality of the mode in which they are treated.

The British Association has already entered its fifth decade. It has
held its meetings, this the 48th, in twenty-eight different towns. In six
cities of note, viz., York, Bristol, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Plymouth, Man-
chester, and Belfast, its curve of progress may be said to have a node, or
point through which it has twice passed; in the five Universities of
Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh, and Glasgow, and in the two
great commercial centres, Liverpool and Birmingham, it may similarly
be said to have a triple point, or one through which it has three times
passed. Of our forty-six Presidents more than half (twenty-six, in fact) have
passed away; while the remainder hold important posts in Science, and in
the Public Service, or in other avocations not less honourable in themselves,
nor less useful to the commonwealth. And whether it be due to the salu-
brity of the climate or to the calm and dispassionate spirit in which Science
is pursued by its votaries here, I do not pretend to say; but it is a fact
that the earliest of our ex-Presidents still living, himself one of the original
members of the Association, is a native of and resident in this country.

At both of our former meetings held in Dublin, in 1835 and 1857
respectively, while greatly indebted to the liberal hospitality of the citi-
zens at large, we were, as we now are, under especial obligations to the
authorities of Trinity College for placing at our disposal buildings, not
only unusually spacious and convenient in themselves, but full of remini-
scences calculated to awake the scientific sympathies of all who may be
gathered in them. At both of those former Dublin meetings the vene-
rable name of Lloyd figured at our head ; and if long-established custom
had not seemed to preclude it, I could on many accounts have wished
that we had met for a third time under the same name. And although
other distinguished men, such as Dr. Robinson, Professors Stokes, Tyn-
dall, and Andrews, are similarly disqualified by having already passed the
Presidential chair, while others again, such as Sir W. R. Hamilton, Dr.
M‘Cullagh, and Professor Jukes, are permanently lost to our ranks ; still
we should not have had far to seek, had we looked for a President in this
fertile island itself. But as every one connected with the place of meet-
ing partakes of the character of host towards ourselves as guests, it has
been thought by our oldest and most experienced members that we
should better respond to an invitation by bringing with us a President to
speak as our representative than by seeking one on the spot; and we
may always hope on subsequent occasions that some of our present hosts
may respond to a similar call.

But leaving our past history, which will form a theme more appro-
priate to our jubilee meeting in 1881, at the ancient city of York, I will
ask your attention to a few particulars of our actual operations.

Time was when the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh and
the Royal Irish Academy were the only representative bodies of

ADDRESS. 3

British Science and the only receptacles of memoirs relating thereto.
But latterly, the division of labour, so general in industrial life, has
operated in giving rise to special Societies, such as the Astronomical, the
Linnean, the Chemical, the Geological, the Geographical, the Statistical,
the Mathematical, the Physical, and many others. To both the earlier, or
more general, and the later or more special societies alike, the British
Association shows resemblance and affinity. We are general in our com-
prehensiveness ; we are special in our sectional arrangement ; and in this
respect we offer not only a counterpart, but to some extent a counterpoise,
to the general tendency to sub-division in Science. Further still, while
maintaining in their integrity all the elements of a strictly scientific body,
we also include, in our character of a microcosm, and under our more
social aspect, a certain freedom of treatment, and interaction of our
various branches, which is scarcely possible among separate and inde-
pendent societies.

The general business of our meetings consists, first, in receiving and
discussing communications upon scientific subjects at the various sections
into which our body is divided, with discussions thereon; secondly, in
distributing, under the advice of our Committee of Recommendations,
the funds arising from the subscriptions of members and associates ; and
thirdly, in electing a Council upon whom devolves the conduct of our
affairs until the next meeting.

The communications to the sections are of two kinds, viz., papers
from individuals, and reports from Committees.

As to the subject-matter of the papers, nothing which falls within the
range of Natural Knowledge, as partitioned among our sections, can be
considered foreign to the purposes of the Association ; and even many
applications of Science, when viewed in reference to their scientific basis,
may properly find a place in our proceedings. So numerous, however,
are the topics herein comprised, so easy the transition heyond these limits,
that it has been thought necessary to confine ourselves strictly within this
range, lest the introduction of other matters, however interesting to indivi-
dual members, should lead to the sacrifice of more important subjects. As to
the form of the cotmmunications, while it is quite true that every scientific
conclusion should be based upon substantial evidence, every theory com-
plete before being submitted for final adoption, it 1s not the less desirable
that even tentative conclusions and hypothetical principles when supported
by sufficient prima facie evidence, and enunciated in such a manner as to
be clearly apprehended, should find room for discussion at our sectional
meetings. Considering, however, our limitations of time, and the varied
nature of our audience, it would seem not inappropriate to suspend,
mentally if not materially, over the doors of our section rooms, the
Frenchman’s dictum, that no scientific theory ‘can be considered complete
until it is so clear that it can be explained to the first man you meet in

the street.’
A2

4 REPORT—1278.

Among the communications to the Sections, undoubtedly the most
important, as a rule, are the Reports; that is to say, documents issuing
from specially appointed committees, some of which have been recipients
of the grants mentioned above. These Reports are in the main of two
kinds, first, accounts of observations carried on for a series of years, and
intended as records of information on the special subjects; such for
instance have been those made by the Kew Committee, by the committees
on Luminous Meteors, on British Rainfall, on the Speed of Steamships,
on Underground Temperature, on the Exploration of certain Geological
Caverns, &c. These investigations, frequently originating in the energy
and special qualifications of an individual, but conducted under the con-
trol of a Committee, have in many cases been continued from year to
year, until either the object has been fully attained, or the matter has
passed into the hands of other bodies, which have thus been led to
recognise an inquiry into these subjects as part and parcel of their appro-
priate functions. The second class is one which is perhaps even more
peculiar to the Association; viz., the Reports on the progress and present
state of some main topics of Science. Among these may be instanced
the early Reports on Astronomy, on Optics, on the Progress of Analysis;
and later, those on Hlectrical Resistance, and on Tides; that of Professor
G. G. Stokes on Double Refraction; that of Professor H. J. Smith on the
Theory of Numbers; that of Mr. Russell on Hyperelliptic Transcendents ;
and others. On this head Professor Carey Foster, in his address to the
Mathematical and Physical Section at our meeting last year, made some
excellent recommendations, to which. however, I need not at present more
particularly refer, as the result of them will be duly laid before the section
in the form of the report from a Committee to whom they were referred.
It will be sufficient here to add that the wide extension of the Sciences
in almost every branch, and the consequent specialisation of the studies
of each individual, have rendered the need for such reports more than
ever pressing ; and if the course of true Science should still run smooth
it is probable that the need will increase rather than diminish.

Tf time and space had permitted, I should have further particularised
the Committees, occasionally appointed, on subjects connected with edu-
cation. But IT must leave this theme for some future President, and
content myself with pointing out that the British Association alone among
scientific societies concerns itself directly with these questions, and is
open to appeals for counsel and support from the great teaching body of
the country.

One of the principal methods by which this Association materially
promotes the advancement of Science, and consequently one of its most
important fanctions, consists in grants of money from its own income in
aid of special scientific researches, The total amount so laid out during
the forty-seven years of our existence has been no less than 44,0001. ; and
the average during the last ten years has been 1,450]. per annum. These

ADDRESS. 5

sums have not only been in the main wisely voted and usefully expended ;
but they have been themselves productive of much additional voluntary
expenditure of both time and money on the part of those to whom the
grants have been entrusted. ‘The results have come back to the Associa-
tion in the form of papers and reports, many of which have been printed
in our volumes. By this appropriation of a large portion of its funds,
the Association has to some extent anticipated, nay even it may have
partly inspired the ideas, now so much discussed, ot the Endowment of
Research. And whether the aspirations of those who advocate such
endowment be ever fully realised or not, there can 1 think be no doubt
whatever that the Association in the matter of these grants has afforded
a most powerful stimulus to original research and discovery.

Regarded from another point of view these grants, together with
others to be hereafter mentioned, present a strong similarity to that use-
ful institution, the Protessoriate Hxtraordimary of Germany, to which
there are no foundations exactly corresponding in this country. For,
beside their more direct educational purpose, these Professorships are
intended, like our own grants, to afford to special individuals an oppor-
tunity of following ont the special work for which they have previously
proved themselves competent. And in this respect the British Associa-
tion may be regarded as supplying, to the extent of its means, an elasticity
which is wanting in our own Universities.

Besides the funds which through your support are at the disposal of
the British Association there are, as is well known to many here present,
other funds of more or less similar character, at the disposal or subject
to the recommendations of the Royal Society. There is the Donation
Fund, the property of the Society ; the Government Grant of 1,000/. per
annum, administered by the Society ; and the Government Fund of 4,0001.
per annum (an experiment for five years) to be distributed by the Science
and Art Department, both tor research itself, and for the support of
those engaged thereon, according to the recommendations of a Committee
consisting mainly of Fellows of the Royal Society. To these mght be
added other funds in the hands of different Scientific Societies.

But although it must be admitted that the purposes of these various
funds are not to be distinguished by any very simple line of demarcation,
and that they may theretore occasionally appear to overlap one another,
it may still, 1 think, be fairly maintainea that this fact does not furnish
any sufficient reason against their co-existence. There are many topics
of research too minute in their range, too tentative in their present con-
dition, to come fairly within the scope of the funds administered by the
Royal Society. There are others, ample enough in their extent, and long
enough in their necessary duration, to claim for their support a national
grant, but which need to be actually set on foot or tried before they can
fairly expect the recognition either of the public or of the Government.
To these categories others might be added ; but the above-mentioned

6 REPORT—1878.

instances will perhaps suffice to show that even if larger and more perma-
nent funds were devoted to the promotion of research than is the case at
present, there would still be a field of activity open to the British Asso-
ciation as well as to other scientific bodies which may have funds at their
disposal.

On the general question it is not difficult to offer strong arguments in
favour of permanent national Scientific Institutions ; nor is it difficult to .
picture to the mind an ideal future when Science and Art shall walk hand
in hand together, led by a willing minister into the green pastures of the
Endowment of Research. But while allowing this to be no impossible
a future, we must still admit that there are other and less promising possi-~
bilities, which under existing circumstances cannot be altogether left out
of our calculations. Jam therefore on the whole inclined to think that,
while not losing sight of larger schemes, the wisest policy, for the present
at all events, and pending the experiment of the Government fund, will be
to confine our efforts to a careful selection of definite persons to carry out de-
finite pieces of work; leaving to them the honour (or the onus if they sothink
it) of justifying from time to time a continuation of the confidence which
the Government or other supporting body may have once placed in them.

Passing from the proceedings to other features and functions of our
body, it should be remembered that the continued existence of the Asso-
ciation must depend largely upon the support which it receives from its
members and associates. Stinted in the funds so arising, its scientific effec-
tiveness would be materially impaired ; and deprived of them, its existence
would be precarious. The amount at our disposal in each year will naturally
vary with the population, with the accessibility, and with other cireum-
stances of the place of meeting; there will be financially, as well as
scientifically, good years and bad years. But we have in our invested
capital a sum sufficient to tide over all probable fluctuations, and even to
carry us efficiently through several years of financial famine, if ever such
should occur. This seems to me sufficient; and we have therefore, I
think, no need to increase our reserve, beyond perhaps the moderate
addition which a prudent treasurer will always try to secure, against
expenditure which often increases and rarely diminishes.

But however important this material support may be to our existence
and well being, it is by no means all that is required. There is another
factor which enters into the product, namely, the personal scientific
support of our best men. It is, I think, not too much to say, that without
their presence our meetings would fail in their chief and most important
element, and had best be discontinued altogether. We make, it must be
admitted, a demand of sensible magnitude in calling upon men who have
been actively engaged during a great portion of the year, at a season
when they may fairly look for relaxation, to attend a busy meeting, and
to contribute to its proceedings; but unless a fair quota at least of our
veterans, and a good muster of our younger men, put in their appearance,

ADDRESS. 7

our gatherings will be to little purpose. There was a period within my
own recollection when it was uncertain whether the then younger members
of our scientific growth would cast in their lot with us or not, and when
the fate of the Association depended very much upon their decision. They
_decided in our favour ; they have since become Presidents, Lecturers, and
other functionaries of our body ; with what result it is for you to judge.

Of the advantages which may possibly accrue to the locality in which
our meetings are held, it is not for us to speak ; but it is always a ground
for sincere satisfaction to learn that our presence has been of any use in
stimulating an interest, or in promoting local efforts, in the direction of
Science.

The functions of the British Association do not, however, terminate
with the meeting itself. Beside the special committees.already mentioned,
there remains a very important body, elected by the General Committee,
viz., the Council, which assembles at the office in London from time to
time as occasion requires. To this body belongs the duty of proposing a
President, of preparing for the approval of the General Committee the list
of Vice-Presidents and sectional officers, the selection of evening lecturers,
and other arrangements for the coming meeting.

At the present time another class of questions occupies a good deal of
the attention of the Council. In the first generation of the Association,
and during the period of unwritten, but not yet traditional, law, questions
relating to our own organisation or procedure either “ settled themselves,”
or were wisely left to the discretionary powers of those who had taken
part in our proceedings during the early years of our existence. These
and other kindred subjects now require more careful formularisation and
more deliberate sanction. And itis on the shoulders of the Council that the
weight of these matters in general falls. Tbese facts deserve especial men-
tion on the present occasion, because one part of our business at the close of
this meeting will be to bid farewell officially to one who has served us as
Assistant Secretary so long and so assiduously that he has latterly become
our main repertory of information, and our mentor upon questions of prece-
dent and procedure. The post hitherto held by Mr. Griffith (for it is to
him that I allude) will doubtless be well filled by the able and energetic
member who has been nominated in his place ; but I doubt not that even
he will be glad for some time to come to draw largely upon the knowledge
and experience of his predecessor.

But, beside matters of internal arrangement and organisation, the
duties of the Council comprise a variety of scientific subjects referred to
them by the General Committee, at the instance of the Committee of Re-
commendations, for deliberation and occasionally for action. With the
increasing activity of our body in general, and more particularly with that
of our various officers, these duties have of late years become more varied
and onerous than formerly; nor is it to be wished that they should
diminish in either variety or extent.

8 REPORT—1878.

Once more, questions beyond our own constitution, and even beyond
the scope of our own immediate action, such as education, legislation
affecting either the promotion or the applications of science to industrial
and social life, which have suggested themselves at our meetings, and
received the preliminary sanction of our Committee of Recommendations,
are frequently referred to our Council. These, and others which it is
unnecessary to particularise, whether discussed in full Council or in com-
mittees specially appointed by that body, render the duties of our coun-
cillors as onerous as they are important.

While the Government has at all times, but ina more marked manner
of late years, recognised the Royal Society of London, with representa-
tives from the sister societies of Dublin and of Edinburgh, as the body
to which it should look for counsel and advice upon scientific questions,
it has still never shown itself indisposed to receive and entertain any
well-considered recommendation from the British Association. Two
special causes have in all probability contributed largely to this result.
First, the variety of elements comprised by the Association, on account
of which its recommendations imply a more general concurrence of scien-
tific opinion than those of any other scientific body. Secondly, the pecu-
liar fact, that our period of maximum activity coincides with that of
minimum activity of other scientific bodies, is often of the highest import-
ance. At the very time when the other bodies are least able, we are
most able, to give deliberate consideration, and formal sanction, to recom-
mendations whether in the form of applications to Government or other-
wise which may arise. In many of these, time is an element so essential,
that it is not too much to say, that without the intervention of the British
Association many opportunities for the advancement of Science, especially
at; the seasons in question, might have been lost. The Government has
moreover formally recognised our scientific existence by appointing our
President for the time being a member of the Government Fund Com-
mittee; and the public has added its testimony to our importance and
utility by imposing upon our President and officers a variety of duties,
among which are conspicuous those which arise out of its very liberal
exercise of civic and other hospitality.

Of the nature and functions of the Presidential address this is perhaps
neither the time nor the place to speak; but if I might for a moment for-
get the purpose for which we are now assembled, I would take the oppor-
tunity of reminding those who have not attended many of our former
meetings that our annual volumes contain a long series of addresses on
the progress of Science, from a number of our most eminent men, to
which there is perhaps no parallel elsewhere. These addresses are per-
haps as remarkable for their variety in mode of treatment as for the value
of their subject-matter. Some of our Presidents, and especially those
who officiated in the earlier days of our existence, have passed in review
the various branches of Science, and have noted the progress made in

ADDRESS. 9

each during the current year. But, as the various Sciences have demanded
more and more special treatment on the part of those who seriously pursue
them, so have the cases of individuals who can of their own knowledge
give anything approaching to a general review become more and more
rare. To this may be added the fact that although no year is so barren
as to fail in affording sufficient crop for a strictly scientific budget, or for
a detailed report of progress in research, yet one year is more fertile than
another in growths of sufficient prominence to arrest the attention of the
general public, and to supply topics suitable for the address. On these
accounts apparently such a Presidential survey has ceased to be annual,
and has dropped into an intermittence of longer period. Some Presi-
dents have made a scientific principle, such as the Time-element in natural
phenomena, or Continuity, or Natural Selection, the theme of their dis-
course, and have gathered illustrations from various branches of know-
ledge. Others again, taking their own special subject as a fundamental
note, and thence modulating into other kindred keys, have borne testi-
mony to the fact that no subject is so special as to be devoid of bearing
or of influence on many others. Some have described the successive stages
of even a single but important investigation ; and while tracing the growth
of that particular item, and of the ideas involved in it, have incidentally
shown to the outer world what manner of business a serious investigation
is. But there is happily no pattern or precedent which the President
is bound to follow; both in range of subject-matter and in mode of treat-
ment each has exercised his undoubted right of taking an independent
line. And it can hardly be doubted that a judicious exercise of this free-
dom has contributed more than anything else to sustain the interest of a
series of annual discourses extending now over nearly half a century.

The nature of the subjects which may fairly come within the scope of
such a discourse has of late been much discussed ; and the question is one
upon which everyone of course is entitled to form his own judgment; but
lest there should be any misapprehension as to how far it concerns us in our
corporate capacity, it will be well to remind my hearers that as, on the one
hand, there is no discussion on the Presidential address, and the members
as a body express no formal opinion upon it, so, on the other, the Association
cannot fairly be considered as in any way committed to its tenour or con-
clusions. Whether this immunity from comment and reply be really on
the whole so advantageous to the President as might be supposed need
not here be discussed ; but suffice it to say, that the case of an audience
assembled to listen without discussion finds a parallel elsewhere, and in
the parallel case it isnot generally considered that the result is altogether
either advantageous to the speaker or conducive to excellence in the
discourse.

But, apart from this, the question of a limitation of range in the
subject-matter for the Presidential address is not quite so simple as may
at first sight appear. It must, in fact, be borne in mind that, while on

10 REPORT— 1878.

the one hand knowledge is distinct from opinion, from feeling, and from
all other modes of subjective impression, still the limits of knowledge are
at all times expanding, and the boundaries of the known and the unknown
are never rigid or permanently fixed. That which in time past or present
has belonged to one category may in time future belong to the other.
Our ignorance consists partly in ignorance of actual facts, and partly also
in ignorance of the possible range of ascertainable fact. If we could lay
down beforehand precise limits of possible knowledge, the problem of
Physical Science would be already half solved. But the question to which
the scientific explorer has often to address himself is not merely whether
he is able to solve this or that problem, but whether he can so far unravel
the tangled threads of the matter with which he has to deal as to weave
them into a definite problem at all. He is not like a candidate at an
examination with a precise set of questions placed before him; he must
first himself act the part of the examiner and select questions from the
repertory of nature, and upon them found others, which in some sense
are capable of definite solution. If his eye seem dim, he must look stead-
fastly and with hope into the misty vision, until the very ciouds wreath
themselves into definite forms. If his ear seem dull, he must listen
patiently and with sympathetic trust to the intricate whisperings of
nature,—the goddess, as she has been called, of a hundred voices—until
here and there he can pick out a few simple notes to which his own
powers can resound. If, then, at a moment when he finds himself placed
on a pinnacle from which he is called upon to take a perspective survey
of the range of science, and to tell us what he can see from his vantage
ground ; if, at such a moment, after straining his gaze to the very verge
of the horizon, and after describing the most distant of well-defined
objects, he should give utterance also to some of the subjective impres-
sions which he is conscious of receiving from regions beyond; if he
should depict possibilities which seem opening to his view; if he
should explain why he thinks this a mere blind alley and that an open
path; then the fault and the loss would be alike ours if we refused to
listen calmly, and temperately to form our own judgment on what we
hear ; then assuredly it is we who would be committing the error of con-
founding matters of fact and matters of opinion if we failed to discriminate
between the various elements contained in such a discourse, and assumed
that they had all been put on the same footing.

But to whatever decision we may each come on these controverted
points, one thing appears clear from a retrospect of past experience, viz.,
that first or last, either at the outset in his choice of subject or in the
conclusions ultimately drawn therefrom, the President, according to his
own account at least, finds himself on every occasion in a position of
“exceptional or more than usual difficulty.’”” And your present repre-
sentative, like his predecessors, feels himself this moment in a similar
predicament. The reason which he now offers is that the branch of

ADDRESS. lt

science which he represents is one whose lines of advance, viewed from a
mathematician’s own point of view, offer so few points of contact with
the ordinary experiences of life or modes of thought, that any account of
its actual progress which he might have attempted must have failed in
the first requisite of an address, namely, that of being intelligible.

Now if this esoteric view had been the only aspect of the subject
which he could present to his hearers, he might well have given up the
attempt in despair. But although i in its technical character Mathematical
Science suffers the inconveniences, while it enjoys the dignity, of its.
Olympian position, still in a less formal garb, or in disguise, if you are
pleased so to call it, it is found present at many an unexpected turn;
and although some of us may never have learnt its special language, not
a few have, all through our scientific life, and even in almost every
accurate utterance, like Moliére’s well known character, been talking
mathematics without knowing it. It is, moreover, a fact not to be over-
looked that the appearance of isolation, so conspicuous in mathematics,
appertains in a greater or less degree to all other sciences, and perhaps
also to all pursuits in life. In its highest flight each soars to a distance
from its fellows. Each is pursued alone for its own sake, and without
reference to its connection with, or its application to, any other subject.
The pioneer and the advanced guard are of necessity separated from the
main body, and in this respect mathematics does not materially differ
from its neighbours. And, therefore, as the solitariness of mathematics
has been a frequent theme of discourse, it may be not altogether unpro-
fitable to dwell for a short time upon the other side of the question, and
to inquire whether there be not points of contact in method or in subject-.
matter between mathematics and the outer world which have been
frequently overlooked ; whether its lines do not in some cases run parallel
to those of other occupations and purposes of life; and lastly, whether we-
may not hope for some change in the attitude too often assumed towards
it by the representatives of other branches of knowledge and of mental
activity.

In his Preface to the ‘ Principia’ Newton gives expression to some
general ideas which may well serve as the key-note for all future utter-
ances on the relation of mathematics to natural, including also therein
what are commonly called artificial, phenomena.

“The ancients divided mechanics into two parts, rational and prac-
tical; and since artizans often work inaccurately, it came to pass that
mechanics and geometry were distinguished in this way, that everything
accurate was referred to geometry, and everything inaccurate to
mechanics. But the inaccuracies appertain to the artizan and not to the
art, and geometry itself has its foundation in mechanical practice, and is
in fact nothing else than that part of universal mechanics which accu-.
rately lays down and demonstrates the art of measuring.” He next
explains that rational mechanics is the science of motion resulting from

12 REPORT— 1878.

torces, and adds, “The whole difficulty of philosophy seems to me to le
in investigating the forces of nature from the phenomena of motion, and
in demonstrating that from these forces other phenomena will ensue.”
Then, after stating the problems of which he has treated in the work
itself, he says, ‘I would that all other natural phenomena might similarly
be deduced from mechanical principles. For many things move me to
suspect that everything depends upon certain forces in virtue of which
the particles of bodies, through forces not yet understood, are either
impelled together so as to cohere in regular tigures, or are repelled and
recede from one another.”

Newton’s views, then, are clear. He regards mathematics, not as a
method independent of, though applicable to, various subjects, but as
itself the higher side or aspect of the subjects themselves; and it would
be little more than a translation of his notions into other language, little
more than a paraphrase of his own words, if we were to describe the
mathematical as one aspect of the material world itself, apart from which
all other aspects are but incomplete sketches, and, however accurate
after their own kind, are still liable to the imperfections of the imaccu-
rate artificer. Mr. Burrowes, in his Preface to the first volume of the
‘Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy,’ has carried out the same
argument, approaching it from the other side. ‘ No one science,” he says,
“is so little connected with the rest as not to afford many principles
whose use may extend considerably beyond the science to which they
primarily belong, and no proposition is so purely theoretical as to be in-
capable of being applied to practical purposes. There is no apparent
connexion between duration and the cycloidal arch, the properties ot
which have furnished us with the best method of measuring time; and
he who has made himself master of the nature and affections of the loga-
rithmic curve has advanced considerably towards ascertaining the propor-
tionable density of the air at various distances from the earth. The
researches of the mathematician are the only sure ground on which we
can reason from experiments; and how far experimental science may
assist commercial interests is evinced by the success of manufactures in
countries where the hand of the artificer has taken its direction from
the philosopher. Every manufacture is in reality but a chemical process,
and the machinery requisite for carrying it on but the right application
of certain propositions in rational mechanics.” So far your Academiciar.
Every subject, therefore, whether in its usual acceptation scientific or
otherwise, may have a mathematical aspect; as soon, in fact, as it
becomes a matter of strict measurement, or of numerical statement, so
soon does it enter upon a mathematical phase. This phase may, or it
may not, be a prelude to another in which the laws of the subject are
expressed in algebraical formule or represented by geometrical figures.
But the real gist of the business does not always le in the mode of
expression, and the fascination of the formule or other mathematical

ADDRESS. 13

paraphernalia may after all be little more than that of a theatrical trans-
formation scene. The process of reducing to formule is really one of
abstraction, the results of which are not always wholly on the side of
gain; in fact, through the process itself the subject may lose in one
respect even more than it gains in another. But long before such
abstraction is completely attained, and even in cases where it is never
attained at all, a subject may to all intents and purposes become mathe-
matical. It is not so much elaborate calculations or abstruse processes
which characterise this phase as the principles of precision, of exactness,
and of proportion. But these are principles with which no true know-
ledge can entirely dispense. If it be the general scientific spirit which
at the outset moves upon the face of the waters, and out of the unknown
depth brings forth light and living forms, it is no less the mathematical
spirit which breathes the breath of life into what would otherwise have
ever remained mere dry bones of fact, which reunites the scattered limbs
and re-creates from them a new and organic whole.

And as a matter of fact, in the words used by Professor Jellett at our
meeting at Belfast, viz., ‘‘ Not only are we applying our methods to many
sciences already recognised as belonging to the legitimate province of
mathematics, but we are learning to apply the same instrument to sciences
hitherto wholly or partially independent of its authority. Physical
Science is learning more and more every day to see in the phenomena of
Nature modifications of that one phenomenon (namely, Motion) which is
peculiarly under the power of mathematics.” Hchoes are these, far off
and faint perhaps, but still true echoes, in answer to Newton’s wish that
all these phenomena may some day “be deduced from mechanical prin-
ciples.”’

If, turning from this aspect of the subject, it were my purpose to
enumerate how the same tendency has evinced itself in the Arts, un-
consciously it may be to the artists themselves, I might call as witnesses
each one in turn with full reliance on the testimony which they would
bear. And, having more special reference to mathematics, I might con-
fidently point to the accuracy of measurement, to the truth of curve,
which according to modern investigation is the key to the perfection of
classic art. I might triumphantly cite not only the architects of all ages,
whose art so manifestly rests upon mathematical principles; but I might
cite also the literary as well as the artistic remains of the great artists of
Cinquecento, both painters and sculptors, in evidence of the geometry
and the mechanics which, having been Jaid at the foundation, appear to
have found their way upwards through the superstructure of their works.
And in a less ambitious sphere, but nearer to ourselves in both time and
place, I might point with satisfaction to the great school of English con-
structors of the 18th century in the domestic arts; and remind you,that
not only the engineer and the architect, but even the cabinetmakers,
devoted half the space of their books to perspective and to the principles

14 REPORT—1878.

whereby solid figures may be delineated on paper, or what is now termed
descriptive geometry.

Nor perhaps would the sciences which concern themselves with
reasoning and speech, nor the kindred art of Music, nor even Literature
itself, if thoroughly probed, offer fewer points of dependence upon the
science of which I am speaking. What, in fact, is Logic but that part
of universal reasoning; Grammar but that part of universal speech;
Harmony and Counterpoint but that part of universal music, ‘“ which aceu-
rately lays down,”’ and demonstrates (so far as demonstration is possible)
precise methods appertaining to each of these Arts? And I might even
appeal to the common consent which speaks of the mathematical as the
pattern form of reasoning and model of a precise style.

Taking, then, precision and exactness as the characteristics which
distinguish the mathematical phase of a subject, we are naturally led to
expect that the approach to such a phase will be indicated by increasing
application of the principle of measurement, and by the importance
which is attached to numerical results. And this very necessary condition
for progress may, I think, be fairly described as one of the main features
of scientific advance in the present day.

If it were my purpose, by descending into the arena of special sciences,
to show how the most various investigations alike tend to issue in
measurement, and to that extent to assume a mathematical phase, I should
be embarrassed by the abundance of instances which might be adduced.
I will therefore confine myself to a passing notice of a very few, selecting
those which exemplify not only the general tendency, but also the special
character of the measurements now particularly required, viz., that of
minuteness, and the indirect method by which alone we can at present
hope to approach them. An object having a diameter of an 80,000th of
an inch is perhaps the smallest of which the microscope could give any
well-defined representation ; and it is improbable that one of 120,000th of
an inch could be singly discerned with the highest powers at our com-
mand. But the solar beams and the electric light reveal to us the presence
of bodies far smaller than these. And, in the absence of any means of
observing them singly, Professor Tyndall has suggested a scale of these
minute objects in terms of the lengths of luminiferous waves. To this
he was led, not by any attempt at individual measurement, but by taking
account of them in the aggregate, and observing the tints which they
scatter laterally when clustered in the form of actinic clouds. The small
bodies with which experimental Science has recently come into contact
are not confined to gaseous molecules, but comprise also complete organisms;
and the same philosopher has made a profound study of the momentous
influence exerted by these minute organisms in the economy of life. And if,
in view of their specific effects, whether deleterious or other, on human life,
any qualitative classification, or quantitative estimate be ever possible, it
seems that it must be effected by some such method as that indicated above.

ADDRESS. 15

Again, to enumerate a few more instances of the measurement of
minute quantities, there are the average distances of molecules from
one another in various gases and at various pressures; the length of their
free path, or range open for their motion without coming into collision ;
there are movements causing the pressures and differences of pressure
under which Mr. Crookes’ radiometers execute their wonderful revolutions.
There are the excursions of the air while transmitting notes of high pitch,
which through the researches of Lord Rayleigh appear to be of a diminu-
tiveness altogether unexpected. There are the molecular actions brought
into play in the remarkable experiments by Dr. Kerr, who has succeeded,
where even Faraday failed, in effecting a visible rotation of the plane of
polarisation of light in its passage through electrified dielectrics, and on
its reflexion at the surface of amagnet. To take one more instance, which
must be present to the minds of us all, there are the infinitesimal ripples
of the vibrating plate in Mr. Graham Bell’s most marvellous invention.
Of the nodes and ventral segments in the plate of the telephone which
actually converts sound into electricity and electricity into sound, we can
at present form no conception. All that can now be said is that the most
perfect specimens of Chladni’s sand figures on a vibrating plate, or of
Kandt’s lycopodium heaps in a musical tube, or even Mr. Sedley Taylor’s
more delicate vortices in the films of the Phoneidoscope, are rough and
sketchy compared with these. For notwithstanding the fact that in the
movements of the Telephone-plate we have actually in our hand the solu-
tion of that old world problem, the construction of a speaking machine ;
yet the characters in which that solution is expressed are too small for our
powers of decipherment. In movements such as these we seem to lose
sight of the distinction, or perhaps we have unconsciously passed the
boundary between massive and molecular motion.

Through the Phonograph we have not only a transformation but a per-
manent and tangible record of the mechanism of speech. But the differ-
ences upon which articulation (apart from loudness, pitch, and quality)
depends, appear from the experiments of Fleeming Jenkin and of others
to be of microscopic size. The Microphone affords another instance of the
unexpected value of minute variations,—in this case of electric currents ;
and it is remarkable that the gist of the instrument seems to lie in obtain-
ing and perfecting that which electricians have hitherto most scrupulously
. avoided, viz., loose contact.

Once more, Mr. De La Rue has brought forward as one of the results
derived from his stupendous battery of 10,000 cells, strong evidence for
supposing that a voltaic discharge, even when apparently continuous, may
still be an intermittent phenomenon ; but all that is known of the period
of such intermittence is, that it must recur at exceedingly short intervals.
And in connexion with this subject, it may be added that, whatever be
the ultimate explanation of the strange stratification which the voltaic
discharge undergoes in rarefied gases, it is clear that the alternate disposi-

16 REPORT—1878.

tion of light and darkness must be dependent on some periodic distribution
in space or sequence in time which can at present be dealt with only in a
very general way, In the exhausted column we have a vehicle for elec-
tricity not constant like an ordinary conductor, but itself modified by the
passage of the discharge, and perhaps subject to laws differing materially
from those which it obeys at atmospheric pressure. It may also be that
some of the features accompanying stratification form a magnified image
of phenomena belonging to disruptive discharges in general; and that
consequently, so far from expecting among the known facts of the latter
any clue to an explanation of the former, we must hope ultimately to find
in the former an elucidation of what is at present obscure in the latter. A
prudent philosopher usually avoids hazarding any forecast of the practical
application of a purely scientific research. But it would seem that the
configuration of these strie might some day prove a very delicate means
of estimating low pressures, and perhaps also for effecting some electrical
measurements.

Now, it is a curious fact that almost the only small quantities of which
we have as yet any actual measurements are the wave lengths of light;
and that all others, excepting so far as they can be deduced from these,
await future determination. In the meantime, when unable to approach
these small quantities individually, the method to which we are obliged
to have recourse is, as indicated above, that of averages, whereby, disre-
garding the circumstances of each particular case, we calculate the average
size, the average velocity, the average direction, &c., of a large number of
instances. But although this method is based upon experience, and leads
to results which may be accepted as substantially true; although it
may be applicable to any finite interval of time, or over any finite area of
space (that is, for all practical purposes of life), there is no evidence to
show that it is so when the dimensions of interval or of area are indefinitely
diminished. The truth is that the simplicity of nature which we at present
grasp is really the result of infinite complexity; and that below the uni-
formity there underlies a diversity whose depths we have not yet probed,
and whose secret places are still beyond our reach.

The present is not an occasion for multiplying illustrations, bat I can
hardly omit a passing allusion to one all-important instance of the appli-
cation of the statistical method. Without its aid social life, or the History
of Life and Death, could not be conceived at all, or only in the most super-
ficial manner. Without it we could never attain to any clear ideas of the
condition of the Poor, we could never hope for any solid amelioration of
their condition or prospects. Without its aid, sanitary measures, and even
medicine, would be powerless. Without it, the politician and the philan-
thropist would alike be wandering over a trackless desert.

It is, however, not so much from the side of Science at large as from
that of Mathematics itself, that I desire to speak. I wish from the latter
point of view to indicate connexions between Mathematics and other sub-

ADDRESS. i:

jects, to prove that hers is not after all such a far-off region, nor so unde-
cipherable an alphabet, and to show that even at unlikely spots we may
trace under-currents of thought which having issued from a common source
fertilise alike the mathematical and the non-mathematical world.

Having this in view, I propose to make the subject of special remark
some processes peculiar to modern Mathematics; and, partly with the
object of incidentally removing some current misapprehensions, I have
selected for examination three methods in respect of which mathematicians
are often thought to have exceeded all reasonable limits of speculation,
and to have adopted for unknown purposes an unknown tongue. And it
will be my endeavour to show not only that in these very cases our science
has not outstepped its own legitimate range, but that even art and litera-
ture have unconsciously employed methods similar in principle. The
three methods in question are, first, that of Imaginary Quantities ; secondly,
that of Manifold Space ; and thirdly, that of Geometry not according to
Euclid.

First it is objected that, abandoning the more cautious methods of
ancient mathematicians, we have admitted into our formule quantities
which by our own showing, and even in our own nomenclature, are
imaginary or impossible ; nay, more, that out of them we have formed a
variety of new algebras to which there is no counterpart whatever in
reality ; but from which we claim to arrive at possible and certain results.

On this head it is in Dublin, if anywhere, that I may be permitted to
speak. For to the fertile imagination of the late Astronomer Royal for
Treland we are indebted for that marvellous Calculus of Quaternions, which
is only now beginning to be fully understood, and which has not yet
received all the applications of which it is doubtless capable. And even
although this calculus be not coextensive with another which almost simul-
taneously germinated on the Continent, nor with ideas more recently
developed in America ; yet it must always hold its position as an original
discovery, and as a representative of one of the two great groups of gene-
ralised algebras (viz., those the squares of whose units are respectively
negative unity and zero), the common origin of which must still be
marked on our intellectual map as an unknown region. Well do I re-
collect how in its early days we used to handle the method as a magician’s
page might try to wield his master’s wand, trembling as it were between
hope and fear, and hardly knowing whether to trust our owz results
until they had been submitted to the present and ever-ready counsel of
Sir W. R. Hamilton himself.

To fix our ideas, consider the measurement of a line, or tne reckoning
of time, or the performance of any mathematical operation. A line may
be measured in one direction or in the opposite; time may be reckoned
forward or backward ; an operation may be performed or be reversed, it
may ve done or may be undone; and if having once reversed any of these
processes we reverse it a second time, we shall find that we have come

1878. B

18 REPORT—1878.

back to the original direction of measurement or of reckoning, or to the
original kind of operation.

Suppose, however, that at some stage of a calculation our formule
indicate an alteration in the mode of measurement such that, if the
alteration be repeated, a condition of things, not the same as, but the
reverse of the original, will be produced. Or suppose that, at a certain
stage, our transformations indicate that time is to be reckoned in some
manner different from future or past, but still ina way having definite
algebraical connexion with time which is gone and time which is to come.
It is clear that in actual experience there is no process to which such
measurements correspond. Time has no meaning except as future or past;
and the present is but the meeting point of the two. Or, once more,
suppose that we are gravely told that all circles pass through the same
two imaginary points at an infinite distance, and that every line drawn
through one of these points is perpendicular to itself. On hearing the
statement, we shall probably whisper, with a smile or a sigh, that we hope
it is not true; but that in any case it is a long way off, and perhaps, after ©
all, it does not very much signify. If, however, as mathematicians we are
not satisfied to dismiss the question on these terms, we ourselves must
admit that we have here reached a definite point of issue. Our science
must either give a rational account of the dilemma, or yield the position
as no longer tenable.

Special modes of explaining this anomalous state of things have
occurred to mathematicians. But, omitting details as unsuited to the
present occasion, it will, I think, be sufficient to point out in general terms
that a solution of the difficulty is to be found in the fact that the formulee
which give rise to these results are more comprehensive than the significa-
tion assigned to them; and when we pass out of the condition of things
first contemplated they cannot (as it is obvious they ought not) give us
any results intelligible on that basis. But it does not therefore by any
means follow that upon a more enlarged basis the formule are incapable
of interpretation; on the contrary, the difficulty at which we have
arrived indicates that there must be some more comprehensive state-
ment of the problem which will include cases impossible in the more
limited, but possible in the wider view of the subject.

A very simple instance will illustrate the matter. If from a point out-
side a circle we draw a straight line to touch the curve, the distance
between the starting point and the point of contact has certain geometrical
properties. If the starting point be shifted nearer and nearer to the circle
the distance in question becomes shorter, and ultimately vanishes. But
as soon as the point passes to the interior of the circle the notion of a
tangent and distance to the point of contact cease to have any meaning ;
and the same anomalous condition of things prevails as long as the point
remains in the interior. But if the point be shifted still further until it
emerges on the other side, the tangent and its properties resume their

ADDRESS. 19

reality, and are as intelligible as before. Now the process whereby we
have passed from the possible to the impossible, and again repassed to the
possible (namely, the shifting of the starting point) is a perfectly con-
tinuous one, while the conditions of the problem as stated above have
abruptly changed. If, however, we replace the idea of a line touching by
that of a line cutting the circle, and the distance of the point of contact
. by the distances at which the line is intercepted by the curve, it will easily
be seen that the latter includes the former as a limiting case, when the cut-
ting line is turned about the starting point until it coincides with the tangent
itself. And further, that the two intercepts have a perfectly distinct and
intelligible meaning whether the point be outside or inside the area. The
only difference is that in the first case the intercepts are measured in the
same direction ; in the latter in opposite directions.

The foregoing instance has shown one purpose which these imaginaries
may serve, viz., as marks indicating a limit to a particular condition of
things, to the application of a particular law, or pointing out a stage
where a more comprehensive law is required. To attain to sucha law we
must, as in the instance of the circle and tangent, reconsider our statement
of the problem; we must go back to the principle from which we set out,
and ascertain whether it may not be modified or enlarged. And even if
in any particular investigation, wherein imaginaries have occurred, the
most comprehensive statement of the problem of which we are at present
capable fails to give an actual representation of these quantities; if they
must for the present be relegated to the category of imaginaries; it still
does not follow that we may not at some future time find a law which will
endow them with reality, nor that in the meantime we need hesitate to
employ them, in accordance with the great principle of continuity, for
bringing out correct results.

If, moreover, both in Geometry and in Algebra we occasionally make
use of points or of quantities, which from our present outlook have no
real existence, which can neither be delineated in space of which we have
experience, nor measured by scale as we count measurement; if these
imaginaries, as they are termed, are called up by legitimate processes of
our science; if they serve the purpose not merely of suggesting ideas, but
of actually conducting us to practical conclusions ; if all this be true in
abstract science, 1 may perhaps be allowed to point out, in illustration
of my argument, that in Art unreal forms are frequently used for suggesting
ideas, for conveying a meaning for which no others seem to be suitable or
adequate. Are not forms unknown to Biology, situations incompatible
with gravitation, positions which challenge not merely the stability but
even the possibility of equilibrium,—are not these the very means fo which
the artist often has recourse in order to convey his meaning and to fulfil
his mission? Who that has ever revelled in the ornamentation of the
Renaissance, in the extraordinary transitions from the animal to the

vegetable, from faunic to floral forms, and from these again to almost
B2

20 REPORT—187 58.

purely geometric curves, who has not felt that these imaginaries have
a claim to recognition very similar to that of their congeners in mathe-
matics? How is it that the grotesque paintings of the Middle Ages, the
fantastic sculpture of remote nations, and even the rude art of the pre-
historic past, still impress us, and have an interest over and above their
antiquarian value; unless it be that they are symbols which, although
hard of interpretation when taken alone, are yet capable from a more com-
prehensive point of view of leading us mentally to something beyond
themselves, and to truths which, although reached through them, have a
reality scarcely to be attributed to their outward forms P

Again, if we turn from Art to Letters, truth to nature and to fact is un-
doubiedly a characteristic of sterling literature ; and yet in the delinea-
tion of outward nature itself, still more in that of feelings and affections,
of the secret parts of character and motives of conduct, it frequently
happens that the writer is driven to imagery, to an analogy, or even to
a paradox, in order to give utterance to that of which there is no direct
counterpart in recognised speech. And yet which of us cannot find
a meaning for these literary figures, an inward response to imaginative
poetry, to social fiction, or even to those tales of giant and fairyland
written, it is supposed, only for the nursery or schoolroom? But in order
thus to reanimate these things with a meaning beyond that of the mere
words, have we not to reconsider our first position, to enlarge the ideas with
which we started; have we not to cast about for some thing which is
common to the idea conveyed and to the subject actually described, and
to seek for the sympathetic spring which underlies both; have we not,
like the mathematician, to go back as it were to some first principles, or,
as it is pleasanter to describe it, to become again as a little child P

Passing to the second of the three methods, viz., that of Manifold
Space, it may first be remarked that our whole experience of space is in
three dimensions, viz., of that which has tength, breadth, and thickness ;
and if for certain purposes we restrict our ideas to two dimensions as in
plane geometry, or to one dimension as in the division of a straight line,
we do this only by consciously and of deliberate purpose setting aside,
but not annihilating, the remaining one or two dimensions. Negation, as
Hegel has justly remarked, implies that which is negatived, or, as he
expresses it, affirms the opposite. Itis by abstraction from previous ex-
perience, by a limitation of its results, and not by any independent process,
that we arrive at the idea of space whose dimensions are less than three.

Tt is doubtless on this account that problems in plane geometry which,
although capable of solution on their own account, become much more
intelligible, more easy of extension, if viewed in connexion with solid
space, and as special cases of corresponding problems in solid geometry.
So eminently is this the case, that the very language of the more general
method often leads us almost intuitively to conclusions which, from the
more restricted point of view, require long and laborious proof. Such a

ADDRESS. 21

change in the base of operations has, in fact, been successfully made in
geometry of two dimensions, and although we have not the same experi-
mental data for the further steps, yet neither the modes of reasoning, nor
the validity of its conclusions, are in any way affected by applying an
analogous mental process to geometry of three dimensions; and by
regarding figures in space of three dimensions as sections of figures in
space of four, in the same way that figures in plano are sometimes con-
sidered as sections of figures in solid space. The addition of a fourth
dimension to space not only extends the actual properties of geometrical
figures, but it also adds new properties which are often useful forthe pur-
poses of transformation or of proof. Thus it has recently been shown
that in four dimensions a closed material shell could be turned inside out
by simple flexure, without either stretching or tearing; and that in such
a space it is impossible to tie a knot.

Again, the solution of problems in geometry is often effected by means
of algebra; and as three measurements, or co-ordinates as they are called,
determine the position of a point in space, so do three letters or measure-
able quantities serve for the same purpose in the language of algebra.
Now, many algebraical problems involving three unknown or ore bla
quantities admit of being generalised so as to give problems involving
many such quantities. And as, on the one hand, to every alechedcal
problem involving unknown quantities or variables by ones, or by twos,
or by threes, there corresponds a problem in geometry of one or of two or
of three dimensions; so on the other it may be said that to every
algebraical problem involving many variables there corresponds a problem
in geometry of many dimensions.

There is, however, another aspect under which even ordinary space
presents to us a four-fold, or indeed a mani-fold, character. In modern
Physics, space is regarded not as a vacuum in which bodies are placed
and forces have play, but rather as a plenum with which matter is co-
extensive. And from a physical point of view the properties of space are
the properties of matter, or of the medium which fills it. Similarly from
a mathematical point of view, space may be regarded as a locus in quo,
as a plenum, filled with those elements of geometrical magnitude which
we take as fundamental. These elements need not always be the same.
For different purposes different elements may be chosen; and upon the
degree of complexity of the subject of our choice will depend the internal
structure or mani-foldness of space.

_ Thus, beginning with the simplest case, a point may have any singly
infinite multitude of positions in a line, which gives a one-fold system of
points in a line. The line may revolve in a plane about any one of its
points, giving a two-fold system of points in a plane; and the plane may
revolve about any one of the lines, giving a three-fold system of points in
space. '
Suppose, however, that we take a straight line as our element, and

22 REPORT—1878.

conceive space as filled with such lines. This will be the case if we take
two planes, e.g., two parallel planes, and join every point in one with
every point in the other. Now the points in a plane form a two-fold
system, and it therefore follows that the system of lines is four-fold; in
other words, space regarded as a plenum of lines is four-fold. The same
result follows from the consideration that the lines in a plane, and the
planes through a point, are each two-fold.

Again, if we take a sphere as our element we can through any point
as a centre draw a singly infinite number of spheres, but the number of
such centres is triply infinite; hence space as a plenum of spheres is four-
fold. And, generally, space as a plenum of surfaces has a mani-foldness
equal to the number of constants required to determine the surface.
Although it would be beyond our present purpose to attempt to pursue
the subject further, it should not pass unnoticed that the identity in the
four-fold character of space, as derived on the one hand from a system of
straight lines, and on the other from a system of spheres, is intimately
connected with the principies established by Sophus Lie in his researches
on the correlation of these figures.

If we take a circle as our element we can around any point in a plane
as a centre draw a singly infinite system of circles; but the number of
such centres in a plane is doubly infinite; hence the circles in a plane
form a three-fold system, and as the planes in space form a three-fold
system, it follows that space as a plenum of circles is six-fold.

Again, if we take a circle as our element, we may regard it as a
section either of a sphere, or of a right cone (given except in position) by
a plane perpendicular to the axis. In the former case the position of the
centre is three-fold ; the directions of the plane, like that of a pencil of
lines perpendicular thereto, two-fold; and the radius of the sphere one-
fold ; six-fold in all. In the latter case, the position of the vertex is
three-fold ; the direction of the axis two-fold; and the distance of the
plane of section one-fold; six-fold in all, as before. Hence space as a
plenum of circles is six-fold.

Similarly, if we take a conic as our element we may regard it as a
section of a right cone {given except in position) by a plane. If the
nature of the conic be defined, the plane of section will be inclined at a
fixed angle to the axis; otherwise it will be free to take any inclination
whatever. This being so, the position of the vertex will be three-fold ;
the direction of the axis two-fold; the distance of the plane of section
from the vertex one-fold ; and the direction of that plane one-fold if the
conic be defined, two-fold if it be not defined. Hence, space as a plenum
of definite conics will be seven-fold, as a plenum of conics in general
eight-fold. And so on for curves of higher degrees.

This is in fact the whole story and mystery of manifold space. It is
not seriously regarded as a reality in the same sense as ordinary space ;

ADDRESS. ue

it is a mode of representation, or a method which, having served its pur-
pose, vanishes from the scene. Like a rainbow, if we try to grasp it, it
eludes our very touch ; but, like a rainbow, it arises out of real conditions
of known and tangible quantities, and if rightly apprehended it is a true
and valuable expression of natural laws, and serves a definite purpose in
the science of which it forms part.

Again, if we seek a counterpart of this in common life, I might remind
you that perspective in drawing is itself a method not altogether dissimilar
to that of which I have been speaking; and that the third dimension of
space, as represented in a picture, has its origin in the painter’s mind, and
is due to his skill, but has no real existence upon the canvas which is the
groundwork of his art. Oragain, turning to literature, when in legendary
tales, or in works of fiction, things past and future are pictured as present,
has not the poetic fancy correlated time with the three dimensions of
space, and brought all alike to a common focus? Or once more, when
space already filled with material substances is mentally peopled with
immaterial beings, may not the imagination be regarded as having added
a new element to the capacity of space, a fourth dimension of which there
is no evidence in experimental fact ?

The third method proposed for special remark is that which has been
termed Non-Euclidean Geometry; and the train of reasoning which has
led to it may be described in general terms as follows: some of the pro-
perties of space which on account of their simplicity, theoretical as well as
practical, have, in constructing the ordinary system of geometry, beer con-
sidered as fundamental, are now seen to be particular cases of more general
properties. Thus a plane surface, and a straight line, may be regarded as
special instances of surfaces and lines whose curvature is everywhere uni-
form or constant. And it is perhaps not difficult to see that, when the
special notions of flatness and straightness are abandoned, many properties
of geometrical figures which we are in the habit of regarding as fundamen-
tal will undergo profound modification. Thus a plane may be considered
as a special case of the sphere, viz., the limit to which a sphere approaches
when its radius is increased without limit. But even this consideration
trenches upon an elementary proposition relating to one of the simplest of
geometrical figures. In plane triangles the interior angles are together
equal to two right angles; but in triangles traced on the surface of a
sphere this proposition does not hold good. To this, other instances might
be added.

Further, these modifications may affect not only our ideas of particular
geometrical figures, but the very axioms of the Science itself. Thus, the
idea, which in fact les at the foundation of Euclid’s method, viz., that a geo-
metrical figure may be moved in space without change of size or alteration
of form, entirely falls away, or becomes only approximate in a space
wherein dimension and form are dependent upon position. For instance,
if we consider merely the case of figures traced on a flattened globe like

24 REPORT—1878.

the earth’s surface, or upon an eggshell, such figures cannot be made to
slide upon the surface without change of form, as is the case with figures
traced upon.a plane or even upon a sphere. But, further still, these
generalisations are not restricted to the case of figures traced upon a sur-
face ; they may apply also to solid figures in a space whose very configu-
ration varies from point to point. We may, for instance, imagine a space
in which our rule or scale of measurement varies as it extends, or as it
moves about, in one direction or another ; a space, in fact, whose geometric
density is not uniformly distributed. Thus we might picture to ourselves
such a space as a field having a more or less complicated distribution of
temperature, and our scale as a rod instantaneously susceptible of expan-
sion or contraction under the influence of heat: or we might suppose
space to be even crystalline in its geometric formation, and our scale and
measuring instruments to accept the structure of the locality in which
they are applied. These ideas are doubtless difficult of apprehension, at
all events at the outset; but Helmholtz has pointed out a very familiar
phenomenon which may be regarded as a diagram of such a kind of space.
The picture formed by reflexion from a plane mirror may be taken as a
earrect representation of ordinary space, in which, subject to the usual
laws of perspective, every object appears in the same form and of the same
dimensions whatever be its position. In like manner the picture formed
by reflexion from a curved mirror may be regarded as the representation
of a space wherein dimension and form are dependent upon position.
Thus in an ordinary convex mirror objects appear smaller as they recede
laterally from the centre of the picture; straight lines become curved;
objects infinitely distant in front of the mirror appear at a distance only
equal to the focal length behind. And by suitable modifications in the
curvature of the mirror, representations could similarly be obtained of
space of various configurations.

The diversity in kind of these spaces is of course infinite; they vary
with the mode in which we generalise our conceptions of ordinary space ;
but upon each as a basis it is possible to construct a consistent system of
geometry, whose laws, as a matter of strict reasoning, have a validity and
truth not inferior to those with which we are habitually familiar. Such
systems having been actually constructed, the question has not unnaturally
been asked, whether there is anything in nature or in the outer world to
which they correspond ; whether, admitting that for our limited experi-
ence ordinary geometry amply suffices, we may understand that for powers
more extensive in range or more minute in definition some more general
scheme would be requisite? Thus, for example, although the one may
serve for the solar system, is it legitimate to suppose that it may fail to
apply at distances reaching to the fixed stars, or to regions beyond ? | Or
again, if our vision could discern the minute configuration of portions of
space, which to our ordinary powers appear infinitesimally small, should
we expect to find that all our usual Geometry is but a special case, suffi-

——- =. - - =” ~~

ADDRESS. 25

cient indeed for daily use, but after all only a rough approximation to a
truer although perhaps more complicated scheme? Traces of these ques-
tions are in fact to be found in the writings of some of our greatest and
most original mathematicians. Gauss, Riemann, and Helmholtz have
thrown out suggestions radiating as it were in these various directions
from a common centre; while Cayley, ‘Sylvester, and Clifford in this
country, Klein in Germany, Lobatcheffsky in Russia, Bolyai in Hungary,
and Beltrami in Italy, with many others, have reflected kindred ideas with
all the modifications due to the chromatic dispersion of their individual
minds. But to the main question the answer must be in the negative.
And, to use the words of Newton, since “‘ Geometry has its foundation in
mechanical practice,” the same must be the answer until our experience
is different from what it now is. And yet, all this notwithstanding,
generalised conceptions of space are not without their practical utility.
The principle of representing space of one kind by that of another, and
figures belonging to one by their analogues in the other, is not only
recognised as legitimate in pure mathematics, but has long ago found its
application in cartography. In maps or charts, geographical positions,
the contour of coasts, and other features, belonging in reality to the
Earth’s surface, are represented on the flat; and to each mode of repre-
sentation, or projection as it is called, there corresponds a special correla-
tion between the spheroid and the plane. To this might perhaps be added
the method of descriptive geometry, and all similar processes in use by
engineers, both military and civil.

It has often been asked whether modern research in the field of Pure
Mathematics has not so completely outstripped its physical applications
as to be practically useless ; whether the analyst and the geometer might
not now, and fora long time to come, fairly say, ‘‘ hic artem remumque
repono,” and turn his attention to Mechanics and to Physics. That the
Pure has outstripped the Applied is largely true; but that the former is
on that account useless is far from true. Its utility often crops up até
unexpected points; witness the aids to classification of physical quanti-
ties, furnished by the ideas (of Scalar and Vector) involved in the Calculus
of Quaternions; or the advantages which have accrued to Physical Astro-
nomy from Lagrange’s Equations, and from Hamilton’s Principle of Vary-
ing Action; on the value of Complex Quantities, and the properties of
general Integrals, and of general theorems on integration for the Theories
of Electricity and Magnetism. The utility of such researches can in no
case be discounted, or even imagined beforehand ; who, for instance, would
have supposed that the Calculus of Forms or the Theory of Substitu-
tions would have thrown much light upon ordinary equations; or that

_ Abelian Functions and Hyperelliptic Transcendents would have told us

anything about the properties of curves; or that the Calculus of Opera-
tions would have helped us in any way towards the figure of the Harth ?
But upon such technical points I must not now dwell. If, however, as

26 REPORT—1878.

I hope, it has been sufficiently shown that any of these more extended
ideas enable us to combine together, and to deal with as one, properties
and processes which from the ordinary point of view present marked dis-
tinctions, then they will have justified their own existence ; and in using
them we shall not have been walking in a vain shadow, nor disquieting
our brains in vain.

These extensions of mathematical ideas would, however, be over-
whelming, if they were not compensated by some simplifications in the
processes actually employed. Of these aids to calculation I will men-
tion only two, viz., symmetry of form, and mechanical appliances; or,
say, Mathematics as a Fine Art, and Mathematics as a Handicraft. And
first, as to symmetry of form. There are many passages of algebra in
which long processes of calculation at the outset seem unavoidable. Re-
sults are often obtained in the first instance through a tangled maze of
formule, where at best we can just make sure of our process step by
step, without any general survey of the path which we have traversed,
and still less of that which we have to pursue. But almost within our
own generation a new method has been devised to clear this entangle-
ment. More correctly speaking, the method is not new, for it is inhe-
rent in the processes of algebra itself, and instances of it, unnoticed per-
haps or disregarded, are to be found cropping up throughout nearly all
mathematical treatises. By Lagrange, and to some extent also by Gauss,
among the older writers, the method of which I am speaking was recog-
nised as a principle; but beside these perhaps no others can be named
natil a period within our own recollection. The method consists in sym-
metry of expression. In algebraical formule combinations of the quan-
tities entering therein occur and recur; and by a suitable choice of these
quantities the various combinations may be rendered symmetrical, and
reduced to a few well-known types. This having been done, and one
such combination having been calculated, the remainder, together with
many of their results, can often be written down at once, without further
calculations, by simple permutations of the letters. Symmetrical expres-
sions, moreover, save as much time and trouble in reading as in writing.
Instead of wading laboriously through a series of expressions which,
although successively dependent, bear no outward resemblance to one
another, we may read off symmetrical formule, of almost any length, at
a glance. A page of such formule becomes a picture: known forms are
seen in definite groupings; their relative positions, or perspective as it
may be called, their very light and shadow, convey their meaning almost
as much through the artistic faculty as through any conscious ratioci-
native process. [ew principles have been more suggestive of extended
ideas or of new views and relations than that of which I am now speak-
ing. In order to pass from questions concerning plane figures to those
which appertain to space, from conditions having few degrees of freedom
to others which have many—in a word, from more restricted to less re-

ADDRESS. 27

stricted problems—we have in many cases merely to add lines and columns
to our array of letters or symbols already formed, and then read off
pictorially the extended theorems.

Next as to mechanical appliances. Mr. Babbage, when speaking of
the difficulty of ensuring accuracy in the long numerical calculations of
theoretical astronomy, remarked that the science which in itself is the
most accurate and certain of all had, through these difficulties, become
inaccurate and uncertain in some of its results. And it was doubtless
some such consideration as this, coupled with his dislike of employing
skilled labour where unskilled would suffice, which led him to the inven-
tion of his calculating machines. The idea of substituting mechanical
for. intellectual power has not lain dormant; for beside the arith-
metical machines whose name is legion (from Napier’s Bones, Harl
Stanhope’s calculator, to Schultz and Thomas’s machines now in actual
use) an invention has lately been designed for even a more difficult
task. Prof. James Thomson has in fact recently constructed a machine
which, by means of the mere friction of a disk, a cylinder, and
a ball, is capable of effecting a variety of the complicated calcula-
tions which occur in the highest application of mathematics to
physical problems. By its aid it seems that an unskilled labourer
may, in a given time, perform the work of ten skilled arithmeticians.
The machine is applicable alike to the calculation of tidal, of mag-
netic, of meteorological, and perhaps also of all other periodic phe-
nomena. It will solve differential equations of the second and perhaps
of even higher orders. And through the same invention the probiem
of finding the free motions of any number of mutually attracting particles,
unrestricted by any of the approximate suppositions required in the treat-
ment of the Lunar and Planetary Theories, is reduced to the simple
process of turning a handle.

When Wiaeaiday had completed the Sipih ental part of a physical
problem, and desired that it should thenceforward be treated mathemati-
eally, he used irreverently to say, “Hand it over to the calculators.” But
truth is ever stranger than fiction; and if he had lived until our day, he
might with perfect propriety have said, “ Hand it over to the machine.”

Had time permitted, the foregoing topics would have led me to point
out that the mathematician, although concerned only with abstractions,
uses many of the same methods of research as are employed in other
sciences, and in the arts, such as observation, experiment, induction,
imagination. But this is the less necessary because the subject has
been already handled very ably, although with greater brevity than might
have been wished, by Professor Sylvester in his address to Section A.
at our meeting at Exeter.

In an exhaustive treatment of my subject there would still remain a
question which in one sense lies at the bottom of all others, and which
through almost all time has had an attraction for reflective minds, viz.,

28 REPORT—-1878.

what was the origin of mathematical ideas? Are they to be regarded as
independent of, or dependent upon, experience? The question has been
answered sometimes in one way and sometimes in another. But the
absence of any satisfactory conclusion may after all be understood as im-
plying that no answer is possible in the sense in which the question is put ;
or rather that there is no question at all in the matter, except as to the
history of actual facts. And, even if we distinguish, as we certainly
should, between the origin of ideas in the individual and their origin in a
nation or mankind, we should still come to the same conclusion. If we
take the case of the individual, all we can do is to give an account of our
own experience ; how we played with marbles and apples ; how we learnt
the multiplication table, fractions, and proportion; how we were after-
wards amused to find that common things conformed to the rules of
number ; and later still how we came to see that the same laws applied to
music and to mechanism, to astronomy, to chemistry, and to many otber
subjects. And then, on trying to analyse our own mental processes, we
find that mathematical ideas have been imbibed in precisely the same way
as all other ideas, viz., by learning, by experience, and by reflexion. The ap-
parent difference in the mode of first apprehending them and in their ulti-
mate cogency arises frém the difference of the ideas themselves, from the pre-
ponderance of quantitative over qualitative considerations in mathematics,
from the notions of absolute equality and identity which they imply.

If we turn to the other question, How did the world at large acquire
and improve its idea of number and of figures? How can we span the
interval between the savage who counted only by the help of outward
objects, to whom 15 was “ half the hands and both the feet,”’ and Newton
or Laplace? The answer is the history of mathematics and its successive
developments, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, &c. The first and greatest
step in all this was the transition from number in the concrete to number
in the abstract. This was the beginning not only of mathematics but of
all abstract thought. The reason and mode of it was the same as in the
individual. ‘here was the same general influx of evidence, the same
unsought-for experimental proof, the same recognition of general laws
running through all manner of purposes and relations of life. No wonder
then if, under such circumstances, mathematics, like some other subjects
and perhaps with better excuse, came after a time to be clothed with
mysticism; nor that, even in modern times, they should have been placed
upon an a priori basis, as in the philosophy of Kant. Number was so
soon found to be a principal common to many braxches of knowledge that
it was readily assumed to be the key to all. It gave distinctness of
expression, if not clearness of thought, to ideas which were floating in the
untutored mind, and even suggested to it new conceptions. In “the one,”
“the all,” ‘‘the many in one,” (terms of purely arithmetic origin,) it gave
the earliest utterance to men’s first crude notions about God and the
world. In “the equal,” ‘“ the solid,” “the straight,”’ and “ the crooked,”

ADDRESS. 29

which still survive as figures of speech among ourselves, it supplied a voca-
bulary for the moral notions of mankind, and quickened them by giving
them the power of expression. In this lies the great and enduring interest
in the fragments which remain to us of the Pythagorean philosophy.

The consecutive processes of Mathematics led to the consecutive pro-
cesses of Logic; but it was not until long after mankind had attained to
abstract ideas that they attained to any clear notion of their connexion
with one another. In process of time the leading ideas of Mathematies
became the leading ideas of Logic. The “one” and the “ many” passed
into the “‘ whole”’ and its “‘ parts;’’ and thence into the “ universal” and
the ‘‘particular.’’ The fallacies of Logic, such as the well-known puzzle
of Achilles and the tortoise, partake of the nature of both sciences.
And perhaps the conception of the infinite and the infinitesimal, as well
as of negation, may have been in early times transferred from Logic to
Mathematics. But the connexion of our ideas of number is probably
anterior to the connexion of any of our other ideas. And as a matter of
fact, geometry and arithmetic had already made considerable progress
when Aristotle invented the syllogism.

General ideas there were, beside those of mathematics—true flashes of
genius which saw that there must be general laws*to which the universe
conforms, but which saw them only by occasional glimpses, and through
the distortion of imperfect knowledge; and although the only records of
them now remaining are the inadequate representations of later writers,
yet we must still remember that to the existence of such ideas is due not
only the conception but even the possibility of Physical Science. But.
these general ideas were too wide in their grasp, and in early days at
least were connected to their subjects of application by links too shadowy,
to be thoroughly apprehended by most minds; and so it came to pass
that one form of such an idea was taken as its only form, one application
of it as the idea itself; and philosophy, unable to maintain itself at the
level of ideas, fell back upon the abstractions of sense, and, by preference,
upon those which were most ready to hand, namely, those of mathematics.
Plato’s ideas relapsed into a doctrine of numbers ; mathematics into mys-
ticism, into neo-Platonism, and the like. And so, through many long
ages, through good report and evil report, mathematics have always held
an unsought-for sway. It has happened to this science as to many other
subjects, that its warmest adherents have not always been its best friends.
Mathematics have often been brought into matters where their presence
has been of doubtful utility. If they have given precision to literary
style, that precision has sometimes been carried to excess, as in Spinoza
and perhaps Descartes; if they have tended to clearness of expression in
philosophy, that very clearness has sometimes given an appearance of
finality not always true ; if they have contributed to definition in theology,
that definiteness has often been fictitious, and has been attained at the
cost of spiritual meaning. And, coming to recent times, although we

30 REPORT——-1878.

may admire the ingenuity displayed | in the logical machines of Earl
Stanhope and of Stanley Jevons, in the ‘ Formal Guaee of De Morgan,
and in the ‘Calculus’ of Boole; although as fnatiemaanenne we may feel
satisfaction that these feats (the possibility of which was clear @ priori)
have been actually accomplished ; yet we must bear in mind that their
application is really confined to cases where the subject-matter is perfectly
uniform in character, and that beyond this range they are liable to
encumber rather than to assist thought.

Not unconnected with this intimate association of ideas and their
expression is the fact that, whichever may have been cause, which-
ever effect, or whether both may not in turn have acted as cause and
effect, the culminating age of classic art was contemporaneous with the
first great development of mathematical science. In an earlier part of
this discourse I have alluded to the importance of mathematical precision
recognised in the technique of art during the Cinquecento; and I have
now time only to add that on looking still further back it would seem
that sculpture and painting, architecture and music, nay even poetry
itself, received a new, if not their first true, impulse at the period when
geometric form appeared fresh chiselled by the hand of the mathematician,
and when the first’ ideas of harmony and proportion rang joyously
together in the morning tide of art.

Whether the views on which I have here insisted be in any way
novel, or whether they be merely such as from habit or from inclination
are usually kept out of sight, matters little. But whichever be the case,
they may still furnish a solvent of that rigid aversion which both Literature
and Art are too often inclined to maintain towards Science of all kinds.
It isa very old story that, to know one another better, to dwell upon
similarities rather than upon diversities, are the first stages towards a
better understanding between two parties ; but in few cases has it a truer
application than in that here discussed. To recognise the common
growth of scientific and other instincts until the time of harvest is not
only conducive to a rich crop, but it is also a matter of prudence, lest in
trying to root up weeds from among the wheat, we should at the same
time root up that which is as valuable as wheat. When Pascal’s father
had shut the door of his son’s study to mathematics, and closeted him
with Latin and Greek, he found on his return that the walls were
teeming with formule and figures, the more congenial product of the
boy’s mind. Fortunately for the boy, and fortunately also for Science,
the mathematics were not torn up, but were suffered to grow together
with other subjects. And all said and done, the lad was not the worse
scholar or man of letters in the end. But, truth to tell, considering the
severance which still subsists in education and during our early years
between Literature and Science, we can hardly wonder if when thrown
together in the afterwork of life they should meet as strangers; or if the
severe garb, the curious implements, and the strange wares of the latter

ADDRESS. DL

should seem little attractive when contrasted with the light companion-

ship of the former. The day is yet young, and in the early dawn many

things look weird and fantastic which in fuller light prove to be familiar

and useful. The outcomings of Science, which at one time have been

deemed to be but stumbling-blocks scattered in the way, may ultimately

prove stepping stones which have been carefully laid to form a pathway
_ over difficult places for the children of “ sweetness and of light.”

The instances on which we have dwelt are only a few out of many in
which Mathematics may be found ruling and governing a variety of sub-
jects. It is as the supreme result of all experience, the framework in
which all the varied manifestations of nature have been set, that our
science has laid claim to be the arbiter of all knowledge. She does not
indeed contribute elements of fact, which must be sought elsewhere; but
she sifts and regulates them: she proclaims the laws to which they must
conform if those elements are to issue in precise results. From the data
of a problem she can infallibly extract all possible consequences, whether
they be those first sought, or others not anticipated ; but she can introduce
nothing which was not latent in the original statement. Mathematics
cannot tell us whether there be or be not limits to time or space; but to
her they are both of indefinite extent, and this in a sense which neither
affirms nor denies that they are either infinite or finite. Mathematics
cannot tell us whether matter be continuous or discrete in its structure ;
but to her it is indifferent whether it be one or the other, and her conclu-
sions are independent of either particular hypothesis. Mathematics can

tell us nothing of the origin of matter, of its creation or its annihilation ;
she deals only with it in a state of existence; but within that state its
modes of existence may vary from our most elementary conception to our
most complex experience. Mathematics can tell us nothing beyond the
problems which she specifically undertakes; she will carry them to their
limit, but there she stops, and upon the great region beyond she is im-
perturbably silent.

Conterminous with space and coéval with time is the kingdom of
Mathematics; within this range her dominion is supreme; otherwise than
according to her order nothing can exist; in contradiction to her laws
nothing takes place. On her mysterious scroll is to be found written for
those who can read it that which has been, that which is, and that which
is to come. Everything material which is the subject of knowledge has
number, order, or position ; and these are her first outlines for'a sketch of
the universe. If our more feeble hands cannot follow out the details,
still her part has been drawn with an unerring pen, and her work cannot
be gainsaid. So wide is the range of mathematical science, so indefinitely
may it extend beyond our actual powers of manipulation, that at some
moments we are inclined to fall down with even more than reverence
before her majestic presence. But so strictly limited are her promises and
powers, about so much that we might wish to know does she offer no

32 REPORT—1878.

information whatever, that at other moments we are fain to call her results
but a vain thing, and to reject them as a stone when we had asked for
bread. If one aspect of the subject encourages our hopes, so does the
other tend to chasten our desires; and he is perhaps the wisest, and in
the long run the happiest among his fellows, who has learnt not only
this science, but also the larger lesson which it indirectly teaches,
namely, to temper our aspirations to that which is possible, to moderate
our desires to that which is attainable, to restrict our hopes to that of
which accomplishment, if not immediately practicable, is at least distinctly
within the range of conception. That which is at present beyond our ken
may, at some period and in some manner as yet unknown to us, fall within
our grasp; but our science teaches us, while ever yearning with Goethe
for “Light, more light,” to concentrate our attention upon that of which
our powers are capable, and contentedly to leave for future experience the
solution of problems to which we can at present say neither yea nor nay.

It is within the region thus indicated that knowledge in the true sense
of the word is to be sought. Other modes of influence there are in society
and in individual life, other forms of energy beside that of intellect. There
is the potential energy of sympathy, the actual energy of work; there are
the vicissitudes of life, the diversity of circumstance, health, and disease,
and all the perplexing issues, whether for good or for evil, of impulse and
of passion. But although the book of life cannot at present be read by
the light of Science alone nor the wayfarers be satisfied by the few loaves
of knowledge now in our hands; yet it would be difficult to overstate the
almost miraculous increase which may be produced by a liberal distribution
of what we already have, and by a restriction of our cravings within the
limits of possibility.

Tn proportion as method is better than impulse, deliberate purpose than
erratic action, the clear glow of sunshine than irregular reflexion, and
definite utterances than an uncertain sound ; in proportion as knowledge
is better than surmise, proof than opinion; in that proportion will the
mathematician value a discrimination between the certain and the uncer-
tain, and a just estimate of the issues which depend upon one motive
power or the other. While on the one hand he accords to his neighbours
full liberty to regard the unknown in whatever way they are led by the
noblest powers that they possess ; so on the other he claims an equal right
to draw a clear line of demarcation between that which is a matter of
knowledge, and that which is at all events something else, and to treat the
one category as fairly claiming our assent, the other as open to further
evidence. And yet, when he sees around him those whose aspirations are
so fair, whose impulses so strong, whose receptive faculties so sensitive, as
to give objective reality to what is often but a reflex from themselves, or &
projected image of their own experience, he will be willing to admit that
there are influences which he cannot as yet either fathom or measure, but
whose operation he must recognise among the facts of our existence.

P.O.CD. EAS

Page 6, line 10. It is worth while to compare the following passage from
Plato’s ‘ Republic,’ Book vii. (Jowett’s translation) :

“ After plane geometry, we took solids in revolution instead of taking solids in
themselves; whereas after the second dimension the third, which is concerned with
cubes and dimensions of depth, ought to have been followed.

“Tt is true, Socrates ; but these subjects seem to be as yet hardly explored.

“ Why, yes, I said, and for two reasons; in the first place, no government patro-
nises them, which leads to a want of energy in the study of them, and they are
difficult ; in the second place, students cannot learn them unless they have a
teacher. But then a teacher is hardly to be found, and even if one could be found,
as matters now stand the students of these subjects, who are very conceited, would
not mind him; that, however, would be otherwise if the whole state patronised
and honoured them, then. they would listen, and there would be continuous and
earnest search, and discoveries would be made; since even now, disregarded as
they are by the world, and maimed of their fair proportions, and although none of
their votaries can tell the use of them, still these studies force their way by their
natural charm, and very likely they may emerge into light.”

P. 11,1. 44. Compare with this the latter part of Plato's ‘ Philebus,’ on know-
ledge and the handicraft arts; also Prof. Jowett’s ‘ Introduction’ thereto.

P. 13,1. 40. See ‘Trattato della Pittura,’ by Leonardo da Vinci; also the
‘Memoir on the MSS. of L. d. V.,’ by Venturi, 1797.

P. 14, 1. 2. ‘The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker’s Director, by Thomas

Chippendale, London, 1754.
-*The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer’s Drawing Book,’ by Thomas Sheraton,

London, 1793.
P. 14,1. 32. See Sorby’s ‘ Address to the Microscopical Society,’ 1876.
P. 14,1. 38, ‘ Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society,’ 1870, p. 333; and 1876, p. 27.
P, 14,1. 42. ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1877, p. 149.

P. 15, 1.6. ‘On Attraction ard Repulsion resulting from Radiation,’ ‘ Phil.
Trans.,’ 1874, p. 501; 1875, p. 519; 1876, p. 325.

P. 15,1. 9. ‘ Philosophical Magazine, April, 1878.

P. 15, 1. 10. ‘Philosophical Magazine, 1875, Vol. ii., pp. 337, 446: 187
Vol. i., p. 821; 1878, Vol. i., p. 161.

P. 15, 1. 20. Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ Tom. xxxv., p. 337.

P. 15,1. 21. ‘Royal Society’s Proceedings,’ 1878.

P. 15,1. 28. The Papers on the Telephone are too numerous to specify.

P. 15,1. 29. See various Papers in ‘Nature,’ and elsewhere, during the last

twelve months.
1878. c

34 REPORT—1878.

Page 15, line 23. ‘ Royal Society’s Proceedings,’ May 9, 1878.

P. 15, 1. 33. ‘Phil. Trans.,’ Vol. 169, pp. 55 and 155, and other Papers cata-
logued in the ‘ Appendix to Part II. of the Memoir.’

Page 16, line 25. See Maxwell ‘On Heat,’ chap. xxii.

P.17,1.29. Grunert’s ‘Archiv,’ Vol. vi., p. 837; also separate work, Berlin,
1862.

P.17, 1.31. ‘Linear Associative Algebra,’ by Benjamin Peirce, Washington
City, 1870.

P.18,1.10. Sir W. Thomson, ‘Cambridge Mathematical Journal,’ Vol. lii., p.
174. Jevons’ ‘ Principles of Science,’ Vol. ii., p. 438.

But an explanation of the difficulty seems to me to be found in the fact that the
problem, as stated, is one of. the conduction of heat, and that the “impossibility ”
which attaches itself to the expression for the “time” merely means that previous
to a certain epoch the conditions which gave rise to the phenomena were not those
of conduction, but those of some other action of heat. If, therefore, we desire to
comprise the phenomena of the earlier as well as of the later period in »ne problem
we must find some more general statement, viz., that of physical conditions which
at the critical epoch will issue in a case of conduction. I think that Prof. Clifford
has somewhere given a similar explanation.

P. 21, 1. 13. S. Newcomb ‘On Certain Transformations of Surfaces,’ ‘ American
Journal of Mathematics,’ Vol. i., p. 1.

P.21,1.14. Tait ‘Qn Knots,’ ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,’
Vol. xxviii., p. 145; Klein, ‘ Mathematische Annalen,’ ix., p. 478.

P. 27, 1. 18. ‘Royal Society’s Proceedings, February 5, 1876, and May 9
1878. wat

P, 30, 1. 1. For example, in Herbart’s ‘ Psychologie.’

P. 30, 1. 8. A specimen will be found in the ‘ Moralia’ of Gregory the Great,
Lib. I. c. xiv., of which'I quote only the arithmetical part:

“ Quid in septenario numero, nisi summa perfectionis accipitur? Ut enim
humans rationis causas de septenario numero taceamus, que afferunt, qudd idcirco
perfectus sit, quia exprimo pari constat, et primo, impari; ex primo, qui
dividi potest, et primo, qui dividi non potest; certissimé scimus, quod sep-
tenarium numerum Scriptura Sacra pro perfectione ponere consuevit. ;
A septenario quippe numero in duodenarium surgitur. Nam septenarius suis in
se partibus multiplicatus, ad duodenarium tenditur. Sive enim quatuor
per tria, sive per quatuor tria ducantur, septem in duodecim vertuntur... .
Jam superiis dictum est quéd in quinquagenario numero, qui septem hebdomadibus
ac monade addit4 impletur, requies designatur; denario autem numero summa per-
fectionis exprimetur.”

P. 30, 1.16. Approximate dates B.C. of—

Cb |

Sculptors, Painters, and Poets. Mathematicians.
Stesichorus, 600. Thales, 600.
Pindar, 522-442, Pythagoras, 550.
AMschylus, 500-450. Anaxagoras, 500-450.
Sophocles, 495-400, Hippocrates, 460.

Euripides, 480-400.

Phidias, 488-432.

Praxiteles, 450-400, Theeetetus, 440.
Zeuxis, 400. Archytas, 400.
Apelles, 300.

Scopas, 350, Euclid, 323-283.

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCH.

REPORTS

ON

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Catalogue of the Oscillation-frequencies of Solar Rays ; drawn up under
the superintendence of a Committee of the British Association, consist-
ing of Dr. Hueains (Chairman), Dr. De La Ruz, Mr. J. Norman
Lockyer, Dr. J. Emerson Reynoxps, Mr. Srorriswoopr, Dr. W.
MarsHatt Warts, and Mr. G. Jounstonz Stoney (feporter) *.

Every periodic disturbance of the ether which can be propagated through
it as an undulation may be represented mathematically by one or more
terms of the harmonic expansion known as Fouricr’s series. A single term
of this series suffices to represent the undulation when the waves are of
that simplest type which can be represented by a curve of sines—the curve
which represents the small oscillations of a pendulum. But when the waves
are of a more complicated form, two or more terms, perhaps all the terms,
of the series must be retained in order to represent it; and in such cases
the terms of the series which remain severally represent the simple sinusoid
or pendulous undulations, which, if made to coexist in the medium by being
piled on one another, would become identical with the actual complex undu-
lation which is present in it.

The non-periodic disturbances which traverse a medium are of two kinds—
those which, like the clang of a bell, may be represented by a series consisting
of sinusoid terms with distinct periodic times, though in this case not .
harmonically, or at least not all harmonically, related; and those which can
be decomposed into sinusoid elements only under the condition that the
elementary undulations have periodic times which pass without hiatus into
one another.

Now so long as light is propagated through what is called a vacuum, the
undulation, however complex, maintains its form unaltered at all distances
from the source of light; for in vacuous spaces waves of different periods
advance at the same rate and directly forwards, and therefore the simple
comporent undulations which are represented by the several terms of a

* A Map of Oscillation-frequencies is in preparation, and will be presented to the
British Association at the Meeting at Sheffield in 1879.

38 REPORT—1878.

sinusoid series accurately accompany each other throughout their whole
journey.

But the event is different if the light encounters an optical agent which
acts differently on waves of different periods. Of this kind are the prisms
and diffraction-gratings of our spectroscopes. Here Nature herself effects
the decomposition which is indicated by the theory. Waves of different
periods are compelled to travel in different directions, and thus the several
terms of the sinusoid series appear under the form of lines in the spectrum.
The wave-lengths corresponding to each position in the spectrum have been
determined with great care, and these when corrected for the dispersion of
the air are proportional to the corresponding periodic times, which thus
become known. Moreover, the intensities of the lines may be observed, and
will give the coefficients to be applied to the corresponding terms of the
sinusoid series. Hence by a discussion of the observations we may expect
to learn much with regard to the original disturbance caused by the source of
light. Non-periodic disturbances of the second class will be indicated by
continuous spectra, while the other two classes of disturbances will be dis-
tinguished by spectra which consist of separate rays; and a careful study of
the positions and intensities of the rays may give valuable information as to
the periodic time, and sometimes even as to the particular form of the original
disturbance.

Hence in the present state of science it is of importance to facilitate this
inquiry as much as possible; and it is hoped that aid will be given to the
student of nature by the Table now published, in which the oscillation-
frequencies of the principal,rays of the visible part of the solar spectrum
have been computed from Angstrém’s admirable determinations of their
wave-lengths in air, combined with Ketteler’s observations on the dispersion of
air. Such a table and its accompanying map afford the most assistance that
can be given towards the detection of harmonic relations; for rays that are
harmonically related are therein represented in the simplest form that is
practicable—in the Table by an arithmetic series of the same type as the series
of natural numbers, where the common difference is equal to the first term ;
and in the Map by a series of equidistant lines.

While this theoretic advantage has been the guiding aim of the Committee,
they have also kept constantly in view the convenience of observers. A map
of Oscillation-frequencies offers peculiar facilities for this, as its red end is

less extended when compared with its blue end than in Angstrim’s map and
more extended than in Kirchhoft’s. It thus delineates the spectrum with an
appearance intermediate between that of a diffraction spectrum and that of
a prismatic spectrum, and does not distort either spectrum too much for
practical use. It may thus be employed without inconvenience by observers
with either of the two great classes of spectroscope. ‘The Committee are
- accordingly occupied in preparing such a Map to accompany the Table.

The Committee ,were of opinion that it would prove a boon to observers to
have Kirchhoff’s, Angstrom’s, and the new numbers in reference to each ray
brought together in one horizontal line. Before this,could be accomplished it
was necessary to make a systematic comparison of Angstrém’s numbers and
maps with Kirchhoff’s, and of both with the actual solar spectrum, in order
to identify the rays wherever practicable.

The Committee therefore felt that it was desirable that this work should be
undertaken ; and it has been satisfactorily accomplished by Charles EK. Burton,
Esq., B.A., F.R.A.S., who has made all observations and computations required
by the Committee. He has, moreover, inserted (in brackets) in column 2 the

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 39

wave-lengths of those rays of Kirchhoff’s list which are not found in Ang-
strém’s, wherever it appeared .possible to make the interpolation with safety.

The small corrections which Angstrém indicates at p. 29 of his memoir (‘Le
Spectre Normal du Soleil’) haye been applied to his numbers before insert-
ing them incolumn 2. Accordingly the numbers of this column which are
not in brackets represent Angstrém’s work in its finished state.

In column 6 the intensities and widths which Kirchhoff assigns to rays
between A and G have been reproduced; and Mr. Burton has continued

these determinations to all the rays recorded by Angstrém between G and H,
so that they now cover the whole spectrum from Ato H. Before entering on
this work Mr. Burton prepared himself by a revision of portions of the spec-
trum which Kirchhoff had delineated, so as to ensure that he should employ
Karchhoff’s symbols in the same sense in which they had been used by Kirch-
hoff and his assistant Hofmann.

And in the last column Mr. Burton has thrown the solar rays into such
groups as appeared to him to be the most convenient to an observer. It will
probably be possible to improve this part of the work, if a second edition of the
Catalogue is called for.

- In columns 3 and 4 are given the steps by which the oscillation-frequencies
of the rays have been computed from their wave-lengths, in order that it may
be easy to revise the former if improyements are at any time made upon

Angstrém’s table of waye-lengihs, or on the values for the refraction of air
which have been used.

The Map which the Committee are engaged in preparing will be a mere
chart, in which the intensities of the rays will be indicated by lines of diffe-
rent lengths. It does not appear to the Committee to be desirable that they
should attempt a finished drawing of the Solar Spectrum in the present state
of spectroscopic science, in which observers may hope soon to have in their
hands good photographs of every part of the visible spectrum. In order
meanwhile to supply as far as possible the place of a more finished map,
tables will be appended which will enable any one who possesses Kirchhoft’s

exquisite map or Angstrém’s to place upon them the outlines of a scale of
oscillation-frequencies, so as to make these maps in a large degree available.

The Committee will feel obliged to any spectroscopists who are so good as
to send to G. Johnstone Stoney, 3 Palmerston Park, Dublin, such corrections of
the present tables as may occur to them, with a view to their insertion in
future editions,

Caratocur of the principal Dark Rays of the visible part of the Solar Spec-
trum, containing all the rays registered by KincuHorr and Anestrim,
arran nged on a scale of OscILLATION-FREQUENCIES.

EXPLANATION.
Column 1 gives the position on the Arbitrary Scale attached to Kirchhoff’s maps.

Column 2 reproduces the wave- lengths i in tenth-metres as determined by Angstrom, after
applying to the numbers of Angstrém’ 8 list the small corrections which he indicates
at p. 29 of his memoir, “Le Spectre,Normal du Soleil.” The wave-lengths of rays
recorded by Kirchhoff, but not by Angstrém, have been introduced within brackets

|

ee
|
|
|

Be 4 7274: 4

40 REPORT—1878.

into this column wherever it appeared that the interpolation could be made with
sufficient safety. The wave-lengths of this list are wave-lengths in air of 760 millims.
pressure at Upsala and 16° C. temperature.

Column 8 contains the reciprocals of the numbers in column 2, each multiplied by 107.
Each number in this column may accordingly be regarded either as the number of
times that the corresponding wave-length-in-air goes into one millimetre, or as the
number of complete oscillations in the time yr, where p is the index of refraction
of air for that ray.

Column 4 contains the correction for the dispersion of air of 760 millims. pressure and
16° temperature, deduced from Ketteler’s observations. (See ‘ Philosophical Maga-
zine’ for 1866, vol. ii. p. 336.)

Column 5 gives the oscILLATION-FREQUENCY of each ray in the time r, the time that light
takes to advance one millimetre iz vacuo. Or the numbers of this column may be
regarded as the numbers of waves per millimetre in vacuo.

Column 6 indicates the intensity and width of each ray between A and G, as determined
by Kirchhoff, and between G and H.,, as determined by Mr. Burton, 6 being the
most intense and g being very wide, viz. about 0:15 of one degree of the scale of
oscillation-frequencies.

Column 7 enumerates the substances which have been found to emit bright rays coincident
with dark solar rays, and contains some other remarks,

Column 8. In the last column the rays are bracketed into the groups which strike the eye
in looking at the spectrum, and to each group is assigned a number which suffi-
ciently indicates its position upon the standard scale.

° Cor-
{Position on fia pak Oscillation-| Inten- Groups
we chhoff’s| Strém’s | Reci- | for the frequency | sity (aes
| Arbitrary wave- | procals. |disper-| in the and Origin, &e. of
Scale. lengths sion of| timer. | width.
in air. the air.
| 7604-0 131510 | 0°36 1314°74 |... Wa yee |
73151 67°03 | 0°38 | 1366°65 ) Kirchhoff records 57 rays
£ : : less refrangible than
1807-4 6548) » 1368110 | 480'1 (see Appendix
7300:4 69°79 | 5, 1369-41 | ‘ T.), but none of them
7289°7 7180 | ,, 1371-42 | a ae pick
72857 72°55 a 137217 ) Angstré roms.

74°68 | ,, 137430 | 6e
753 a 13749 4d
7701 | 45 137663 | 4c
173 i 13769 2d
Ee 13773 | 4d

4804 |(7271°3)
4812 72621

482°: | (7260°5)
483°3 in 3)

4841 | 72569 | 78:00] ,, 137762 | 2d
48571 cra88 Borate ithe, 13783 | 3d
4362 | 7249°5 | 79°40] 5, 137902 | Ge

ek (7248'3) | 79°6 | » 13792 | 2¢

488°2
to

(7214:6)
7213-4
(7208°5)

(7207-5)

72046

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 41

Reci-

procals.

1380°85
81°69

83°07

84°12
85°06
86'1
86°31
87°3
87°4
88:00

7202'5
7198-1
7195°6
(7191:8)
7191-0
7189°3
7184°7
7182°5
7179-2
7175°7
(7175:0)
(71433)
7713

(71645)

7163:0
7160-2

(7156-4)

(7148-7)
7146-0

|(7133:3)

(7125°3)
(7116-9)
(70886)
(7085-0)

88-41
89°25
89°74
9°°5

90°63
90°96
9185
92°27
92°91
93°59
93°7

93°9

94°45
95°8

96°06
96°61

974
93°9
1399°38
1401°9
03°5
O5'I

10°7

11"4

CaTALOGUE (continued).

Reduc-
tion to
va-
cuum.

0°38

Frequency.

1380°47
1381°31

1382°69

138374
138468
13857
138593
1386°9
13870

1387-62

1388°03
138887
1389:36
139071

139025
1390758
139147
139188
1392°52
1393°20
13933

1393°5

1394-06
1395-4

1395°67

139622

13970
13985
1398°99
14015
1403'1
1404°7
14103
14110

Origin, &e. Groups.

Group 1392
(the a Group).
Strong.

Sa |

42

Kirchhoff.

532°38
5369
5373
540°6
5411
542°0
543°6
5446
547°0
547°9
549°6
5 51 ya
552°5
553°8
ee
5546

°
A neg-

strom.

(7075'8)

(7061°3)
(7059'9)
70479
(70456)
(7041-4)
7034-0
(70313)
70250
70216
7014-2
7009°0
7003-4
(6998:3)
6997°5
(6995-0)
6992°5
6987-2
6984°3
(6981:8)
(6980:1)
(6973-4)
6969°5
(6965-7)
6964°3
(6961'5)
6962°3
6959°7
6957°5
6954-7
6951-7
69493

6945'8
6941°7
6940°5

69286
6936-4

REPORT—1878.

CaraLocuE (continued).

Reduc- Inten-
ae Ge Frequency. end
cuum. width.
14133 | 0°39 | 14129 1b
16°2 ” 14158 2b
16°5 ” 141611 1b
18°36 | _,, 1418-47 | 3b
193 3 14189 2¢
20°2 44 1419:8 la
EOP css 1421-28 | 4b
22°2 5 14218 3d
23°49 | 55 142310 | 4¢
2418 | ,, 1423°79 | 2b
Das | 142529 | 3e
26°74. | 0°39 142635 | 3c
27°88 | ogo | 142748] 3c
28°9 = 1428°5 le
29°08 | ,, 142868 | 3b
29°6 = 1429-2 2b
go1° | ,, 1429770
gig 3 1430°79 ee
31°78 | 4, 143138 | la
32°3 5, 14319 2b
32°6 $ 14322 lb |
34°0 ss 1433°6 le
34°82 | ,, 143442 | ...
35°6 . 14352 1b
35°89 | ,, 1438549 | ...
36°5 i 14361 3b
36-31 | , | 148591 | :..
36°34 | ,, 1438644 | 2e
B7ise ||. (> 143690 |...
37°38 |, 143748 | 4c
EES || eae 143810} 2c
38°99 | ,, 1438°59 | 2c
ws “ae 2b
3972 | » | 143932] 3b
40°57 | 5 144017 ab
gos? | ,, | 1440-42 2b
4r2t i 144081 Bie
4167 |, 1441:27 | 2b

Origin, &e. Groups.

Winged ray.

Kirchhoff.

572°2
572°9
573°6
5744
5751
576°6
5781

579°6
5811
582°5
583°8
5850
5862
587°0
587°9
5890
5894
589°9
59°°3
59°°7
5911
591°5
591°9
592°3
592°7
ee:

595°0
5966
597°4
601'2
601°8
602°8
606'0

608°3

612°4
6134

°
Ang-

strom.

6932-1

(6930-0)
6927-9
(6926-0)
6922-4

6899-0
(6895-0)
6891-4
6888'3
68850
6882°6
68785
68762
(6875:0)
(6874-0)
(6873-0)
(6872:0)
6871-0
6869°9

68671
(6866:2)

(6861-8)

(6858:1)
68563

(6843'8)
(68418)

(6838°5)

6828-0
6819-0

(6806:3)

(6803'1)
6788°7

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS,

Reci-
procals.

1442°56
430
43°44
43°8
44°59
45°69
46°74

47°64
48°60
49°48
50°3

51°08
51°74
52°43
5294
53°80
54°29
54°5
54°8
ee
552
55°39
55°62

CaTaLoGuE (continued).

43

Reduc-
tion to
ya-
cuum,

040

Frequency.

1442:16
14426

1443°04
1443'4

144419
144529
144634

1447-24
1448-20
1449°08
14499
1450°68
145134
145203
145254
1453:40
1453'89
14541
1454-4
14546
1454'8
145499
145522
145582
14560

1456°9
14577
145811
14608
14612
1461°9

1464-15
1466.08

14683
1469°5

1472°63

Tnten-
sity
and

width. |

Origin, &e.

Groups.

3b
1b
3c |
1b |
24 |
2a

|
icicle

| Group 1450
(the B Group).
Very strong ;
| atmospheric.

|
|

| Group 1466,

Faint.

44, REPORT—1878.

CaTALOGuE (continued).

i. b Redue- Inten-
Kirchhoff. ba j eat 12 a8 Frequency. se Origin, &e. Groups.
cuum. width.
623°4 | (67719) | 1476-7 | oq | 14763 1b
6261 6763'5 78°52 | 5 147811} 1b
6314 |(6761°9)| 789 | » 14785 | 1b
ate 67612 afeheky Ith 147862 | ...
6384 | 6726°5 86°66 | ,, 1486:25 | 1b |Ca.
639°8 |(6721-:0)| 87°9 * 14875 1b
6410 671716] 88:72] ,, 1488°31 | 2b | Ca.

on 6713°8 8947 | » 1489:06 |...

645°3 |(6704'5)| t's ¥ 14911 Ib
6703:0 91°87 . 1491:46

, 67010 | 92°31 | 041 | 149190] ...
648°1 aoe ie ne oe 1b
654°3 | 6677°6 | 1497°54 | 0742 | 149712 | 2b
659°3 6663'1 | 1500°80 | ,, 1500°38 | 2a | Fe.

-- | 6659°9 ] ors2 | » | 15010] --- | / Taentification of Ang:
665°7 6643:1 05°32 ss 150490 | 2a strom’s ray with Kireh-
669'5 6633°3 07°54 |» 150712 | 2b hoff’s doubtful.
678°6 6604-1 14°21 = 1513°79 1b | Fe.
68174 6597°6 T5770) || 55 1515-28 | la |
6828 | 65933 | 1669] ,, 151627 | 1b

6831 | 65926 16°85 | 5, 151643 | 2a | Fe.
685°3 6585'9. 18°39 | 4, 151797 | Ib
6580°6 19°62 | ,, 1519°20

689°8 6574-0 2114 | 4, 152072 | 2b | Fe. |

690°9 =|: 6571-4 20-75) iss 152133 | la

6921 | 65679 | 22°56] ,, 152214 | 2a

693°4
to } eee eee see eee 1 |

694"1 .~ | 6562:10] 23°90] 5, 1523°48 oe C, H, Air.
to eos se eee eee |

6559°'79| 24°44] 5 152402 | ...
6558°42| 24°75 | 5 152433 | ...
6557°58| 24°95 |» 1524:53
6556719| 25:27 | ,, 152485
a! 6551°78| 2630] ,, 152588 | ...
6981 | 6550:07| 2670] ,, 1526:28 | 2a
7oo'o §=«| 6547-86] 27:22] ,, 152680 | 2a
7or'l 654540} 27°79 | 5, 1527°37 | 2b | Fe.
7021 6543:23| 28:29 | ,, 152787 Qa

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 45

CarALoevur (continued).

6 _ |Redue- Tnten-
Kirchhoff. hl ool age Frequency. a Origin, &c. Groups.
cuum. width.

702°6 6541-45 | 1528°71 | o-g2 1528:29 | 1b

aoe 653623] 29°93 5 1529°51 ae
795°5 | 653322] 30°64] ,, 1530-22 | 2a
705°9 6531-74! 30°98 | _,, 1530°56 | 2a
7°7°5 |(6526°6)| 322 | o42 | 15318 1b
708°6 =| 6523:14| 33°00 | 043 | 153257 | 2b
F10°5 6518°55|. 34°08 | ,, 1533°65 2e

ss GoN7-5O9)|) ga-3r |< ., 153388 |...
7114 | 6515°80| 34°73 | ,, 153430 | 3c
7iz0 «| 6514-17) 3511 |, 153468 | 2p
7132 |(6512:9)| 3574 s 1535:0 1b
7144 | 6511-64} 35:71 |_, 153528 | 1e

6501-79 | - 38:04 | ,, 153761

7178 _ | 6498-25] 3888] ,, | 1538-45|-2b | Ca. Group 1539.
ag } 6496°31| 3934} ,, | 153891] 2 |Ba, Barre.
719°6 Hors See fe $5c 3a

Re 6495:12| 39°62 | ,, 1539:19 |...

a 649418| 3984] ,, 1539-41 | ... | Fe.

ae 6493-00] 4or12 | _,, 153969 |...
720°1 6492-41} 40°26 | ,, 1539°83 | 2e |Ca.
7201 6490:07| 40°81 | _,, 1539°38 | 2b | Fe.

648868} 41°14] _,, 1540°71

723°7 | 6482-79) 42°55] ,, 154212 | 2c |Appearsto be the mean off
7242 6481:18} 42°93] ,, 154250 | 1b Eras

725°% 647901} 43:45] ,, 154302 | 1b | Air.
7267 | 647485| 4444 |_,, 1544:01] 3c
7278 6471°85| 4515] ,, 154472 | le
7280 =| (6471:3)| 4573 > 1544:9 2a
=ae 647075) 4542] ,, 154499 | ...
729° | 6468°78| 4589] ,, 154546 | 2b | Ca.

6467:14| 4628] ,, 154585
Pe 6463°74| 47°09 | ,, 154666 | ...
7317 646198) 47°51 - 1547-08 | 5b | Ca, Fe.

fe 645409] 4940] ,, 1548:97 |...

7369 | 6449-27) sos6 | ,, 155013 | 3b | Ca.
740°9 | 643835] 53:19 | ,, 1552°76 | 5b | Ca, Cd.
743°7 | 6431°73| 54:79] ,, 1554:36 | 2b

46 REPORT— 1878.

CATALOGUE (continued).

A |Reduc- Inten-
: Ang- Reci- tion to sit od
Kirchhoff. ne procals.| va- |Frequency. ath Origin, &e. Groups.

cuum, width.

7443 6480-12 | 1555718 | 0°43 1554-75 | 4b | Fe.

7481 | 642063] 57:48 | ,, 1557-05 | 4b | Fe. Group 1560.
7487 | 641917! 57°83! . | 1557-40 | 3b Strong.
750°1 641590} 5863) ,, 1558:20 | la

751'0 641410) 59706 | ,, 155863 | Ib

752°3 641062] 5991 | ,, 1559-48 | 4b | Fe.

7538 6407°38| 6070] , 1560°27 | 3b /|Sr, Fe.

7569 | 639928} 62°68) ,, | 1562:25| 5b |Fe.

7593 6392-87] 64:24 | 0°43 156381 | 3b | Fe.

7642 6379°99| 67:40 | 0744 | 156690 | la

637758| 6799 | » | 156755 | --- |
ae 636449} 7122] 4 1570-78 | ---
7718 | 6861-41} 7198 |, 157154 | la | Zn.
7734 6357°92| 71:84] ,, 157140 | 2b | Fe.
7748 | 635428) 73°74] 5, 157330 | 2b | Fe.
7738°3 6346°34| 75-71 | ;, 157527 | 1b | Ru,Ir.
779°5 | 634340} 7644] 5, 157600 | 1b | |
r8xig) Gass 20 77273 | is, 1577-29 | 3b
7831 | 63386:16| 7824] ,, 1577:30 | 4b | Fe.
7838 | 6334:54| 7865] ,, 1578:21 | 3b |Fe.
786°8 |(6827:0)| 8o°5 ” 1580:1 la
7889 | 6321-81) 81°83] ,, 1581:39 | 3b | Fe.
791°C 631841] 82°68 | ,, 1582°24 | 1d |Fe.
7914 6317:17 82°99 | ,, 1582.55 3b

7929 | 631418] 83°74] ,, 1583:30 | 2d |Fe.
794°5 6309:78} 84°84] ,, 158440 | 1d

7981 6301:88| 86383] ,, 1586: 3a
7985 | 6301:03| 87:04 | ,, 158660 | 4a | Fe.
7998 | 629874] 87-62 | ,, 1587-18 | 2b | Fe.
8003 | 6296-95| 88-07 | _,, 1587°63 | 2b |
801°5 25¢ Ss 3; set la
Sora, | 6294:27| 8878! ,, 158834 | la
802°7 6291°78| 8938 | ,, 1588-94 | lb
803°5 | 629031] 8975] ,, 1589731 | 2a

... | 628669| go66| ,, | 1590-22] ...
805°8 284:99| grog | ,, 1590°65 | lb
807°4 6281°81| 91°89] ,, 159145 | 2b Group 1592.

8082 | 6279°79| 9241 | ,, 1591:97 | 2e Strong.

—— a nEEaeEanD

Ang-
strom.

6278°47
6277-09
6276°32
6270:16
6269°35
626431
6262°68
6260°37
6257-84
6255°51
6253'40
6251-76

6246°55
6245°62
6243-49
6242-60
6240°51
6239-42
6237:55
6237-09
6236°33

6231-72
6229-91
622835
6225-62
9222'57
6221-10
6218-46
6215-67
6214-30
6212-55
6199°85
6190-71
(6188:3)
6187-26
6179-46

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CaTALOGUE (continued).

Reduc- Inten-

Reci- jtion to sity

procals.| ya- [Frequency.) ong
cuum. width.

1592°74 | 0°44 | 159230] le

93°09 ” 1592°65 3b | Au.

93°29 | » 1592°85 | 2d

94°86 | ,, 159442 | la |

95°06 | 5, 159462 | 2a

96°34. | » 1595:90 | 4b | Fe.

96°76 | ,, 1596:32 | ... |

97°35 | 9 159691 | 2b | Ti.

98'00 | ,, 159756 | 3c

98°59 | 5 159815 | 4b | Fe.

99°13 | 1 159869 | 4b | Fe.
159955 | 95 159911 | 4b | Fe.
1600°88 | ,, 1600-44 | 1a Fe.

orrz | 0°44 | 160068} 4b | Fe.

0167 | o'45 | 160122 | 1a |\

orgo| ,, | 160145 | ... ||

02°43 |» 1601:98 |...

02°71 | 5, 160226 | .. |b

OseTO™ |e, 1602°74

03°31 | 5, 1602°86 f

o351| ,, | 160306 | 2a |)

04°69 | ,; 160424 | 3b | Fe.

SPR Hs 1604:71 | 4c | Fe.

05°56 | ,, 160511 | 1b

06°26 aa 1605:81

07°05 | 5, 1606:60

07°43 | os 160698 | ...

ofr |, 160766 | 2b | Ti.

08°83 | _,, 160838 | 1b

O99 | 5s 160874 | 2b | Ti.

09°64. ” 160919 2b | Fe.

12°94 ” 1612°49 2b | Fe.

15°32 | 1 1614:87 | 3c | Fe.

159 | 1615°4 la

1622 | , | 161577 | la

18°26 | ,, 161781 | 2a | Fe.

Origin, &e.

Two other rays of Kirch-
hoff’s lie within this
space, viz. 8264 (2a),
and 827°6 (1a).

Group 1604.

47

Groups.

Group 1597.

Strong.

Strong.

48

REPORT—1878.

CataLoGuE (continued).

°
Kirchhoff. Ang-

strom.
$56°8 | 617595
85775 | 617451
858-3 | 6172-49
859°7 6169-59
8602 | 6168-48
8616 | 6165°62
8622 |(6165'0)
8632 | 6163:95
863°9 =| 6162°69
8644 | 6161-40
6160-23
8662 | 6156-90
8671 | (6155'3)
8676 | 6154-41
6153°89
6153-33
8692 | 6150:68
870°9 6148-28
871°4 | 6146-76
872°5 6144:09
$74°0 | (6141-4)
874°3 6140°81
ies 6136°32
8765 | 6136-82
877°0 6135°82
879°8 | 6130-59
880'9 6128-61
881°6 | 6127-00
88276 | 6125-29
883:2 | 6123-92
884°9 | 6121:34
ah 6118°93
88777 | 6115°51
8902 | 6110-11
891°7 6107°36
6104°58

Reci-
procals.

1619°19
19°56
20°09
20°85
21°14
21°90
22°1
22°34
22°67

23°01
23°32
24°19
24°6

24°85

Reduc-
tion to
va-
cuum,

0°45

Frequency.

1618-74
1619:11
1619°64

1621-45
1621-6

1621'89
1622:22
1622°56
1622°87

1623°74

16241

1624:40
1624:54
162469
1625'39
1626°02

1626°37
162713
16278

1628-00
1629:19
1629°06
1629°32
1630°71
163124
1631°67
1632:18
1632-49
1633:18
1633°82
163474
1636:17
1636°91
1637-65

Inten-
sity
and

width.

Origin, &c.

Ni.

Ca.
Na.

doubtful.
Na.

Fe.

Ba.

Fe.

Ca, Co.

Identification of Angstrom’s
ray with Kirchhoff’s

Groups.

Group 1621.
Strong.

Group 1628.
Strong.

°
Kirchho | “8

894°9
896'1
896-7
898-9
899°1
"goo'2
gor:
go1'6
9024
9031
-903°6
— 904'6
» go6'r

gi2"I

9163

923°0

929°5
931°3
932°5
933°3
935°
936°7
9374
940°
940°4
943°4
94.6°6
947°°
949°4
949°8
951°7
952°9
954°3

strom.

6101-92
6099-08
609766
6095:20
6094-02
6092-42
609059
6088-42
6086-69
(6085:1)
6083-27
6082-10
(6080-4)
6077-80
607587
6064-70
6055-29
6053-28
6041-37

6026-14
| 6023-16
6020-91
6019:33
6015'81
6012°68
6011-42
6007-65
(6007-2)
6002-25
5997-08
5996-44
(59956)
5990-20
5939-89
5988-10
5986-35
5984-35

,

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 49

CaTALoGuE (continued).

Reci-
procals.

1638°83
39°59
39°97
40°63
40°95
41°38
41°38
42°46
42°93
434
43°85
44°17
44°6
45°33
45°85
48°89
51°45
52°00

S525

59°44
60°26
60°88
61°31
62°29
63°15
63°50
64°54
64°7

66°04.
67°48
67°66
67°9

69°39
69°48
69°98
79°47
71°02

Reduc-
tion Lo
va-
cuum,

0°46

Inten-
sity
Frequency.) and
width.
163837 | 2e
163913 | la
163951 lb
164017 la
1640°49 la
1640'92 la
1641:42 fac
164200 | la
164247 | la
1642°9 la
1643:39 | la
1643°71 | la
16441 la
164487 | 2c
1645:39 a
1648:43 | 3b
1650:99 2b
1651:54 | ...
165479 | 2b
1658-98 | 2b
1659°80 | +b
166042 | +b
1660'85 | 4¢
1661-83 | +>
166269 | 4b
1663-04 1b
1664.08 | 3b
16642 | 3b
166558 | 3b
166702 | 3b
1667-20 | la
1667-4 1b
1668:93 | 1b
1669-02 Wes
1669°52 | 1e
167001 | 3b
167056 | 3b

Origin, &e. Groups.

Ca, Li.

Identification on Kirch-
hoff’s map doubtful.
Ti.
| Identification on Kirch-
j hoff’s map doubtful.

Ti.

Fe.

Fe, Ti.

Fe. Group 1666.

Fe. Strong.

Fe.

fe}
Kirchhoff. ee, :

9548 | 5983-01
see 5977-27
958°38 | 597623
959°6 597479
961°9 5970°44
= 5969-22
963°7 5967°35
96474 | (5965:9)
5963°52

ee 5961-67
968°7 5957°22
969'0 =| (5956-2)
969°6 5955°63
970°5 5953-90
9715 5951-96
972'1 5950-41
97371 5948-44
973'5 5947-62
974°3 5945-97
975°0 5944-98
“dt 5943°62
9768 5941-71
97774 | (5940°9)
977°7 5940-43
97971 5937-44
593505

iis 5934-03
982°0 5931-76
98273 593118
983°0 5929°46
984°5 5927°37
986°3 5924-02
986-7 5922:99
9874. | 5921-69
xe 5920°87
988'9 5919-09
98972 | (5918-4)

REPORT—1878.

CaraLoguxE (continued).

Reci-

procals.

1671°40
73°00
73°39
73°79

74°92
75°26
75°79
76°2

76°86
77°38
78°63
78°9

79°08
19°57
80°12
80°56
Sr11
81°35
81°81
82°09
82°48
33°02
83°2

83°38
84°23
84°91
85°20
85°84
86:00
86°49
87°09
88°04
88°34
88-71
88°94
89°45
89°6

Groups.

|Redue- Inten-
Pee Frequency. a Origin, &e.
cuum. width.
046 | 167094 | 3b | Fe.
O'">47 1672°53 “Be ele
9 1672°83 | 3b | Fe.
9 1673-23 | 3b | Fe.
49 167445 | la
” 1674-79 | ...
9 167532 | le
9 16757 le
” 1676°39
” 167691 | ...
3 167816 | 2a
” 16784 2a
” 167861 | 3a
» 167910 | 1b
» 1679°65 | 2e |Ti.
9 168009 | 1b
» 168064 | 38a
5 168088 | 3a | Fe.
» 168134 | 2a
» 168162 | 2a
x. 1682°01 | ...
- 1682°55 | 3a
” 1682°7 Qa
» 168291 | 2a
i 1683:'76 | 1b Two other rays of
if 1684-44 | Kirchhoff s lie in
this interval, viz.
” 168473 | ... |Fe. | 80:8 (la) and
4 1685°37 | la ) 981-2 (3b).
” 168553 | 2a
” 168602 | 3c | Fe.
» | 168662) Be | Nctre map doubt
”? 3 a
09 1687°87 | 2c
9 168824 | 1b
» 1688-47 |...
” 168898 | 2a
” 1689:1 2a

| Kirchhoff.
| 989°6
| g9g90°8
9912
991-9
9924.
= 993°9
| 994°3
99570
9972
9981
998-9
999°2
1000°0

Soa

| 1000"4

_ 100174

at
\J
ee

~ 1002°8

ee ed

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS,

CATALOGUE (continued).

p Reduc- Inten-
Ang- Reci- | tion to sity
strém. | procals.| va- |Freduemey-| and
cuum. width.
5917°51 | 1689°90 | o47 | 168943 | 2a
591460} 90°73 | _,, 1690°26 | 2a
(5914-1) |} — go-g ” 1690°4 la
591330] gt10 | ,, 1690°63 | 3b
5912:09| 91-45] ,, 1690°98 | la
5909-72] 9213] ,, 169166 | 1b
5908:13| 92-53 | _,, 169211} 1b
5907:25| 92°84 | ,, 1692°37 | la
590456) 93°61] ,, 169314 | 2b
5902°77| 94:12] ,, 169365 | la
590144} 94°50 | ,, 1694:03 | la
5900°52| 94°76] ,, 169429 | la
589910} 9517] ,, 169470 | la
5898°09| 9546] ,, 169499 | la
5897-40) 95°66] ,, 1695:19| ...
5897-08] 95°75 | . 1695:28 | la
589553} 96:20] ,, 1695°73
5895713} 96°31 | _,, 1695:84 | 6b
5895°04| 96°34 | _,, 169587
5892:50| 97°07] 5 1696°60 | ...
589210} 97°19 | ,, 169672 | 2b
S891:56) 97°34. 1. 4 1696:87
589078} 97°57] 5 1697:10 |...
5889°12| 98:05 | _,, 169758 | 6b
5886°69| 98:75 | _,, 1698°28
5885:29} 9915] ,, 169868 | ...
588319] 99°77] 4, 1699:30 | 3a
5882°71] 1699°90 | _,, 1699-43
5880-22] 1700°62 | ,, 1700:15
5879°15} 00°93] ,, 1700°46 |...
5865-47] 04°89 | _,, 170442 | la
5863'34| 05:51 | 0-47 | 1705-04
5861-56] 06:03 | 048 | 170555] 3a
585868} 06°87] ,, 1706°39 | 2a
585660} 07°47 | ,, 1706:99 | 3c
5855°38| 07°83] ,, 1707°35

————_

Fe,

Ni.

Origin, &e.

D,, Na.

Fe.

Group 1697
(theD Group).

Group 1706,

Strong.

Groups.

Group 1719,
Faint.

Group 1722, |

‘aint,

Group 1725,
Faint.

52 REPORT—1878.
CaTALOGuE (continued),
4 Reduc- Inten-

Kirchhoff. ee ote ge ae Frequency. ae Origin, &e.
ar) see cuum.| width. pa ees
= 5854-53 | 1708°08 | 0°48 1707-60 Pet

1031°8 5852°84| 08:57 | ,, 1708:09 | 2a | Ba. 5
1032°8 585148) 08:97 | ,, 170849 | la Aap
035°. | 5847°50/ 1013 | ,, | 170965) 1 | { Tpmetication on iGeb-
5846-41 10°45 “A 1709-97
5832°63| 14°49 | ,, 171401
5821°85 17°67 ae 1717-19
1058°0 581566} 19°49] ,, 171901 | 2b |Fe.
pf 5813-28] 20:20] ,, 1719°72
106370 | 580848} 21°62] ,, 1721:14 | 2b |Fe.
5807°30| 21°97 | ,, 1721°49 arc
1065'0 =| 5805°96| 22°37] ,, 172189 | 2b
1066°0 5804:57| 22°78 | ,, 172230 | la
1067'0 =| 580364] 23:06] ,, 1722°58 | 2b | Fe.
1070°5 =| 5797:39| 24:91 | ,, 172443 | 2b | Fe.
.. | 579652| 2517| , | 172469] ...
107375 | S79S:17| 26:17 | ,, 172569 | la
1074'2 | 579240) 26-40] ,, 172592 | la
107575 | 5790°30) 27°03] ,, 1726°55 | 3a | Fe.
oe aie Ten Identification of Ang-
1077°5 | 5787-07| 27°99 | » 1727°51 | la strém’s ray with Kirch-
hoff’s doubtful.
to | 5784:79| 28:67 | ,, 1728:19 |} 1
1079°7
1080°3 |(5783°7) | 290 is 1728°5 la
1080'9 5782-80} 2927] ,, 172879 | la
1081°8 5781:39| 29°69 | ,, 1729:21 | 2b |Cu.
108370 BW994) Boxe ||) 5, 1729°64 | 2a | Ba.
| 5777-60] 30°82 1 4 | 173034 | -
1087°5 | 577421) 31°84 | , 173136 | 2a | Fe.
1089'6 5771338 32770 | ,, 1732:22 | 2a
10961 | 576204! 35°50] ,, 173502 | 3c | Fe.
10968 | (57613) | 35°7 0 1735-2 la
1097°8 | 5760:30) 36:02] ,, 173554 | la
110074. | 5756-20} 37°26 | ,, 173678 | 1a
1102'1 5753°66| 38°02] ,, 173754 | 3b | Fe.
T1029 5752°27| 3844] 4 173796 | 3a

Group 1729,

Faint.

ae 1737.

aint.

Kirchhoff.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CarAaLOGvuE (continued).

53

5662°95

a Reduc-
Ang- Reci- | tion to
strom. | procals.| va- |Freauency.
cuum.
5752:09 | 1738-50 | 048 | 1738-02
(57519) | 38°6 + 17381
5746°88| 40°07 | 048 | 1739-59
574102} 41°85 | 049 | 174136
573064) gsr | ,, 174452
572590| 4645] ,, 174596
5716-98] 4917] 1748°68
5716:26| 49°39 | 5, 1748:90
571409 50°06 ry) 174957
571343| 50:26] ,, 1749°77
571094] sro2 | ,, 175053
5710:05| 51°30 | ,, 1750°81
5708°45| 51°79] ,, 175130
5707-28! «5215 | ,, 1751°66
570614) 52°50] ,, 1752:01
570516) 52°80] ,, 1752°31
5708°59| 53°28 | ,, 1752:79
570272) 53°55 | 5 175306
570054| s422] ,, 175373
5697°38| 55719 | _,, 1754-70
569560} 5574] ,, 1755:25
569411! 56:20] ,, 175571
569291] 56-57 | _,, 175608
569074} 57°24 | 5, 1756°75
5689-48] 57°63 | ,, 175714
5687°34| 58:29 | ,, 1757:80
5685°68} 58-80 | ,, 1758°31
5683°61| 59°44 | ,, 1758'95
5681°52| 60°09 | _,, 1759-60
5678:08| 61:16 | ,, 1760°67
6674:58| 62:24 | ,, 1761:75
(5668°6) | 6471 - 1763°6
(5667°9) | 643 5 1763'8
5666-17 | 64°86 | ,, 176437
5664'67 ” 1764'84

176537

Inten-
sity
and

width.

2b
2b
2c

la
Qa

2a

2b
2b

8c
3¢
4d
2c
2b
3b

2a
la
la

la
la

Fe.

Origin, &e.

Groups.

Group 1752.
Faint.

Group 1758.
Strong.

Group 1767.

Strong.

54

REPORT—1878.

CaraLoGuE (continued).

a _ |Redue- Inten-
Kirchhoff. aed Mais sage) Frequency. na Origin, &c. Groups.
cuum. width. |
1170°6 | 5661-65| 1766-27 | 049 | 176578 | 2c | Fe, Ti. /
5659°77| 66°36 | ,, 176637 |. |
1174°2 | 5657-°70| 67°50 |_,, 1767-01 | 5d | Fe.
1175°0 | 5656:85| 67°77 | ,, 1767:28 | 2a |
11766 | 565456| 6848| ,, | 176799| 3c Fe.
11770 |(56540)| 687 | ,, 17682 | 2a
11773 | 5653°50| 68-82 | _,, 1768:33 | la |
11776 |(5653:1)| 68-9 2 17684 la
1178°6 5651°74| 69°37] ,, 1768°88 | la |
11790 =| (5651-2) | 69°55 es 1769:0 la
11794 |(5650°7)| 69°77 | ,, 17692 | la
11798 |(56500)| 699 | , | 17694 | 1a
wm80'2 «| 5648-11) oso] ,, 177001 | la | |
11834 | 5644°73| 71°56 | _,, 1771-07 | 2a |
1184°8 6643:19| 72°05 | ,, 177156 | 3a | Ti.
1186°8 |(5640°7) | _72°8 # 17723 2a | |
1187°1 | 5640°35| 72°94 | _,, 1772:45 | 2a | Fe.
1189°3 | 5637°36] 73388 | _,, 1773°39 | 3b | Fe. Group 1774.
r1g0°1 | 5636:39| 74:18 | ,, | 177369| 2b | Faint.
563467] 74731 5 177424)... |
1193°I 5632°79| 75°32 | 0-49 177483 | 3a | Fe.
1199°6 | 5624°50| 77°93 | 050 | 177743 | 2d “Group 1779.
12006 | 5623-36| 7830] ,, 177730 | -4b | Fe. Strong. —
1z01'0 =| (5622°8) 73°5 ; 1778:°0 Qa
7203°5 |(5621:1)| 790 | ,, 17785 | 2c |
5619-41] 79°55 | 5, 177905 |...
1204'2 | 561863} 79:79 | 5; 1779:29 | 2c
1204°9 5617:95| 80°01 | ,, 1779751 | 2d
12061 561622) 80°56] ,, -.| 178006} le
1207°3 5614-65] 8105 | ,, 178055 | 5g | Fe.
1217°8 5601'84| 85713 | ,, 1784:63 | 5d | Fe, Ca Group 1787
12192 | 5600°35| 85-60 | _,, 178510 | 3c |Ca. ae 5). veal
1220°1 5599:06| 8601 | ,, 178551 | 2c strong.
12216 =| 5597:31| 86°57 | ,, 1786:07 | 5d |Ca, Fe
1224°7 559356) 87°77 | » 1787-27 | 5d |Ca.
1225°3 | 5592°76| 88-03] ,, 1787°53 | 1b

. ow

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS, 5d
CATALOGUE (continued).
- __ |Redue- Inten-
a sein eet Frequency. a Origin, tre. Gecupe:
cuum. width. |° |
la |
aaa aed Pre la

5591-32 | 1788-49 | o50 | 1787-99 | 2d | Fe.

5589°17 89°17 ss 1788:67 | 2d | Ca.

5587'76| 89°63] ,, 1789:13 | 4c |Ca.

5586°79| 89794 | , 1789°44 | 2c

5585°69} go'29 | _ ,, 1789:79 | 5d | Fe.

5583-96 9084 | . | 179034| 2b |Fe.

5580°94| 91°81 | ,, 179131 3d | Ca. Group 1795.
557769} 92°86] ., 179236 | 2c | Fe. Strong.
557504] 93°71 | 55 1793:21 4a | Fe.

5571-82) 94°75 | », 1794:25 | 6c | Fe.

556864] 95°77 | 5 179527 | 4d | Fe.

5566°50| 9646] ,, 1795:96 | 3b

556478 | 97°02 | ,, 179652 | 3d | Fe.

5562°88| 97°63 os 179713 3c

556192) 97°94 | »» 1797-44 | 2b

5559°40| 9876! ,, | 4798-26 | 2b

5557°22| 179946 | ,. 1798-96 | 2b

555404 | 1800°49 | ,, 1799:99 | 38e

5552°79| oo-g0] ,, 1800-40 | 2b
(5546:2) | 0370 x 1802°5 la

5545°59| 03°23 ar 1802°73 | 2a | Fe.

554283] 0413 | ,, 180363 | 3a

554210} 0437] ., 1803°87 | 3a | Fe.
(5537°1) | 06"0 of 18055 la

5536'48| 0620] ,, 1805°70 | la

553421) oc6'94 | ,, 1806-44 | 3b | Ba.
(55336) | 0771 i 1806°6 3a |Sr,

5581-77] 077741 5, 1807:24 | 2a | Fe.
(55812)} 079 | » | 18074 | 1a

5529°64| 08-44 | ,, 1807°94

552754] og12]| ,, 180862 | 6d | Mg. Group 1809.
5526-05| og6x | ,, 180911 | 3c | Fe. ant.
5524 81 Io‘02 | _,, 1809°52| 2c

B23 17) > TORS es 1810-04 |...

552164] 3106] ,, 181055 | 2c

56

Kirchhor,| 428-

1287°5
1289°7

1291'9
1293'8
es
1295°6
1296°3
LES)
1298'9
a2 O07.

1302'0
1303'5
1306°7

1315'0
1315'7
1319'0
1320°6
1321°1
03233
1324'0
1324°8

1325°3
1327°7
1328°7
13304
13333
13340
1336°3
13370
13378
13385

strom.

5519°64
5515°78

5513°49

5511-95
5511-65
(55103)
5509°43
5507-69
5505-99
5505°29
5502/90
5501-99
5500°65
5496-74
5493°62
5492°63

5489-05

5486-94
(5486-2)
548251
5480-29
(5479°7)
5ATT-54
(5476°8)
5476-04

(5475°6)
547343
5472°40
546988

(5466'6)
54G5°75
5463'33
5462-44

(5461°5)
(5460°7)

Reci-
procals.

1811'71
12°98

13°73
14°24
14°34
14°8

15°07
15°64
16°20
16°43
17°22
17°52
17°97
19°26
20°29

20°62

21°81
22°51
22'8
23°98
24°72
24°9
25°64
25°9
26°14
26°3
27°01
27°35
28°19
293
29°57
30°39
30°68
310

313

REPORT—1878.

CaTaLOGvE (continued).

Reduc- Inten-
tion to sity
ae Frequency. and
cuum. width.
0°50 1811-20 Le
” 181247 | 2c
” 1813:22 | 3c
99 1813:73 | 38c¢
” 181383 | 3c
Fh 18143 la
” 1814:56 | 2e
” 181513 | la
” 181569 | 5e
9 1815:92 | 2e¢
” 1816:71
” 181701 | 2¢
” 1817-46 | 5e
5 1818:75 | 5e
” 1819°78
9 1820°11
» | 1821:30
” 1822:00 4c
» 18223 2b
os0 | 1823-47 | 3
O'51 1824°21 | 4c
” 1824°4 3b
” 182513 | 2b
9 18254 | 2b
” 182563 | 4d
» | 18258 | 24
” 182650 | 4b
” 182684 | 2b
” 182768 | 3b
” 1828°8 la
” 182906 | 4b
” 182988 | 1b
» 183017 | 4d
” 1830°5 Ib
” 1830°8 lb

Origin,. &e. Groups.

Ba.

Ti. Group 1817.

: Faint.
ye

Fe, Ti. Group 1824.

aint.

Fo.

Fe.

“Ts

; OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 57
v .
: CATALOGUE (continued).
I fan Reduce- Inten-
o - Reci- |tiont it yi
‘Kirchhoff. sony proce a ? Frequency. ae Origin, &c. Groups.
cuum, width.
1343°5 | 5454°84) 1833-23 | o51 | 183272] 6e | Fe. | Between these rays
13511 | 5446-07 3619| ,, | 183568| 5d /Fe,TiJ *2ty fT. | Gi agso,
13527 | 54°38) 36-76 | ., | 188625] 5b | Fe. Binonge
13565 «=| (54403) | 38-1 » 18376 la |
§1360°9 | 5435°58) 39°73 | » 1839-22 | la
313616 =| 543499} 39°93 |_,, 1839:42 | la |
: Weare | 649317) 4o'55 | ,, 1840-04 | 5b | Fe.
: These positions are on the |
| 1364°3 543189] 40°98 | _,, 184047) la assumption that what
F ; : : Angstrém measured was |
1364-7 (54315) | gid ” 1840°6 peak it dhe’ Teas refrangible of
E the two rays, |
1367°0 5428°96| 41°97 a 184146 6d | Fe, Ti.
§1371'4 «=| (54248) | 434 . 1842°9 1b | Ba. |
1313721 |(5424-2)| 43°6 » 1843°1 lb

1372°6 5423°70| 43°76] ,, 1843:25 | 5b |Fe.
| Identification of A ng-
1374°8 5420:26| 44°93 |_,, 184442 | le strom’s ray with Kirch-
13774 541806} 45°68 | ov52 1845716 | la | Ti.

1379'°0 | 541622} 4631 | _,, 184579 | la Group 1850.
1380'5 | 541463) 4635! , | 194633| 4c | Fe. Strong.
5413-54 47°22 ” 1846-70
Me 5412-57 | 47°55 | ,, 1847-03 |...
13847 | 541015] 48-38 | ,, 184786 4c | Fe.
43857 | 540912) 4873 ., | ‘1g4g-21| 5b | Cr. Identification with |
13863 | 540873] 48°86 | _,, 1848:34 2b | Ti. | Kirchhoff’s very
13874 | 540667! 49°57| ,, | 184905! 2b Soma |
13893 | 540495/ 5016! , | 1949641 6c |Fe. |
1390°9 5403-28] 50°73] ,, 1850-21 | 5d | Fe, Ti.
7394°2 5399-71) sr-95 | ,, 185143 | 4¢ | Fe.
1395°3 5398°40| 52:40] ,, 1851°88 | le
M3964 | 5397-35| 52-76 |, 1852-24 | 2e
13975 | 5396-19| 53:16 | _,, 185264 | 5c | Fe, Ti.
14002, | 5393°63|} 54°04 | _,, 185352 | 3b, |
H4or6 | 539238) s4'a7| ., | 1953:05| 4c | Fe.
me 5391°38; 54°81] ,, 1854:29| ... |:
1031 | 539073} 55°04 | _,, 185452 | 3c |
1404"1 5889°60|} 55:42 | ,, 1854:90 | 1b | Fe.

58 REPORT—1878. .

CaTALOGuE (continued).

m __ |{Redue- Inten-
rintos.| ng: | Bai, /898'°lpseguamer| S35 | Ovi tn
cuum. width.
1405°2 | 538863) 1855°76 | 0°52 185524 | 3b
rq10'5 | 5882-47) 57°88 | 1857:36 | 4c |Fe.
14125 | 538034) 5862] ,, 185810 | 2b | Ti.
14140 | 53878°76] 5916 | 5, 1858°64 | 2b | Fe.
1415°8 5876°70| 59°88 | ,, 1859°36 | 2b
14194 "| 5372°71| 6126] 5, 1860°74 | 2b Group 1863
1421'5 | 587065| 6197) 4 | 186145 | Ge |Fe. Strong.
1423'0 5869:15| 62°49] ,, 1861:97 | 5b | Fe.
1423°5 |(53686) | 62°7 + 1862:2 2b | Co.
14254 | 5386665| 63°36] 5, 1862°84 | 5b | Fe.
1427°5 | 5386453) 6410] 5, 186358 | 3b’
14282 | 586411) 64:24 | , | 186372 | 5b | Fe.
14301 5386204] 64°96 | ,, 186444 | 5b | Fe.
14312 5360°86| 65°37 | 5, 1864°85 | 1b
14389 | 5352°57| 6826 | ,, 1867°74 | 4c |Co, Fe. Group 187:
14422 | 5351:36| 68°68| ,, | 186816] 1b |Co. Birongy
14431 | 5348°75| 69°59 |» 1869:07 | 2b | Fe, Ca.
1443°5 |(5848-4)| 69'7 | 5, 18692 | 2b |Ca.
1444°4 5347-51] 7o:03 | ;, 186951 | 4b
1445'7 5845°58| 70°70 | ,, 187019 | 4c
ot 5845:12| 70°86] ,, 1870°35 |...
1443°7 | 5842'75| 71°69 |, 187118 | 2a |Co.
14494 | 5842-21] 7188) ,, 1871:37 | la |Co.
1450°8 53840°38| 72°53 | » 187201 | 5c | Fe.
14518 | 5339°35| 72°89 | 1872°37 | 5b | Fe.
1453°7 | 5388775) 73°45 |» 187293 | la
14547 | 5338707] 73°69] ,, 187317 | 3b | Ti.
5a 5336'03| 74°05 | ,, 187353 | ... | Ti
14566 | 533396] 74°78 |», 1874:26 | la
14586 | 583215) 75°42 | 4 187490 | 3c |Fe.
5330°68| 75°93 | 5 1875-41
1461°5 5329°21| 7645] ,, 187593 | 2c
1461'2 |(5328°5)| 76°7 5 1876°2 2¢ Strong.
14628 |) sso7-42| 7708] » | 187656 {oe \me
1464.3 550 oes Pe aco la
14653 ye ARs eo fe la

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 59

CATALOGUE (continued).

——

? Reduc- | Inten-
| Kirchhoff. Ang: a. eerste Frequency. a
cuum. | width.
1466°8 5323°50 | 1878-46 | 0°52 1877:94 | 5c | Fe.
1468°8 582144} 79:19 | ,, 187867 | 2b
1469°6 | 532063! 79:48 | o52 | 187896 | 1b
14739 | 531607! 81-09 | 0°53 1880°56 | 5b | Fe.
14753 531454] 81°63 | ,, 188110 | la
14768 | 5313-15} 8212! ,, 188159 la
| 14775 |(5812'4)| 824 | ,, 18819 | la
cat 5307°87| 83:99 | ,, 188346 | ...
1483°0 | 530661] 8444] ,, 188391 | 4b | Fe.
580512! 8497 | ,, | 1884-44 |
530301] 85:72 | ,, 1885719 |
1487'7. | 5301°61| 86:22 | ,, 188569 | 5b | Fe.
14892 53800710] 86:76] ,, 1886238 2¢
14899 | (5299-7) 86'9 a 18864 | la
14912 =| (5298-0) | 87°5 7 18870 le
hae 5297°63| 8764. | _,, 188711 | 3c
14924 | 5296-70} 8797| ,, | 188744. 4b
14931 | 5296-21/ 8814] ,, 188761 | 4b
1494°5 | (5294'S) 88°6 i .18881 | la
14959 | 929271) 8939] ,, 1888°86 | la
1497°3 5291-82} 89:71 | ,, 1889:18 | la | Cu.
15013 | 5287°75/ o116 | ,, 1890°63 | 2b | Fe,
133 5286°37| 9166 | ,, 189113 |...
1504°8 |(5284°3)|} 924 i 18919 la
15053 |(5283°8)| 92°6 e 18921 la
15057 |(5283'4)| 927 | ,, 18922 | 2a
1506°3 528278 | 92°94 | ,, 1892-41 | 5c | Fe.
1508°6 5281-06) 93°56 | _,, 1893-03 | 5b | Fe.
b 15103 | 5279'73| gq:04 | ,, 189351 | 2c | Co.
1515°5 | 527518} 95°67 |, 1895714 4d
-1516'5 527441! 95°95 | ,, 1895-42 | 4c
stg | 527266] 9658) ,, | 189605 4d | Fe,
3522°7| «| 5269°59| 97°68 | _,, 189715 6c | E,, Fe,
1523°7 | 5268°67| 98-01 |_,, 189748 6c |B, Fe.
15250 | 526730} 9847| ,, | 4997-94 1b | Co.
15277 | 5265°94| 99°00 | _,, 189847 5e | Fe, Co.

wh a eeSSsSssSsSSSSSSSSSsSsSSSSsssSSSSSSSSSSSSsSsS

Origin, &e. Groups.

Group 1887.
Faint.

Group 1893.
Strong.

Group 1898
(the E Group).
Very strong.

Ca.

a

60

Kirchhoff.

1$28°7
1530°2
15312

153255

1533°1

1541°4

(

1541°9
1543°7
1545'5
1547°2
1547°7

1551°0
1551°6
1555°6
15573
15610

1564'2
1566's
1567°5
1569°6
1573°5
1575°4
157772
15776

(

15794 )
1580°1 J
1588°3
158971
| 1590°7
15923

1598°9

1601"4
1601°7
1604°4
1606°4

————

°
Ang-

strom.

5264-68
5263°51
5262-60
5261-11
5259-78
(5254°6)
5254-21
5252:60
5251-15

524643

5242°86

524167
5239:16
5236-44
5234-52
5283°72
5282:24
5220-14
5227-63
5226'38

(5226-0)

5224°42

5217-28

5216-64
5215°64
521450
5209-59
5207°78

(52076)
520537
5203°88

Reci-
procals.

1899°45
1899°87
1900°20

00°74
O22

031

REPORT—1878.

CaTALoGuE (continued).

Reduc-
tion to
va-
cuum.

0°53

03°23
03°82
04°34
04°33
Ose 7.

06°06

07°36
07°79
08°70
09°69
10°39
10°69
11°23
12°36
12°91
13°37
13°5

14°09

16°71
16°94
17°31

Inten-
Frequency. we Origin, &e.
width.
1898:92 | 5c | Ca.
1899°34 | 4c | Ca.
189967 | 4c | Fe. )
4b | Ca.
a { 4b | Ca.
1900°69
1902°6 lg
1902°70 | 3b | Fe, Mn.
1903:29 | 2a | Fe.
190381 | 2a | Fe.
1904:30 | 3a | Fe.
1904°73 | 2a
2a
li { 2a | Fe.
1906°82 | 2a | Fe.
1907-25 | 3a | Fe.
190816 | la | Fe.
190915; la
1909:85 | 2b | Co.
1910715 | 2b | Mn.
191069 | 5c | Fe.
1911:'82 | 5a | Fe.
1912°37 | 1b |
1912°83 | 5c | Fe.
19130 | 3c .
2a
sh { Qa | Ti.
916-17 | 1g | Cu.
1916-40 | 3b | Fe.
1916-77 | 3b | Fe.
191719 3b | Fe.
1919:00 | 2b | Ti.
1919°66 | 6b | Cr, Fe.
1919°8 3d
192055 | 5b | Cr.
192110 | 5b | Cr, Fe.

Groups.

Group 1904.

Faint.

Group 1912.
Strong.

Group 1921
(the Chro-
mium Group).
Strong.

Kirchhoff.

1609°2
16113

1613°9
1615°6
| 1616°6
1617°4
161872

1618°9

1621°5

1622°3

1623°4
1627°2
1628°2
1631°5
1633°5
1634°1
1634°7
1638-7

(
(

1642°1
1643°0
1647°3
16484
1648°8
1649°2
1650°3
1653°7
1654°0

(
(

Ang- Reci-
strom. | procals.
5201-69 | 1922°45
5199°89| 23°12
519808} 23°79
519719} 24°12
519533] 24°81
5194-24} 25°21
5191-80} 2611
5190°68| 26°33
5188-33} 27°40
5187-49] 27°71
518524) 28°55
518310} 29°35
5182°75| 29°48

(5182°3)| 29°6
5179°66| 30°63
517827 | 31°15
5176°52| 31°80
5175°73| 32°09

(51731) | 3371

(5172-4) | 33°3
517216] 33°43

(5171°9) | 33°5
5171-20) 33°79
5168-48] 34°80

(5168-2) | 34°9
5166°88|} 35:40

(51667) | 35°5
5165°88| 35°78
516473 | 36°21
5161°76| 37°32

| 5157-64] 38-49
(51560)| 39's

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS,

CaTALoGvuE (continued).

Reduc- Inten-
pee Frequency. ae Origin, &e.
cuum. width.
0°54 | 192191 | 5b | Fe.
re 192258 | lc
” 192325 | 3b |)Fe
7 | daanss | an | Mesateton on
1b
2b
aes 3b
” 1924:27 | ... | Mn.
” 192467 | 4b | Fe.
ae lb
x. 1925:57 |. 5c | Fe.
” 1925:99 | 5b | Fe.
” 1926°86 | 5b | Ca.
” 192717 | *%b | Ti.
” 192801 | (tb | Fe.
” 192881 | 4¢
” 1928:94 | 6g |b,, Mg.
” 1929:1 ae
9 193009 | 1b | Fe.
” 193061 | ...
» 1931:26 | 1b
” 193155 | 1b | Ni.
” 1932°6 5a
” 1932°8 4e
» 1932:89 | 6f | b,, Mg. Winged ray.
” 1933°0 4e
” 193325 | 6b | Fe.
” 1934:26 | 6b | b,, Fe, Ni.
9 1934-4 4e
9 193486 | Ge | b,, Fe, Mg.
» 19350 4d
” 1935:24 | 5b | Fe.
» 1935:67 2 b | Fe.
” 1936:78 | 5b | Fe.
” 193794 | 3a | Fe.
» 1939-0 la

61

Group 1924.

‘aint.

Group 1926.
Strong.

Group 1932
(the great
Magnesium
Group).

Kirchhoff.

eR
1672°2
1673°7
1674°7
16762
Ce
1677°9
16381°6
1684'0
1684°4
1685°9

1686°3 }
1689°5

16g0°0

1691'0

REPORT—1878. |

Caranoevue (continued).

Fe Reduc- Inten-
Ang- Reci- | tion to sity
strom. | procals.| va- |Freauency.) and
cuum. width.
5155:20| 1939'79 | 054 | 1939-25 (ee
5158:'22| 40°53 | 55 1939:99 | 4a
5152'69| 40°73 | 3 194019 | 3c
(51516) | grr | 19406 | 24
5151-40] 41-22] ,, 194068 | 4b
5150'28| 41°64] 5, 194110 | 4c
5147-63} 42°64 | 194210 | 4c
HL4H ST || 43740 || a: 194276 | 4a
ii 1b
Qa
5144°64| 43°77 | 5 1943°28 ore
Leese ia oe) Fae Seladaas
44°71 ” 194417 { 5b
5141:37| 4501 | 1944:57 | 5b
513878} 45°99 | » | 1945-45| be
3c
5186:93| 46°69 | ,, 194615 e é
518310] 4814] ,, ~ 494760. 5¢
9
513097| 4895)» | 1949-41 { —
2e
512874| 49°80 | 054 | 4949-26 { 3b
512681! 50°53 | 0°55 | 4949-98 | 5a
512561| 50°99 | 1950-44 | 3b
512454] 51°39) . 1950°84 | 5b
5123:32| 51°86 | ,, 1951:31 | +>
5121:18| 52°67 |, 195212 | 4b
512008] 53°09 | |, 195254 | le
(5115°3)| 54°99 |» 19544 | la
5115-01] 55°03 |» | 195448 | 3b
511246] 5600 | ,, 195545 | +
5109'94| 56:97 | ,, 195642 | 5b
5108-98} 57°34 | » 195679 | 3b
510716| 58:03 | ,, 195748 | 5d
510507} 58°34] ,, 1958-29 | 4b
5103-77 | 59°33.) 4 1958°79 { ; F
510234] 59°88 |_,, 1959:33 | 2a

Origin, &e.

| Group 1945.

Groups.

Strong.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CaTALoGuE (continued).

d b Reduc-
2 Ang- Reci- | tion to
Kirchhoff. strom. procals. | va-
cuum,
1748°9 5099°19 | 196110 | 0°55

1749°6 ae € »
| 17504 | 5098:28|) 61:45] ,,
1752:0 |(5097°2)| 61°9 ”
1752°8 5096°64| 62°08 | ,,
1762'0 5090°45 64°46 re
17715 5083°68] 67°08 | ,,
1772°5 5082°60|} 67°50 | ,,
1774/0 508192) 67°76 | ,,
17758 5080°78} 68:20] ,,
1776°5 5079°88 68°55 PF
1777°5 5078°95| 68:91 | ,,
1778°5 5O7T8OL| 69:27) ,,
1782°7 5075'96| 70:07 | ,,
17844 |(5074°7)| 70°6 PF
1785'0 5074:24| 70°74] ,,
17877 |(5072'5)| 714 |
1788°7 BOTL84 71:67 | ,,
1793°8 5068'27| 73:06] ,,
17954 |(5067-0)| 73°6 :
179670 506651) 73°74] 5,
17978 |(5065°3)) 742 | »
179970 | 506453} 74°52 | ,,
1799°6 ” 9
18064 | 5059°87/ 7634] ,,
1818°7 5051-11] 79°76) ,,
18214 5049°49| 8040] ,,
1822°6 |(5048'7)| 80'7 if
1823'2 | (50483) | 80'9 is
1823°6 5047'92| 81-o1 is
18286 | (50446) | 82:3 -
5043°54| 82°73] ,,
1830°r = | (5042'S) | 83°0 is
1832°38 (50417) | 83:5 | 55

63

Inten-
Frequency. ny Origin, &e. Groups
width.
1960°55 | 3c | Ni. Group 1961.
" 2d | Ni. Strong.
1960:90 | 5c | Fe.
1961-4 2b
1961:53 | 4c | Fe.
1963-91 | 3c | Fe. gist
196653 | 3c Group 1968.
196695 | 3c | Fe. Faint.
196721 | 2b
1967°65 | 3b | Ni.
196799 | 3c | Ni.
1968:36 | 3c | Fe.
1968°72 | 3c | Fe.
196952 | 3b | Fe. ci eine
1970:1 1b
197019] 4b | Fe.
19709 2¢e
197112 | 3b | Fe.
1972'51 | 4b | Fe. Group 1973.
19731 la Strong.
197319 | 3a | Fe.
1973°7 la
197397 | 4c | Ti.
a 3b
197579 | 2b | Fe. ar
1979:21 | 5b | Fe. Group 1980.
1979'85 | 5b | Fe. Strorg.
1980°2 3a
1980°4 2a
198046 | 2a | Fe.
19818 1b
Possibly this ray
1982:18 Fe. is K 1828°6 or
K 183071.
1982°5 3b
19830 Qa | Ca.

rEPORT—1878.

CaraLoeveE (continued).

64
°
Kirchhoff, | Ans"
18334
“ap 5040-80
1834°3 5040-28
1835°9
1836°7 +| 5038°30
1837°5
1841°0
1841°6 |} | 503547
1842°2
18489 =| 5030-27
1851'0 5029°12
1853°2 5027°43
1854°0 5026°54
1854°9 | 5025-76
1856'9 =| (50245)
1857°9 | (50239)
186074 | (5022°4)
18613 5021°89
1862°3 5021°30
1864°9 5019-52
1867°1 5017-76
1868-4 | (5016°7)
1869°5 | (5016°2)
1870°6 =| (5015°4)
18724. | 5014:22
18734. | 5013-48
; 18742 | (5013-0)
1874°8 | (5012°6)
1875°8 | (50120)
| 1876°5 5011-56

Reci-
procals,

5041°32 | 1983°61

83°81
84°02

84°80

85°91

37°96
88-42
89'09
89°44
89°75
go'2

905

git

91°28
gi's2
92°22

92592

Groups.

Group 1984.
Strong.

Group 1993.
Strong.

Reduc- Inten-
a Frequency. ma Origin, &e.
cuum. width.
Angstrém repre-
| ( sents the Fe and
ors5 | 1988-06 | 6e | Fo, Cay Ca reysas com
hoff as separate
but close.
» 1983-26 | ...
» 1983.47 | 6c | Fe.
| Ti.
Ci5S 198425 | 3c Fe.
(ni.
Ti.
0°56 1985°35 | 4b Ti.
Ni.
” 1987-40 | 2c
9 1987:°86 | le
” 1988°53 | 3b | Fe.
” 1988°88 | 2b | Fe.
” 1989:19 | 4c
” 19896 le
” 19899 | 2b
9 1990°5 2b
” 199072 | 8c
» 1990:96 | 2b | Fe.
35 1991°66 | 3b | Ti.
ae 199236 | 5d This ray is repre-
| sented on Ang-
» 1992°8 5b | Ni. strém’s map, but
not inserted in
( his list.
” 1992°9 le
” 1993'3 3a
9 199377 | 5b | Fe.
” 1994:06 | 6b | Ti.
9 19942 2a
” 1994-4 2a
» 19946 2e
” 1994:83 | 6b | Fe.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 65

CaTaLoGuE (continued).

A _ |Redue- Tnten-
Kirchhoff. a soe ee Frequency. pa Origin, &e. Groups.
cuum. width.
1884°3 | 5006°72| 1997-32 | 056 | 199676 | 6b | Fe, Ti. / Group 1997.
1885°8 6b | Fe. / trong.
5005:14 : i 39 |
1836°4 j Mee i 6b | Fe.
1889°5 | 5003-21) 9872 | ,, 1998:16 | lg | Fe.
1891°0 5002°11 gg'16 ss 199860 | 3b | Fe.
18938 | (50004) | r999°8 45 1999-2 lb |
18948 4999°86 | 2000706 | ,, 1999'50 | 3b
18962 | 4998:94| 0042 | _,, 1999°86 | 4b | Ti.
1897°9 | 499754] oo'98 | ,, 200042) 1c
tg00°0 =| 4996-05] o1'58 | ,, | 200102) 1c |
1904°5 | 4993-42] 02°63] ,, 200207 | 4b | Fe. |
1go51 | (4993:2)| 02°7 rs 20021 | 2c
1908°5 499048] 03°81 2003:25| 5d | Fe, Ti.
IgII‘g 4988°46 04°63 “ts 2004:07| 3c | Fe.
19162 |(4985°8) | 05°7 4 2005:1 ld
1917°5 ) | 4b | Fe. ( Uncertain vingiioe Group 2006.
vg }| 498484] 0608] ., | 200552) {7 | these rays belongs | Strong,
Bro to Fe.
1919°8 SAR ; P 4b Fe, | (The less refrangible
1920°2 } goer ae OBG4 | as 2006:08 { 4b nit edge of a cuales
19211 | 498273] 06:93| ,, | 200637| 4b | Fe. ah
1922/0 ‘ " cab (The more refrangible
1922°4 | 4981'96] 07°24 |» 200668 AcARs } edge of a sodium band.)
1923°5 | 498117} 07°56 | _,, 200700 | 4b | Ti.
1925°8 4979°76 0813 ” 2007°57 4b Ni.
1928'0 =| 4977°94| 0836] ,, 2008'30| 4b | Fe.

1931'2 | 4975°89| o9'69| _,, 200913} 1c
1932°§ |(4975°0) |; 10'1 0 20095 | le
19362 | 4972:43| frog | _,, 201053 | 3c | Fe.
_ 1939°5 | (4970°3)| 120 9 20114 | 3c
1940°6 |(4969°6)| 122 | , | 20116 | 2c
1941°5 | (4969-0) 12" & PP 2011°9 3b

. \} so6744} rg | , | 901255 i . ‘4

e.

|. 1947°6 | 4965°47| 13:91 | ,, 2013'35 | 4c | Fe.
19494 | 496478] 14:19] ,, 2013°63 | le

1953°6 eal 1540] 4 2014'84 | 2b | Fe.

66 REPORT— 1878.
OaTALOGvuE (continued).
a Reduc- Inten-
: Ang- Reci- | tiont it dos
Kirchhoff. st pr eee ges ig Frequency, ae Origin, &e.
cuum. width.
60°8 oy
(@ } 495687 |2017°40 | 0°56 | 201684 |14 |e.
19612
6b
1964°3 |(49540)| 186 | ,, 20180 | 2c
1966'2 a 2b
5210] 19°34 | 0°56 78 {
166-7 } 495) 19°34. | 0°5 2018 ab fe.
19701 | 494954] 20°39 | 0°57 2019'82 | 3b | Fe.
1974°7. | 4945°67| 21°97 | 5 202140 | 4b | Fe.
1975°7 4944-69] 22°37 | 4, 202180 | 2d
19792 4941:97| 2348 | ,, 2022°91 | 3c | Fe.
1982°8 | 5a | Fe.
1983°3 4938°'74| 24°31 | ,, 202424 |; 5a | Fe.
1983°8 5a
1984°5 | 4937°37| 25°37] » 202480 | 4b
1985°8 | 4986-49] 2573] 5, 202516 | 4b
1986-9 | (4935°7)| 261 % 20255 Qa
1987°5 | 4935-21) 26:26] ,, 202569 | 3a | Ni.
1989'5 | 498355] 26°94] ,, 2026°37 | 6c | Ba.
1990°4 4932°89| 27:21 | ,; 202664 | 5b | Fe.
1991'8 493131 27°86 | ,, 202729 | 1b
1994°1 492961] 28°56] ,, 202799 | 5b | Fe.
6 2 Fe.
"999 V) 4927-00| ag'63 | » | 202006 /{ 5° |
1997°5 2a
1999°6 | 492464| 30°61 | ,, 203004] 2c
2000°6 | (4923-9) 30°9 4 2030°3 ba
2001°6 4923:20| 3120] 5, 203063 | 5c | Fe.
2 3b
co } 4921-44} 3193! | 208136 {
2003'7 la +
ioe g |(4920:1)| 32°5 ” 20319 2d
2005°2 | 491989} 32°57 | 5, 203200 | 6d | Fe.
2007°2 4918-31] 33722] 5 2032°65| 6c | Fe.
2008°1 4917-'75| 33°45 | » 2032°88 | 1b | Ni.
2008'6 |(4917°4)| 3376 5 20330 1b
2009°8 4916°57| 33°94] » 2033°37 | 2b
: 2a
79739 V1 491335] 3527] » | 203470//
2014°3 2a

Groups.

Group 2025.
Strong.

Group 20382.

Strong.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CaTALocun (continued).

67

a _ |Redue- Inten-
Kirchhoff. aa ee . esr Frequency. ia
cuum. width.
a 4911°32 | 203611 | 0°57 203554
2015°7
to | 4911-1 36°2 + 2035°6 1
2016'9
ee (4909'3)| 370 | » | 20364 | ic
2018°5 2b
2019°5 |(4908:5)| 37°73 9 2036°7 2a
2021°2 490714 37°85 3 203728 | lg | Fe.
2024°9 © |(4904:2)| 3971 3 20385 la
2025°7 | 490408} 3912] ,, 203855 | 4a | Ni.
2026°8 4902°61] 39:73 | 203916 | 4b | Fe.
20311 | 4899°47} grog | ,, 204047 | 2c | Ba.
20354 | 489596] 42°50 | _,, 204193 | 1b
: 20396 | 489233] 4401 | ,, 2043:44| 1b
2041°3 | 4890°98) 44°58 | _,, 2044:01| 6c | Fe
2042°2 4890:19) 44°91 Pe 204434] 6b | Fe.
*t5 || 4988-40] 4666] ., | 2045-09 { 2
204570 5b | Fe.
204770 | 488681) 4632 | ,, 2045°75| 3d | Fe.
2047°8 488602} 46°66 | ,, 204609 | 3b | Fe.
voc, t| #88468) 4723) » | 2046066 | { Siok
2049°7 3a
2051°3 488330] 47°80] ,, 2047:23 | 3c
4883°02| 47°91 5 2047°34 | ...
eli \ 4981:12| 4871] ,, | 204914 F BOR
2053°7 4¢
20580 =| 4877°57| 50:20 | _,, 2049°63 | 6c | Fe, Ca.
2060°0 487546 | s1og | ,, 2050°52 | 2b | Fe.
2060°6 Fe 2a
2061°0 ee $5 eas la
2064'7 | 4873:08| 52°09 |_,, 205152 | 2c | Ni.
20662 4871-43] 52°78) ,, 2052°21 | 5c | Fe.
2067°1 487061} 53:13] ,, 2052°56 | Se | Fe.
20673 |(4870'1)| 533 | , | 20597 | 3b
2068°8 =| (4869°4) 53°6 " 20530 3b
20706 (48681)! sa | ,, | 20536 | 1b
2071°3 | 486765) 54°38 | 057 | 205381] 1b | Co.
2073°5 | 4865-44) 55°31 | 058 | 2054:73| 3b | Ni.

Group 2046.

Strong.

Group 2051.

Strong.

68

Kirchhoff.

2074°6
2076°5
2077°3
2079°5
2080°0

(2080°5

REPORT—1878.

CaTaLoauE (continued).

2109°1
211!
2112°7
21150 }
2115°4.

~ 2119°8

21212
2121°9
21243
212571

2127°7

21323

2132°7

A Reduc-
Ang- Reci- jtion to
strém. | procals.| va- |Freduency.
cuum.
(4864°8) | 2055°6 | 058 20550
4863°68|° 56:06 | ,, 2055°48
(48630) | 5673 »9 2055°7
486074| 57°31 | ,, 56-73
4859°29| 57°91 A 2057°33
(48567) | 590 5 20584
(4855°3) | 59°6 si 2059 0
4854'85| 59:80 | ,, 2059-22
(4854:2)| 6or | ,, | 20595
(48522) | Gog ” 2060:3
4851:02| 61-42 | ,, | 206084
4848-23} 62:6:| ,, | 206203
484253} 65:04 | _,, 206446
(48421) ) 652 * 2064°6
(48400) | 66-1 oy 20656
4839:29| 66-42 | ,, 2065'84 |
(48387) | 66-7 | ,, 2066:1
4837°80| 67:05] ,, 2066°47
(4835°6) | 68'0 ” 2067°4
483519] 68:17] ,, 206759
483191} 69°57 | ,, 2068 99
4830°34| 7025 | _,, 2069°67
4828'57| 7101 3 207043
(4824-2) | 72"9 ” 20723
482290 73441 ,, 207286
4819-91} 74:73] ,, | 207415
(4819:2)| 750 | ,, | 20744
4811-70| 7827] ,, | 2077-69

Inten-
sity
and

width.

2b
1b

Origin, &e.

Fe.

Fe.

Fe, Ni.

2a
2b
3b
3b
3a
3a
1b
4b
5e¢
1b
2b
3b

2a
la

Ca.

Co, Fe.

Ni.

Mn.

Ca.
Zn.

le, H. Winged ray.

Groups.

Group 2058
(theF Group).
Strong.

Group 2068.

aint.

Group 2074.
Faint.

Group 2081.

Faint.

Kirchhoff.

21338
213473
21360
21380
at
22395
214074
2141'9
2142°4
2144°6
2146'9

| 214774
: 2148°5
2148°9
2150°1

2150°5

2157°0
21574
2159'0
| 2160°6
| 2160°9
2161'7
2162°6

2163'7
* 2164°0
2167°5
21715
2172°2
21757
217674
27919
2181°2
2184'9
2186°5
2187°1
2187°9
2188°5

}

}

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CaraLoGueE (continued).

a Reduc-
Ang- Reci- |tion to
strém. | procals.| va- |Freauency.
cuum.
4809°83 | 2079'08 | 0°58 2078°50
4808:17| 79:79 | 5, 2079°21
4806-49 | 80°52 | ,, 207994
4804:54| 81°36] ,, 2080°78
4802-46] 82:27 | ,, 2081:69
480004} 83:32 | ,, 2082°74
479913) 83-71 ‘ 208313
4797-70} 84°33 2083°75
4791-78 86:91 95 2086°33
4788-73} 88-24 | ,, 208766
(47884) | 884 | ,, 2087°8
(4787-8) | 88-6 is 20880
478590} 89:47 | 0°58 2088°89
478273} 90°86 | 0°59 | 2090:27
4778°85| 92°55 | 5, 2091:96
(4778°3) | 92°8 ” 2092°2
477566 93°95 | 5 209336
(4775°0)| 94°72 | 2093°6
4771-92) 93°59 | 5» 2093-00
4770°37| 96:27 | _,, 209568
476759} 97°49 | » 2096:90
4765°92| 98:23] ,, 209764
4764°'79| 98°73 | ,, 209814
(4764-5) | 98-9 3 20983

Inten-|
sity
and

width.

Qa. |
ti Ca.
5a | Zn.
2g
4a
4a
4a

5a | Ti.
4a | Fe.

3

69

Origin, &c.

The identity of either
of these rays with
°

Angstrém’s is
doubtful.

Groups.

|

Group 2088.
Faint. |

| Group 2100.
Strong.

Kirchhoff.

2190'1
2191°9
pans
21933
2195°7
21971
2197°7
21988
2199°2
2201°1

2201'9

2203°3
2203°8
22051
2206°4
2206°7
2209'1
2211°7
221374
2215°1
2216°7
2217°5
2218°3
2219°8
2221°3

2221°7

2222°3
2.223°5
2225°4
2226°2
2227°6
2228°6
2229'1
2230°7
22312
B2R273
(caso

2234°0

}

(4763'3)
(4762-0)
4761-68
4760°85
(4758°6)

4757-07

4755°34

(4754-0)
4753°47

(4752°5)
(4752°2)
4751°32
(4749°0)
(4748'8)
4747°34
4745-32
4743°57
4741-89
(47402)
(4739:5)
(4739-0)
(4787°5)
(4737-0)
(4736°6)
4736-24
(4735:1)

4733°07

(4731-7)
(4731-0)
4730-95
(4729°3)
(4729°0)
(4727°8)
4726-70

Reci-

procals.

2099°4

2100°0
folohp fe)
00°46
O1'5

02°13

02°90

0355
O35
04°2
04°3
04°68
057
05'8
06°44
C184
0812
08°86
09°6
S919
10°2
10°8
110

11°2

11°38

119
12°79
13°5
13°7
*13°74
14°5
14°6
I5‘I

15°64

REPORT—1878.

CATALOGUE (continued).

Redue- Inten-
poe Ne Proquiaes: ae y Origin, &e.
cuum. width.
059 | 20988 | 5b
9 20994 | 3e
é 2099:51 | 5b | Mn. Winged ray.
me 909987 | 5a | Mn.
» | 21009 | 2b
» | atonse |{oe |
2b
210231 | { .
2 3a | Ni
, | 21029 | 2b
m 2103:14 | 5c | Mn.
» | 21036 | 2a
Ae i alee
e 2104:09 | 1b
a 210571 la | Co.
» | 21052 | 1a
9 2105°85 | 4c |
* 210695 | 4b | Fe.
fF 210753 | 4b
he 2108:27 | 1b | Ti.
» 2109:0 3b
_ 2109°3 3b
5 2109°6 3a
x 2110°2 3b
3 21104 la
” 2110°6 la |
. 2110°79 | 5c | Fe.
” 21113 3¢
; 9119-20 { 2b | Fe.
4b
a 2112°9 2a
, | 93a || Be
~ 211315 | 4b | Fe.
, | 21139 | 4a
, | 21140 | 2a
, | gta | 4a |
» | 911505) 5c |¥e {Rigible site,

Groups.

Group 2113.

Faint.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 71

CATALOGUE (continued).

. - _ |Redue- Inten-
| Kirchhoff. ae am pete, Frequency. ee Origin, &c. Groups. °
cuum. width.
223774 | 472369} 211699 | o59 | 211640 | 1b
2238°7 =éc SBE a ane lb
22400 | 4721:53| 17°96] ,, 211737 | 3b |Z.
22414 |(4720°5)| 184 | ,, 21178 2b
22451 | (4717-1)| 19°9 P, 2119°3 3b
22462 |(4716:1)| 20% f 2119°8 1b
2248°2 471444) ar14] ,, 2120°55 | 3c ; Group 2124.
en” 471381 ax43| 4 | 212084) 6a |i, { Wingee op mare re- | Very strong.
2250°0 oct ne 3 oot 3d
a 471198) 22°25 Fe 9121°66 a
22554 | 470950] 23°37 | ;, 212278 | 4b | Ti.
22562 |(47087)| 23:7 Z 2123:1 2b
225771 | 4708:37| 23°38] ,, 2123:29 | 4d | Fe.
22576 |(4707°8)| 24"1 & 21235 2b
2258°5 |(4707-0)| 24°5 » | 21239 2c
22594 | 470661) 24°67 | os9 | 212408 | 4c | Fe.
22614 |(4704-9)| 254 | o60 | 21248 1b
22621 |(4704°3)| 25:7 3 2125'1 2a
22634 |(4703-0)| 263 yy 21257 Qa | Mg.
2264°3 | 4702-44) 26°56] ,, 212596 | 6a
saeee | £70095] eras] | agg | 2°
22680 | 4698:09] 2852] ,, 212792 | 3a | Ti.
2269': + |(4697°3)| 28*9 7 2128°3 3a
2269" (4696:7) 3a
e. (4696-5) } hela UA Mig { 3a
(4693:7) | 30°5 i. 2129°9 ld Group 2135.
4690°69) 31°88 | _,, 2181-28 | 4c | Fe, Ti. Faint.
2a
2a
la
0k bce 1b
eee nae 2a
2b
22861 ads cbc But aa 2b

22881 sua ose bo 2a

72

Kirchhoff.

2289'1
eae

2328°3 }

Ang-
strom.
4681:37
4679°65
4678-03

4676791
4672 41

4667:20
4666°45

4663°51

4661°80

465615 |
465407

4651-25

4647-99

(4647-2)

(4646°6)

4645°39
4643-33

4639°81
4638:98

REPORT—1878.

CaTALoGvsE (continued).

Reduc- Inten-
Reci- jtion t it: we
een Mier. | ore
cuum. width. :
1 ee aaa 1 Band.
213613 | o'60 | 213553 | 2b | Ti.
3691 | 5; 213631 | 2¢ | Zn.
” 2 a
1
37°65 | 5 213705 |} 3b | Fe.
38°16 | ,, 2137:°56 | 2b | Cd.
gorz2| ,, | 213962] 4c | Fe. a
3b
3d
4c
bate ane lb
AZON N05; 2142-01 | 5b
BoAD Olt aay 2142°36 | 5e |d. Ti. Winged ray..
aes 2e
44°31 | 5, 214371 | 3b
ae 3b
45°09 | 5 214549 | 3b
PP) 2b
” 1b
Bae a, rab :
‘ ” 10
47°70 2147 ap |.
48°66 | ,, 2148.06 | 6d | Fe, Cr.
5b
96] 36 {
49°9 2149 perl Ge.
” Le 2b
srs |, | 21512 | 2d | Ni.
5271 ” 2151°5 5 b Fe, Cr.
SBT. | ss 2152-07 | 5b Between these rays a
53°63 | 5 2153:03 | 4b | Fe. ray of Ti.
xe Ae ld
: , Identification with Kirch-
55 28) 215466 | 1 { hoff’sray very doubtful.
5565] ,, 215505 | 2d | "ti.

Groups.

Group 2142.

Strong.

Group 2150.
Strong.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 73

CaTAaLoGuE (continued).

°

! Kirchhoff. eee. eae

| 4637°30 | 215643

2347°3

2349°4 | (4635°9) | 5771

2349°9 | (46356) ) 57°72

| 463410] 57-92

2352°2

2354°1 463218} - 58°81

2357°4

i aie } 4629°77| 59°93
- 2361'0 4627-32] 61°08

2362'2 |(4625°3)| 62°70

| 4625-01| 62°16

23640

23659 §=| (4622°7) | 63:2
— 23663 =| (4622'1) | 63°5

2367°7 4621-78| 63°67
| 2369°7 |(4620°1) | 645
23714 |(4618°8)| 65-1
ie 4618-71] 65:11

2372'4 |(4618°0) | 65-4
| 2374°2 4616-79] 66:01
( 23750 |(4615°9)| 664

2375°6 4615°56| 66°58

23761 |(4615:3)| 66:7

23790 | 461278} 67°89
23816 =| 4610°78| 68°83
| 23861 4606°80| 70°70

2386°6

23837 see

23897 | 460463) 71°73

239°0°7

2391'2 Eee ue

23931 4602°77| 72°60

23944

2395°8 “a =
eS - 460062| 73°62
:
Fy 1878.

Reduc-
tion to
va-
cuum.

0°60

Frequency.

2155'83

21565
2156'6

215732
2158°21
2159°33

2160°47
21614

2161°55

2162°6
2162°9
2163:06
2163'9

2164°5

2164°50
21648
216540
21658
2165°97
21661
216728
2168'22

2170°09
2171.12
217199

217301

Origin, &c. Groups.

Fe.
Fe.

Fe.

Between these a ray of Ti.

Fe.

Group 2166.
Fe. Strong.

Ca. Group 2172.

Faint.

Identification with Kirch-
hoff’s ray doubtful.

Fe.

74

Kirchhoff.

23974

2399°6
23999
2402'°2
2403°2
2404'9
2406°2

2406°6
2407°2
2408'2
2409'0
2410°2
2412°8
2414°7
2416°0
ae 63
2418°0
2419°3
2420°6
2422°3
2423°8
2424°4
2426°5

2428'4
2429°5
24.31°9
2432°4

2435°3
(aos
2435°7
ce
2438°5
2439°4
2440°0
2441°8

2396°7
to

I)

Ang-
strom.

4597-36

4595-00

(4593'7)
(4592'3)
4592-04
(45916)
4590-91
(4590°3)
4589-48
(4587°8)
(4586°4)
(4585°6)
4585'36
(4584°4)
4583°35
(4582°3)
4580-93
4579-65

4578°37

(4577-2)
(4576-4)

4573°66

457159
(4571°5)
457094
(4569'3)
4568°64
(4568°3)
4567-26

4599-61

(4571°7)

REPORT—1878.

CATALOGUE (continued).

Reduc- Inten-
Reci- |tion to sity
procals,| va- |Frequency.) and

cuum. width.
sais 2a
2174°10 | o'61 217349 | 2a
3a
7516 |, | @i7a5 | {0
3b
7628 | | 217567 |{
76°9 35 21763 2b
776 5 21770 2b
77°68 | ,, 217707 | Ge
7779 | 21773 | 1b
78:22 | 5, 217761 | 4b
78°5 ” 21779 1b
7890 | » 217829 | 4b
79°7 “5 21791 3b
80°4 3 2179°8 2b
80°7 ne 21801 3d
80°85 _ 2180°24 | 5b
81°3 4 2180°7 3b
81°81 | ,, 2181:20 | 5b
$2°3 ” 21817 2b
82796 || ,, 218235 | 6d
s357| » | atgede |"
4b
84°18 | _,, 2183°57 | 4b
84°7 09 218411 la
8571 35 2184-5 3b
86-43 a1gss2 | {~~
H 1b
874 | » 21868 | 2b
87°42 | ,, 218681 | 5c
B75 | a 21869 | 2b
87°73 ” 218712 5a
88°5 ” 21879 la
88°33 5 2188:22 | 2b
89°0 ” 21884 la
Sg75011 5 2188°89 | 2a

Fe, Ca,

Origin, &e. Groups.
Band,
Fe. Group 2180.
Strong.
Mg.
Fe, Ca.

_ Co, according to Kirch-
hoff, but according to
te}

Angstrom it is a eompo-
site ray due to Fe, Ca.

Ti, Group 2189.

Strong.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

Kirchhoft| vim, | procals
2442°4 4566°71 | 2189°76
ce. | 4564:93| 90°61
2444/2
2445°3 |(45641)| g1°'0

24466 | 4563°30| g1"40

4559°54| 93°20
455816} 93°87
Be? 4555'42| 95"19
2457°9
24586 |(4555°0)| 954
2459°5 |(45545)| 95°6
24604 |(4554:0)|} 95"9

24612 | 4553:50| 96-11

74634 | 455184) 9691
24660 | 4550:29| 97°66
24673 |(4549:2)| 98-2

(676 4548:97 | 98°30

6-5 (4548'8) | 98-4
24687 | (4548°3)| 98°6

-2470°1 (4547°3) | 99'1

24712 4546°56 | 99°46

Ds (4546°3) | 2199°6
2472'9

-2473°8 4543'98 | 2200°71

4746

2475°5 - |(4542°1)| o1°6

24774 )| ,.

Barr's } 4541°84| o1°75
24787 |(4541°1)| oar
ae} 4540:30| 02°50
| 2481°1 Ace te
24821 |(4538:1)| 076
24324 | 4537:88| 03°67

24866
z.. | 4535°59| 04°78
2488-2 (4584°4) | 05°4

CaTaLoGuE (continued).

Reduc- Tnten-
ont Frequency. oe Origin, &e.
cuum. width.
o'61 218915 la
19000 | {°°
. 5a
” 2190°4 le
” 219079 | 5b | Ti.
as 2192°59 | 2c
3 2193:26 | 4b
4b | Ti.
or | gtoaes|{ 1) | a,
0°62 2194:8 3a
” 21950 2b
9 21953 Te
” 9195-49 | 6b | Ba.
” 2196:29 | 4b | Ti.
” 219704 | 3a
” 2197°6 3e¢
” 219768 | 5c |e. Ti. | Winged ray.
3 2197'8 3¢
33 . 21980 3a
” 2198'5 4a
” 2198:84 2b | Fe..
” 2199:0 4a
4a
” 2200:09 | 4 2¢
4b | Ti.
” 22010 le
2a
» | g20r1s |{ m1
” 2201'5 Qa
a2orss |{ 9°
rg 2a
na la
” 2203:0 la
” 2203°05| le
5b | Ti.
» | 2204.16 { sellat
” 22048 4b | Ca.

75

Groups.

Group 2196.

Strong.

—+—

Group 2210.
Strong.

76

°
Ang-

Kirchhoff. | strom.

tee } 4532°13
2490°8

24930 | (4530-7)
2493°6 4530°32
2493°9 a
2495'8 4528°83
2497°2 4528-08
2499°0
2499°8 4526°15
25C00°3

eae | 4524-48
2.5024

oa 452302
2505°6 4522:09
2509°4 4519°66
2512°1

75%?'5 \ 4517-90

eo (4513°3)
25184 | (4513-2)
2520°9 || (4510-4)
2522°3 ‘| (4509°4)

4507-74

2527°0 | (4506-6)

4501-75

25366. | 4500°76
2537°1 450031

(4499-7)

2540°5 449827
| 2543'5 | 4496°22

2489°4 45383°31

251770 | (4514°2)

2532°0 =| (4503°5)

Reci-
procals,

2205°39

06°47
07°2

07°35
08°07
08°44

09°38

REPORT— 1878.

CaTALoGvuE (continued).

Reduc-
tion to
va-
cuum.

0°62

Frequency.

2205 °27

220585

2206°6
220673

220745
2207°82

2208°76

220958

2210°29
2210°75
2211°94

221280

22146

22151
2215'1

2216°5
22170

2217°79
2218'4

2219°9

2220°74

222123
2221°45

22218

222246
2223°47

Inten-
sity
and

width.

————

5d

(sa

38a
ba
3f
5b
6d
3b
3b
4c

4c
ee

4d
2d
le
2a
2b

Ca.

Origin, &c.

Co. Winged ray.

Ti.

Fe. | Ba.

A very faint ray.

Ti.

Ti.

Band.

The interpolated wave-

lengt

hs and oscillation-

frequencies of these rays
are very doubtful.

Pt, Mu.

Groups.

Group 2223.
Strong.

(4495°0)
4493°81

(4493°5)

(44910)

4489-49

4484-96
4483'89
4483-09

} 4482-30
fo}

(4481:3)
4481-00

4479°37
4475-49
4472:48

(4471°5)
(4471-2)

(4470°7)

(4470°4)

} 4469°54
Li as

2589°7 | (4465°2)

| (4495'6)

26°7

27°42

29°67
30°21
30°60
31°00
31°5
31°64
32°46
34°39
35°90
36°4
36°5
36°83

369

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CaTALoGvE (continued).

Reduc-
tion to
va-
cuum.,

0°62

”

Inten-
Frequency. ae

width.

22933 | 2d
22241 | 1e
9294:66| Ge
90043 | 2b
le

lb

Pry, tH
1b

3a

22261 | 3a
lb

3a

in 3a
222630 | 3a
2

2¢

2299-05 | 3b
2229:59 | 4b
222998 | ---
3b

2230'37 { a
22309 | 2b
223101 | 3d
3b

2231'83 |{ 5,
293376 | Be
2935:27| 3d
22358 | la
2235:9 | la
2a

29362 |{
22363 | la
8e

223674 |{. >
2238-48 ee
22389 | 1b

Origin, &e.

Fe.

Possibly this may be the
ray due to Mn instead

of next.
Mn.

Fe, Mn.

Fe.

Fe.

Fe.
Ti,

Doubtful whether
°

Angstrém’s position
is the mean of these.

77

Groups.

Group 999"7.

Faint.

Group 2230,

Strong.

Group 2235.

Strong.

78
; Ang-
Kirchhoff. | ot 5m,
259173 | 4464-09
25917 | (4463°8)
2 eo ea
oe 9 a (4616) 6)

ro ty } 4461-23
ee 9

2624°1

te ‘4 (4460: 7)
2597°7 ‘| (4460°3)
25985 | (4459°5)
Gs oe |) aase72
25997

2600°6 |

2601"0 4457-83
2602°1

2602'9

26036 a
2604°0

2604'8 } 4455°38
fads } | 445416
2606°6

26071 =| (4453°6)
2608°2 | (4453-0)
26086 =| (4452°8)
2608'9 | (4452°6)
26102 |(4451°8)
2612°3. | 4450°50
2613°6 | (4449°8)
2614°1 444959
26165 |(4448°6)
2619°I

2619°9 }| 4447:07
2620°3

2622°3

Reci-
procals.

2240°10
40°2
40°6
413
41°53

478
42°0

42'4

42°80 |.

43°24

REPORT—1878.

CATALOGUE (continued).

Reduc-
tion to
va-
cuum,

0°63

22407

2239°47
2239°6
22400

2240°90

2241-2
2241-4
22418

224217

2242°61

2243°85

2249°46

2245°7
224631
2246°7
224677
2247

224804

Frequency.

Inten-
sity
and

width.

4a
2e
te
2b
1

4a
4a
1

Mn.

Band.

Fe.

Mn.
Mn.
Ca.

Origin, &e.

Groups.

Group 2242.
Strong.

Mn, Ti.

Double,

Ang-

strom

4442-40

|| 443465

4431-48

4429:°97

(2° 4426-90
| \2650°7

..° 4425-07
| \2653°2
| 72656°7

Bi.» 4429-12
2658°6

26649 1) 418.00
2665"9

2666-7 | (4417-4)
2667°6

” }| 416-69

—2668°0

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

Reci-
procals.

2251°03

54°97

Seppe

64°14

Reduc-
tion to

va-

cuum.,

0°63

”

CatTaLoeue (continued).

Inten-
sity
and

width.

Frequency. Origin, &e.

5a
4a
2a
5b
2a

2250°40

It is not certain
which of this pair is
the ray of Ca,

225434

\°

°
Not shown in Angstrom’s
map.

225595

Fe.
La, Di (Kirchhoff).

Fe, Ti.

} Ca.

4b
2g
5b
3¢
ld
5b
1

5

1b

2256°72

2258:29

2259°22

2260773

3a
3b
1b

2262-73 {
2263:2
3
2263°51 { rf

Ti.

79

Groups.

Group 2254.
Faint.

Group 2259.

Strong.

Group 2264.

Strong.

80

Kirchhoff.

2670°0

26738
2674°5
2675°6
2676°5
2677°2

2679'0
2680°0
(oe
26812
2683°1
2686°0
Can
eee
2688°4.
2690°8
ee
2692°3
2693°5
poor
2696°8
2698°2
2699'8
(ets

2702°1
Ges,
(Se
279375
2703°8
( to
27°49
(aee*
27977
2708'9
2709°6

2669°4

2678'4

}

}
i

fe}
Ang-
strom,

(4415-2)
4414°77

(4411: )

(4408'6)
4407-80
(4407-0)
(4405'9)

4404-26

(4403°2)
4401-74

4400-78
4399 64

(4398-2)
(4897-0)

(4895°8)

4394-64

(4893-7)
4393°55

4393:03

Reci-
procals.

2264°9
65°12

67°1

68°3
68°70
69°1
69°7
79°53

71
71°83

72°32

US
743

749

75°5°

76'0
76'06

76°33

(720%

Reduc- Inten-
ge Frequency. 4 Origin, &c. Groups.
cuum. width.
063 | 22643 | 3b
; : Fe, Mn. Winged, chiefly
ote 2264°48 | Ge { on less refrangible side.
la Group 2269.|
2 Strong.
4a
ar i Identification of Kirch-
22665 zeae hoff’s ray with Ang-
2a strém’s doubtful.
la
sat la
226777 2a
5b | Fe, Ca.
226806 Sb |Gs,
x 2268°5 5a
p 22691 4b
3e¢
” 2269°89 |; 6f | Fe. Winged ray.
3e
” 2270°5 Ze
: 5b | Fe, Ni.
” 22711 36
” 227168 | Se
” 227227 | 4c
2 22731 1 Band.
” 2273°7 lf
1
i 3 |{
2274 ”
3b
5 227486 | 4a
3b
BS 22754 3a
es 2275'42
1 Ti.
5 22'75°69
1f
{ 3a
4b
2b

REPORT—1878.

CaTaLoGuE (continued).

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 81
CaTaLoGuE (continued).
x Reduc-| I nten- |
5 - Reci- {ti to it; Soe
Kirchhoff. cum pegeslec "bes ° Frequency. eae Origin, &e. Groups.
cuum. width.
6 3a |
| 4389°48 | 227817 | 0°64 | 2277-53 Ca.
2710°9 lg
2711"9 4388:53| 78°67 | ,, 227803 | la | Fe. |
2712'8 2a |
27133 ee a. 3a
2714°3 | 438684) 79°54) », 227890 | 2a
2715°2 2b
2716°1 ld
2718°5 WR : : 3¢g Group 2281.
: } peeedD | 80:63, | as 2279°99 {3 c | Ca. Strong.
2719°0 \
to | 1
2720°2 Winged ray. Wing
to \ 2 Fe very broad on less
2720°3 refrangible side.
to \ 4382:82| 8164 | ,, | 2281:00| 6
7G pale
to | a Aas a #. 3
2722°8 ~ |(4382:1) 82°0 a 9981°4
2725°5 4380°49| 82°85 | ,, 2282:21 | 2d
te 5°83 |(4380°3)| 82*9 a 2282°3 3a
27268 |(4379°8)| 83:2 3 2282°6 Qa
2728°0 | 4379:16| 83°54] ,, 228290 | 4b | Ca, Fe.
272874 lb
27298 2¢
2730°7 1b
2731°6 4375-46 | 85°47 | ,, 228483 | ... | Ca, Fe. Group 2285.
2732°4 a “t9 oe le Faint.
2733°7 | 487422] 8612] ,, 2285-48
27341 3b Group 2288.
( 1 Faint.
2735°7 3b
2736°5 3b
27369 3b
2737'4 la
2737°8 2a
}
2739°2 2c
2739°9 stk Sn “5 1b
27413 4370°60| 88:01 | ,, 928737 | 3d

82

REPORT—1878.

CaTaLocuE (continued).

PB _ |Redue- Inten-
Kirchhoff. | 72° | srocais.| var /Freauency.| $y Origin, &e.
cuum, width
27417 |(43870°4) | 2288: | 064 | 2287°5 3b
ae (4369-4) | 88-6 3 2288'0 ihe
2744°1 4369°27| 88:71 | ,, 2288:07 | 4c | Cr, Fe. | Winged ray.
2744°3 |(43692)| 887 | , | 22881 | 1a
aes \ | (4368-2) | 89:3 | ,, 2288:7 ci gee
fee (4368:0)| 894 | ,, 2288'8
2747°6 | (4367-8) | 89°5 aA 2288°9 3a
2748'0 | 4867:°56| 8961] ,, 2288:°97 | 4c¢ | Be.
27498 | 436639] go0'22 | ,, 2289°58 | 3c
27506 |(4866:0)| 904 | ,, 22898 | 3a
2754°5 |(43863°7)| 91°6 * 2291°0 2¢
2755°4 |(4363:2)| 919 | 5, 22913 | 1b
2755'8 | 486297] 92°02 | ,, 229138 | 2b
2756's |(4862°7)| 9g2°2 3 22916 le | (The interpolated wave-
27572 |(4362°0) | 92°5 ” 2291°9 Yo { ee ee ee
2759°4 |(4360°5)| 9373 ‘3 22927 | 1a | \ doubtful.
2760°r + |(4860-1)| 9375 a: 22929 | 2d
27606 |(43859:9)| 93°6 * 22930 | 2d
2762°0 | 4859°10} 94°05] ,, 229341 | 406 | Cr.
27638 | 435824] 94°50] ,, 229386 | 3f | Fe.
2767°2 1d | Jdentification of Kirch-
27682 | 435572) 95°33] |, 229519 | 2a hoff’s ray with Ang-
strom’s doubtful.
2768°5 oe la
2770'°0 =| 4354-56) 9644] ,, 229580 | 2b
a77o'8 |(43542)| 966 | , | 22960 | 2d].
27740 | 485251] 97°52 | 5, 229688 | 5e
(7% 4 4e | cp.
2775°7 }| 4351°86| 97°37] » 2297°23 |5 6c
(ares 4¢ k
2777°3 || 485086) 9840 | » | 20776) 3a |{ NI Sac otthisray.
0 2s fe se ae
27778
to i 4350'4 | 2298°6 3 2298:0 | 1 | Band.
2778'5 corr deal ese
2781'2 4 2b
2782°2 3 1b
2782°9 ” 3b

Groups.

Group 2291.
Faint.

Group 2297.

Strong,

Kirchhoff.

2783'9

ea

2785°1
ot >
'

ae
2809'0

°
Ang-
strom.

4346-74

(4346'3)
(4346°1)

4344-44

(4343-4)
4343-10

(43305)

(4338-2)

(4387°3)

(4337-0)
4336-80
4335-15
4334-63

4332°72

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CaTaLoeuE (continued).

Reci-

procals.

2300°57
008

009

O1'79

02°3

02°50

04°09

O51

0802

Reduc-
tion to
va-
cuum.

0°64

0°64.

Frequency.

2299°93
2300°2
2300°3

230114

23016
2301°85

2303-45

2303°7

2304°4

23049
23050
2305:20

230607
230635

2307°37

Inten-
sit
ail

width.

1b
le
2e
lb
3c
le
3b

——-\

bo

x

83

Origin, &c.

This hydrogen ray is

sometimes called the
ray G’.

Groups.

Group 2305

(the G'group).
Very strong.

| 84,

Kirchhoff.

to}
Ang-
strom.

4330°10

4325°24

4322°88

4320°33
4318-07
4316-69

4314-62

4313°76

4312-47

4311-73

Reci-
procals.

2309'41

12°01

13°27

14°64.
15°85
16°59

17°70

18°86

19°25

RePorT—1878.

CaTALOGUE (continued).

18°16

Reduc-
tion to
ae Frequency.
cuum.
065 | 2308-76
” 2311°36
» 2312°62
39 231399
» 2315°20
» 231593
»” 2317-05
” 231751
” 2318°21
» | 281860

Inten-
sity
and

width.

2b
2a
2a
2a
le

& 8

Bopbw Bo @® Ww bw
Q

o

Origin, &e.

Identification of Ang-
strom’s ray with Kirch-
hoff’s very doubtful.

|

Fe. Winged ray.

\ It is uncertain whe-
| ther K 2825-9 or

K 2826°5 is the
Titanium,line mea-
Ti. sured by Angstrom.
Ti.
Ca.
Fe.
i:
Ti.

Groups.

Group 2313.

Very strong.

Group 2321
(theG Group).
Very strong.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CATALOGUE (continued).

85

A . |Redue- Inten-
Kirchhoff. ant Sree ‘bea ® Frequency. an Origin, &e.
cuum. width.
'2846°9 ac “ea 0 so: 4c
to io mot) << oes 1
2847°7 4a
to 2
2848'0 4a
» | 2
2848°4 mae Ae Ki 3b
to | eee ase wats 2
2848°9 7 soe es 3b
to | sot = see 2
2849°3 3b
to | 2
2849°8 3b
to | 2
2850°2 4 3b
to } 2
2850°7 + 3b
to | 2
2851°1 3b.
to | 2
2851°6 3b
to | 2
2852'0 els wae aah 4a
to a8 Aa nes baa 2
2852°3 4a
to | 1
285371
to 3
2853°6
to ; . 4
2854°1
to 4307-25 | 2321°67 | o'65 | 232102] 6 G. Fe, Ti.
2854°7
to | . eee 4
2855°2 J
to } ad 3

Groups.

86

REPORT—1878.

CATALOGUE (continued).

Kirchhoff.

28722

4305°30

4301-95

4300°66

4298°56

4297°65

4296°77

4295-03

4293-96
4292-08
4290-70
4289-44
4288°78
4287-47

Reduc- Inten-
Reci- | tion to 1
procals.| va- [Freauency-) and
cuum, width.
2322°72 | 0°65 2322-07 ae
3
1
2
1
4b
3b
it
3b
4
nee ake 5b
ZAR N55 2323°88| 4b
Se ar 4e¢
25°22) » 232457 2 b
2
44 53 4c¢
26°36 | 5 232571 e c
26°85 | 5, 232620| 4d
27°33 ” 2326°68
28°27 | 5 232762 | 3b
28°85 | 5 2328-20 | 5c
29°87 | 2329:22 | 3b
30°62 *f 9329:97 | 3c
31°31 ‘ 2330°66 | 3b
31°67 | ,, 2331-02 | 2a
32°38 |, 233173 | 4a

Fe, Cx.

Fe, Ca.

( Kirchhoff records

Fe.

five other rays in
this region, viz.
2873°4 (2b), 2873°9
(2b), 2874°3 (3b),
2874°7 (2b), and
2875°2 (4c), on a
background of in-
tensity 1.

Groups.

Group 2381.

Faint.

Kirchhoff.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

CaTaLOGuE (continued),

87

°
Ang-
strom.

4283'98

4282°23
4280°51

4279°67
427696
4274-63
4273°05

4271°33

4269-51
4267-75

4263°97

4261-42
4260-02
4258'43
4255-38
4253-90

4252-45
4250°54
4249-81
4248-16
4246°89
4245-20
4243°12
4241-92

4238°75
4236°66

4235°56

Reci-
procals.

233428

42°19
43°15
45°23
46°64
47°41
48°28

49°97

50°78

51°58
52°64
53°05
53°96
54°66
55°60
56°76
57°42

59°19
60°35

60°96

Reduc- Inten-
tion to sity
ya. \Freauency.| onq
cuum. width
0°65 2333°63| 1b
0°65 | 2334°58
0°66 233551] la
la
» | 238597 |{5,
99 233745 | 1b
9 2338°72| Ge
” 233959 | 1b
58 6f
» | 934053 |] 4.
” 234153 | 4a
i: 2342.49 | 5a
oe Qa
» | a3aae7|{
234598) la
” 2346:75.| Ge
0 234762 | 2a
3 234931 | la
“r 235012 | 6d
” 2350:92| lg
“6 235198 | 5d
9 2352'39 | 4d
39 235330 | 3b
” 235400} 5c
” 235494 | 5e
” 2356:10| 5d
2 235676 | 4d
” 2358:53 | 5e
9 2359°69 | 3d
6e
99 2360°30 on
4g

Ca.

(re

Origin, &e,

Probably the mean
of a pair.

Mn.

} Mean of a pair.

Ca, Cr.
Ti.
Fe, Ca.
Fe.

Doubleray. Kach
component wing-
ed on both sides.

Triple ray.

Fe.

Fe.
i } Double ray.
Fe.

Fe.
Are

Between these two
other rays, Fe and
Fe, Ca.

Fe.

Groups.

Group 2335.

Faint.

Group 2340.

Faint.

Group 2347.
Faint.

Group 2350.

aint.

Group 2359.
Strong.

88
A Reci
, ng- eci-
Kirchhoff. strom. | procals.
4233°00 | 2362°39
a 422916] 64°53
422636 6610
4224:22| 67°30
ae 4222'88| 68:05
4221-71) 68-71
ets 4218°34| 70°60
oe 4216°58| 71°59
4215°33| 72°29
4213'43| 73°36
420990] 75°35
4206:25| 77°41
4204:55| 78°37
4203:29| 79°09
4201°56| 80°07
4200°27| 80°80
a 419813) 82-01
4197-98 | 82°10
4196°52} 82°93
4195°42| 83°55
4194°73| 83°94
+ 4191°17| 85°97
eee 4188°48| 87°50

REPORT— 1878.

CaraLoGvE (continued).

Reduc- Inten-
tion to sity
aie Frequency. and
cuum. width.
0°66 | 2361:37 | 6b
3 2363°87 | 5b
eat ee es ene
” 2365-44 on
4g
” 2366°64 | la
” 2367°39 2b
” 2368°05 | 5d
0°66 | 236994 | 5a
0°67 237092 | 3b
f 237162 | Ge
” 23'72°69 2 a
” 237468 5 c
” 2376°74 | 4b
» 237842 | la
6b
” 2379-40 on
2g
” 2380138} 4¢
” 238134 5 a
4a
43
» | 238143 |{ oa
” 2382.26 1 a
, | 288288] 2a
” 2383°27 | 4a
6a
” 2385'30 3
4f
” 2386:83 | 3 a

Origin, &c. Groups.
Fe, Ca. Group 2363.
fo. Faint.
g- Ca. Winged on both | G72uP 2867.
sides. Very strong. ee
Not in Angstrém’s map.
fo}
Not in Angstrém’s map.
Fe.
Fe, Group 2371.
Faint.
Between these a ray
Ca. of Fe.
Fe. '
Fe. | Between these two
Fe other rays of Fe.
* | Between these a ray
Fe. of Fe.
Fe. Group 2380..
Strong.
|e Winged ray.
Fe.
Fe.
Fe. Double and nebulous.
Between these a ray
of Fe.
Fe.
——— | Between these a ray
of Ca. Group 2387.
Fe. Strong.

Ca, | Double ray.

OSCILLATION-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS. 89

CaTALOGUE (continued).

5 _ |Redue- Tnten- |
Kirchhoff. ay aed iF i i Frequency. on Origin, &e. Groups.
cuum. width. ; | ;
oe tS ee eemeress |. te See
4187718 | 2388°24. | 0°67 238757 | 5f | Fe. \
4186°68 88°53 nf 2387'86 5d | Fe. j Double winged ray.
| Between these a ray
H J of Fe, Ti
$y« 418353} 90°33 + 238966 | 2b Group 2392.
Qa | Faint.
418135} 9157 |_,, 90 ie
91°57 2390°9 ae | Fe.
417885] 93°00] ,, 239253 | 4e

( Fe. The least refrangible |Group 2395.
2393'33 | 5e | ] of a group of four rays Hain:
of Fe.

4177-10] 94:00] ,,

4171-77 | 2397°06 | ,,

2396°39 ep Fe.
3g | Fe, Ti. geet these a

4166°64|2400'01 | ,, 2399:34 | 5e | Fe.

ray of Fe.
4164-95] co'99 | _,, 2400°32| 3c |
4163:14| 02°03 | _,, 240136 | 4c | Ti.
b
4160:87| 03°34] ,, 94.0267 an } Double, nebulous.
4158:52| 04°70 03 { et
Fa 35 2404 oe.
4157-43! 05°33 | 067 | 940466] 5d | Fe.
F
4155°74| 0631 | 0-68 | 9405-68 {ie hes
ai
4b | Fe.
4153°79| 07:44 | ,, 2406°76 |4 4b | Fe.
5e | Fe
415153] 0875 |, 2408:07| Ge | Fe. |
4150°36 09°43 ” 2408°75 4d | Fe. |
4148-60] 1045] ,, 2409°77 | 4e¢ | Fe.
4147-10| 11°32 | ,, 2410°64 | 2b | Fe. |
-—|—__}—_ , — |_| —|
6f | Fe. _ | Group 2413.
414314] 13°63 | ,, | 24te95 |{” ki Scan ot bs sce GB |
/ ib |
4141-73, x445| ,, | 2413-77 { aff
. | 413926! 589, | 2415-21 { vhs
| | .

90 REPORT—1878.
CaTaLoavE (continued).
a Reduc- Inten-
: Ang- Reci- | tion t i ae
Kirchhoff. Avi eceal ea ° |rrequency. anal Origin, &e. Groups.
cuum width,
2a
4136°36|2417°58 | 068 | 2416:90 { as
4b ; G !
ie 4133-94 T9700))||";; 9418'32 {i b \ Fe. Winged double ray. ee
z | Between thesetwo
rays of Fe,
eis 4131-52 20°42 aA 2419'74 | Ge | Fe, Ca. J) Winged ray.
BG.) M1 e7 Daily heaton Ins 23 | {
rea rye 242223 4c | Fe.
2
ty AI25'G6)|) 23°85 ;, 242317 ie
2a
6 4122°83) 25°52: | 4 9494°84| 3a | Fe,
| ... | 4121-58] 2628] ,, | 242560] 4b | Fe.
.. | 4120°57] 26°85 | ,, 2426-17 | 4b | Fe.
ee 3 ‘ Ga Fe. Closely double ray.
a SUE (8 |) 28°49), 242751 { 5a } Both may be Fe.
ek 1 at 6b u ea Group 2439
oe 4101-20} 3831] ,, 243763 jen fe et Winged on both (the pyeen
sides. ;
4g Very strong.
we 4097°55| 40°48 | 0°68 2439°80 | 3 Ca, Fe.
eee 409564] 4162 | 069 | 244093) 3b | Ca.
cae 4094:59| 42°25] ,, 2441:56 | 4d
aan 4091°87] 43°37] ., 2443:18| 5¢ | Ca.
Mee 4089°81] 45710] ,, 9444-41] Qa
ee 408417} 4848 / ,, 9447°79 | 4c | Fe. Group 2448.
Between these two Faint.
—— ara a ea ead | rays of Mn. oo
ABs 4079-68} 5117 | ,, 245048] 4f i eG Group 2453.
; ; ? ‘a, Winged, especially on Strong.
a SEITE 52°75 dee 245205 | 4f less refrangible side. :
3
.. | 407635) 5317], | 245248] {2 |} ¥e. Closely double.
Ba
eS 407100} 5640] ,, 245571 | 6g | Fe. Winged on both sides. | Group 2458.
Qa ; Strong.
‘ie 4066:33| 59°22 | ,, 9458'53 re i Fe.
aa
Fe, Mn. Wing t]
. | 4062-90] 6130 | ,, | 2460°61| 6g } Ao.

OSCILLATLON-FREQUENCIES OF SOLAR RAYS.

91

CArALoGvUE (continued).

° | Reduc- Inten-
z Ang- Reci- |tion to sity
Kiechhoff. strom. | procals. | va- Frequency.) and
cuum. | width.

ces 4057-22 | 2464°74. | 0°69 2464°05 | Ga

405448 66°41 | 0°69 2465:'72| 5a

ns 4051°75| 68-07 | 0°70 2467°37 | 2a

4048:22} 7022] ,, 9469°52 | 5b

cow 4045°10} = 72°13 Pr 247143 | 6¢

j °6¢
es 4040:13| 75°17] ,, 2474-47 {

3a

sale 4033:92| 78°98 | ,, 247828] Ge

ae 4029°50| 81°70] ,, 2481:00 | Ge

5 4024-45 84°82 He 9484:12| 4b

ore 4020°27| 87°39 | ,, 248669 | 5e

Me, 401678} 89°56) ,, 2488°86 | 4¢

See 400490} 96:94 | ,, 249624 6¢g

| we 4001°35 | 2499°03 | _, 2498°33 | 3b

iss 3997°98 | 2501°36 | o'70 250066 | 4¢

| 396810] 20°10 | 071 2519'39 | 6
893300} 42°59 | ,, 254188 | 6

Origin, &e. Groups.
Group 2466.
Fe, Mn. oe
Fe.
Mn.
Fe. Winged on both sides. | Group 2473.
A ' Strong.
\ Triple.
Fe.
Mn.) Between these two | Group 2480.
rays of Mn and one Strong.
| of Fe.
Mn.} Wing on more re-
frangible side.
Fe.
Fe.
Fe. Close double ray.

Fe. Winged, especially on | Group 2498.
| less refrangible side. Strong.
Fe.

Fe.
(Very strong ne-| Group 2530
bulous wings on | (the great H
H.,Fe,| both sides of Group). Very
Gu each of these strong.
4 rays. Many rays
H,, Fe, | between them,
Ca. especially two
rays of Al, both
\ winged.

92 REPORT—1878.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Caytuy, Dr. Farr,
Mr. J. W. L. Guatsuer, Dr. Poin, Professor Futter, Professor
A. B. W. Kernnepy, Professor Ciirrorp, and Mr. C. W. Murri-
FIELD, appointed to consider the advisability and to estimate the
expense of constructing Mr. Bansacu’s Analytical Machine, and of
printing Tables by its means. Drawn wp by Mr. Merrirrex.

WE desire in the first place to record our obligations to General Henry
Babbage for the frank and liberal manner in which he has assisted the
Committee, not only by placing at their disposal all the information with-
in his reach, but by exhibiting and explaining to them, at no small loss of
time and sacrifice of personal convenience, the machinery and papers left
by his father, the late Mr. Babbage. Without the valuable aid thus kindly
rendered to them by General Babbage it would have been simply impos-
sible for the Committee to have come to any definite conclusions, or to
present any useful report.

We refer to the chapter in Mr. Babbage’s ‘ Passages from the Life of a
Philosopher,’ and to General Menabrea’s paper, translated and annotated
by Lady Lovelace, in the third volume of Taylor’s ‘ Scientific Memoirs,’ for
a general description of the Analytical Engine.

I. The General Principles of Calculating Engines.

The application of arithmetic to calculating machines differs from or-
dinary clockwork, and from geometrical construction, in that it is essen-
tially discontinuous. In common clockwork, if two wheels are geared
together so as to have a velocity ratio of 10 to 1 (say), when the faster
wheel moves through the space of one tooth, the angular space moved
through by the slower wheels is one-tenth of a tooth. Now in a calcu-
lating machine, which is to work with actual figures and to print them,
this is exactly what we don’t want. We require the second wheel not to
move at all until it has to make a complete step, and then we require that
step to be taken all at once. The time can be very easily read from the
hands of a clock, and so can the gas consumption from an ordinary
counter; but a moment’s reflection will show what a mess any such ma-
chinery would make of an attempt at printing.

This necessity of jumping discontinuously from one figure to another
is the fundamental distinction between calculating and numbering machines
on the one hand, and millwork or clockwork on the other. A parallel
distinction is found in pure mathematics, between the theory of numbers
on the one hand, and the doctrine of continuous variation, of which the
Differential Calculus is the type, on the other. A calculating machine
may exist in either case. The common slide-rule is, in fact, a very power-
ful calculating machine in which the continuous process is used, and the
planimeter is another.

Geometrical construction, being essentially continuous, would be quite
out of place in the calculating machine which has to print its results.
Linkwork also, for the same reason, is out of place as an auxiliary in any
form to the calculation. It may be of service in simplifying the construc-
tion of the machine ; but it must not enter into the work as an equivalent
for arithmetical computation,

ON BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL MACHINE. ~ 93

The primary movement of calculating engines is the discontinuous
train, of which one form is sketched in the accompanying diagram (fig. 1):
—B is the follower, an ordinary spur wheel with (say) 10 teeth; A is its
driver, and this has only a single tooth. With a suitable proportion of parts,
the single tooth of A only moves B one interval for a whole revolution of
A; for it only gears with B by means of this single tooth. When that is
not in gear, A simply slips past the teeth of B without moving the latter.

All the other machinery of calculating engines leads up to and makes
use of this, or of some transformation of it, as its means of dealing with
units of whatever decimal rank, instead of allowing indefinite fractions of
units to appear in the result which has to be printed from.

Fig. 1.

The primary operation of calculation is counting: the secondary opera-
tion is addition, with its counterpart, subtraction. The addition and sub-
traction are in reality effected by means of counting, which still remains
the primary operation; but the necessity for economising labour and time
forces upon us devices for performing the counting processes in a summary
manner, and for allowing several of them to go on simultaneously in the
calculating engine. For, if we use simple counting as our only operation,
and suppose our engine set to 2312 (say), then, in order to add 3245 to it
by mere repetition, we have 3245 unit operations to perform, and this is
practically intolerable. If, however, we can separate the counting, so as
to count on units to units only, tens to tens only, hundreds to hundreds
only, and so forth, we shall only have

842+4+4+5=14

turns of the handle, as against 3245 turns. In general terms the number
of operations will be measured by the sum of the digits of the number,
instead of by the actual number itself. This is exactly analogous to what
we should do ourselves in ordinary arithmetic in working an addition
sum, if we had not learnt the addition table, but had to count on our
fingers in order to add. This statement of the work is, however, incom-
plete. In the first place the convenience of machinery obliges us to pro-
_ vide 10 steps for each figure, whatever it may be, and there must be an
arrangement by which the setting of the figure to be added shall cause a
wheel to gain ground by so many steps as the number indicates, and to
mark time without gaining ground for the other steps up to 10. Thus, in
adding 7 our driver must make a complete turn or 10 steps, equivalent to
1 step of the follower; but only 7 of these steps of the driver must be
effective steps, the others being skipped steps. There are various devices
for this. One of the simplest and most direct is that used in Thomas’s

94 REPORT—1878.

‘Arithmométre ;’* another is the Reducing Bar used by Mr. Babbage. In
the second place, the carrying has to be provided for just as in ordinary

addition of numbers. Taking account of all this, it follows that by
separating the counting on the whole into counting on figure by figure,

* Let ZO (fig. 2) be a plate with ten ribs of different lengths, Aa, Bd,.... Kk
soldered on it. Let Mm be a square axis on which the wheel N is made to slide by
the fork P. Then, supposing N to have teeth which can engage in the ribs Aa, &c.,
when the plate is pushed past the wheel N, the number of teeth through which the
wheel N, carrying with it the shaft Mm, is made to rotate, depends upon the number
of ribs in which it engages, and this depends upon how far along the axis N is made
to slide by means of the fork P. If this fork is set opposite the line marked 3, Mm
will turn through a space equivalent to 3 teeth. If a wheel, keyed to the shaft Mm,
be geared to other wheels, this enables us to add any digit to any number ata
single motion of the plate, by simply changing the position of P to suit the digit
required. This is the principle used in Thomas’s arithmométre, only that there the
traversing plate is replaced by a rotating cylinder.

tT Suppose Aa, Bd, ... . Ff (fig. 3) to be a series of racks passing hrough mor-
tices in a plate wz, and meeting a series of spur-wheels mounted loose n a shaft, so
that each wheel gears with one of the racks at the line yg, and that 11 the whole
series can be thrown in or out of gear together. Starting with them out of gear,
let the racks be drawn out through the plate wz as indicated. Next throw the shaft
pq into gear, and then press a plate PQ against the ends of the racks, pushing them
back until the plates PQ and zz meet. Then each wheel on pg will turn through
the number of teeth corresponding to the original projection of the racks. In this
way, if the wheels on pg stood at any given number, say 543243, we should have
added 314236 to them, and they would then stand at the sum of these two numbers,
namely, 857479. This, it will be observed, makes no provision for carrying, PQ is

ON BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL MACHINE. 95

the number of separate steps is reduced from that expressed by the number
itself to eleven times the number of its digits; that is to say, for example,
the addition of the number 73592 to any other number is reduced from
73592 to 55 steps, and although of this latter some are slipped, there is
no gain of time thereby, except in so far as several of the steps may be
made simultaneously. The ordinary engines beat the human calculator
in respect of adding all the figures simultaneously ; but Mr. Babbage was
the first to devise a method of performing all the carrying simultaneously
too.

Mechanical invention has not yeti gone beyond the reduction of the
distinct steps involved in the addition of a number consisting of n digits
to less than 11; practically, from the necessity of accompanying the
carrying with a warning step, rather more are required.

In all the calculating machines at present known, including Mr.
Babbage’s analytical engine, multiplication is really effected by repeated
addition. It is true that, bya multiplication of parts, more than one addi-
tion may be going on simultaneously ; but it yet remains true, asa matter
of mechanism, that the process is purely one of iterated addition.

By means of reversing wheels or trains, subtraction is as easily and
directly performed as addition, and that without becoming in any degree
atentative process. But it is important to observe that the process can
be made tentative, so as to give notice when a minuend is, or is about to
become, exhausted. This is the necessary preparation for division, which is
thus essentially a tentative process. That does not take it out of the power
of the machine, because the machine may be, and is, so devised as to accept
and act upon the notice. Nevertheless it isa step alient generis from the
direct processes of addition, multiplication, and subtraction. It need hardly
be stated that the process of obtaining a quotient consists in counting the
number of subtractions employed, up to the machine giving notice of the
minuend being exhausted.

Another essentially distinct train is involved in the decimal shift of the
unit, in all the four elementary rules. This is most simply and most
commonly effected by the sliding of an axis or frame longitudinally, after
the manner of a common sliding-scale or rule, so as to bring either the
figures, or the teeth which represent them, against those to which their
decimal places correspond, and to no others. In multiplication and divi-
sion, this means a shift for each step of the multiplication and division.

II. Special Characteristics of Mr. Babbage’s Analytical Engine.

1. The mill_—The fundamental operation of Mr. Babbage’s analytical
engine is simple additition. This and the other elementary rules of sub-
traction, multiplication, and division, and all combinations of these, are
performed in what is called “‘the mill.’’ All the shifts which have to take
place, such as changing addition into subtraction by throwing a reversing
train into gear, or the shift of the decimal place, carrying and borrowing,
_ and so forth, are effected by a system of rotating cams acting upon or

the reducing bar. In practice the arrangement is usually circular, the bar PQ
revolving about an axis parallel to itself instead of sliding. If the numbers on the
wheels pq are placed one way we get addition; if reversed, subtraction. Otherwise
we may reverse by introducing an additional set of wheels between the wheels pq
and the racks.

This is the bare principle, admitting of many transformations, and making, like
the other, no provision for carrying.

96 REPORT—1878.

actuated by bell-cranks, tangs, and other similar devices commonly used
in shifting machinery, sometimes under the name of clutches or escape-
ments. These clutches and bell-cranks control the purely additive and
carrying processes effected in the additive trains described in the note to
§ L., and, being themselves suitably directed, secure that the proper processes
shall be performed upon the proper subject-matter of operation, and duly
recorded, or used, as may be required. ’

2. The store—A series of columns, each containing a series of wheels,
constitutes the store. This store, which may be in three or more dimen-
sions, both receives the results of operations performed in the mill, and
serves as astore for the numbers which are to be used in the mill, whether
as original or as fresh subjects of operation in it. Hach column in the
store corresponds to a definite number, to which it is set either automati-
cally or by hand, and the number of digits in this number is limited by
the number of wheels carried on the shaft of the column. The wheels
gear into a series of racks, which can be thrown into or out of gear by
means of the cards.

3. Variable cards.—All the numbers which are the subject of operation
in the mill, whether they are the result of previous operations therein, or
new numbers to be operated upon for the first time, are introduced to it
in the form of Jacquard* cards, such as are used in weaving. One set of
wires or axes transfers the numbers on these cards to the subject of ope-
ration in the mill, exactly as similar cards direct which of the warp
threads are to be pushed up, and which down, in the Jacquard loom. The
mill itself punches such cards when required.

4, Operation cards.—A different set of cards selects and prescribes the
sequence of operations. These act, not upon the number wheels of the
mill or store, but upon the cams and clutches which direct the gearing
of these wheels and trains. Thus, in such an operation as (ab + c) d,
we should require :—

Ist, 4 variable cards with the numbers a, 6, ¢, d.

2nd, an operation card directing the machine to multiply a and b
together.

8rd, a record of the result, namely the product ab =p, as a fifth
variable card.

Ath, an operation card directing the addition of p and c.

5th, a record of the result, namely the sum p+c=q, as a 6th variable
card,

6th, an operation card directing the machine to multiply “g and d
together.

7th, a record of the result, namely the product gd=p», either printed
as a final result or punched in a seventh variable card.

* In a letter written by Mr. Babbage to Arago in December 1839, the following
explanation of the use of these cards is given. It probably conveys the idea in the
fewest words possible. It is only necessary to add that their twofold employment
embodies the separation of the symbols of operation from those of quantity. “You
are aware that the system of cards which Jacquard invented are the means by
which we can communicate to a very ordinary loom orders to weave any pattern
that may be desired. Availing myself of the same beautiful invention, I have by
similar means communicated to my calculating engine orders to calculate any
formula however complicated; but I have also advanced one stage further, and I
have communicated through the same means orders to follow certain laws in the use
of those cards, and thus the calculating engine can solve any equations, eliminate
between any number of variables, and perform the highest operations of analysis.”

ON BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL MACHINE. 97

ILI. Capability of the Engine.

It has already been remarked that the direct work of the engine is a
combination and repetition of the processes of addition and subtraction.
But in leading up to any given datum by these combinations, there is no
difficulty in ascertaining tentatively when this datum is reached, or about
to be reached. This isstrictly a tentative process, and it appears probable
that each such tentamen requires to be specially provided for, so as to be
duly noted in the subsequent operations of the machine. There is, how-
ever, no necessary restriction to any particular process, such as division ;
but any direct combination of arithmetic, such as the formation of a poly-
nomial, can be made to lead up toa given value in such a manner as to yield
the solution of the corresponding equation. In any such process, how-
ever, it is evident that there can be only (to choose a simile from mechanism)
one degree of freedom ; otherwise the problem would yield a locus, inde-
terminate alike in common arithmetic, and as regards the capabilities of
the machine. The possibility of several roots would be a difficulty of
exactly the same character as that which presents itself in Horner’s solu-
tion of equations, and the same may be said of imaginary roots differing
but little from equality. These, however, are extreme cases, with which
it is usually possible to deal specially as they arise, and they need not be
considered as detracting materially from the value of the engine. Theo-
retically, the grasp of the engine appears to include the whole synthesis
of arithmetic, together with one degree of freedom tentatively. Its capa-
bility thus extends to any system of operations or equations which leads
to a single numerical result.

It appears to have been primarily designed with the following general
object in view—to be coextensive with numerical synthesis and solution,
without any special adaptation to a particular class of work, such as we
see in the difference engine. It includes that @ majori, and it can either
calculate any single result, or tabulate any consecutive series of results
just as well. But the absence of any speciality of adaptation is one of the
leading features of the design.

Mr. Babbage had also considered the indication of the passage through
infinity as well as through zero, and also the approach to imaginary roots.
For details upon these points we must refer to his ‘ Passages from the
Life of a Philosopher.’

IV. Present state of the Design.

The only part of the analytical engine which has yet been put together
is a small portion of ‘“ the mill,”’ sufficient to show the methods of addition
and subtraction, and of what Mr. Babbage called his “anticipating car-
riage.’ It is understood that General Babbage will (independently of
this report) publish a full account of this method. No further mention -
of it will therefore be made here,

A small portion of the work is in gun-metal wheels and cranks,
mounted for the most part on steel shafts. But the greater part of the |
wheels are in a sort of pewter hardened with zinc. This was adopted from
motives of economy. They are for the most part not cast, but moulded
by pressure, and the moulds of most of them are in existence.

_ A large number of drawings of the machinery are also in existence. It
is Ape that these are complete to the extent of giving an account of
: H

98 REPORT— 1878,

every particular movement essential to the design of the engine; but, for
the most part, they are not working drawings, that is to say, they are not
drawings suited to be sent straight to the pattern or fitting shop, to be
rendered in metal. There are also drawings for the erection of the
engine, and there appears to be a complete set of descriptive notes of it in
Mr. Babbage’s ‘‘ mechanical notation.” There remains, however, a great
deal to be done in the way of calculating quantities and proportions, and
in the preparation of working drawings, before any work could actually
be set in hand, even if the design be really complete. There issome doubt
on this pointas the matter stands, and it certainly would be unsafe to rely
upon the design being really complete, until the working drawings had been
got out. Mechanical engineers are well aware that no complex design
can be trusted without this test, at least.

Tt was Mr. Babbage’s rule, in designing mechanism, in the first place
to work to his object, in utter disregard of any questions of complexity.
‘This is a good rule in all devising of methods, whether analytical,
mechanical, or administrative. But it leaves in doubt, until the design
finally leaves the inventor's hands in a finished state, whether it really
represents what is meant to be rendered in metal, or whether it is simply
a provisional solution, to be afterwards simplified.

V. Probable Cost.

Tt has not been possible for us to form any exact conclusion as to the
-gost. Nevertheless there are some data in existence which appear to fix
a lower limit to the cost. Mr. Babbage, in his published papers, talks of
having 1,000 columns of wheels, each containing 50 distinct wheels; this
apparently refers to his store. Besides the many thousand moulded
pewter wheels for these, and the axes on which they are mounted, there
is the mill, also consisting of a series of columns of wheels and of a vast
machinery of cams, clutches, and cranks for their control and connection,
‘so as to bring them within the directing power of the Jacquard systems
of variable cards and operation cards. Without attempting any exact
estimate, we may say that it would surprise us very much if it were found
possible to obtain tenders for less than 10,0001, while it would pretty
certainly cost a considerable sum to put the design in a fit state for
obtaining tenders. On the other hand, it would not surprise us if the cost
were to reach three or four times the amount above suggested.

It is understood that towards the close of his life Mr. Babbage had
contemplated carrying out the manufacture of the engine on a smaller
scale, confining himself to 25 figures instead of 00, and to 200 columns
instead of 1000 or more. This would of course reduce the amount of
the metal-work proportionately, but we do not think that it would mate-
rially reduce the charge which we anticipate for bringing the design into
working order.

VI. Strength and Durability.

The questions of strength and durability had by no means escaped Mr.
Babbage’s attention, and a great deal of his detail bears marks of having
been designed with especial reference to these two points. That was
essential in a large amd complex engine with some thousands of wheels, all
requiring at some time or other, although not simultaneously, to be driven
by the means of one shaft, This necessarily throws a great deal of
pressure, and also a great deal of wear and tear, on the main driving shaft

ON BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL MACHINE. 99

and the gear immediately connected with it. We have no means of
knowing, in the present state of the design, to what extent Mr. Babbage
had succeeded in reducing this, or whether he had always been successful
in arranging his cams and cranks so as to secure the best working angles,
and to avoid their being jammed at dead points or otherwise. Giving
him full credit for being quite aware of the importance of this, we cannot
but doubt whether the design was ever in a sufficiently forward state to
enable him, or any one else, to speak with certainty on this point. Several
of the existing calculating machines show signs of weakness in the
driving-pinions.

One of the movements apparently necessary to the tentative processes
of the engine is, when the spur-wheels on a given shaft have been brought
into certain definite positions depending on previous operations, to bring
up a sharp straight edge against’ them in a plane passing through the
axis of the shaft. This pushes some to right and others to left, according
to the position of the crown of the tooth relatively to the straight edge.
This operation is necessary to secure that the clearance of the different
parts of the machinery, whether originally provided in order to allow it
to work smoothly, or whether afterwards increased by working, shall not
introduce a numerical error into the result. The principle of this operation
is used generally throughout the analytical engine. Its consequent
effect, both in respect of the work which it throws upon the main driving
gear, and of the wear of the parts which it pushes, forms an important
element in considering the durability of the machine. This bar also
serves the purpose of locking part of the machine when required.

On the other hand, it is to be remarked, that the use of springs has
been wholly discarded by Mr. Babbage, as directors of motion, although
he occasionally uses them for return motions.

VIL. Probable utilization of the Analytical Engine.

It has been already remarked that one of the main features of the
engine is, that its function is coextensive with numerical synthesis and
solution, and that there is an absence of any special adaptation. In thus
widening the sphere of its capability, it is made to diverge from the
general tendency of mechanical design, which is towards the selection and
particularization of the work to be performed, and the restriction of the
machinery to one particular cycle of operation, usually within close
numerical limits, as well as limited in kind. Nevertheless, modern
engineering practice finds ample room for “universal” drills, shaping
tools, and other machines having very general adjustments and appli-
cations. But it remains practically true that each step of freedom of
adjustment is also a step in diminution of special aptitude.

While the analytical engine is capable of turning out a single result,
as the combination of a complex series of numbers and operations per-
formed upon them, it can also yield a series of such results in a consecutive
form, and thus give tabulated results. Only it is not restricted, as is the
difference engine, to the special method of tabulation by finite differences,
nor is tabulation its primary function ‘or intention. If its actual capa-
bilities are found to realize the intentions of its inventor, it will tabulate
all functions which are within the reach of numerical synthesis, and those
direct inversions of it which are known under the name of solutions. It

deals, however, with number, and not with analytical form.
H 2

100 REPORT—1878.

Theoretically it might supersede the difference engine, @ majort; but
for reasons already stated, the specialization of the difference engine
would probably give it an advantage over the more powerful engine,
when the work was specially suited to finite differences.

There would remain much work, tabular and other, for which diffe-
rences are not very directly suited. Among these may be mentioned the
determination of heavy series of constants and of definite functions of
them, such as Bernonlli’s numbers, 2a", coefficients of various expan-
sions of functions, and inversions of known. expansions, solutions of
simultaneous equations with large numerical coefficients and many
variables, including, as a particular, but important case, the practical
correction of observations by the method of least squares. [fall sorts of
heavy work of this kind could be easily and quickly, as well as certainly,
done, by merely selecting or punching a few Jacquard cards and turning
a handle, not only much saving of labour would result, but much which is
now out of human possibility would be brought within easy reach.

If intelligently directed and saved from wasteful use, such a machine
might mark an era in the history of computation, as decided as the intro-
duction of logarithms in the seventeenth century did in trigonometricat
and astronomical arithmetic. Care might be required to guard against
misuse, especially against the imposition of Sisyphean tasks upon it by
influential sciolists. This, however, is no more than has happened in
the history of logarithms. Much-work has been done with them which
could more easily have been done without them, and the old reproach is
probably true, that more work has been spent upon making tables than
has been saved by their use. Yet, on the whole, there can be no reason-
able doubt: that the first calculation of logarithmic tables was an expen-
diture of capital which has repaid itself over and over again. ‘So
probably would the analytical engine, whatever its cost, if we could be
assured of its success.

VIII. Possible Modification of the Engine.

Without prejudging the general question referred to us as to the
advisability of completing Mr. Babbage’s engine in the exact shape in
which it exists in the machinery and designs left by its inventor, it is
open to consideration whether some modification of it, to the sacrifice
of some portion of its generality, would not reduce the cost, and simplify
the machinery, so as to bring it within the range of both commercial and
mechanical certainty. The “mill,’’*for example, is an exceedingly good
mechanical arrangement for the operations of addition and subtraction,
and with a slight modification, with or without store-columns, for muiti-
plication. We have already called attention to the imperfection of the
existing machines, which show weakness and occasional uncertainty. It
is at least worth consideration whether a portion of the analytical engine
might not thus be advantageously specialized, so as to furnish a better
multiplying machine than we at present possess. This, we have reason
to believe, is a great desideratum both in public and private offices, as
well as in aid of mathematical calculators.

Another important desideratum to which the machine might be
adapted, without the introduction of any tentative processes (out of
which the complications of the machinery chiefiy arise) is the solution of
simultaneous equations containing many variables. This would include

ON BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL MACHINE. 101

a large part of the caiculations involvéd in the practical application of
the method of least squares. The solution of such equations can always
be expressed as the quotient of two determinants, and the obtaining
this quotient is a final operation, which may be left to the operator to
perform by ordinary arithmetic, or which may be the subject of a separate
piece of machinery, so that the more direct work of forming the deter-
minant, which is a mere combination of the three direct operations of
addition, subtraction, and multiplication, may be entirely freed from the
tentative process of division, which would thus be prevented from compli-
cating the direct machinery. In the absence of a special engine for the
purpose, the solution of large sets of simultaneous equations is a most
laborious task, and a very expensive process indeed, when it has to be
paid for, in the cases in which the result is imperatively needed. An engine
that would do this work at moderate cost would place a new and most
valuable computing power at the disposal of analysts and physicists.

Other special modifications of the engine might also find a fair field
for reproductive employment. We do not think it necessary to go into
these questions at any great length, because they involve a departure, in
the way of restriction and specialization, from Mr. Babbage’s idea, of
which generality was thesleading feature. Nevertheless, we think that
we should be guilty of an omission, if we were to fail to suggest them for
consideration.

IX. General Conclusions, and Recommendation.

1. We are of opinion that the labours of Mr. Babbage, firstly on his
Difference Engine, and secondly on his Analytical Engine, are a marvel
of mechanical ingenuity and resource.

2. We entertain no doubt as to the utility of such an engine as was
in his contemplation when he undertook the invention of his analytical
engine, supposing it to be successfully constructed and maintained in
efficiency.

8. We do not consider that the possibilities of its misuse are any
serious drawback to its use or value.

4, Apart from the question of its saving labour in operations now
possible, we think the existence of such an instrument would place within
reach much which, if not actually impossible, has been too close to the
limits of human skill and endurance to be practically available.

5. We have come to the conclusion that in the present state of the
design of the engine it is not possible for us to form any reasonable
estimate of its cost, or of its strength and durability.

6. We are also of opinion that, in the present state of the design,
it is not more than a theoretical possibility; that is to say, we do not
consider it a certainty that it could be constructed and put together soas
to run smoothly and correctly, and to do the work expected of it.

7. We think that there remains much detail to be worked out, and
possibly some further invention needed, before the design can be brought
into a state in which it would be possible to judge whether it would
really so work.

8. We think that a further cost would have to be incurred in order
to bring the design to this stage, and that it is just possible that a
mechanical failure might cause this expenditure to be lost.

9. While we are unable to frame any exact estimates, we have reason

102 “REPORT—1878.

to think that the cost of the engine, after the drawings are completed,
would be expressed in tens of thousands of pounds at least.

10. We think there is even less possibility of forming an opinion as
to its strength and durability than as to its feasibility or cost.

11. Having regard to all these considerations, we have come, not
without reluctance, to the conclusion, that we cannot advise the British
Association to take any steps, either hy way of recommendation or other-
wise, to procure the construction of Mr, Babbage’s Analytical Hngine
and the printing tables by its means.

12. We think it, however, a question for further consideration
whether some specialized modification of the engine might not be worth
construction, to serve as a simple multiplying machine, and another
modification of it arranged for the calculation of determinants, so as to
serve for the solution of simultaneous equations. This, however, mas-
much as it involves a departure from the general idea of the inventor, we
regard as lying outside the terms of reference, and therefore perhaps
rather for the consideration of Mr. Babbage’s representatives than ours.
We accordingly confine ourselves to the mere mention of it by way of
suggestion.

Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joutx, Professor
Sir W. Tromson, Professor Tarr, Professor BaLrour Stewart, and
Professor MaxweEtx, appointed for the purpose of determining
the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.

Ir will not be necessary to make a long report to the Association this
year. Dr. Joule has published a paper, giving in extenso the experiments
summarized in the last two reports in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society,’ which was the medium of the publication of his former
paper in 1850. The new restlt, which confirms the old one, gives 772°55
foot-pounds as the equivalent at the sea level and the latitude of Green-
wich of the heat which can raise a pound of water, weighed in vacuo,
frem 60° to 61° Fahr. of the mercurial thermometer, where the perma-
nent freezing point is called 32°, and the permanent boiling point of
water under a barometrical pressure of 30 inches of mercury raised to
GO° Fahr. is 212°. The work at present in hand is a more accurate
investigation of the true position of the freezing and boiling points of
the thermometers when cleared from the effects of the imperfect elasticity
of the glass of which they are constructed. The correction of the above

equivalent which may thus accrue is not expected to be of considerable
amount.

ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 103

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forsus, Pro-
fessor Sir Wint1am THomson, and Professor Evrerrrr, appointed
for the purpose of making arrangements for the taking of cer-
tain Observations in India, and Observations on Atmospheric
Electricity at Madeira.

Tue Committee has purchased three electrometers. These have been
given, one to Surgeon-Major Johnson, in India; the second to Mr. Michie
Smith, in India ; and the third to Dr. Grabham, in Madeira. Surgeon-
Major Johnson was engaged in the frontier war in India; and Dr. Grab-
ham has hitherto been too much occupied to make observations, while
Mr. Michie Smith has not yet had time to furnish any. So that up to the
present time no observations have been received. Your Committee feel
confident of obtaining results from Mr. Smith, and hope also from the
other observers, but in the event cf their being unable to furnish regular
observations, your Committee would get the electrometers back and make
them available for other persons. They propose that the Committee
should be reappointed.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WILLIAM
Tomson, Professor Cuerk MAxweE tL, Professor Tarr, Dr. C. W.
Siemens, Mr. F. J. Bramweii, Mr. W. Froups, and Mr. J. T.
Borromury, for commencing Secular Experiments wpon the
Elasticity of Wires. Drawn wp by J. T. Borromiey.

Tue Committee have to report that the arrangements for suspending the
wires for secular experiments on elasticity are now complete ; and that
within the last few days two wires, one of palladium, and the other of
platinum, have been suspended in their places.

An iron tube has been erected in one of the rooms in the tower of
the University buildings in Glasgow. It is 60 feet long, 9 inches wide,
and 44 inches deep from face to hack. it is of rectangular section, in
lengths ot 6 feet; and it is supported by being firmly attached to the
heavy outer stone wall of the tower.

At the top of the tube there is a heavy gun-metal plate, which is sup-
ported independently of the iron tube; and from this plate the wires
under examination are to be suspended, as weil as additional wires to be
used for carrying additional comparison marks. With this arrangement
no yielding of the supporting plate that may take place will introduce
errors into the results of measurement of the lengths of the wires; for
the point of support of the wire carrying comparison marks will expe-
rience the same amount of lowering, due to the yielding, as is experienced
by the wire to be measured against these marks. The gun-metal plate
has been pierced with three rows of holes through which the wires are
to pass. The holes are trumpeted at each end so as to avoid sharp con-
tact with the wires, and the rows are arranged so that the wires shall
hang down in planes parallel to the face of the tube. It has not yet
been decided what is the best way of fixing the upper ends of the

104 REPORT—1878.

wires above the gun-metal plate, or of attaching the weights to their
lower ends. No thoroughly satisfactory mode of attachment has yet
been found. In the course of experiments which have been carried on
at Glasgow on the breaking weight, and the Young’s modulus of elasticity
of the gold, platinum, and palladium wires, which it is: intended shall be
first suspended for examination, several modes of suspension have been
tried; but it has not been found possible to make sure of avoiding very
considerable weakening of the wire at the points of attachment at the ends.

At the bottom of the iron tube there is a window of plate glass
through which the lower parts of the wires can be viewed, and the
window can be drawn up so as to allow of the lower parts of the wires
being reached.

In front of the window a strong gun-metal table is set up. It is sup-
ported, independently of the iron tube and of the floor of the room, on
iron brackets fixed to the stone wall of the chamber, and is very carefully
levelled. On this table a cathetometer is carried, by means of which
marks on the wires are to be observed. The cathetometer moves on the
table parallel to the planes of the rows of wires. It has the two back
feet of the triangular sole-plate on which it is supported movable in a
V-groove cut in the table, the third foot resting on the plane upper sur-
face. There is also a slot cut in the table through which a screw passes
up from below to the sole-plate of the cathetometer, and by means of this
screw the cathetometer can be clamped in any required place.

The catketometer is a small instrument which has been constructed
by Mr. James White, of Glasgow. for the purpose of these experiments.
The main pillar is 1 foot high. It is supported on a sole-plate having
three levelling screws. The telescope or microscope, having cross fibres,
is raised or lowered on this pillar on a proper geometrical slide, and has
also a lifting screw in connection with a vernier for giving fine adjust-
ment. The vertical pillar is carefully graduated ; and by means of this
scale the differences of levels of proper marks put upon the wires are
to be determined.

The arrangements have only been completed within the last few days.
They require to be carefully tested in several pvints, and particularly the
cathetometer requires careful examination. There is every reason, how-
ever, to expect that the work will turn out quite satisfactory. As soon
as possible the work of testing will be completed and wires suspended,
measured, and marked. ,

During the past year experiments in connection with this investiga-
tion have been carried on in the laboratory of the University of Glasgow,
on the breaking-weights and elastic properties of various wires. In the
first place the breaking-weights and the Young’s modulus, or modulus of
elasticity for longitudinal pull, have been determined for the gold, pla-
tinum, and palladium wires, with which it is proposed that the secular
experiments on elasticity shall commence. A large number of experi-
ments on the effect of stress, maintained for a considerable time, in alter-
ing the breaking weight and the extension under increased stress of
various wires, have been carried on. Soft iron wire, steel wire, and tin
wire in particular, have been experimented upon, and already some inte-
resting results have been obtained, showing that prolonged application of
stress certainly produces a noticeable effect.

ON THE CHEMISTRY OF SOME OF THE LESSER-KNOWN ALKALOIDS. 105

Report of the Committee on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-
known Alkaloids, especially Veratria and Bebeerine; the Com-
mittee consisting of W. Cuanvier Rosurts, F'.R.S. (Sec.), Dr. C.
R. Atprr Wrieut, and Mr. A. P. Lourr.

Tue work at present completed has led to conclusions very diverse from
those arrived at by previous experimenters who have partially examined
the alkaloids contained in the seeds of Veratrum Sabadilla (Asagrwa
officinalis) ; in consequence, other species of the Veratrum family (such as
Veratrum album) are being investigated with a view to finding out how
far the alkaloids therein contained are related to the bases found in V.
_ Sabadilla. These investigations being at present incomplete, it would be
premature.to report on them otherwise than in general terms. The same
remark applies to Bebeerine ; the experiments with this alkaloid having
at present led to little that is definite.

Amongst other pharmaceutical and chemical researches on the alkaloids
of Veratrum Sabadilla may be briefly mentioned those of Pelletier and -
Caventou, who isolated in 1819 an amorphous alkaloid or alkaloidal
mixture fusing at 50°; and of Couerbe, who, in 1834, obtained three
alkaloidal bodies, one of which was amorphous, but yielded a crystalline
sulphate ahd hydrochloride ; to this base he applied the term Veratrine.
The second base isolated was soluble in water, and crystallisable there-
from, and was termed by him Sabadilline; whilst the third substance was
soluble in water, but non-crystallisable; this was termed by Couerbe
Hydrate of Sabadilline. Later on, in 1855, Merck isolated from the
amorphous mixture sold under the name of ‘‘ Veratria” an alkaloid readily
erystallisable from alcohol, but forming salts quite uncrystallisable, the
aurochloride excepted. Notwithstanding that this base differed entirely
in properties from the Veratrine of Couerbe, Merck applied to it the same
name, “ Veratrine,’ and ascribed to it the formula C3,H;,N.O,. In 1871
Weigelin, working in Dragendorft’s laboratory, obtained from V. Sabadilla
three alkaloidal substances, one of which was apparently the Veratrine of
Merck in an impure state; whilst the other two were soluble in water,
and were termed respectively Sabadilline and Sabatrine. Within the
last year or two, Schmidt and Képpen have re-examined the so-called
‘* Veratria ’’ of commerce, and have obtained from it and from Sabadilla
seeds direct a crystallisable base, fusing at 205°, and evidently identical
with the Veratrine of Merck. To this, however, they assign the formula,
C,.H;,NO,, somewhat different from Merck’s formula, especially in the
nitrogen.

On working up a quantity of crushed Sabadilla seeds by percolating
with alcohol acidulated with tartaric acid, evaporating to a small bulk,
adding water, filtering from resin, and extraction of alkaloids by adding
soda and shaking with large bulks of ether, we have obtained an alkaloidal
mixture from which, by further operations, there have been separated
three distinct alkaloids. As the process employed has been already
described at length (‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ 1878), it is un-
necessary to repeat it here.

One of these alkaloids melted at 205°-206°, crystallised finely from
alcohol, formed a crystallised aurochloride, but no other crystalline salts,
and was evidently identical with the Veratrine of Merck. The second did
not crystallise itself, but formed a well-crystallised sulphate and hydro-

106 REPORT—1878.

chloride, and was apparently identical with the Veratrine of Couerbe. The -
third neither crystallised nor yielded crystalline salts, but was sharply dis-
tinguished by its sparing solubility inether. Nothing agreeing in properties
with the ‘ Sabadilline’ of Couerbe and of Weigelin could be found either in
the alkaloids extracted from the seeds, in a quantity of the alkaloidal mix-
ture sold commercially as “‘ Veratria,”’ oz, finally, in a substance purchased
from Messrs. Burgoyne and Burbidges (Kahlbaum’s agents) as being Saba-
dilline itself! This last substance consisted entirely of the third base
above mentioned, the only point of similarity between it and ‘ Sabadilline’
- being very sparing solubility in ether.

Each one of the three bases was saponified by alcoholic soda, the first
and third apparently forming the same acid product which has been
identified with the Methylerotonie Acid of Frankland and Duppa, and
with the Cevadic Acid of Pelletier and Caventou; the second tase yielded,
by similar treatment, Dimethylprotocatechwic Acid, identical with that
similarly obtained from pseudaconitine, and, as Kérner has shown,
identical with that isolated by Merck from V. Sabadilla seeds, and
‘ termed by him Veratric Acid. From these circumstances we propose
to assign to the three bases respectively the following names. The for-
mulz attached are those derived from our own analyses; in the case of
the first base our numbers are practically identical with those of Merck
and of Schmidt and Képpen, Merck’s nitrogen determination éxcepted.

(1.) Cevadine, C3,HygNO,; the “ Veratrine”’ of Merck. We term this
Cevadine because the prior right to the name, “ Veratrine,” rests with
Couerbe’s base (vide infra), and because it forms Cevadic acid on saponi-
fication, the reaction being

C3.H,,NO, + 18G, = C;H,0, + C.-H,.NQ,.

(2.) Veratrine, C,,H;,NO,,; the ‘ Veratrine’ of Couerbe. We term
this Veratrine because, as just stated, the prior right to the name belongs
to it, and because it forms Veratric acid on saponification; the reaction
being ;
C37H;3NO), + H.O = CoH, 0,4 + CogHy;NOs.

(3.) Cevadilline, C3,H;,NO3. We term this Cevadilline because it
exhibits a certain amount of similarity to the “ Sabadilline”’ described by
Weigelin, and because it appears to form Cevadic acid on saponification.

The basic complementary products formed by saponification from these
three bases we propose to term respectively Cevine, Verine, and Cevilline.
Cevine and Verine are non-crystalline, and mach resembie one another.

When Cevadic acid is heated with fusing potash, hydrogen is evolved,
and acetic and propionic acids formed. As Cevadic acid melts at 64°-65°,
its identity with the Methylcrotonic acid of Frankland and Duppa is
thereby demonstrated, this acid having been found to melt at 62° (F. and
D.) ; whilst Angelic acid, which also forms acetic and propionic acids by
fusion with potash, melts at 45°.

When Cevadine is heated to 100° with excess of benzoic anhydride, it
forms a benzoylated derivative, Benzoyl Cevadine, in virtue of the reaction

Cz2HygNOy + (C;H;0)20 = C;H;O2 + C32Hys(C;H;0)NOg.
It results from these experiments that the following “ structural ”’ for-

mulz may be assigned, since Methylcrotonic acid is indicated by C,H, =
C(CH;) - CO.OH :—

ON THE CHEMISTRY OF SOME OF THE LESSER-KNOWN ALKALOIDS. 107

: — OH
Cevadime, (CarHNOc) __ 9 ¢0.C(CH,)=C.H,
— OH.
= Co,H4,NO;) Lites O.C;H,O
Benzoyl Cevadine, (C2,H,,NO,¢) . 06 OCH) =0,8
é . ats 4
—O.C-H,0O.
=(Co7HiiNOc) _ 06:0.

Covine, (CoH y:NOz) — Orr

Veratrine, (C2,H,,NO,).0.CO.C,H3(0.CH3),.
Verine, (CogsH,,NO,).OH.

A large proportion of the alkaloidal mixture obtained from V. Saba-
dilla seeds, even with most careful working, so as to avoid as much as
possible alteration of alkaloids during extraction, refuses to crystallise
either as free base or as a salt. This has been considered by Weigelin and
by Schmidt and Koppen to indicate the existence of an isomeric amor-
phous modification of Cevadine (the Veratrine of Merck) ; another modi-
fication being also considered to exist, soluble in water, and obtainable
from this amorphous mixture by treatment with water. We find, however,
that the amorphous mass is simply a mixture of Cevadine and Veratrine,
the one base preventing the other from crystallising in the free state, and
the other preventing the sulphate, or other salt of the first, from crystal-
lising readily, and the crystallisability being further hindered by the
presence of more or less Cevine, Verine, &c., formed by partial spontaneous
saponification. This latter, too, is the cause of the partial solubility of
the amorphous mixture in water, the cevadates and veratrates formed by
the partial change being readily soluble in water.

Doubtless the ‘‘ Sabatrine ”’ of Weigelir was a mixture of saponification
and alteration products. Whether his Sabadilline was a definite precon- *
tained principle or not we cannot say, not having been able to find it,
even in the preparation sold as being the body itself.

In pursuance of these results, we are investigating the alkaloids of
V. album roots. These have been already shown by Pelletier and
Caventou, Simon, Mitchell, and others, to contain at least two alkaloids,
one being non-sternutatory, crystallisable from alcohol, and forming very
sparingly soluble salts with certain mineral acids, e.g., sulphuric acid ;
another being non-crystalline, but powerfully sternutatory. Since both
the Ceyadine and Veratrine above described are powerfully provocative of
sneezing and tickling of the throat when inhaled as dust, it would seem
probable that the former alkaloid, Jervine (which has never been found in
V. Sabadilla seeds), is utterly distinct in its nature from the latter one.
Our experiments, at present far from complete, lead us to believe that
“ Jervine ” is not a single alkaloid, but a mixture of two or more closely
alike in many respects, and quite dissimilar from the sternutatory base ;.
whilst the latter is a mixture of bases, of which one is, if not identical
with the Veratrine above described, closely allied to it, as on saponification
the mixture forms a small quantity of Veratric acid.

108 REPORT—1878.

Report on the best Means for the Development of Light from
Coal-Gas of different qualities, by a Committee consisting of
Dr. Witt1am Warracr (Secretary), Professor Dirrmar, and Mr.
Tuomas Wits, F.C.S., £..C.

Part I.—Drawn up by Dr. WALLACE.

Tus fact has long been recognised that the illumination afforded by the
combustion of coal-gas depends, to a large extent, upon the way in which it
is burned. Setting aside, for the present, all reference to the different
theories of Davy, Frankland, Heumann, and others, as to the source of the
illumination, whether from solid highly-heated particles of carbon or from
incandescent gases, the fact is patent that a given quantity of gas may be
burned under different conditions, so as to yield widely different illumi-
nating effects. For example, a gas made from bituminous coal gave, when
burned by Sugg’s Improved London Argand at the rate of 5 cubic feet
per hour, the light of 14°81 candles. The same quantity burned by a
union jet at ‘5 inch (water) pressure gave 11°46 candles ; and by a union
jet at 1-5 inch pressure 3°66 candles; these quantities corresponding to
100, 77, and 25. Pattinson states that burners are in extensive use in
Newcastle which, for 5 cubic feet of gas, give a light equal to only 32
candles, which gas, burned in a good Argand, gives for the same consump-
tion 173 candles, and in good union or fishtail burners 124 candles.
In the case of cannel-gas, the variations are not so extensive; but the
following illustrates the effect of pressure alone in influencing the light
obtained, the burners being of the same kind in each case, but with orifices
suited to deliver 5 cubic feet of gas at the different pressures: at 4-inch pres-
sure a union jet of the best construction gave a light equal to 28°47 candles,
while at 15-inch pressure the light from an equally good union jet was
21°14 candles; these numbers being in the proportion of 100 to 74. In
these instances the quanuties of gas were the same (5 enbic feet per hour) ;
but if we take smaller quautities of gas, and calculate the results to
5 feet, the numbers obtained are still more startling. The following cases
are quoted from Wallace’s paper on the “ Economic Combustion of Coal-
Gas,” * all the burners used being Bray’s “ adamas-tipped ”’ union jets for
cannel-gas. A No. 0 at 1}-inch pressure burned 2 cubic feet per hour, and
gave a light of 3°5 candles, or for 5 cubic feet per hour, 8'8 candles; a
No. 8 at l-inch pressure burned 7:1 cubic feet per hour, and gave 45:4
candles, or for 5 cubic feet, 32 candles. Between ordinary working
limits of pressure and with equally good burners, we have, therefore, a
given quantity of gas (5 cubic feet per hour) giving, in the one case, 32
candles, and in the other 8:8; or in the proportion of 100 to 274. ‘The
loss of light here shown, amounting to 724 per cent. of the whole, is ex-
ceeded when still higher pressures are used, and it is greater with common
than with cannel-gas. A remarkable effect is obtained with a mixture of
cannel-gas with about twice its bulk of air. At a low pressure in an
Argand jet with large holes it gives a fairly luminous flame, while, ata
high pressure (8 or 4 inches), although the quantity of gas consumed is
three times as great, the flame is almost totally non-luminous, and has a
greenish tint. The gas, used somewhat extensively in the United States,

* Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1873-4. Journal of Gas
Lighting, 1874.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 10%

made by saturating air with petroleum spirit, requires to be burned at a
pressure not exceeding ‘1 of an inch, which can be obtained only with an-
Argand with very large holes, or a batwing of peculiar construction,
called the ‘‘ American Regulating Batwing.’ At ordinary pressures, such
as are used for coal-gas, there is scarcely any light, and the flame keeps
about a quarter of an inch or more above the burner.

It is not only on the score of economy that it is desirable to burn gas
in such a manner as to afford the greatest possible amount of light. The
burning of a moderate sized jet of gas produces as much carbonic an-
hydride as the breathing of two. grown-up men, and as, in an ordinary
apartment, we have usually from three to six of these, the air becomes
vitiated with remarkable rapidity. It is therefore desirable, in relation to
health, to obtain the illumination we require with the least possible ex-
penditure of gas. The sulphur in gas is a very serious drawback to its
use. In burning it is, no doubt, converted chiefly, if not entirely, into
sulphurous anhydride; but it is soon converted into sulphuric acid, which
attacks with avidity all the more readily destructible articles in the apart-
ment. So far back as forty years since the effects of the sulphuric acid
arising from the combustion of gas upon the binding of books and many
articles of furniture was noted, and recent experiments have shown that
leather, paper, &c., in ill-ventilated apartments exposed to the emanations
from burning gas for a series of years contain very large quantities of sul-
phuricacid. One of us has had occasion recently to investigate the action
of burning gas upon cotton goods stored in warehouses in London, Manches-
ter,and other cities and towns, and found that, in some cases, a few
months are sufficient to affect certain colours ; while within a year enough
sulphuric acid is absorbed to seriously injure the strength of the fabrics.
No doubt the true remedy for this evil is to ventilate the warehouses ; but
it is obvious that if the gas were burned in an advantageous manner, and
the quantity reduced to one-half or one-third, the damaging effects would
be proportionately lessened.

There are several distinct qualities of gas in use in this country. The
best may be described as Scotch cannel-gas, as it is made only in Scot-
land, where the illuminating power varies from 24 to 30 standard for 5
cubic feet per hour, consumed in a union or fishtail jet; the average may
be fairly stated as 26 candles. In London a cannel-gas is used in small
proportion, the iliuminating power of which is about 23 candles; and in
Liverpool, Manchester, Carlisle, and probably some other towns, an inter-
mediate gas is manufactured, the illuminating power of which is about 20
candles. The common gas in London and most other English and Irish
towns has an illuminating power of 14 to 16 candles. In the present
Report it is our intention to confine our investigations to two qualities of
gas, .e., cannel-gas of 26 candles, and common gas of 16 candles illumi-
nating power. The photometric results in each case will be calculated
to these standards, although in the actual experiments the gas may have
been a little higher or lower in quality. In the case of cannel-gas the
standard is found by testing the gas by a union jet consuming 5 cubic
feet at a pressure of ‘5 of an inch; while the common gas is tested by
Sugg’s Londen Argand, consuming 5 cubic feet per hour at a pressure of
about ‘05 of an inch. The best means at present known of burning each
quality of gas will be pointed out, and tabulated results will be given,
containing the details of the testings of the different kinds of burners
under varying conditions of pressure.

110 REPORT—1878.

The burners at present in use may be divided into the four following
classes :—Ist, Cockspur or rattail; 2nd, Union’ or fishtail ; 8rd, Bat-
wing; 4th, Argand. Of each of these there are a number of modifica-
tions.

The cockspur or rattail burner is the ‘simplest possible form of gas
jet, and it was at one time the only one used for burning gas. It may
be’ made by simply drawing out a piece of glass tube and breaking off
the point so as to leave an orifice, having a diameter of 1 millimetre or
less; but it is usually constructed of cast iron, which is drilled out as wide
as possible from the bottom, leaving only a thin shell, which is then bored
with a fine drill. Two sizes of these were tested, No. 1 having an orifice
of about ‘6, and No. 2 of about ‘75 millimetre. These jets are used in
Glasgow for lighting common stairs, and the larger-size: were ‘formerly
employed for street lamps, but are now discarded in favour of union jets.
The following are the results with 26-candle gas :— A

ta Eas Iluminating
Burner |Pressure in ue ngt “ pf h Gas Pi Pipe ane Power of 5 cubic
No. inches ate y hee rt ry St dard Gon 11 feet per hour,
inches ee Standa ‘andles Candles
1 5 Dine | “45 89 9°9
i 1 3k 60 1:69 14-1
1 15 43 “90 2°40 13°3
2 D Tr 80 2-49 T5671
2 1 5f 1:13 3°55 16:7
2 15 34 1:45 4:53 15°6

These figures show that even with the larger jet no more than 60 per
cent. of the real value of ‘the gas can be obtained: Various modified
forms of the jet were tried, some having “adamas”’ tips, and contracted’ at
the bottom or otherwise obstructed, so as to diminish the pressure atthe
point of ignition, but they did not show any marked superiority over
those referred to above.

’ When two rat-tails are held at a right angle to one another, the lights
‘coalesce and form a flat sheet of flame. When this discovery was first
made, two burners were fitted up in this way; but soon a single burner
was contrived which combined the two, and hence was called a “‘ union”
jet: it is also known as a fishtail, from the resemblance of the flame to
the tail of a fish. It is a short cylindrical tube with a flat top in which
the two orifices are drilled at about 90° to one another, and meeting in
the centre. The union jet is much improved by substituting for the
metal top porcelain or stoneware, the principal advantage gained being
that the orifices remain clean and constant in size, while those of iron
gradually rust up and require to be frequently cleaned in order to give
a satisfactory light, and are consequently enlarged. Some fishtail
burners are made entirely of a kind of stoneware or of steatite, but these
are troublesome to remove when they get broken. The best form of
burner is that with a brass body and porcelain top. Such burners are
made by Leoni of London, Bray of Leeds, and other makers; but usually
with some means of reducing the pressure. The fishtail burner is not
suited for burning at a high pressure, under which the two flames refuse
to spread out into a flat sheet but form an irregular flame, at the same
time emitting a most disagreeable hissing or blazing sound. This effect

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 111

may also result from other causes—such as a sharp bend in the gas supply
tube, a speck of dust in one of the orifices of the burner, or, in fact, any-
thing that disturbs the even and quiet flow of the gas. One singular
example of this is the following :—If a union jet is burning 5 cubic feet
of gas at ‘5 inch pressure, and a portion of the gas is led away by means
of a tube inserted a few inches below the flame, the flame, although
diminished in volume, immediately begins to blow.

In testing flat flames the custom has invariably been to present the
flat side to the disc of the photometer; but although the results so ob-
tained are satisfactory in comparing one flat flame with another, they
cannot fairly be compared with rattail or Argand flames, which give an
equal light all round. The edge of a flat flame gives considerably less
light than the side, but the difference between the two depends very much
upon the richness of the gas, or, in other words, the opacity of the flame.
A flame of gas of low quality is so transparent that an ordinary news-
paper can be read through it; but this cannot be done with a flame of
eannel gas except at the lower portion, which in any case offers scarcely
any obstruction to the passage of light. The following example may be
’ given:—A union jet consuming 5 cubic feet of cannel-gas at ‘5 inch
pressure gave a light of 27 candles when tested in the ordinary manner
with the flat side towards the photometer disc, but the edge gave only
23 candles, and when rotated so as to give the flame in every position
the average result was, as nearly as possible, 26 candles, showing that the
-ordinary test gave one candle too much, or nearly 4 per cent. In the case
of paraffin flat-ftame lamps, the difference between the front of the flame
and the average all round varies from 4: to 10 percent. In the latter case
the flame is intensely opaque and of a deep yellow colour. All the figures
given in this report refer to the flat side of the flame; and this must be
‘borne in mind in comparing flat with round flames.

The following table gives the results obtained with Bray’s union jets
without obstruction to retard the flow of the gas and reduce its pressure ;
gas by ordinary test 26 candles :—

At °5 inch Pressure At 1 inch Pressure At 1:5 inch Pressure
: I. P. per || Gas 4 Five || Gas | Ilumin- | Five
Gas : Iluminat-| 5 cubic per Ue cubic || per | ating |eubic
per hour)|ing Power) © s.6¢ |] hour |S Power | geet | hour} Power | feet
OQ} (1:5 1:96 8°52 1°55 2°35 76 18 “2°45 6.8
1 1°45 TE 13:00 2°15 5:28 12°28 || 2°85 5:47 9°6
2 17 4°85 14:27 2-5 6°74 13°48 || 3-1 7-62 12°3
3 2°35 8-98 19-10 3-4 11:73 17°25 || 4:3 13°67 159
4 2°85 11.97 21:00 4-05 15-44 19°06 |} 5:0 16°62 16°62
5 3°25 13°84 21°30 4:5 18°78 20°87 || 5°55} 21:90 19°73
6{ 41 19°6 23-90 sie 25°60 22°46 Gas blows
4\ 475 24-76 26:00 Gas blows Do.
8) 5 26 26:00 Do. Do.

This tavle gives instructive information as to the effects of mass or
quantity of gas, and of pressure. As regards mass, we see that at the
same pressure the light afforded by 5 cubic feet of gas per hour varies
from 84 to 26 candles, according to the quantity burned; the lowest

112 REPORT—1878.

result being obtained with about 1 cubic foot per hour, and the highest
with 5 cubic feet. This last result, 7.e., 26 candles for 5 cubic feet of gas
per hour, burned in a union jet at ‘5 inch pressure, is taken as the
standard of comparison in all the experiments in cannel-gas. The ratio
of illuminating power to quantity is nearly the same at higher pressures,
and there is no difficulty in deducing the general law that the value in
illuminating effect per cubic foot of gas increases with the mass of the
flame. e

The effects of pressure are not less striking, and might have been
more so had the gas been tested at lower pressures than ‘5 inch and higher
than 15 inch. The results obtained with a jet consuming 5 cubic feet
per hour gave 26 candles at the low pressure and only 16°6 at 1°5 inch,
showing a loss‘of lighting power amounting to about 36 per cent. ; 3 feet
per hour, calculated to 5 feet, gave at the low pressure 21 candles, at the
high pressure 12:3 candles; the burner being a No. 4 in the one case and
a No. 2 in the other. The medium pressure gave results intermediate
between these. At the higher pressures some of the larger-sized burners
became useless, as already explained.

As in practice it is found impossible to distribute gas at a pressure of °
less than 12 or 15 tenths of an inch of water, various contrivances for
breaking the force of the gas have been invented. Among union jets of
this kind, the simplest, perhaps, is that of Leoni, consisting of a brass and
an iron tube which fit into one another, and between which a thin film of
cotton wool is placed. This is a very good burner, but it cannot be
depended upon for delivering exact quantities of gas. Bray has con-
structed a very good burner similar to those already mentioned, but
having a double ply of cotton cloth stretched across a metal ring placed
in the tube, in order to reduce the pressure. The same manufacturer has
more recently invented another burner in which the reduction of pressure
is attained by passing the gas through an orifice in a porcelain plate
cemented into the lower part of the burner. He calls these special
burners, and they are of two kinds—one intended for general use and the
other for street lamps, in which the orifices are somewhat smaller, and
in which, consequently, the pressure is further reduced. Morley’s patent
burner is of brass and vase-shaped, with a porcelain top, and at the bottom
one or two small orifices in the metal for admitting the gas. Williamson’s
jet is similar in principle, but more complicated in construction. Da
Costa’s burner consists of a hollow vase stuffed with iron turnings, into
which an ordinary iron union jet is screwed. There are others, but alk
have the same object in view; and the simpler and cheaper burners, such
as Bray’s, accomplish it as successfully as those of more complicated con-
struction, and these have, therefore, been selected for a series of com-
parative trials, all being made with 26 candle gas. Some of the burners
referred to are called regulators, but this is a mere name, for it is obvious
that they merely obstruct the flow of the gas, the quantity delivered rising
as the pressure is increased. In Bray’s special burners the two holes.
forming the “union” jet are placed at an angle of about 120°.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 113

Bray’s ‘‘ Recutator’”? Union Gas Jets ror CANNEL-GAS.

|
At ‘5 inch pressure Atlinch presswe | At 1°65 inch pressure
a onl bast x | fas] +
Bee ea | See aes he | 2. | Pee
Siae. | & 2.8 a ao eat eo ak
Spee | ase s | ee oe, |eee |S | BE) | Bae
Ber | abe" lear Bet eS | Be! BE
om = FAS Oo | A Fie o A AA
0; 1 2°72 13°6 15 3:13 10:4 2 3:21 8
1) 115] 3°75 16:3 1:8 4:3 11:9 2:45 44 9
2) 1:5 5°63 18:7 2°3 7:25 15:8 3 76 126
3] 1:8 7:97 22°1 2°75 | 10:11 18-4 3°55 | 11:37 16
4/24 | 11:26 23:4 36 | 15:21 21°1 4:3 15:32 178
5| 2:6 | 12°76 24:5 4:35 | 20-4 23:4 51 22:19 21:7
6) 3:15 | 15-95 25°3 4:95 | 25-42 25:7 58 27°51 23°8
7|3°8 | 20:07 26-4 6:05 | 32°75 27-1 Gasblows
8| 4:7 | 24:76 26°3 71 | 40°63 28'6 Do.

In both series of the special burners, in which the pressure is much
reduced, the best results are obtained at 1 inch pressure, while at °5 inch
the flames are sluggish, and in some cases show a tendency to smoke.

Mr. Holdsworth, of Bradford, has introduced a simple arrangement
which he calls a gas feeder, which has been adopted rather extensively in the
manufacturing towns of Yorkshire. Itis simply a little wedge-shaped piece
of lead pierced in the centre with a hole the area of which is less than that
of the holes in the burner, and this is fixed in the gaspipe several inches
from the burner. Several sizes are made to suit varying circumstances of
local pressure, as well as different sizes of burners, and, if fitted up by an
intelligent workman, they accomplish the end in view very successfully.

Bray’s “Spreran’’? Union Jets ror GrneraL Use.

At °5 inch pressure At linch pressure | At 1-5 inch pressure
H 4 La
|| aE sla tl ee ese |= i a Ip
ae) Ga Be ao bea Zac) a es | $28
Se feslsse| 8 | 85 |S5e/ 8 | SE | Be
2 | 25 | EES | o Ba | & FS || a aa | BES
i SC ss = = = = fo
0} 1-44 5°51) 19-13 2:16 9:22 21:34 || 2°59 | 10-80 20°85
1} 1°55 G1l| 19:71 || 2°36 | 10:33 21°88 || 2:87 | 12-00 20-91
2| 1:86 7:50 | 20:16 2:76 | 12°38 22:45 || 3:36 | 14:51 21:59
8/210 | 890! 21-19 | 8:10 | 14-27 22-01 | 3°74 | 17-29 | 28-11
4] 2:44 | 10:94} 22-42 3°62 | 17-69 24:43 | 441 | 20°83 23°60
8| 2°71 | 13°39] 24:70 || 4:13 | 21-13 25:58 || 5:16 | 26:17 25°36
6) 3:12 | 15:42} 24-71 4:76 | 24-40 25°63 || 5:71 | 28°66 25:09
7| 363 | 18:43) 25:39 551 | 28°65 26:00 || 670 | 34:33 25°62
8} 4:28 | 22-26} 26:00 || 639 | 34:3 26°89 || 7:92 | 40:67 25°67

114 REPORT—1878.

Bray’s ‘‘Sprcran’’? Uxion Jets rox Srreer Lames.

At *5 inch pressure At 1 inch pressure | At 1-5 inch pressure
Biles faer | Ss) aie | ee | cee | eee
3 ae AS 5:8 3 eae aS HS 3 AE Hae
BER | 2s a | Se 252 | 3. Ema) Bee
6 |R | Aa NS A ee ee ree
0} 1:30 4:85) 18°65 1:96 8:22 20:97 |) 2:3 9°70 20:73
1/ 1-46 6:04] 20°68 || 2-21 9°57 21°65 |! 2-63 | 11:45 21:77
2| 1:73 7-28] 21:04 || 2°56 | 12 23°44 || SOL | 14:86 24:68
3| 2-07 9°36] 22°61 3 14-64 24:40 || 3:57 | 17°63 24:69
4) 2-24 | 10:73} 23:95 || 3:33 | 16:57 24°88 || 405 | 20:39 25°17
5| 2°68 | 13:15| 2453 || 4:08 | 21:17 25°94 || 4:85 | 26°67 26°46
6) 2:97 | 1477] 24:86 || 4:45 | 23°73 26:66 || 5°37 | 28:87 26:88
7| 3:44 | 17:37} 25:25 || 531 | 28:26 26°61 || G43 | 34:52 26-69
8| 884 | 19°21} 25°01 || 592 | 31:22 26°37 || 7:23 | 37:32 | 25°81

Many years ago Mr. Scholl, of London, adopted the system of placing
a small plate of platinum between the two orifices of the union jet, the
result being that the initial velocity with which the gas escapes is spent by
striking against this plate, and the gas ascends in a somewhat sluggish
flame, which, in’the case of cannel-gas, has a tendency to smoke, and is
easily blown about by currents of air. This is the case also with all
union jet flames burned at very low pressures, and practically a jet of this
kind cannot be burned much below 3 or 4 tenths for small sizes and 5 tenths:
for large sizes consuming 4 or 5 cubic feet per hour. Scholl’s “ perfecter,”’
as he has called it, has been used extensively in London and other towns
for common gas, but it is not suitable for the richer gas used in Scottish
towns.

A flame formed by a jet of gas issuing with considerable velocity
possesses a certain degree of stiffness, and resists, to some extent, the
influence of currents of air. This is particularly necessary in the case of
cannel-gas, since, whenever the flame is much deflected by air currents, a
portion of the carbon arising from the heating of the richer hydrocarbons
(e.g., olifines, benzole, &c.) passes off unconsumed, and a smoky flame is
the result. In practice it is necessary to sacrifice a certain proportion of
the possible illuminating value in order to give the flame sufficient stiff-
ness to resist currents of air.

Next to the union jet, the ‘ batwing”’ is that most commonly used for
burning gas. It is simply a little tube closed at one end in which a
straight slit is cut, varying in breadth from about two-tenths to one
millimetre. It is made of cast iron, brass, porcelain, or steatite ; the best
form being that having a brass body and steatite top. The flame of the
batwing is wider and shorter than that of the union jet, and in order to
be equally effective requires to be burned at lower pressures. It is
particularly adapted for large flames burning from 33 to 5 cubic feet of
gas per hour. With rich cannei-gas (25 to 30 candles) it gives results at
least equal to the union jet, and with gas of 18 to 22 candles it is decidedly
superior.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 115

The following table gives the results of tests of a series of steatite
batwing burners manufactured in Germany—gas 26 candles :—

At ‘5 inch pressure At 1 inch pressure At 1‘5 inch pressure
ei/o/lA |Aae | o| & Be? ioe i ia Aa ©
2 | 11 | 4:24) 19:27 || 2:35) 9:05 19:25 || 315 | 11:56 | 18:35
3 | 1:45) 5°68} 19:58 | 2-65} 10:02 18:90 || 3:55 | 13:2 18-59
4 |19 | 876/ 23:05 | 31 | 12°71 20°50 |) 4 15-41 | 19:26
5 | 34 | 16-18} 23:80 || 5:2 | 24:07 23:14 Gas blows
6 | 4:05} 19:09} 23-57 Gas blows Gas blows

The considerable loss of light experienced when gas is consumed in
batwing burnérs at any but comparatively low pressures has given rise
to many efforts to combine with the jet an apparatus to reduce the pres-
sure of the gas before it issues from the narrow slit. Various burners
haying obstructions have been constructed, of which Bronner’s is one of
the best known. It consists of a somewhat pear-shaped brass body, with
a steatite top similar to those of which the results are given above, and at
the bottom a small piece of steatite in which is an oblong slit. There
are, for cannel-gas, six sizes of. bodies, the sizes depending upon the area
of the slits ; and five sizes of tops, and as these screw into one another,.
there are thirty possible combinations. In none of these combinations,
does the pressure of the gas at the point of ignition exceed °5 of an
inch with an initial pressure of 1°5 inch, while in some it is only ‘2, and
in some it is so low that the flame smokes and is useless. The rate of
combustion is dependent on these conditions—Ist, the area of the opening
at the bottom; 2nd, the area of the slit of the burner; and 3rd, the
initial pressure of the gas. The range of combinations enables one to
select a burner to suit almost any description of gas or any standard of
pressure. The accompanying table gives the results of tests at 1 inch
and 1:5 inch, with 26 candles; the burners are not adapted for lower
pressures than 1 inch.

For common gas (i.e., of 14 to 16 candles) a different series of tops
is provided, in which the areas are considerably greater than in those
made for cannel-gas, and in which the pressure is reduced to from ‘1 to.
‘3 of an inch. These burners cannot be used with cannel-gas, although
with common gas they are exceedingly effective and are much in use,

especially in London :—

12

316 REPORT—1878.

a i et PE eee
At 1 inch pressure At 15 inch pressure

5 a0) apie 2 &p op19
q = PH a axe E = Pw =| a Aur
oa) Teale 26 |-a82 | x 8 (go eee ies
8 |3|8e| He | ees | S| s |B) Fe | Bee
em ake = pay? tee A Ae el = Aa °
2 2) 12 5:07 | 24:13 2 2 14 525 | 18:75
2 3 | 14 664 | 23°71 2 3 195 | 7:37 | 18:90
2 4 Smokes 2 4 2:3 10°33 | 22:46
2 5 Smokes 2 5 2-4 11:24 | 23:42
2 6 Smokes 2 6 Smokes
2.) 2 | 14 5:53 | 19:75 24 2 1:9 8:3 21:84
2B RB daw 848 | 24:94 24 3 23 | 10:14 | 22:04
21 | 4 | 2:03) 10°33 | 25°49 24 4 27 | 12:08 | 22:37
25 | 5 Smokes 24 5 2:85 | 14:29 | 25:07

1.92 1 6 Smokes 24 6 3 15:21 25°35
3 2 | 1:46 6°27 | 21:62 3 2 2 8:48 | 21-20
3 3 | 190] 866 | 22-79 3 3 2:4 11:34 | 23°68
3 4 | 213} 11:24 | 26:39 3 4 28 | 14:84 | 26:50
3 5 Smokes 5 5 3:15 | 17:04 | 27:20
3 6 |. Smokes 3 6 3:25 | 18:07 27°80
8h.) 2 1 15 5°81 19:3 34 2 212) 885 | 20°87
84 | 3 | 195) 88 21:28 33 3 2°55 | 12°63 | 24:76
84 | 4 | 2°55 | 12:08 | 23°68 3s 4 3 14:47 | 26:12
34 5 | 2:8 14:38 | 2568 ||- 3} 5 35 18:07 | 2581
3h | 6 | 3 15°58 | 25:97 34 6 36 | 19:45 | 27:01
4 2) 16 6:36 | 19°87 ete « 2 2°3 977 | 21:24
4 3} 21 10°69 | 25:45 4 3 29 | 13:83 | 23:84
4 4 | 2:65 | 13:37 | 25°23 4 4 3:3 17:06 | 25:85
4 5 | 345] 17-61 | 25:52 4 5 41 21:57 | 26:30
4 6 | 3:55 | 18:07 | 25:45 4 6 4:2 | 22:40 | 26:66
5 >a i (f/ i ny cs = We 0219) 5 2 26 968 | 18:81
5 Bol 28) || Lee 25°87 5 3 3:3 13:64 | 20°67
5 4 |] 33 | 154 23°33 5 4 4 19:91 24-14
5 5 | 41 | 20°74 | 25:29 5 5 5 25:36 | 25:36
5 6 | 43 | 22°68 | 26:3 5 6 53 | 27°66 | 26:10

This table shows that it is easy, with properly adjusted batwing
burners, to obtain, with a consumption of from 3 to 5 cubic feet per hour,
at least the full effect of illumination exhibited in the standard mode
of testing already referred to; and that even with a consumption of
2 cubic feet a very favourable result may be obtained. In no case is the
loss of light with batwing burners so great as with badly arranged union
jets.
; Many other descriptions of improved batwings have been constructed,
some of which have been tested. The “Clege’’ batwing, manufactured
by Sugg, has a steatite top and a conical brass body closed at the bottom,
and with a slit cut in it with a fine saw. The respective sizes of the
slits above and below determine the consumption of gas and the pressure
at the point of ignition. Jn Silber’s batwing, made by the Silber Light
Company, one burner is placed above another, both being of steatite, the
slit cf the lower one being much smaller than that of the upper, and con-

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 117

nected by a vase of brass. Only the three smallest sizes of these are
suitable for rich cannel-gas, the larger ones being intended for gas of
lower quality. The following are the results obtained with 26 candle

gas :—
Cieca AND SILBER Batwinas.

At ‘5 inch pressure || At 1 inch pressure || At 1°5 inch pressure
| eo N19 © | a0 a1 | &0 B19
26|.48 logs |Get || 45 Sea llearouleed wales ana
Balde (SSS (88) ay |Sse(eai\as lees
og|5F | S20) (3/82 |-35.9)28)-22 |258
oh mn to] n
ge) 2" | Beelss| 26/223 | ee Em | BES
fA AR aaa ae | A AA
Clegg, No. 2 . | 2 9-15] 22-87 || 3-4 |[14-77| 21-72 |] 4-45 |18:3 | 20-56
at ta Da aioe|ls 22-41 |] 4:45 | 21-11) 23-72 || 5-7 | 27-04) 23°72
» 9 4. |42 |20:37) 24:25 || 6-45 | 31-2 | 24:19 Blows
” » 0. |48 | 23:92) 24:99 Blows Blows
Silber, A. | 95 | 3:07] 1616 |[15 | 6-81] 21-03 |} 1:9 | 10-03} 26-4
cite . | 1:55 | 7-34] 23-68 |] 2:35 | 12-07| 25°68 || 3 15:04} 25:07
ee O . | 22 (11-94) 25:54 |] 3:3 | 17-27) 2617 || 4:25 | 23-12) 27-2

Several varieties of regulating batwings have been invented by Sugg,
Witthoft, Winsor, and others; the principle of their construction being
to check the flow of gas by means of a plug regulated by a screw. At a
given pressure in the pipes the burners may be regulated to deliver any

_ desired quantity of gas; and in the experiments on the Winsor and Sugg
burners quoted below, they were regulated so as to burn the number of
cubic feet per hour corresponding with the numbers marked on the
burners. Gas used = 26 candles :—

Suge’s “ Winsor” Batwing Suge’s “ Regulating ” Batwing
| Wamin_ | Luminat- .__| Illuminat-
Il -|. ll =|;
No. ra per sein ing Power|| yo. Gas per sone: ing Power
our | power [Perd cubic hour | power | Pe 5 cubic
feet feet
2 2 9°6 24 2 2 9:2 23
3 3 15 25 3 3 15°34 25°56
4 4 19°87 24-84 4 4 19:9 24:88
5 5 25:2 25:2 5 5 24-75 24-75
6 6 28:74 23°95

If two batwing flames are brought together, especially if the slits be
narrow, the gas of low quality, and the pressure somewhat high, the
illuminating power of the united flame is greatly in excess of the sum of
the two tested separately. Upon this principle is constructed a double-
slit batwing, the slits being about 1 millimetre apart, which is used in

118 REPORT—1878.

Manchester and other towns in England, and which is an excellent burner
for gas not exceeding 20 candle power, but gives a somewhat smoky
flame with gas of high quality.

The only other batwing that requires further to be noticed is the
patent regulating batwing used in the United States of America, where
it was introduced in 1871, and which is practically the only flat flame
burner capable of burning advantageously the ‘‘air-gas”’ made by saturat-
ing air with the vapour of petroleum spirit. It consists of a very much
elongated iron batwing with an exceedingly narrow slit, surrounded by a
brass tube at the distance of about 2 millimetres; into the space between
the two, gas is admitted by a wide orifice (the amount being regulated
by a screw), and this gas ascends entirely without pressure, while the
force of the gas issuing from the narrow slit spreads it out into a fine
soft flame. ‘This burner gives excellent results with gas of all qualities,
but its shape is not adapted to the gas fittings in use in this country, and
it has not been used here except for air-gas made for private houses.

Argand burners are exclusively used in the photometric testing of
common gas, and they are also employed rather extensively for lighting
shops and public buildings, but to a limited extent for private houses.
They give a higher photometric effect with common gas than any flat-
flame burner known; and even with cannel-gas, the best descriptions,
especially those of Sugg and Silber, give results which approach very near
to those obtained when the gas is tested at a comparatively low pressure
by large-sized fishtail or batwing burners.

The original form of Argand was a brass double cylinder with, above,
an iron ring perforated with small holes, and below, a “ crutch ”’ or forked
tube, by which the gas was introduced at opposite sides. A wide and
‘short glass chimney was used, but this was afterwards modified in a variety
of ways with a view to making the current of air impinge more directly
upon the flame and so increase the intensity of combustion. The holes
being small, the gas escaped at a comparatively high pressure ; and the
character of the flame both as to volume, shape, and luminosity, depended
partly upon the initial velocity with which the gas escaped from the
burner, and partly upon the shape and dimensions of the funnel. The
enlargement of the holes enabling the gas to escape at a moderate pressure
was proposed by the late Dr. Letheby, who was afterwards associated with
Mr. Sugg, by whom many improvements in Argand burners have been
introduced. The Letheby burner raised the apparent quality of London
gas from 12 to 14 candles, and a further increase of 2 candles was obtained
by Sugg’s London Argand now generally accepted as the standard burner
for testing gas made from common coal. In this burner the principle is
recognised of permitting the gas to escape practically without pressure,
the shape and volume of the flame being determined by the narrow funnel
and a ‘“‘ cone”’ of thin metal which serves to throw the current of air into
close contact with the outside of the flame. The upper portion of the
burner is of steatite, and instead of the ordinary “ crutch’”’ below, the gas
is introduced by three very narrow tubes. A number of sizes of this
burner are made of which details are given below, but the following are
the various dimensions of the standard burner used in photometry :—
Diameter of steatite top, external, ‘84 inch ; internal, ‘47 inch ; number of
holes, 24; diameter of holes ‘04 inch, chimney 6 x 1? inches, for gas of 14
candles, and 6 x 2 for gas of 16 candles. The narrow funnel and the
cone restrict the quantity of air to very little more than is required to

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 119

burn the gas, thus avoiding the diminution of light which results from a
too rapid combustion of the gas, and the cooling effect of a large quantity
of air. The pressure of the gas inside the steatite top is considerably less
than ‘1 of an inch, and that required to pass 5 feet per hour through the
complete burner is about ‘2 of an inch.

In the burner introduced by Mr. A. M. Silber, the steatite top with
wide holes (about 1 millimetre or ‘04 inch) is also adopted, but the body
of the burner is considerably prolonged, and the so-called “cone” is long
and cylindrical with a curved top. A very essential feature in the Silber
Argand is an air tube introduced into the centre of the jet, which is said
to carry a portion of the air to the upper part of the flame, and which
certainly has a remarkable effect in steadying it. The funnel is 7 or 8
x 17 inches, and in consequence of the form of the “ cone” is kept so cool
at the bottom that it may be handled without difficulty while the flame is
burning. Funnels of 10 inches high are also used, but while the con-
sumption of gas is thereby increased, the illuminating power per cubic
foot of gas remains almost quite constant. Mr. Silber has recently dis-
covered the remarkable fact that a globe or vase placed below his Argand
increases the illuminating power considerably ; and his statement has been
verified both as to common and cannel gas, the increase with the former
being about a candle, and with the latter about 14 candle. The effect of
placing a vase below an ordinary union jet was also tried, but no increase
of light was obtained, while the flame showed a distinct tendency to
“blow.” That the flame of the Argand should have its illuminating
power increased 6 per cent. by passing the gas through a glass vase (or
cylindrical metal box, which answers the purpose equally well) is a phe-
nomenon which appears to be at present incapable of explanation.

The following table gives the results. of photometric tests of various
Argand burners with cannel-gas of 26 candles laminating power. From
3 to 4 cubic feet of gas per hour was burned in each case, and the result
calculated to the usual standard of 5 feet per hour:—.

Size ofa) Cees

Funnel ee

Power

German porcelain Argand, with cone (40 small holes) 8 x 13 17:80
Leoni 40-hole burner, “ adamas” top, with cone ............ 7x 1z 18:18
Sugg-Letheby, 15 holes, in steatite ring, perforated gallery | 7 x 2 18°86
American regulating Argand, brass, 40 very large holes... | 5 x 2 21:08
Suge’s London Argand, 24 holes, with cone and regulator | 7 x 12 22-40
Silber 40-hole burner, steatite top, cone, and centre tube... | 8 x 12 22°54
Do. 32 do. do. do. do. 33 Do. 23:08
Do. 24 do. do. do. do? ease Do. 24:04
Do. do. do. with glass vase below ..........e0eeee0+ Do. 25°61

The following tests were made with various Argands in order to test

the effect produced by the cone and by the centre tube of the Silber
burner :—

120 REPORT—1878.

Pressure | Gas per | Ilumi- ae
atinlet of| hour, | nating a
Burner (cubic feet} Power ey ease
5 cubic ft.
Suge’s London Argand, 24 holes ......... Winch| 3:3 15:0 22:73
Do. do, without cone......... 26 11:8 22:7
Do. do. older pattern, 36 holes} +17 inch| 4:0 1675 | 20-94
Do. do. without cone ......... 4:0 17:0 21:25
Silber’s 24-hole burner, complete ......... ‘05 inch | 4:0 19-2 24-00
Do. do. without cone, but |
with air tube ...... 4-15 19:0 22:89
Do. do. without air tube, but
with cone ......... 38 17-2 22°63
Do. do. without cone or air
PDO caaweecestios. 4 131 19:26

These tests show that the cone, by increasing the draught, enables a
larger quantity of gas to be burned, an effect which could be obtained
equally well by increasing the height of the chimney ; and the air tube of
the Silber burner also produces a similar effect, increasing at the same
time the heat and illuminating power of the flame and its stability.
Indeed, the Silber burner without cone and centre tube, and especially
when the latter is removed, gives so unsteady a flame that it is practically
useless for illumination, while, in its complete condition, it gives the
steadiest flame of any Argand yet constructed.

A series of experiments were made in order to ascertain the relative
dimensions of the inlet and outlet of various burners. The upper steatite
portion of each burner was removed and fitted up in a little bit of appa-
ratus extemporised for the purpose, so that gas could be passed through the
holes, while the bottom portions were simply screwed on in the usual
manner, and the gas allowed to escape without lighting it. In all the
trials the pressure of the gas was maintained steadily at *2 of an inch of
water. The numbers represent cubic feet of gas per hour :—

| Bottom | Top Complete
|
Sugg-Letheby 15-hole burner .............s0ceeeeeeee 16:7 28°7 146
Sugg 24-hole standard London Argand ............ 4:9 28:8 4:5
Do. 86-hole older pattern SpuNnaLOIGO ON RONOS 6-1 29-1 6:0
et Bere sealed ce ssdapencet snc saess cto nase reens tac WT, 29-5 17
MDG eS ate nthe peels ss See's sin hase er cee eee ainn 19-1 288 18°7

These results show that the pressure of the gas is checked much more
efficiently at the bottom of the burner by Suge’s arrangement than by
that of Silber, and in’ fact the latter has usually attached to it a small
regulator adjustable by a screw, without which, and when regulated only
by a stopcock, a disagreeable hissing noise is produced by the passage of
the gas through the almost closed stopcock.

The ‘‘ Bec a Bengel,’’ or Bengel Argand burner, used for gas testing in
Paris, has a porcelain top, with 30 rather small holes, a brass cone, and at

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 121

the bottom what is called a “ panier,”’ constructed of porcelain, and pierced
with numerous holes for the admission of air. The funnel is 8 x 13
inches. With 26 candle gas it burned 2°5 cubic feet, and gave a light of
10°8 candles, or for 5 feet per hour 21°6 candles.

Suge has constructed a series of “ London Argands,” burning from
3 to 12 cubic feet per hour of common gas, and from 14 to 74 cubic feet of
cannel-gas per hour. Those from A to I resemble in every respect the
standard London burner already described; K has, in addition, a single
or rat-tail jet in the centre, and that marked double is formed of twa
concentric Argands. They gave the fellowing results :—

| TIluminat-

Baner| No.of F 1 | Height of | Gas per Tlluminat- | ing Power

a. holes a flame hour ing Power | per 5 cubic
feet
A 15 6 x 18 | 22 inches 85 7:67 20°78
B 18 Wa. lt |W28e' ,» 2-65 11-90 22-45
OC 21 Re ae 2:85 12°63 22-16
D 24 CLS Sale Ss in 55, 3°25 13-74 21:14
E 27 Do. On oh wa 34 14:67 21:57
F 30 Dee (Sia 3°72 15:97 21-48
G 33 8x18 | 33 7 45 19-13 21-25
H BPO hah igre” 5:05 21:17 20-96

I 40 Do Ate EE 53 22-3 21-04 |
K 42 Do. 4. ,, 64 28°4 21°84

Bpable|| 54-21. | 10x 2 |e. | 7-8 36-4 23:33 |

It is only right to state that all these burners are constructed to burn
common rather than cannel gas. <A Silber Argand of 24 holes, with
chimney 8 x 1 inches, was tested at the same time for comparison, and
gave, for a consumption of 3°75 cubic feet per hour, calculated to 5 cubic
feet, an illuminating power of 24°02 candles, a somewhat higher result than
was obtained with any of Sugg’s series, and proving that Silber’s Argand
is well adapted for burning cannel-gas.

The standard of comparison is a sperm candle burning at the rate of
120 grains per hour, and in practice two candles are used. It is well known
to gas examiners that the candle cannot be depended upon to give a con-
stant illumination, so that a series of tests, using candles as the standard
of comparison, would be certain to present such irregularities as to be of
little value. It would be out of place in this report to refer to the
methods proposed by Crookes, Harcourt, and others, for obviating this
difficulty by substituting other sources of light; it is sufficient to indicate
the system pursued in making the tests with cannel-gas, the results of
which have been given. A 100-inch photometer was fitted up with two
complete sets of apparatus-—each side having its experimental meter,
balance, governor, and pressure-gauge. At the right-hand side was the
light to be tested, and at the left two small straight or rat-tail jets, occupying
the exact position of the candles in the ordinary system of gas testing.
These were attached to a bracket hinged so that by the aid of two plunb-
lines they could be brought into exact position when required. The
Keate’s candle balance, which was used for standardising the small gas
flames, was removed after a very careful test was made with the candles,

122 REPORT—1878.

and the gas jets placed in position and accurately adjusted by the governor
to exactly two candles. Both meters were placed on the left side, and close
together, and were provided with three-way cocks, so that the gas could be
turned off or on each meter without disturbing the burning of the gas.
In makirg the test with the candles, these were carefully selected and
prepared, and after being lighted were allowed to burn for twenty minutes
before the test was proceeded with. The photometer room was large and
well ventilated, but absolutely free from sensible currents of air; dia-
phragms covered with black velvet were placed in well-selected positions,
and all surfaces which by any possibility could reflect light were also
covered with the same material. After working for some hours the gas
was tested again in order to ascertain whether its quality remained con-
stant, and if it had changed sensibly the tests which had been made
were rejected,

Experiments were made in order to ascertain the loss of light result-
ing from the use of globes of different kinds and of various shapes. The
loss is always considerable and in many cases excessive, and it results
partly from the absorption of light from the material of the globe and
partly from the draught caused by the ascension of the heated air in the
confined space. As regards material, a piece of clear window-glass held
in front of a gas flame diminishes the light to the extent of about 10 per
cent., but in the case of a clear globe it is in some cases less owing to
the reflection from the surface farthest from the photometer. Globes
frosted or ground all over, technically known as ‘“‘ moons,” absorb about
25 per cent. of the light when well shaped, and opal or “‘ cornelian ” globes
40 to 50 per cent., according to the thickness and quality of the glass.
The following results were obtained with globes of different sizes ground
all over, and show the efiect of increased draught in diminishing the
light :—

i A 6-inch globe caused a loss of 25 per cent.
BOG Bratt cave 274 5

” ” 2

A 10 ” ” ” ” 38 ”

All these globes had the usual sized opening below—about 12 inches in
diameter. Experiments were made with clear 74 inch globes, having
openings below varying from 23 inches to 1 inch in diameter. The
source of light was a Brénner batwing, No.5 top, No. 4 bottom, burning
under a pressure of | inch 3°35 cubic feet of gas.

The naked flame gave a light of 16:8 candles.
With clear globe, opening below 23 inches, 15:4, loss 8°3 per cent.

” ” 2 Boe LOS rie oD oly
” ” A ” ni ” a ”
” ” oF ” ‘ ” Sa ”
” ” 1 ” 12:0 ” 28°6 ”

With the two larger sized openings the flame was perfectly steady,
with the 2 inch opening there was a slight flickering caused by the
draught ; this was more marked with the 14 inch opening and was exces-
sive with the 1 inch opening, making the flame practically useless as a
source of light. It is evident, therefore, that the openings of the globes
should be as wide as possible, and not less than 24 inches. The
cornelian globes used in Brénner’s system of gas lighting have an open-
ing of 23 inches diameter, and Suge has introduced globes of similar

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 123

material, which he calls ‘“albatrine,”’ but with openings of 43 inches
diameter. These globes are constructed of various sizes to suit certain
burners, both batwing and Argand, and the combinations are known by
certain names, such as the Westminster, Viennese, Frankfort, Italienne,
Parisienne, &c. Some of these arrangements are fitted with Argands,
and some with batwings, and some have attached to them regulators
with the intention of maintaining a constant pressure.

One of the difficulties connected with gas illumination is that the
pressure in the mains varies considerably in different parts of a town,
and at different hours ‘of the day and night. One result is that a system
of lighting adapted for a part of a town situated in a low level will show
inferior results in a more elevated situation, A rise of 10 feet gives,
roughly, a tenth of an inch of increase of pressure, so that it may easily
happen that in the same town or city the pressure in one place may be
1 inch, while in another it may be 24 inches. Again, the pressure of the
gas as sent out from the gaswork is altered from time to time in accord-
ance with the consumption, and as public works, shops, &c., are suddenly
‘lit up or extinguished at certain hours, private consumers are annoyed in
the one case by a falling off in the amount of light, and in the other by
a flaring flame and hissing sound, both of which are very irritating. The
cure for these evils is to be found in the use of governors or regulators.
Every district of a town, the elevation of which is such as to affect appre-
ciably the pressure of the gas, should have a governor, which may either
be self-acting to maintain a constant pressure throughout the day, or to
vary sympathetically with the governor at the gasworks. Many of these
have been invented, among which may be mentioned those of Catheis,,
Peebles, and Foulis. The pressure in the mains should not be reduced
below 12 or 14 tenths of an inch; but as over that is too high a pres-
sure for the economical burning of gas, each house should have a regulator
in order to reduce the pressure constantly to about 7 or 8 tenths. Some
of these regulators are dependent on the action of the gas upon a broad
leather disc, attached to which is a ball-and-socket valve, while others
have metal or glass bells floating in mercury, and acting upon a valve of
the same kind. Both of these work satisfactorily. Among the best dry
regulators are those of Sugg of London, and Peebles of Edinburgh,
while probably the best mercurial governor is that of Busch of Oldham.
In the case of public works, and other buildings consisting of several floors,
a regulator should be placed in each floor, and one should be placed on
each street lamp, for which a special form is constructed. The best street
lamp regulators made in this country are those. of Peebles and Sugg,
but a very admirable little instrument called a rheometer is extensively
used in Paris, and has been tried with tolerably successful results in
several of our own cities. It is the invention of M. Girand of Paris, and
it differs from the regulators which maintain a constant pressure in
delivering a constant volume of gas, with any size of burner, and under
any pressure, provided that the pressure is not less than 7 or 8 tenths of
an inch, and the burner is sufficiently large to pass the requisite quantity
of gas. The recently invented “needle governor ”’ of Peebles is similar in
principle, and maintains a given volume of gas with remarkable constancy.

124 REPORT—1878.

Fourteenth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent's Cavern,
Devonshire—the Committee consisting of Joun Evans, F.R.S.,
Sir Jonn Luszock, Bart., F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., GEorGE
Busk, F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp Dawkins, /.R.S., WILLIAM AYSHFORD
SanrorpD, £.G.S., Joun Epwarp Les, F.G.S., and Wi.u1aM
PeneEwy, /.R.S. (Reporter).

Tue Thirteenth Report of the Committee, read to the Geological Section
of the Association, at Plymouth, in August 1877, brought up the history
of the Exploration of Kent’s Hole to the end of July of that year. (See
‘Report Brit. Assoc.,’ 1877, pp. 1-8.) In their present Reportthe history
is continued to the end of July of the current year. During the twelve
months thus defined, the work has been carried on without intermission ;
it has been conducted and superintended in all respects as in former years ;
the workmen—George Smerdon and William Matthews—named in 1877
are still engaged on the investigation; and the public, who continue to
visit the Cavern in large numbers, have been admitted under the regula-
tions described in former Reports.

On the day following the close of the meeting of the Association in
1877, a large number of the Members and Associates were conducted
into the Cavern by one of the Superintendents, who, on the spot, described
the principal facts which had been discovered; and on the 25th of the
following month the same Superintendent had the pleasure of receiving
the members of the Teign Naturalists’ Field Club, on the occasion of
their holding one of their meetings there.

The following may be mentioned amongst the numerous other visitors
who have been accompanied by the Superintendents:—The Duke of
Somerset; Lord Justice Bramwell; Sir S. W. Baker; Revs. Prebendary
R. R. Wolfe, W. Gregor, R. E. Lomax, and J. F. Mitchell; Professors
J. H. Gladstone, H. D. Garrison (Chicago), and A. Thomson (Pres.
Brit. Assoc.) ; Drs. Armstrong, Bell, Boycott, Ogle, and Taylor; and
Messrs. W. Aldam, W. W. Aldam, G. T. Bettany, F. W. Blood, E.
Broderip, J. R. Byrom, G. Campbell, A. V. Dobson, A. M. Gibson, G.
Gladstone, E. H. Griffiths, H. B. Hederstedt, J. E. Howard, A. R. Hunt,
P. Jenkins, A. Jessup, F. P. Latham, F. H. Lloyd, F. J. Lowe, T. Luck-
craft, G. Macdonald, O. W. Malet, S.S. Marling, C. Martin, H. C. Moffatt,
W. Morrison, H. Oldfield, A, Pengelly (Punjab), J. H. Pollard, R. Pollard,
_W. Pollard, J. Smith, W. J. Sollas, 'T. KE. Stabb, W. W. Stabb, T. 8.
Stooke, G. H. Storrs, W. H. Storrs, J. M. Thomson, T. Tozer, F, R.
Wolfe, J. E. Wolfe, W. Wolfe, and C. W. Wood; anda large number of
Ladies.

The Tortuous Gallery.—When their Thirteenth Report was drawn, the
Committee were engaged in the exploration of a branch of the Cavern
opening out of the southern end of the ‘“ Bear’s Den,” to which, on
account of its form, they had given the name of the “ Tortuous Gallery.”
(See ‘Report Brit. Assoc.,’ 1877, p. 7.) This gallery divides itself into
two reaches and a small terminal chamber. The first or outermost reach
extends southwards from the Bear’s Den about 23 feet, where it is suc-
ceeded by the second reach, which, after a course of 11 feet in an easterly
direction, reaches the terminal chamber. The reaches vary from 6 to 8
feet from the roof to the bottom of the excavation, and from 1°5 to 4°5

ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 125

feet in width—the second or innermost being the narrower. The upper
surface of the deposits they contained inclined inwards, falling 13°5 feet
in the 34 feet between the Bear’s Den and the terminal chamber, or at a
mean gradient of 1 in 2°5. In the eastern wall of the first reach, about
16 feet from its entrance or northern end, an opening leads to a consider-
able undervaulting, to be subsequently described ; and near the junction
of the reaches a small recess extends southwards about 5 feet. At the
end of July 1877 the two reaches only had been explored. (See ‘ Report
Brit. Assoc.,’ 1877, pp. 7-8.)

On entering the terminal chamber, its floor was found to be a complete
pavement of blocks of limestone, some of them of considerable size.
Their removal disclosed an almost horizontal bed of the typical Breccia
—the most ancient deposit yet found in the cavern—the thickness of
which was undetermined. It was excavated to the customary depth of
4 feet, but without reaching its base anywhere. The chamber measured
about 30 feet from north to south, from 7 to 13 feet from east to west,
and from 8 to 13 feet from the roof to the bottom of the excavation. A
narrow gully extended towards 8.S.H. from the southern end, but became
too contracted for a man to pass beyond 7 feet in that direction. The
roof of the chamber was much fretted, and had several vertical and
almost cylindrical cavities, about a foot in diameter as well as in height.
The walls were very angular, and presented everywhere so much the
appearance of fresh fracture as to suggest that. the blocks of limestone
forming the floor, as already stated, had fallen from them in compara-
tively recent times.

The only objects of interest found in the chamber were four pieces of
bone (Nos. 7093-5), which occurred at depths exceeding a foot, and a
lump of oxide of manganese (No. 7092) found in the third foot-level.

The recess, near the junction of the two reaches, as mentioned pre-
viously, was in proportion to its capacity much more productive, as it
yielded four ‘finds’? (Nos. 7096-9), including 12 teeth of bear and
several pieces of bone. One of the finds (No. 7098) occurred in tke
Crystalline Stalagmite, and the others in the Breccia, at depths exceeding
a foot.

The exploration of the Tortuous Gallery was closed on October 30,1877,
after having occupied very nearly 5 months. It yielded a total of 23
“finds,’’ of which 15 were described in the Thirteenth Report. The entire
series, from first to last, included 26 teeth of bear—several of them in
pieces of jaws—1 tooth of horse, severai bones and pieces of bone, 3
bits of coarse friable black pottery, and a piece of black flint—in all pro-
bability a “strike-lght” of the present century. The relic of horse, as
well as the potsherds and the strike-lght, was found on the surface,
and yery near the Bear’s Den.

The Undervault.—On the completion of the Tortuous Galery, the ex-
ploration of the branch thrown off towards the west, from its first reach,
as stated above, was at once undertaken. This has been called the
“Undervault,” as it was probably the principal “ undervaulting’”’ men-
tioned by Mr. MacEnery in the following passage from his Cavern Re-
searches (see ‘Trans. Devon. Assoc.,’ iii., 307-8) :—‘‘In a narrow neck
which, on the right hand as you enter, issues from the Bear's Den, you
come to a naked floor of rock (see ‘ Report Brit. Assoc.,’ 1877, p. 7) per-
forated with numerous shafts or spiracles by which you descend, by the

126 REPORT—1878.

aid of hands and feet, as down 2 chimney, into a low space. They expand
into a low range of undervaultings, extending under the upper cave to a
considerable extent, but too low to be accessible to any extent. From the
first landing place there is a gradual descent, step by step, into a second
and even a third terrace, like so many stories. Broken flags of stalag-
mite—the debris of the successive formations—were strewed about and
partially inserted in the latest crust now actually accumulating. In one
place the crust went bodily down entire with the loam it covered; in
another it may be seen extending across in the form of a bridge; in more
places it was shattered to pieces and reversed.”

The observations made by the superintendents of the present explora-
tion harmonise well with Mr. Mac Enery’s description just quoted. The
deposit found in the Undervault must be regarded as an uncertain mix-
ture of cave-earth and breccia, probably washed confusedly together by
water descending rapidly, and at intervals, to the lower levels. The total
number of “finds” met with was 35, of which by far the greater num-
ber were not more than 2 feet below the surface. They included 47 teeth
of bear, 33 of hyena, and 2 of fox, numerous bones and fragments of
bone, 1 chert flake, and the greater portion of a large quartzite pebble.
Many of the teeth, of both bear and hyena, were in jaws or portions of
aws.

: Amongst noteworthy specimens may be mentioned the right lower jaw
of a hyzna (No. 7101), which contains all the teeth with the exception of
two of the incisors, the outer and inner, and is almost perfect; whereas
most of the jaws of the hyznine deposits in Kent’s Hole are more or
less mutilated, having lost the condyles, or the lower border, or both. It
was found within a foot of the surface, with 1 tooth of bear, a vertebra
of the same hue as the jaw, and several bone chips, on November 3, 1877.

No. 7129, also aright lower jaw of hyzna, and a fine specimen, has
lost its condyles and all the incisors, but is otherwise perfect. The teeth,
however, have seen more service than those in the jaw described pre-
viously. It was found with 4 detached teeth of hyena, and several
bones, in the second foot-level, on November 4, 1877.

In striking contrast to the two foregoing specimens is a portion of a
left lower jaw of hyena (No. 7131), which, whilst it retains all the molar
teeth, has lost its condyles and lower border, and is thus in a condition
much more characteristic of the Cavern. Jt was found, with a canine’
tooth of fox and several bones, in the first foot-level on November 7,
1877.

The “find”? No. 7254 included part of the left lower jaw of bear,
containing the canine and 2 molar teeth, and a detached tooth of bear ;
and was found in the second foot-level on December 11, 1877. This was
the last ‘‘ find ’’ met with in the Undervault.

The chert flake (No. 7102) is of a dark grey colour, has a pentagonal
outline, and was in all probability produced artificially. It was found,
with a canine tooth of fox and pieces of bone, in the first foot-level, on
November 3, 1877. ;

The fragment of a quartzite pebble mentioned above (No. 7119) is
more than half of a well-rounded ellipsoidal mass, weighing nearly 3 Ibs.
avoir. It was met with in the second foot-level, without any object of
interest near it, on November 19, 1877; and does not bear any traces of
having been used as a ‘“ hammer stone.’’ The exploration of the Under-
vault ended on December 17, 1877.

ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT'S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 127

The Great Oven.—The narrow branch of the Cavern connecting the
Cave of Inscriptions with the Bear’s Den, by passing from the southern
side of the former to the north-western corner of the Den, is known as
the ‘Great Oven.” It consists of three reaches—the western, opening
out of the Cave of Inscriptions ; the central; and the eastern, opening out
of the Bear’s Den. They are all, and especially the central reach, very
contracted in both height and width. The western reach was explored in
1875 (see ‘ Report Brit. Assoc.’ for 1876, pp. 2-3), the central one does not
appear to have ever contained deposits of any kind, and the eastern
reach occupied the Committee from December 18, 1877, to February 15,
1878.

At its junction with the Bear's Den, the eastern reach had a continuous
unfractured floor of stalagmite of great thickness, and, with the exception
of a thin upper layer, all belonging to the Crystalline or most ancient
variety ; whilst at the southern angle was a boss of the same material fully
5 feet high. Beneath this floor lay the deposit termed the Breccia; but
at 6 feet from the entrance, and thence onward, Cave-earth presented itself
between the two stalagmites. At first it was found adjacent to the
northern wall only, and in a depression in the surface of the Crystalline
Stalagmite, but it soon extended itself from wall to wall, and for a few
feet the successive sections were in descending order.

1. Granular stalagmite, a few inches thick only.

2. Cave-earth, also but a few inches thick.

3. Crystalline stalagmite, from 2 to 3 feet thick.

4. Breccia, the base of which was nowhere reached.

At about 10 feet from the entrance the lowest two deposits occupied so
narrow a slit that all attempts to excavate them were abandoned ; and from
that point to the inner end of the reach, the Granular Stalagmite varied
from 6 to 12 inches in thickness, and the Cave-earth from 6 to 24 inches.

The length of this reach of the Great Oven was 34 feet, and its width
varied from 10 feet at the outer to 3 feet at the inner end. It may be
described as a narrow oblique slit in the limestone. |

It yielded a total of 29 “‘finds,’’ 2 of them in the Granular or least
ancient Stalagmite, 16 in the Cave-earth, 2 in the Crystalline Stalagmite,
and 9 in the Breccia. The animal remains included 36 teeth of bear—of
which 20 were in the Cave-earth, 1 in the Crystalline Stalagmite, and 15 in
the Breccia—8 of hyzna, and 3 of fox. The only relics found in the
Breccia were those of bear. The presence of the hyzena was also attested
by a few coprolites in the Cave-earth.

The only noteworthy “find,” perhaps, was No. 7138, which included
an almost perfect left lower jaw of hyena, 2 detached teeth of hyeena ;
5 teeth of bear ; a few bones, including a perfect left radius; pieces of
bone; and a few coprolites. This “find ’’ was met with in the first foot-
level, im the cave-earth, on January 30,1878.

A total of 40 “ finds” was met with in the two reaches of the Oven, in
1875 and 1878 together ; 2 of them were in the Granular Stalagmite, 18 in
the Cave-earth, 2 in the Crystalline Stalagmite, and 18 in the Breccia. The
relics in the Cave-earth inciuded 20 teeth of bear, 9 of hyena, and 3 of
fox, whilst those of the Crystalline Stalagmite and the Breccia included
25 teeth of bear. sh cazagint

Nothing indicating the presence of man was detected in any part of
the Great Oven.

128 REPORT— 1878.

The High Chamber.—In their Eleventh Report (1875) the Committee
stated that on June 15, 1875, they commenced the exploration of a
“ Recess,” opening out of thenorth-west corner of the Cave of Inscriptions,
which it was expected would lead to a new external opening to the Cavern ;
that its floor, a sheet of Crystalline Stalagmite, abruptly truncated at the
junction of the recess and the Cave of Inscriptions, had been found, by
boring, to be 18 inches thick; that this floor covered and rested on a
thick accumulation of Breccia, reaching a higher level than elsewhere in
the Cavern so far as was known; that it had been intended to leave the
floor intact, and to burrow under it ; that at 10 feet from the entrance the
lateral walls were so very nearly together as to render it necessary to
abandon the work altogether, or to break up the floor so as to secure, at a
higher level, sufficient space for the operations of the excavators ; and that
the work had been reluctantly suspended on July 6, 1875, after no more
than three weeks had been spent on the recess. (See‘ Report Brit. Assoc.,’
1875, p. 11.)

The workmen, on completing the Great Oven, weredirected to return to
the Recess just mentioned, and, in accordance with the conclusion arrived
at in 1875, as already stated, to break up the thick floor of stalagmite,
instead of attempting to burrow under it. From that time they have been
exclusively occupied there, and at the end of July, 1878, had advanced
upwards of 30 feet from the entrance, and reached a level of about 6 feet
above that of the adjacent Cave of Inscriptions. On account of this com-
paratively hich level, the name of the “‘ High Chamber” has been given
to the so-called Recess.

From the entrance up to 25 feet within it, there was a continuous un-
broken floor of stalagmite from 5 to 6 feet thick, with several large bosses
of the same material rising from it ; but everywhere beyond, so far as the
work has at present advanced, the floor consisted of large blocks of lime-
stone fallen from the roof, and extending almost from wall to wall, but
with stalagmite in some of the vertical spaces between them.

The stalagmitic floor consisted mainly of the more ancient, or Crystalline,
variety, covered with a thin sheet of the less ancient, or Granular, kind.
In most cases the two stalagmites lay one immediately on the other, but
a few instances of “ pockets,” occupied with some Cave-earth, were met
with between them; and the Breccia—or, so far as is known, the most
ancient deposit in the Cavern—was found everywhere beneath, and in con-
tact with the Crystalline Stalagmite. Large fallen blocks of limestone
occurred abundantly in this lowest accumulation, many of them requiring
to be blasted before they could be removed ; whilst several others, pene-
trating into the deposit below the depth to which the excavation was
carried, were left undisturbed.

From the time the work was resumed in the high chamber up to the
end of July, 1878, a total of 53 “finds” had been met with, of which 2
occurred in the Granular Stalagmite, 1 in the Cave-earth, and 50 in the
Breccia. Of those in the Granular Stalagmite (Nos. 7153 and 7170), the
former consisted of three specimens of black, perhaps charred, bone;
whilst No. 7170 was the greater part of an ulna unfortunately broken by the
workman who extracted it. The “find” in the Cave-earth, No. 7193,
was a solitary molar tooth of a horse.

The specimens yielded by the Breccia included 89 teeth of bear,
many of them in jaws or portions of jaws; pieces of skulls, bones and
pieces of bone, one flint nodule tool, two flint flakes, and a quartzite

pebble.

ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT'S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 129

Several of the osseous remains are good specimens, but none of them
require detailed description.

The flint implement (No. 7167) was found, without any object of
interest near it, on May 16, 1878, in the fourth or lowest foot-level. It
is about 3°1 inches long, 2°5 inches in greatest breadth, and 2°2 inches in
greatest thickness. It is ropnded, but by no means smooth, at one end,
where the original surface of the nodule remains; and is abruptly truncated
at the other, where its edge is smooth, almost a plane, and measures 1°6
inch by ‘5 inch. The prevalent colour is slightly pink, as is usual with
the Breccia implements; but the truncated edge, already mentioned, is
almost white, and suggested that it was, perhaps, fractured by the
workman who extracted it. This, however, he asserts was not the case ;
and, from the frankness which has always characterised him, the assertion
is no doubt correct. The implement is very convex and irregular on each
face, whence several flakes have been dislodged. It possesses the rude,
massive, unsymmetrical characters which mark the Breccia series of tools.

The flake (No. 7189) is not of much importance. In form it is not
unlike an elm leaf; and, though no doubt artificially dislodged from a
nodule, it was probably never intended to be used asa tool. It is 2°25
inches long, 1°5 inch in greatest breadth, and ‘4 inch in greatest thickness.
Its entire edge is thin, and it seems neither to have been used by man
nor to have undergone any natural abrasion. It was found in the third
foot-level, without any object of interest very near it, on June 11, 1878.

The flake, or, perhaps, fragment of a tool (No. 7203), is 1-5 inch long,
1:2 inch in greatest breadth, and ‘6 inch in greatest thickness. It is
rudely triangular in form, obliquely truncated at the base where it is
broadest, convex on one face, and somewhat flat, but by no means plane
on the other. Several distinct facets occur on each face, and especially
on the convex one; and its general appearance suggests that it is probably
a fragment of a larger tool. It was found alone in the third foot-level on
July 27, 1878; but at 2 feet higher level a portion of jaw of bear, con-
taining one tooth, with a few fragments of bone, were found vertically
above it the day before.

. The quartzite pebble, a rolled fragment of a larger one, is an oblique
semi-ellipsoid, measuring 3°3 x 2:2 x 2:2 inches, and, though of a form
and size suitable for a “‘hammer-stone,” bears no marks of having been
utilised in any way. It was found alone in the fourth foot-level on July
29, 1878.

It is, perhaps, worthy of remark that, whilst the Breccia in the High
Chamber has yielded fifty “finds,” the “ tools,” which form three of them,
have never been found with any relic of an animal, and have, on the
whole, occupied a decidedly lower zone. Thus of the 46 osseous “finds”
31 occurred in the first or uppermost foot-level, 11 in the second, 3 in
the third, and 1 in the fourth or lowest, whilst the 3 flints have been
found only in the third and fourth foot-levels.

It is difficult to understand how the tools found their way to a branch
of the Cavern so remote from the known entrances, and occupying so high
a level. The problem is apparently insoluble except on the hypothesis
that the workmen are approaching an entrance hitherto unknown; and
as this supposition has been forced on the minds of the Superintendents.
by other and independent facts, they believe it to be most desirable to
- settle this question if possible, as they do not doubt that it would give a
sai to the explication of some of the Cavern phenomena,

1878. K

130 REPORT—1878.

Report of Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness and Mr.
Wiuiam Joutty (H. M. Inspector of Schools), reappointed for
the purpose of investigating the Fossils in the North-west High-
lands of Scotland. By Mr. Jouty, Secretary.

Art last year’s meeting of the Association at Plymouth, the old Committee
was reappointed for the discovery of fossils in remote parts of the North-
west Highlands of Scotland. One of the most active members of the
Committee, and of this Association, the well-known Dr. James Bryce, who
had given special attention to the problem of the nature and succession of
the rocks of the North-west Highlands, and had frequently studied it on
the spot, has perished since last Report, in the prosecution of his favourite
science, at Inverfarigaig, near the Falls of Foyers, on the shores of Loch
Ness, a loss to science and to friendship.

For several years the Committee have carried on diggings at various
points along the great limestone strike that runs from Durness and Loch
Eribol, near Cape Wrath, to Loch Kishorn, opposite Skye. These were
made chiefly by various local parties resident in the district and interested
in the subject, by Dr. Bryce, and by the Secretary, whose official duties
as Inspector of Schools have given him unwonted opportunities for this
purpose. The fossils discovered were obtained almost entirely in the
Durness Limestone, an isolated basin on the Kyle of Durness, fourteen
miles east of Cape Wrath. The only other place where fossils have been
found in the limestone is at Inchnadamph, on Loch Assynt, in the west of
Sutherland. These consist of a single fragment of Orthoceratite, dis-
covered many years ago by the iynx-eyed Mr. Peach, and spoken of in
Sir Roderick Murchison’s valuable paper on these rocks; and another
piece, found by the Secretary, which may turn out to be organic, and
which is sent for examination to the present meeting of the Association.

The purpose for which the Committee was originally appointed was to
obtain as many fossils as possible from this limestone and its associated
rocks, in order that a more decided determination of the kind and age of
the fossils might be made, than was possible when Mr. Salter wrote his
monograph on the few fragmentary specimens discovered by Mr. Peach in
the Durness limestone, and submitted to him for examination. The Com-
mittee, after working for some years, succeeded in obtaining a considerable
collection of fossils mostly from the same limestone. These were placed
under Dr. Bryce’s care, and remained with him until his sudden death.
Unfortunately, however, on account of his unexpected decease, his collec-
tion of fossils was left in a more or less scattered and unmarked state, and
though careful search has been made in his house, the Durness specimens
have not yet been found. The Secretary has also corresponded with
several of his scientific friends on the subject, and with the Jermyn Street
Museum, with no better success. Mr. Ralph Tate, to whom it was known
Dr. Bryce purposed submitting them, is now in Australia, and could not
be communicated with in time for the present meeting. It is sincerely to
be hoped that the loss of these fossils is not irretrievable, but that further
search will be successful. This will be made in all possible quarters, and
the Secretary trusts to be able to report their discovery to the next meet-
ing of the Association.

During the past year, through the good offices of several local friends,
particularly the Rev. W. C. M. Grant, the minister of Durness, who
has all along taken the most inteiligent interest in the subject, and given

ON FOSSILS IN THE NORTH-WEST HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND. 13}

the Committee ready and efficient assistance, a considerable collection of
fossils has been made, which are now submitted for inspection to the
present meeting. These were obtained from an isolated, steep, rocky islet,
called Garveilan, or the Rough Island, a few miles east of Cape Wrath.
This island is a bare uninhabited rock, the home of the sea-gull and his
associates, which is composed entirely of the Durness limestone. It is full
of fossils, which appear protruding from the weathered surfaces of the
rock, the hard but less indurated matrix enclosing them having yielded to
the action of the wild weather and the wilder waves of that iron-bound
coast. The fossils are so imbedded in the crystalline limestone on the
level surfaces, that they can be abstracted only with the greatest difficulty.
Hence many of those obtained were got out only in fragments ; but the
fossils sent, considering the. whole circumstances, are numerous and in
singularly good condition. The specimens are mostly of the smaller kinds,
the larger not being now obtainable, or having been carried off on pre-
vious visits.

The island is very difficult of access, and can be approached only in
the very calmest weather. On one occasion, the late Dr. Bryce and the
Secretary sailed, with some friends, to the island for the purpose of obtain-
ing fossils, but though the day was calm and the sea unbroken, the
great Atlantic swell sweeping round Cape Wrath, which rose against the
steep sides of the rock, entirely prevented landing, though anxiously
attempted ; and the Rev. Mr. Grant and party, in obtaining the fossils
now submitted, narrowly escaped with their lives, the great thunderstorm
of June last having overtaken them on their return voyage.

Mr. Grant has learned from the boatmen that accompanied him that
there is another place, on a cape on the mainland, near Durness, con-
taining good fossils. This he purposes visiting, if he has not already
done so; but the Secretary has not yet received any fossils from the Dur-
ness limestone, besides those sent.

Some miles east of the Kyle of Durness lies the sea firth called Loch
Eribol, on the shores of which there is a great development of the same
or a similar limestone, with its associated quarzites and fucoid beds. These
rocks give to Loch Eribol its special character of wildness and picturesque-
ness. The limestone has been worked, for commercial purposes, at Heilim
Inn, on its east shore, where the ferry crosses the loch ; but, though diligent
search has been made on the spot, on many occasions, by members of the
Committee and by local and other parties, no fossil remains have yet
been discovered in that rock. In the thin, brown, shaly strata, called
the Fucoid Beds from their contents, very distinct and well-preserved
impressions of sea-plants are abundant on Loch Eribol, and along the
great limestone strike from north to south. In the thicker-bedded
Quartzite which occurs along this strike in immense masses, forming some
of the highest mountains, and giving rise to some of the most striking
scenery on the North-west coast of Scotland, with its pronounced features
of combined grandeur, mass, wildness, and beauty, the only evidences of
ancient life hitherto found are certain worm or annelid borings, more
or less abundant everywhere, which are very distinct, having been, in most
cases, filled up with different-coloured matter. Both of these proofs
of organic life in the past have been spoken of and pictured, in the excellent
joint paper on these rocks by Sir R. Murchison and Professor Geikie.

During this year, however, a discovery has been made in this Quartzite,
in the shape of certain fossil remains which have not yet been described,

K2

132 REPORT—1878.

and which may turn out to be of importance. This was made by Mr. Donald
Mackay (innkeeper at Portnacon, or the Dog’s Port, at the western side of
the ferry over Loch Eribol), an intelligent man, with sharp eyes, which he
has used to some purpose. On making his discovery, Mr. Mackay com-
municated with Professor Nicol of Aberdeen, whose valuable paper on
these controverted rocks represents one of the two great solutions of the
problem of these north-west strata, the other being Sir Roderick
Murchison’s. Mr. Mackay also sent to Professor Nicol specimens of the
new fossils, which are now in his possession. Since finding these first
fossils, the discoverer has also succeeded in obtaining others, which he
has sent to the Secretary. Unfortunately, the Secretary, who writes the
present report in the Outer Hebrides, had to leave home on official duties
before the fossils arrived, and has, therefore, had no opportunity of
examining them. He has, however, forwarded them to the present
meeting for inspection, that they may speak for themselves, Mr. Mackay
reserving the ownership of the largest slab for himself. It would be well
to have these fossils carefully examined and reported on for the Associa-
tion, before returning them to their discoverer, in order to determine
their nature, and ascertain their bearing on the general problem of the
place and succession of the rocks of the North-west Highlands. The
specimens in Professor Nicol’s possession should also be examined along
with them.

In view of the present loss of the fossils once in Dr. Bryce’s
possession, of the successful search for fossils now being carried on at
Garveilan and at the new point already mentioned near Cape Wrath, and
of the importance of the discovery of new fossils in the Quartzite of Loch
Eribol; it would be most desirable that the Committee should be con-
tinued, with a grant at their disposal as hitherto, in order to prosecute
the search at Durness and Loch Eribol, and at other points along the
great limestone strike. The fact that fossils have been discovered in Loch
Assynt shows that diligent search may be crowned with success, there and
elsewhere in these interesting rocks.

It is also most desirable that all the fossils discovered in these regions
should be submitted to experts, in order that a full report may be obtained
in regard to them, so as to have as correct and decided a determination
of their character and age as is possible with the new discoveries placed
at our disposal. The materials available for this purpose are these:
(1) The fossils from the Durness limestone reported on by Salter for Sir
Roderick Murchison, and since deposited in the Jermyn Street Museum ;
(2) those in the hands of the Committee, obtained from Durness, Loch
Eribol, and Loch Assynt; (3) those placed under Dr. Bryce’s care, which
it is hoped may yet be found ; (4) a suite of Durness fossils in the Museum
of Aberdeen University, gathered for Professor Nicol, and those sent to
him from Eribol by Mr. Mackay; (5) others that future search may
reveal.

Such a Report would-sum up the labours of the Committee, and would,
no doubt, be a valuable contribution to Scotch geology.

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 133

Fifth Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor A. S. HERSCHEL,
M.A., F.R.A.S., and G. A. Luzour, F.G.S., on Experiments to
determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing
especially the Geological Aspects of the Investigation.

Tue best means used for determining the thermal conductivities of sub-
stances are of two distinct descriptions, which may be denoted severally
as direct and indirect methods of procedure. In methods of the former
kind which were principally used by Péclet, and to whichthis Committee
has had recourse, the rate of passage of heat through the trial substance
is measured by the change of temperature of a standard body which it
leaves or enters, while the temperature of the trial substance itself is
practically free from alteration. In methods of the indirect kind the
measure of the quantity of heat which passes is given by changes of
temperature of the trial substance itself, and a knowledge of the thermal
capacity of the substance per unit of volume is therefore necessary for
their application. These latter methods commend themselves not only
by a larger choice of conditions most favourable for exact observation
which they offer, but also by the absence of any discontinuity in the
materials through which the passage of the heat takes place, and conse-
quently of any uncertainty about the area of surface which enters into
conducting contact where two solid bodies are placed or pressed together
as perfectly as possible. The Committee has indeed found that a film of
water wetting two such surfaces completely, and uniting them, renders
the whole of their areas effective in conducting heat without introducing
any sensible resistance, and fine wires of a thermopile lodged in this
water stratum measure the two extreme temperatures of a trial layer of
the substance to be tested with the greatest certainty and convenience;
but the application of water to porous and to soluble bodies like chalk
and rock-salt gives for obvious reasons doubtful values of their conduc-
tivities, and only those bodies which resist, and which do not absorb
water can be tested accurately for thermal conductivity by those means.*
It has therefore appeared very desirable to the Committee, for the suc-
cessful use of processes in which the indirect method is adopted, to deter-
mine as exactly as possible the specific gravities and specific heats of the
series of rock-specimens now at their disposal; and in the table presented
with this report the results of their observations of these quantities are
given of every plate which has hitherto been prepared for their examination.
The measurements have been made at their request by Mr. J. T. Dunn,t
whose name as a careful and active prosecutor of these investigations the
Committee desires, in the event of its reappointment for another year,
to add to the rather restricted number of its present members. A brief
description of the process of these observations will explain the results
of the measurements obtained from them, the statements of which, in
a very abridged form, are presented in the table.

* As a means of excluding water without breach of its intimate contact with
soluble or porous rock surfaces, it has been suggested to the Committee to “silver ds
the plate-surfaces with mercury and tinfoil in the same manner that the face of a
plate-glass mirror is silvered ; and there appears every reason to expect that the coat-
ing of amalgam thus applied, while impervious to water would firmly attach itself to
_and fill up quite solidly all the asperities of the surface; but the actual efficacy of
this method for some of the very porous rocks has not yet been practically tested.

+ B. Sc., Demonstrator of Chemistry and Physics in the University of Durham,
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

134° REPORT—1878.

The mean diameter and thickness of each rock-plate was ascertained
by callipers applied with the help of a magnifying glass to a standard
steel scale of inches divided into tenths and fiftieths of an inch. The
volume was thus obtained in cubic inches with a probable error which
on account of the small thickness (about half an inch) and its occasional
unevenness, together with some irregularity, occasionally, in the diameter
of the nearly circular plates, it would be fair to reckon at between a half
and one percent. The rock-plate was then weighed in its state of natural
dryness in the atmosphere,* and its specific gravity in the dry state was
then deduced by comparison with its water-weight, at 253 grains of water
(at maximum density) toacubicinch. The plate was then heated fourteen
or fifteen minutes in boiling water, and quickly transferred to a well-
jacketed calorimeter containing (inclusive of its own water-equivalent of
1500 grains) a charge of 15,000 grains of cold water, in which, with the
assistance of an agitator (enclosing the indicating thermometer), it was.
allowed to disengage its heat. The time taken by the plates to impart
to the water in the calorimeter its highest temperature varied considerably,
from two or three minutes with rock-salt to about twenty-five minutes
with pit-coal, with the different plates, and a rough control of the relative
conductivities of the various specimens, already previously determined,
presented itself accordingly during these immersions. The calorimeter
was freshly supplied with water a little colder than the room for each
experimert, and it was besides so thoroughly protected by coverings of
cork and vulcanised india rubber from outward influence that no correction
for heat-loss by radiation was required to be applied. The lumps of rock-
salt were thinly painted with wet oil-paint, folded in tin-foil similarly
painted inside, and thus rendered waterproof, and were heated (as were
also the plates of chalk, plaster of Paris, and two plates of brick) in a
well-jacketed steam space until they acquired its temperature, before im-
mersion in the calorimeter. The experiments with brick were conducted
to determine the proportion of boiling hot water which porous rocks
imbibe by steaming, and by boiling them before plunging into cold water,
as the heat conveyed by this water to the calorimeter must be known and
deducted before assigning to the dry rock its real specific heat.

After removal from the cold water of the calorimeter each rock speci-
men was weighed, and being regarded as now perfectly saturated with
water, the specific gravity of the rock in its thoroughly wet state was
thence obtained, which is given with parentheses, for the porous rocks, in
the table. A slight gain of weight was almost always observable, but
where this did not amount to one-half per cent., the small amount of
porosity which it denotes is regarded as without influence in distinguish-
ing the properties of the wet from those of the dry rock, and only single
values of the specific gravities and specific heats of these rocks are noted
in the table. It is to be remarked that the percentage gain of weight of
the absorbed water must, in order to afford the porosity of the rock as
the percentage volwme of pores or cavities which it contains, be multi-
plied by the specific gravity of the dry rock (which is the bulkiness which
water has in comparison with the rock), and the result will be the

* A sensible proportion, perhaps 10 or 12 per cent. of the possible quantity of
water absorbable by a porous rock, adheres to it when left to find its own condition
of dryness in the open air; and no experiments or rocks artificially dried and freed
from this hygroscopic moisture in a water-bath have been attempted, but the “dry”
state recorded in the table is the nearly constant condition which the rock naturally
assumes in the atmosphere of a well-ventilated room,

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 135

space which the absorbed water occupies in proportion, per cent., to
the whole volume of the rock, or the porosity as a fraction of that volume.
Some special deportment of the water in the rock-pores may, however,
sometimes interfere with such a calculation, so as not to allow the real
volume of the spaces open to its penetration to be thus determined. It
was thus observed that the addition of water to dry sand contracts, and
of water to dry clay expands its volume considerably, so that the per-
centage gain of specific gravity of these substances (dry sand and dry
clay) by water saturation, is not the same as their percentage weight of
imbibed or appropriated water. Two numbers are given for these sub-
stances in the column of percentage gain, the last of which, in brackets,
denotes the water added, while to obtain the first or the change of the
specific gravity, a new measure of the altered volume of the wet com-
pound material made by the mixture had to be obtained.

The several experiments of heating brick plates in steam and boiling .
water, without afterwards immersing them in cold water, showed that a
single such treatment impregnated the piate with about a half, or up-
wards, of the whole quantity of water which the plate finally absorbs by
plunging it in cold water, and although the same experiments have
not yet been extended to other porous rocks, a provisional assumption is
adopted for them all, to calculate the specific heats, that the rocks which
sensibly absorbed water in the process were laden with one half of it at
the boiling temperature, when they were plunged into the calorimeter.
It is not possible to say if this allowance is too great or too small in any
given case, but any rectification which it requires cannot at least
exceed (positively or negatively) the adopted value itself, and the per-
centage change in the calculated specific heats, which a plus or minus
rectification to the whole extent of the adopted allowance would introduce,
is subjoined in the column of the table immediately following the specific
heats, wherever the capacity of absorption of a rock specimen was so
great as to render needful a distinction between its properties in the wet
and dry condition. If the allowance of one half of the final water-gain,
supposed to be introduced by boiling, is deficient, so that any fractional
increase, or positive rectification of it is actually required, the same frac-
tion of the percentage correction given in the table must be subtracted
from each of the specific heats recorded as the provisional observed values
in the table. If the allowance was in any case too great by a known
part or fraction of itself, and therefore required a negative rectification to
the extent of such a fraction, thesame fraction of the percentage correction in
the table is to be added to the recorded values of all the different specific heats
to obtain their real values. The adopted allowance is probably very near
the truth for the slightly porous rocks (whose coefficient of absorption is
less than 6 per cent.), and no corrections of the specific heats given in
the table are required for these, nor for any of the perfectly compact and
solid kinds of rock in which no sensible signs of porosity and of water
absorption were observed. With the increase of porosity, however, the
assumed allowance probably requires an increasing addition of perhaps
nearly its full value for some of the most porous ones (as chalk and
plaster of Paris); but considering the smallness of the correction itself
in the rocks of small and moderate absorbing powers, a common rule of
adding half its value to the adopted allowance, and therefore of subtract-
ing half the percentage amount named in the table from the recorded
specific heats of all the porous rocks, is one whose results will certainly
not deviate far (it may be five or six per cent. in the most absorbent

136 REPORT—1878.

rocks), from their real thermal capacities in the wet and dry states, by
volume and by weight.

Percentage corrections thus deducted from the specific heats by volume
of porous rocks in the table, must be added, however, (and vice versd) to

the value of the ratio & siven in its last column. The specific heats of
c

dry and wet sand were found by enclosing them hermetically in a thin
flask, and are free from any such source of uncertainty as that described ;
while the amount of water present in the heated clay and in two speci-
mens of brick was known, and the real allowances having been made for
these, the specific heats assigned to them in the table need not be cor-
rected. The following examples of the correction when it seems to be
required will illustrate its use in other cases.

The average specific heat by volume of three specimens of Calton Hill
trap rock (taken from the escarpment of rock on the west side of the
Observatory) is 0°52* ; the average percentage limit of correction to this
quantity is 33 per cent. Taking a half as a probable fraction of it (or
0-016 x 0°52 = 45 x 52 = -009) and subtracting it from the provisional
value, the corrected specific heat by volume of the Calton Hill trap rock
is 0'511; or 0°51 instead of 0°52 as presented in the table. The average

value of the quantity © tor the same specimens is 0°0060, in the Table, and
c

the rate of correction which this requires will be the same as that just
used (7/5), for the specific heat, but to be added instead of subtracted
from it, with the result 0:0061 instead of 0:0060 taken from the table. The
value of the same ratio calculated by Sir W. Thomson from the under-
ground thermometer observations was 0°00786; and adopting for this
rock’s specific heat by volume the value 0°524, which agrees very closely
with the value 0°511 here arrived at, he deduced a value of the thermal
conductivity of 0:00415, rather higher than the mean, 000312, of the values
here concluded by the application of the direct method of experiments.
The average specific heat by volume of six specimens of Craigleith
sandstone, four of which are from the site of the thermometer borehole
which was established theret by Professor Forbes in the year 1837, is

* Two additional places of figures to which the observations and calculations
for the table originally extended are suppressed in this abridgment of its determi-
nations in order to present them together in an easily apprehended view, where it is
believed that very little material utility of the individual results is sacrificed by
rejecting the last two figures obtained by the reductions.

# } The quarry was visited on March 17th, 1878, under the direction of Mr. Wedder-
burn from Messrs. Adie & Sons, and of Mr. Wallace from the Edinburgh Royal Ob-
servatory, by Professor Herschel; the foreman of the present tenant (Mr. Hunter, of
Newcastle) soon communicating the object of his search to the best possible authority
at the quarry, one of the oldest workmen there, Robert Buchanan, who assisted in

Sinking the hole, and in depositing the thermometers in it in January, 1837. The
face of the quarry in that neighbourhood has not been altered, although the field
between it and the tenant’s house of Craigleith-Hill, in which the hole was sunk to a
depth of 24 feet, was opened over nearly thé whole area near the house to a depth of
about 20 feet to seek for “ Liver rock”’ (the finest stone of the quarry) in the imme-

‘dia e neighbourhood of the tenant’s house. But the search was unavailing. Robert

- Buchanan was Mr. Johnson’s foreman-when the ground was thus turned over and the
thermometers were taken up; and he directed the excavations. He selected for Pro-
“fessor Herschel from the face of the quarry near their site several specimens of the
rock coinciding as nearly as possible with the top and bottom beds of the sandstone,

qthrough which the thermometer hole must have passed. Four plates cut from these
specimens are named T 1, 2, and B 1, 2 in the table ; and two more plates of ordinary
samples of the quarry stone, “ Liver rock,’’ a uniform stone without clefts or partings,

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 137

0-405; and half the average limit of correction which it may require is
7 per cent., making a part of the whole quantity equal to 0:029. Sub-
tracting this presumptive correction from the whole mean value, the
resulting specific heat is 0°376, instead of 0°405 as obtained directly from

the table.* The average value of the ratio © for the six specimens,
c

0:01947, corrected by addition to it of the same proportional quantity, or 74
per cent., is0°02088. Sir W. Thomson’s determination of the same ratio’s
value by reduction of the thermometer records, is 0°02311, 11 per cent.
greater than the value given by these direct experiments. But the agree-
ment is yet very noteworthy if we reflect that (with the single exception
of rocksalt, 0°0288) no other description of rock in the present list

exhibits such a high average value of the ratio bow Craigleith sand-

é
stone; quartz itself being a little inferior to it. It owes this property
partly to its high conductivity, which in the slightly wetted state that the
process entails (averaging in the actual experiments less than 3 per cent.,
or less than half the quantity of water needed to thoroughly saturate the
stone) almost attains that of quartz; and partly to its low heat capacity
by volume arising from a specific gravity much less than that of quartz,
which it enjoys in common with other building sandstones.

Using for the specific heat by volume of Craigleith sandstone a value,
0°4625, which somewhat exceeds the above found average thermal
capacity of the rock, Sir W. Thomson’s deduction of its absolute thermal

conductivity (from the high value of its ratio - already found by his re-

ductions) is also higher, 0:01068, for this second reason, than anything
which the Committee has yet met with among rocks of the ordinarily
occurring kinds. It must, however, be acknowledged that in its thermal
conductivity this building sandstone ranks so high that only compact
quartz surpasses it, as the following series of measurements, made during
the past year with the apparatus in the excellent state of permanent
efficiency which it acquired last year (by the use of German silver and
iridio-platinum wires), very plainly indicate.

As a check upon the exactness of the measures of the thermal
- capacities the annexed table will also supply useful comparisons with some
well-known standard observations of these quantities for a few minerals

much used for buildings, and “Bed rock,” the more general produce of the quarry, better
suited for foundations, were also made from specimens obtained for the Committee
from the quarry, before Professor Herschel’s visit to it, by Mr. R. Irvine, of Granton.
Two tenants of the quarry, before Mr. Hunter’s succession to it, have occupied Craig-
leith-Hill House, and have vacated it since Mr. Johnson’s residence there; and the
thermometer hole, or well, seems to have been demolished not long after the four or
five years’ records of its thermometers were ended and discontinued. It took three
months to sink it to the full depth of twenty-four feet, with a diameter of three inches
at the bottom and six inches at the top; it was full of water always to a certain height
while it was in progress, and was packed, when the thermometers were placed in it
at their proper depths, with sand. A damp or wet state of the rock (and of the in-
troduced sand) it may be gathered from these preserved accounts of its construction
must have prevailed in the whole or a great part of the stratum of rock through
_ which the bore-hole passed.
. ™ Had the measurement of the specific heat of each porous plate been repeated
with the rock in its perfectly saturated state, it is evident that the necessity of this
‘correction would have been avoided. It is superfluous, apparently, for the sand-
stones and less porous rocks, for which one average error-range (for the wet and dry
states together), only, is given in the table,

138 REPORT—1878.

of common occurrence, and of very simple compositions. The high
value found for white chalk, after deducting the above correction, perhaps
arises from a considerable amount of hygroscopic moisture contained in
the stone in its ordinary state; but, if on account of its extreme porosity

Thermal Conductivity

. Water absorbed, z
me per cent. ‘2 #
Rock Specimen tested a £8
: cS cs eS NS
> oO Oo a eS)
3 eS | 2S gp &
Fe 2:3 as ES
je) A| so =
Ordinary plate glass*; two plates... { 2H [198 javerage]
DeEesvere j 195 &“4) | 904; plate
The same glass toughened ; two plates { A [185 (average] glass, 1876
Calton Hill trap, red, close grained ... | 280 | 14 23 | (620? 1874)
- 9 red, open grained ... 295 1-0 1-0 =
x 5 grey, weathered ...... 360 O-4 1:0 =
Sicilian white marble. ............cse..000+ 508 Sh = 542
Kenton sandstone ..... S68 sossopedaessosascos 606 | 38 6-1 a avees
5-7 p. c.)
Heworth RUMMY ledacnis cnchennaniewonss sav done 641 2:9 4:5 ==
Prudham “fh. baceBeoccdonapadeseeceeeee 714 59 75 —
Galashiels (red) sandstone ............+.. 741 6°6 8-4 =
One hahaa 5 aoe 6-5 a
3 4 (Thermometer ey bed {n, “ace fe | ne y att =
EES beds | 61
ab 9 *
bog bottom bea fB: -| 838 | 2 ee ral
‘a9 "elses hn 2 yea emia 61 —
Sei hai cm are aie MLA i 843 2-7 5-9 =
BedimOcken s .sesedscneateestheecteoncs 749 3:0 58 —
Opaque white quartz (Morthoe, N.
TDYES (O99 |p oreignns scocacerr oo s-e anos see Oo C Boe 862 — 5) | we BIGS 76)

the whole (instead of half) of the correction noted in the Table is sub-
tracted from the specific heat there given, the result, 0°190, is less instead
of greater than the known value; and no real discordance of the obser-
vation from the known property of this porous stone can, therefore, be
properly suspected, with a suitable allowance. The proportion of foreign
mineral (which is compact quartz) contained in the specimen of galena
may be calculated approximately from the specific gravity (4°90) of the
specimen, which is less than the usual specific gravity (7°59) of galena;
and the resulting specific heat of the galena alone, which appears to
occupy in reality scarcely a half (47 per cent.) of the volume of the
thick plate used in the experiments, agrees very fairly with this material
substitution, with the specific heat by weight of pure galena given by
Regnault.

* The plates of toughened and untoughened glass were obtained from makers in
Berlin. Their average conductivities are respectively ‘00185 and -00198, showing a
loss of 3, or of 64 per cent. in the conductivity by toughening. The property of
hard-drawn metal wires is probably analogous to this, which are known to be less
perfect conductors of electricity than soft annealed ones. There is a sensible
and nearly proportional difference, also, in the specific heats by weight ; but none,

apparently, in the specific gravities of the two plates. (See the accompanying list.
of this Report.)

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 139

The specific gravity as well as the specific heat of the specimen of
English alabaster proves it (as moistening it with an acid also shows) not
to be “ oriental alabaster,” or calcic carbonate, but calcic sulphate, or a semi-
crystalline and compact form of a hydrate of that substance which appears

Specific Heat by
‘weight
Description of rock, and number

Substance Authority Gy of specimens tested (1878)

1878
Coke (of anthra-
cite) seorecscccce Regnault 0:201 0:193 Gas-coke ad specimen).
0°287 Cannel-coal (3 specimens).
COAL ceed oxasepepiae Crawford | 0°278 0-374 S Newcast le house coal (1 speci-
; lL men).
Burnt Clay ...... Gladolin 0:185 0188 Brick and firebrick (4 specimens).

White marble... | Regnault | 0-216 | 0210 White Sicilian and Italian mar-
bles (2 specimens).

Grey marble ... ” 0210 | 0-221 Other marbles (7 specimens),
ont Godstone
petals: a0) 0215 |4 9-980 about + pare white ¢2sPecimens
chalk .
{9-187 Opaque white quartz (3) white
Silica (quartz) » 0191 specimens). sand
Lo-195 Quartzite (2 specimens) J 0-200
Sodic chloride... ” 0-214 | 0192 Rocksalt (1 specimen).
Tron pyrites ... ” 0130 | 0:126 Tron pyrites (1 specimen).

[ 0-084 eae (with 28} p.c. of quartz) ;
specimen.
0-046 =| J Galena (with 283 p. c. of quartz;
corrected for quartz).
0:284 English alabaster (1 specimen).
s P

LED cc csc cceecss as 0051

Calcic Sulphate, : :
. 2 Plaster of Paris (1 specimen, de-
aoe 4 vigil lo e ducting half the poss. cor.)

Calcic Fluoride | — — 0-200 Fluor-spar (1 specimen),

to agree in the property of its specific heat sensibly with plaster of Paris,
although not with anhydrous calcic sulphate, to which Regnault assigns a

Substance tested, directly and indirectly, | Specific Absolute | Value of
for Thermal Conductivity ; and for Heat by Conduc- the ratio
Thermal Capacity by volume, and volume tivity hk

by weight Cc h e

Dry white sand (specific gravity, and
specific heat tested directly, 1878; and
thermal conductivity, directly, 1877) ... | 0-292 0:00093 | 0:00318

White sand thoroughly wet (specific
gravity, and specific heat tested directly
1878 ; and thermal conductivity, directly,
HGNC U)i* econ saceutUMmemenceencces tetas tcests sees 0°567 (?) 0:00726 | 0:01279 (2?)

Sand of experimental garden (reduction
of Professor Forbes’s Thermometer Re-
cords, by Sir W. Thomson) ................6+ 0-300 0:00262 | 0:00872

much lower specific heat by weight. These properties of minerals, like
their specific gravities, certainly form very valuable and easily deter-

140 REPORT—1878.

mined characters capable of affording most useful assistance as permanent
and special qualities for distinguishing them from one another.
Another example of comparison between the direct and indirect
methods of experiment has presented itself in the Committee’s observa-
tions of Thermal Conductivities, where, however, they have not yet
investigated the original substance which was the subject of the earlier
experiments, but only an approximately similar one in two different con-
ditions which permit a fair comparison of the measurements to be made,
which have been obtained by direct, and also by a totally different method
of procedure. The quantity of water (23 per cent.) found to be taken
up by dry sand when thoroughly wet, as stated in the table, should raise
its specific heat by weight from 0°200, there given, to 0:348; but the
specific heat observed in the second case was only 0-284, corresponding
to an absorption of only 12 per cent. of water. The specific heats by
weight and by volume given in the table for thoroughly wet sand are, there-

fore, too low, and the value of the ratio E deduced from them must be

sensibly higher than its real value for saturated sand. For perfectly dry
sand it is 0:0032, for thoroughly wet sand it must accordingly be about
0:0100, and for the sand in the experimental garden in Edinburgh, Sir

W. Thomson obtained the value 0:0087, of the ratio 2 by a reduction

of the records of Professor Forbes’ underground thermometers. Could
a specimen of the sand itself, which the Committee hopes to procure, be
obtained in which the thermometers were sunk, the value of the ratio
found by Sir W. Thomson would no doubt be very closely corroborated ;
and, at the same time, the real values of the absolute conductivity and
specific heat of a loose and porous earth like that in which these ther-
mometers were placed, which the Committee has not yet determined,
would be added to the present list.

The Committee has the satisfaction to notice with peculiar commenda-
tion the series of excellent and accurate experiments on the thermal con-
ductivities and capacities of certain specimens of rocks of Japan, which
the professors of the Tokio College there, Messrs. J. Perry and W.
Ayrton, have conducted with the greatest skill and originality of method
and ef practical execution. Of the very excellent memoir of these
experimenters, and of the contributions from other sources to the practical
investigation of the subject of rock-conductivity which have been made
recently and in bygone years, the Committee hope to point out the
bearings in a collective review, if the production of such a historical
report, during the coming year, presents itself as a sufficiently desirable
object for their reappointment. Thin microscopic sections of about
twenty of the rock-specimens upon which they have experimented have
been prepared by Mr. G. F. Cuttell, of London, which convey much
information to the eye regarding the causes of the various degrees of con-
ductivity that are met with in particular rocks. The compact, almost
purely siliceous nature of the quartzites is thus visibly presented, and
the reason of their ranking with quartz much higher in conductivity
than the more heterogeneous sandstones is very obvions. A similar
minute inspection of the structure of Craigleith sandstone will no doubt
furnish evidence of similar purity of its material in comparison with other
sandstones, in explanation of the very distinctive quality of remarkably
high thermal conductivity which it appears to possess among them.

14]

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS.

cam oe | ee RS eae RS al alias! |,

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REPORT—1 878.

142

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(99.0) | (2-0) e.g { ($#-2)
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a ——————————————————

143

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS.

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6IT $800.
921 6100:
611 #800:
61 1900:
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——

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1878.

REPORT

144

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(1 12)
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99.0 12-0 = £9-%
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tes

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145

ROCKS.

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN

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(6-0)
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(11-0)
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(1F-0)
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(¥-0)
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(8-0)
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‘ow
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e700
pue eog
yong pue

‘kel ‘pueg

146 REPORT— 1878.

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnus-
Lawrence, C. Spence Barn, Hsq., H. E. Dresser, Esq. (Sec.),
Dr. A. GiintHEr, J. E. Hartinea, Lsq., Dr. Gwyn Jerrreys, Pro-
fessor Newton, and the Rev. Canon Tristram, appointed for the
purpose of inquiring into the possibility of establishing a * Close
Time” for Indigenous Animals.

Ir is with regret that your Committee has to report that, for the first time
since its original appointment in August 1868, the work it has not unsuc-
cessfully had in hand has been brought in question, and this in a way
which requires serious attention on the part of all who wish to preserve
our indigenous animals from the extermination that, until the last few
years, was threatening so many of them.

In July 1877, it having been reported to Her Majesty’s Secretary of
State for the Home Department that ‘the Herring Fishery on the coast
of Scotland is in an unsatisfactory state, and that it is desirable that
inquiries should be made to ascertain whether any legislative regulations
would tend to promote the welfare of the fishermen engaged in the said
fishery, and to increase the supply of herrings for the benefit of the
public,” that gentleman appointed Mr. Buckland, Mr. Spencer Walpole,
and Mr. Archibald Young to be Commissioners to make such inquiries
and to report to him the result thereof.

In accordance therewith the Commissioners above named reported to
the Home Secretary, under date of March 1, 1878, and their ‘ Report,’
with ‘ Appendices,’ was subsequently presented to both Houses of Par-
lament by command of Her Majesty.

This ‘ Report,’ containing certain conclusions arrived at by the Com-
missioners, naturally attracted the notice of your Committee; and after
due consideration it was resolved that a letter should be addressed on
behalf of your Committee to the Home Secretary in regard to some of
those conclusions.

The following is a copy of the letter thereupon sent :—

“To the Right Honourable R. A. Cross, H.M. Principal Secretary of State
for the Home Department.

“6 Tenterden Street, Hanover Square, W.,
“London, July 6, 1878.

** Sir, —The Committee of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the possibility of
establishing a close time for indigenous animals, having had under their
consideration the ‘Report on the Herring Fisheries of Scotland,’ dated
March 1, 1878, and the conclusions at which the Commissioners have
arrived (pp. xxxv., xxxvi. of that Report), beg leave respectfully to sub-
mit to your consideration the following observations, viz. :—

‘J. That conclusions Nos. 2 and 8 of the Commissioners—viz., that
‘legislation in past periods has had no appreciable effect,’ and that
‘nothing that man has yet done, and nothing that man is likely to do,

ON ESTABLISHING A “‘ CLOSE TIME” FOR INDIGENOUS ANIMALS. 147

has diminished, or is likely to diminish, the general stock of herrings in
the sea’—if correct, are absolutely contradicted by conclusion No. 13,
which recommends that ‘The Sea-Birds Preservation Act, protecting
gannets and other predaceous birds which cause a vast annual destruction
of herrings, should be repealed in so far as it applies to Scotland.’

“TI. That conclusion No. 1, stating that ‘ the Herring Fishery on the
coast of Scotland, as a whole, has increased and is increasing,’ clearly
shows that there can be no necessity for the step recommended in conclu-
sion No. 13 as above cited.

“TIT. That conclusion No. 13 seems to have been arrived at from ex-
aggerated or incorrect information, as will appear from the following con-
siderations:—The number of gannets on Ailsa is estimated (Report,
p- x1.) at 10,000, and a yearly consumption of 21,600,000 herrings is
assigned to them; while the Commissioners assume that there are ‘ 50
gannets in the rest of Scotland for every one on Ailsa,’ and on that
assumption declare that the total destruction of herrings by Scottish
gannets is more than 1,110,000,000 per annum. ‘This is evidently a mis-
calculation; for, on the premisses, this last number should be 1,101,000,000,
a difference of more than 8,000,000.

“But, more than this, supposing the figures at the outset are right, it
appears to the Close Time Committee that the succeeding assumption of
the Commissioners must be altogether wrong; at any rate there is no
evidence adduced in its support, and some that is contradictory of it.

“The number of breeding-places of the gannet in the Scottish seas
has long been known to be five only, as, indeed, is admitted by one of the
Commissioners (Appendix No. 2, p. 171); and the evidence of Captain
M‘Donald, which is quoted in a note to the same passage, while estimating
the Ailsa gannets at 12,000 in 1869 (not 1859, as printed), puts the whole
number of Scottish gannets at 324,000 instead of 510,000, which there
would be at the rate of 50 in the rest of Scotland for one on Ailsa, accord-
ing to the Commissioners’ assumption.

“Moreover, 50,000 of these 324,000 birds, or nearly one-sixth, are
admitted by this same Commissioner to be ‘of great value to the inhabit-
ants’ of St. Kilda; and, indeed, they are of far greater value to them
than any number of herrings, since it is perfectly well known that the
people of St. Kilda could hardly live without their birds; therefore this
50,000 must be omitted from any estimate of detriment, Deducting,
then, 50,000 from Captain M‘Donald’s 324,000, we have 274,000, and
these, at the Commissicners’ estimate, would consume 600,060,000 her-
rings instead of the 1,110,000,000 alleged by the Report, and, therefore,
nearly 200,000,000 fewer than the Commissioners’ estimate of the annual
take of the Scottish fisheries (800,000,000)—25 per cent. less, instead of
37 per cent. more.

“Hitherto the supposition of the Report, that the gannets frequent the
Scottish seas all the year round, has been followed ; but the Close Time
Committee begs leave to observe that, as a matter of fact, these birds are
not there in force for more than half the year.

“ This, then, will require another abatement to be made. Not to exag-
gerate the case, the Committee assumes them to frequent these waters
seven months, or seven-twelfths of a year. This will make their annual
capture of herrings 350,350,000, instead of the more than 1,110,000,000

L2

148 REPORT—1878.

of the Commissioners, being nearly 700,000,000, or much less than one-
third, fewer.

“TV. That in all the evidence received and published by the Commis-
sioners only two witnesses allege that any harm has resulted to the fisheries
from the Sea-Birds Protection Act. Of. these, the first, Robert M‘Connell,
presented a petition from the fishermen of Girvan, in which it is stated
(p. 145) that ‘no legislation is called for or required;’ while another
witness from the same place, John Melville (a fishery officer), declares (at
p- 146) that ‘the fishery has very much increased this last year. Recent
years have also shown a gradual increase. The increase is partly due to
the increased machinery, and partly to the increase in the number of
herrings.’

“The second witness unfavourable to the Act, John M‘William (an In-
spector of Poor), speaks (pp. 147-49) only from personal knowledge
acquired between 1833 and 1853, when he ceased to be a fisherman, and
not from any recent experience. He can therefore scarcely be held com-
petent to give an opinion of his own as to whether the Sea-Birds Pro-
tection Act (passed in 1869) has injured the fisheries. Another witness
recommends the repeal of this Act ; but he, Hugh MacLachlan, expressly
states (p. 143) that he ‘thinks the cause of the decrease [in the number
of herrings taken] is the catching immature fish;’ and the remedy he
proposes is the adoption of a strict close time.

““V. That, on the other hand, the utility of sea-birds in pointing out
the situation of shoals of herrings and other fish is not only generally
notorious, but is even admitted in the Report (pp. 57 and 175).

“VI. That if the Sea-Birds Act be repealed on the grounds alleged for
Scotland, its repeal for England and Ireland must logically follow; and
this Committee trusts that no steps may be taken to repeal the Act for
Scotland.

“T am, Sir,
** Yours obediently,
‘*H. EH. Dresser,

“ Sec. to the Brit. Assoc. Close Time Committee.”

To this letter the following reply has been received :—

Whitehall, July 12, 1878.

“‘Srr,—I am directed by the Secretary of State to acknowledge the
receipt of your letter of the 6th inst., submitting observations on behalf
of the Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
on the Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the herring
fisheries of Scotland, dated the 1st March last.

“T am, Sir,
“Your obedient servant,
(Signed) ‘“Goprrey LusHineron.

“, E. Dresser, Esq.,
6 Tenterden Street, Hanover Square, W.”

Your Committee conceives that the points at issue between it and the
Scottish Herring Fishery Commissioners are thus fairly stated, and is
confident that all unbiassed persons will admit that those Commissioners
have over-stated their case. Your Committee would further remark that,

ON OCCUPATION OF A TABLE AT THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 149

though the Sea-Birds Preservation Act contains a provision (in section 3)
for varying the close time therein enacted on due application, no such
application appears ever to have been made on the ground of detriment
to the herring fisheries caused by sea-birds; while there can be no reason-
able doubt that any application for shortening the close time on that
ground, if duly made, would be granted—circumstances which would
seem to show that the conclusions of the Commissioners were not gene-
rally shared by those interested in the fisheries. On the other hand, your
Committee may refer to the fact, already mentioned in former Reports,
that several applications have been made for prolonging the existence of
the close time.

With regard to the Wild-Fow] Preservation Act your Committee has
to report that the discontent caused by its establishing a close time,
different from that which was originally proposed by your Committee,
still exists in some quarters, but that the power of variation the Act con-
tains has been put in force in many counties ; and your Committee trusts
when this power has been still further exercised, as it doubtless will be,
and the Act practically brought into accordance with your Committee’s
first proposal, of which there are many indications, dissatisfaction will be
reduced to a minimum, or will altogether cease.

A Bill for the Protection of Freshwater Fish has been introduced into
Parliament during the present Session, and will doubtless receive the
Royal assent. It has not, however, been of a kind that needed any action
on the part of your Committee.

In view of any proceedings which may be taken in the Session of 1879
in regard to the recommendations of the Scottish Herring Fishery Com-
missioners already recited, as well as on general grounds, your Committee
respectfully urges its reappointment.

Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of arranging
with Dr. Dorn for the occupation of a Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples; the Committee consisting of Mr. Dew-SmitH
(Secretary), Professor Huxtry, Dr. CARPENTER, Dr. GwYN JEFFREYS,
Mr. Sctater, Dr. M. Foster, Mr. F. M. Batrour, and Professor
Ray LANKESTER.

Your Committee have the honour to report that the working of the Zoo-
logical Station is proceeding in the most satisfactory manner, and that its
efficiency has greatly increased since the last report was made.

Since August 1, 1877, no less than twenty-one naturalists have been
engaged in working at the Station, which is a larger number than in any
former year.

The steam launch presented by the Berlin Academy of Sciences has
been of great service in providing animals found at a distance from Naples,
and of short-lived animals requiring rapid transit, to enable them to be
used in a sufficiently fresh condition.

150 REPORT——1878.

Of late, one of the main objects of the Station has been largely de-
veloped, viz., the supplying of animals for research, and for museum
specimens at a small cost to persons applying for them.

The animals are procured and preserved by the staff at the Station,
and are sent off and charged for at the bare cost of the animals, plus the
cost of the preservation solutions.

Since August 1, 1877, packages of specimens have been sent to forty-
nine different naturalists residing in various parts of the werld. A list
is appended to this report, giving the names of those to whom the speci-
mens were sent, and also the nature of the specimens themselves.

The scientific work of the Station is progressing well, as the following
list of monographs preparing for publication will show :—

On) ChenOpHorid ew vecteensccpesewoss coos sieves sss scedoe By Dr. Chun.

pe DALAMODIOSSHS) Reser ose cee sctevecvor cclecc see euscontd » Dr. Spengel.

poe SIUPUMCULOIGE). vende sede toed snbiealss oeccsacseeswas » Dr. Spengel.

5» Capitellidz (Ammelida) .........sscsscccccesees » Dr. Hisig.

po CAPLO LING Ze ven cnn oscuceccasscscceiarctessdcemss epee » Dr. Mayer.

pot PY CHOPOMIGIO ccc odipsacsoseseccesets asdeosetasete » Dr Dohrn.
SS MNT Vice tn rete ccc ceaesciceseecestasoteccasens » Dr. Emery.

WOMEN PCLIGGS o tetveccesertsrssscvtasdscesteccakececevsls » Dr. Mayer.

Also several algological monographs by Dr. Falkenberg, Dr. Schaiitz,
and Professor Solms-Laubach are nearly ready, besides many papers on
minor investigations.

We hear that the monographs on Ctenophoridx, by Dr. Chun, and
on Balanoglossus, by Dr. Spengel, are already in the press.

We very much regret that no naturalists have availed themselves of
the use of the table engaged by the Association, and we would suggest
that members should endeavour to make it more widely known that
naturalists desirous of working at some group of animals may, with the
consent of the Committee, proceed to Naples, and there find every con-
venience for their work, including material and use of the steam launch
for dredging purposes, supplied to them free of all cost.

Lastly, we very strongly urge the desirability of renewing the grant
of £75, as although, as we have shown, the Station is ina most prosperous
condition, still it can only remain so when liberally supported by public
bodies interested in the advancement of science.

List of the Naturalists who have worked wm the Station from
August 1, 1877, to August 1, 1878.

Prof. Th. Eimer, Tii-

INGEN gaye: -ceh ase Table Wiirtemberg 18 August 1877 to 4 September 1877
Dr. Bonnet, Munich... ,, Bavaria 20° 55 Stes 4 oa Fe
Prof. Stendner, Halle ,, Prussia 2Dir ss ». 9 Ld October 4
Prof. His, Leipzig. .... ,, Saxony 7 September ,, ,, 27 September ,,
Prof. Graf Salms-Lau-

bach, Strasburg...... » Strasburg 26 * 959 24 October ae
Dr. Taschenberg, Leip-

DiS oss. cacceyeeuatrenee 5» Saxony 3 November ,, 4, 28 June 1878
Dr. P. Mayer, Liiden-

SCheid Metts. cence onene » Prussia 1 January 1878 ,, =
Dr. Zincone, Naples... ,, Italy 1 PY} —

: ’
Dr. Dela Valle, Naples ,, Italy 1 January 1878 ) =

.

ON OCCUPATION OF A TABLE AT THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 151

Dr. A. Lang, Berne ...Table Switzerland 14 January 1878 to 7 May 1878
Dr. Schmitz, Kassel... ,, Prussia DE as ) aeOune hy
Dr. R. Valiante, Naples ., Italy 1 Hebruary 5, | 4, — ss
Dr. E. Everts, Hague ,, Holland 11 March » 9» 18 May on
Dr. V. Koch, Darm-

RRP s crewc(o.s' discisieje's » Darmstadt 12 ,, Se ey abs ace oc
Prof. Graf Salms-Lau-

bach, Strasbure....... » Strasburg 14 ,, 3) ea ezoeapril as
Dr. C. Chun, Frank- ,,_ Berlin Aca-

RESUME atee va'clesisecseudaes demy 14 =4,; “sh ay teh a
Dr. v. Rohlfs, Leipzig ,, Saxony 2085; op » 18 May re
Dr. L. Graff, Aschaffen-

REPO e ances ccce ss ++ 5, Bavaria SL 135 Paster ies diode Bee a
Professor Metchinkoff,

OGESSA.......00c20eeeee. » Russia es a orcune ”»
Prof. v. Rougemont,

Neuchatel ........ es. 9) Switzerland 8 May Gy 2 July 3
Dr. Emery, Naples ... ,, Italy 28 June ‘sess —

List of Naturalists and Places to which Animals nave been sent
from August 1, 1877, to August 1, 1878.

Aug.
1877.
1

Dr. M. Lanzi
Mr. Balfour

Dr. Grobben
Prof, Studer

Prof. Eimer
Prof, Greeff

Prof, Gétte
Prof. Heller

Anat. Institute

L. Blaschka

Prof. Hoffmann
Kgl. Naturaliencab.

Prof. Ausserer
Museo Zoologico
W. Percy Sladen
Prof. Greeff
Zool, Museum

fKgl. ©. Thierarznei-

( Schule \
Professor Kollmann
Prof, F. E. Schulze
Zool. Station

C. Armbruster
Prof. Ehlers
Dr. Emery

A. Waters

Prof, Semper
Prof. Todaro
H. Karthaus
Dr. Ludwig

Rome
Paris
Vienna
Berne

Tiibingen
Marburg

Strassburg
Innsbruck

Halle
Dresden
Leyden
Stuttgart

Graz
Palermo
Halifax
Marburg
Berlin

Munich

Munich
Graz
Trieste

London
Gottingen
Palermo
Woodbrook

Wiirzburg
Rome
Marburg
Gottingen

Salnee.

Ascidia.

Crustacea.

Salpze, Coelenterata.

Selachia.
Miscellaneous.

Embryos of Torpedo, and Scyllium.
Crustacea.

Miscellaneous.
Mollusca, Coelenterata.
Miscellaneous.

do.

do.
Fishes.
Echinodermata.
Echinod., Coelent,
Miscellaneous.

dc.

Heteropoda and Pteropoda.
Spongide.
Hydromedusz.

Cephalopoda.
Coelent., Echinod.
Eyes of fishes.
Bryozoa.

Lamellibranchiata,
Miscellaneous.

do.
Echinodermata.

152 REPORT—1878.

1878
April
C. Stacy Watson London Fishes.
16 Prof. Claus Vienna Coelenterata.
30 Prof. Eimer Tiibingen Fishes, Echinod., Coelent.
30 | K. Felsche Leipzig Brachyura,
30 Dr. v. Thering Erlangen Mollusea.
30 Prof, Leuckart Leipzig Miscellaneous,
May
i Dr. Lang Berne do.
11 Dr. Everts Hague do.
14 Prof. Graff Aschaffenb. do.
15 | Prof. Hoffmann Leyden Eyes of Cephalop, and Pterop.
18 Dr. de Man Leyden Mollusca.
19 Zool, Cabinet St.Petersburg) Hydra polyps.
25 Prof. v. Koch Darmstadt | Mollusca, Coelent.
25 Prof. Steindachner | Vienna Fishes, Coelent,
June
29 | Prof. de Rougemont | Neuchatel | Fishes.
29 Zoolog. Institute Halle Miscellaneous.
July
27 Zoolog. Museum Berlin do.
31 K. Heider Graz Coelent.
31 Leeds Museum Leeds Mollusca, Fishes, Coelent., Vermes.
31 Dr. Preper Olfen Miscellaneous.

Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Dr. Farr,
Lord Aprerpare, Dr. W. Bain, Dr. Bzppor, Mr. Brasroox, Sir
GrorGE CAMPBELL, Captain Ditton, The Ear oF Ducts, Professor
Fiower, Mr. Distant, Mr. F. P. Frtiows, Mr. F. Gauton, Mr.
Park Harrison, Mr. J. Herwoop, Mr. P. Hatierr, Major-Gen.
Lanz Fox (Sec.), Inspector-General Lawson, Mr. Grorce SHaw
Lerevre, Professor Leone Levi, Dr. WALLER Lewis, Dr. Mooat,
Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. ALzxanpER RepGRAve, and Professor
Ro..eston.

A consIpERABLE delay has been unavoidably incurred in preparing and
circulating the schedules and accompanying instructions for collecting
the desired observations, with a view of testing by practical experience
the extent to which the Committee might look for useful results, and the
sufficiency of the instructions to ensure both accuracy and uniformity.
The work, therefore, has hitherto been rather tentative and experimental.

The forms and instruments used by the Committee are: (1). Explicit
instructions to observers on the mode of filling-in the blank schedules,
and on the use of the instruments. (2). A schedule for the measure-
ments and other observations. This contains, when fall, twenty names.
(3). A printed circular, by Dr. Farr, explaining the objects of the Com-
mittee. (4). Book of tinted papers, named and numbered, to assist
observers in specifying the different colours of the hair. (5). A circular
by Mr. Brabrook, in relation to photographs. (6). A diagram showing

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 153

the position in which the strength of arm should be tested; and (7) a
card containing dots for testing eyesight.

The instruments are: (1). A weighing machine. (2). A simple ap-
paratus for measuring height. (3). A spirometer; and (4) a spring
balance for testing strength of arm. Of these instrnaments the Committee
have purchased four complete sets.

A great number of the forms have been distributed to persons in various
parts of the country.

The schedules already filled up and received by the Committee relate
to the measurements of the boys at Westminster School, the 2nd Royal
Surrey Militia, letter-sorters in the General Post Office, recruits, persons
employed in a large manufactory in Bedford, criminals; and a few relate
to persons engaged in different occupations. Some of these, however,
have not been taken strictly according to the instructions drawn out by
the Committee, and some of them are of less value than the rest.

Other measurements have been promised by Dr. Mouat; by the Rev.
George Style, the head-master of a grammar-school in Yorkshire; by Dr.
Farr ; and by Capt. Brown, of the 18th Kent Rifle Volunteers. Capt.Brown
states, in his letter to Dr. Farr, that he will have much pleasure in fur-
nishing measurements of the men in his corps—about 100; and that he
will see personally the other eight commanding officers, and ask them to
assist the Committee. Should Capt. Brown be able to obtain the whole,
they will amount to about 900 men.

Amongst those who have furnished the Committee with measurements
may be mentioned the names of Major-General Lane Fox, Mr. Francis
Galton, Inspector-General Lawson, Dr. Waller Lewis, Dr. Bain, Dr. Scott,
the head-master of Westminster School, and Professor Rudler.

A few sets of tables have been prepared from the above returns, show-
ing the age and height, age and weight, age and strength, and average
height, weight, and strength, as well as the ratio between height and
weight and the ratio between height and strength.

An extract from the tables relating to criminals has been drawn out by
Mr. Francis Galton, as an illustration of one of the methods in which it
is proposed to deal with facts collected by the Committee, to be circulated
with their forms and instructions.

General Lane Fox has written a full report on the measurements, which
he personally superintended, of the 2nd Royal Surrey Militia; and from
which he has prepared several tables, which are shown at the end of his
report. His tables, though differently constructed, agree in nearly every
particular with those prepared under the direction of Dr. Farr.

It will be observed that several gentlemen have promised to furnish the
Committee with measurements, and they hope soon to be in possession of
such facts as will enable them to compare the results with the different
classes of the population, and to determine the physical characters of
persons born and living in different parts of the country.

In the meantime the Committee abstain from submitting incomplete
results; they, however, think the following short abstract from some of
the tables alluded to may be of sufficient interest to deserve consideration.

154 REPORT—1878.

Ratio Ratio
es} between | between
$ Averages height | height
2 and and
2 weight |strength
a Asiwee
no DQ = =

Age 22/48 |2 |Se | See] eee
4 OD in en ape 60 8 oS
° oo ouU vo Seo Been
4 ra = q ve ak = ro cs
5) = ree ayes Ag
2 oA | 8] o-- || Pog | Sha
gq s wc of Olona ao
5 HA | ad | Ss | ofa | oH
a | 2" | 8" | G8 | gee | gee
q <4 af aH 2 Aer Bogen
o 'Z, VA!
Non-commissioned officers
and men 2nd Royal Surrey
13 IMATE y 2. cwadeeescee de sale'ess = = = — —
Boys at Westminster School} 20 597 | 86:2 | 47:8 1-4 0:8
| General Post Office (letter-
sorters, &¢.) ....... detent 36 559 | 74:7 | — 13 --
Non-commissioned ofticers
and men 2nd Royal Surrey
4 ITIVE) eB aerenoee, Eoe BERET do — — — ;
Boys at Westminster School| 48 61:3 | 95°3 | 55-6 16 0-9
| General Post Office (letter-
RONDELS, OGCs))). bvswieesises se) we eies 503 60°3 | 93°3 | — 15 —
Non-commissioned officers
and men 2nd Royal Surrey
1p- | _ Militia ......eeeeeeseeeeeeeees — — os = as —
Boys at Westminster School} 39 64°8 | 111°5 | 591 alee 0:9
| General Post Office (letter-
SOGUETS; Ke.) (5.4. sak eee ses 670 61-7 | 1005 | — 16 =
| Non-commissioned officers
and men 2nd Royal Surrey
16 IMGINGIE ince sass ccs ssmthinewesas + 64:5 | 122°5 | 61:3 19 1:0
Boys at Westminster School} 43 66°5 |124:2 | 69°8 19 1-0
General Post Office (letter-
SORDETS, WC) iis cvcesee skis sete 275 63°9 |}111°5 | — ie ( —
Non-commissioned officers
and men 2nd Royal Surrey
17 WVIGET AN cia ninor asides seeeeens 13 64:0 |119°4 | 61:7 IED 10
Boys at Westminster School | 18 67°8 |129°6 | 816 1:9 1-2
| General Post Office (letter-
SDEUCIS, CGC.) )sddccostvessaseaes 124 65'4 |120°5 | — 2-0 i
Non-commissioned officers
and men 2nd Royal Surrey h
18 MUNA cst tore ccsnececedbeaes 35 64:7 |126°2 | 67-4 19 1:0
Boys at Westminster School 8 67°5 | 1381 | 92°5 2-0 1-4
General Post Office (letter-
BOMLETS, (CC, )yacetecavecspte tess 98 65:4 | 123-3 — 1:9 —

_

For the purpose of inquiring into and determining the typical forms of
our race a sub-committee has been formed, consisting of Mr. Brabrook,
Sir Rawson Rawson, Major-General Lane Fox, Mr. Francis Galton, Mr.
Park Harrison, Professor Leone Levi, and Mr. Distant.

The Report of the Sub-Committee is annexed hereto.

In conclusion, it may be said that the Committee have now organised the
system of observations, and have tested them sufficiently; they have
distributed blank schedules, which they expect to have returned to them

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 155

filled up; they have also agreed on the more important points concerned
in the forms of reduction of the raw materials.

They are now prepared. with instruments sufficient to enter upon a large
field of observation.

They have expended £83 11s. 2d. in their prefatory work of the £100
that was voted to them, and have handed the residue back to the
Treasurer. They now beg that the residue be re-granted to them, to-
gether with an additional sum of £83 11s. 2d., which will put them in
possession of £100 to carry on operations during the next year, which
they trust will produce a valuable harvest of results.

Wittiam Farr,
July, 1878. Chairman of Anthropometric Committee.

Rerort or Sus-ComMItrer.

The Sub-Committee appointed by the Anthropometric Committee to
deal with that portion of the reference to them which relates to “the
publication of photographs of the typical races of the empire,” resolved
in the first instance to limit the inquiry to the investigation, by means of
photographs, of the national or local types of races prevailing in different
parts of the United Kingdom.

The plan which the Sub-Committee thought it best to adopt was to
select a number of districts in which it is believed a distinct type prevails,
and in each such district to request the assistance of as many competent
observers as can be found; each to be asked to obtain a limited number
of photographs, six to ten, representing in his opinion the type chiefly
prevalent among individuals belonging to families long settled and inter-
marrying in the district. From the materials thus obtained, the Sub-
Committee hope to be able to select representative specimens.

In the carrying out of this plan, the assistance of professional and
amateur photographers, of medical men, and of clergymen, has been
sought. A circular has been addressed to about a hundred members of
the Association, and a letter has been published, by authority of the
Committee, in the ‘Photographic News.’ This inquiry is one, however,
in which almost every member of the Association may be able to assist,
’ and the Sub-Committee (presuming the Association will authorise the
continuance of the work) appeal to the members generally for such
assistance.

The Sub-Committee recommend—

1. That the selected individuals should be adults. ’

2. That the details of their pedigree, as far as possible, should be given.

3. That, in general, only those should be accepted whose two parents
and four grandparents were born in or belonged to the district.

4. That the colour of hair and eyes should be stated, if practicable.

5. That the photographs should be accompanied by a written description
= ae particular features they portray as being characteristic of the dis-

rict.

In pursuance of this plan, the Sub-Committee have received from Pro-
fessor Rudler an excellent selection of 5 male and 5 female inhabitants of
Aberystwith, which are laid upon the table, as specimens of the way in
which the work should be done. Mr. Park Harrison, one of their body,
has made a selection of types from Wales and Cornwall, and others from

156 REPORT—1 878.

Sussex and Hast Kent. Miss Whitmore-Jones, of Chastleton House,
Oxfordshire, has kindly arranged for the photographing of some of the
inhabitants of that parish whose pedigree can be traced in the parish
registers up to their very commencement, nearly 300 years ago. (Six
groups thus obtained are laid upon the table.) Mr. Hooper, a skilled
photographer, has promised to furnish the Sub-Committee with specimens
from several districts. They have had also most liberally placed at their
disposal the important collections which have been made during many
years past by their colleague, Dr. Beddoe. The Rev. Mr. Crompton, in
Norfolk, Mr. Spence Bate, in Cornwall, Mr. C. Staniland Wake, at Hull,
Mr. Sorby, at Sheffield, Dr. Muirhead, for Scotland, and numerous others,
have also kindly undertaken to collect photographs for the Sub-Committee.
Collectors for Ireland are much wanted.

Though the Sub-Committee are as yet only on the threshold of their task,
and their operations have been hitherto tentative, they are hopeful of use-
ful results. Their sense of the importance and interest of the work has
grown with every step they have taken, and it is abundantly clear that,
if not now completed, it will become more and more difficult in future
years. The influence of railways has during the last fifty years greatly
increased migration and intermixture, and -that influence must increase
instead of diminishing. It has indeed been suggested to the Sub-Committee
by some of their correspondents that the requirement as to pedigree is
already too onerous for urban and manufacturing districts, and that in
such cases it will be necessary to be content with proof that a mere
majority of the three generations, and not the whole, belong to the dis-
trict.

The Sub-Committee respectfully recommend that they be reappointed,
with the view of pressing forward the work to completion. They would
be glad if a few practical photographers could be added to their number ;
and they again ask for the assistance of any competent persons who will
undertake to select six or ten typical photographs in the district they
know best, and for any other aid in carrying out the undertaking that the
members can give. :

In connexion with this branch of the subject, the Sub-Committee have
watched with much interest the experiments of their colleague, Mr. Francis
Galton, in preparing compound photographs from several individuals
belonging to the same category. Indealing with the features of criminals,
Mr. Galton has produced some remarkable results, and the Sub-Committee
will not fail to inquire whether an application of his process would not be
useful for their own purposes in generalising the peculiar features observed
in different localities.

Though the Sub-Committee have of necessity postponed the collection
of photographs of races of the empire outside the United Kingdom, Sir
Rawson Rawson has been kind enough to obtain for them from the
Colonial Office a set of the very fine series of photographs which that
department obtained some years ago under the advice of Professor Huxley ;
and the authorities of the India Office have also kindly placed at the dis-
posal of the Sub-Committee their valuable collection of photographs of
Indian races.

For the Sub-Committee,

E. W. Brasrooxk.
July, 1878.

ON THE USE OF STEEL FOR STRUCTURAL PURPOSES. 157

Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. W. WinutaMson, Pro-
fessor Sir Witt1am Txuomson, Mr. Bramwett, Mr. Sr. Joun Vin-
cent Day, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. C. W. Merririetp, Dr. NEILSon
Hancock, Mr. F. J. Ase, Mr. J. R. Napier, Captain Doveras
Gaxton, Mr. Newmarcu, Mr. E. H. Carsurr, and Mr. Macrory,
appointed for the purpose of watching and reporting to the
Council on Patent Legislation.

Tus Committee begs leave to report that, with the exception of the
introduction of a Bill on the Patent Law by a private member, which
Bill was not proceeded with, there has not been any attempt at legisla-
tion on the subject. The Committee request that they may be reap-
pointed.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H. Bartow, Mr. H.
Bessemer, Mr. F. J. Bramwett, Captain Dovenas Garon, Sir
Joun Hawksuaw, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Professor ABrL, and Mr. E.
H. Carsurt (Sec.), appointed for the purpose of considering the
Use of Steel for Structural Purposes.

Owine to the action of your Committee, the Board of Trade requested
two of your members, viz., Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S., and Mr. W. H.
Barlow, F.R.S., to co-operate with Colonel Yolland, ‘to consider whether
it is practicable to assign a safe co-efficient for steel.”

After a long and careful consideration they, on March 19, 1877, re-
ported as follows :— i

“We assume that with steel, as with iron, the engineer will take care
that, as well as the required strength, he secures a proper amount of
ductility.

“ Having given the subject our best consideration, we recommend that
the employment of steel in engineering structures should be authorised by
the Board of Trade under the following conditions, namely :—

“1. That the steel employed should be cast steel or steel made by
some process of fusion, subsequently roiled or hammered, and that it
should be of a quality possessing considerable toughness and ductility,
and that a certificate to the effect that the steel is of this description
and quality should be forwarded to the Board of Trade by the engineer
responsible for the structure.

“2. That the greatest load which can be brought upon the bridge or
structure, added to the weight of the superstructure, should not produce
a greater strain in any part than 64 tons per square inch.

“In conclusion we have to remark that in recommending a co-efficient
of 63 tons per square inch for the employment of steel in railway struc-
tures generally, we are aware that cases may and probably will arise when
it will be proposed to use steel of special make and still greater tenacity,
and when a higher co-efficient might be permissible; but we think those

158 REPORT—1878.

cases must be left for consideration when they arise, and that a higher co-
efficient may be then allowed in those instances where the reasons given
appear to the Board of Trade to justify it.

“Weare, &.,

(Signed) “ Joun HawxsHaw,
““W. YOLLAND,
“W. H. Bartow.
“The Secretary of the Board of Trade, &c.”

This Report has since been acted upon by the Board of Trade in the
printed paper issued by them in reference to railway structures.

It will be observed that a co-efficient of 64 tons per square inch is
assigned to steel, that of iron being 5 tons per square inch.

This increase of the co-efficient will effect important economy in
structures, especially in bridges of large spans, and will also tend gene-
rally to increase the employment of steel for railway and shipbuilding
purposes.

The labours of your Committee having ended in such a satisfactory
manner, there is no necessity to reappoint them.

Report on the Geographical Distribution of the Chiroptera.
By G. E. Dosson, M.A., M.B.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed tn eatenso
among the Reports. ]

In his work on the Geographical Distribution of Animals, published
scarcely two years ago, Mr. Wallace writes :—‘‘ The genera of Chiroptera
are in a state of great confusion, the names used by different authors
being often not at all comparable, so that the few details given of the
distribution of the bats are not trustworthy. We have therefore made
little use of this order in the theoretical part of the work.” And again:
“The bats are a very difficult study, and itis quite uncertain how many
distinct species there are; the genera are exceedingly numerous, but they
are in a very unsettled state, and the synonymy is exceedingly confused.
The details of their distribution cannot therefore be usefully entered upon
here.”’

These remarks furnish a suitable preface to this paper. The recent
publication of my work on the Chiroptera renders them, I hope, no longer
applicable, and I purpose now to set forth in greater detail the results of
my inquiries into the geographical distribution of these animals than the
space at my disposal in the introduction to the work referred to has per-
mitted.

Mr. Wallace points out the pre-eminent importance of the distribution
of Mammals in determining the limits of zoological regions ; but also
remarks that, “there are two groups which have quite exceptional means
of dispersal—the bats which fly, and the cetacea, seals, &c., which swim.
The former are capable of traversing considerable spaces of sea, since two

) ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHIROPTERA. 159

_ North American species either regularly or occasionally visit the Ber-
mudas, a distance of 600 miles from the mainland.”’

I do not think that the occurrence of two American species of bats in
the Bermudas affords much proof of the general capability of the species
of Chiroptera in traversing considerable spaces of sea, for it is exceedingly
probable that the few individuals which have been noticed there have
been carried thither by storms (to which cause is evidently due the great
number of straggling species of birds which have been found there), or
have been imported into the island while hybernating in the holds of
vessels, or are the descendants of such accidentally imported individuals,
However, even if it be granted that the Chiroptera possess great powers
of dispersal, it is certain that quite nine-tenths of the species avail them-
selves of them in a very limited degree indeed, and it is significant that
the distribution of the species is limited by barriers similar to those which
govern it in the case of other species of mammals. This is well shown
by the small number of species which are known to inhabit more than
one of the recognised zoological regions, which amount to 22 only out
of 400. The following list includes these species, and shows also their
distribution.

1. Pteropus hypomelanus ....0cccceeseeeees Australian and Oriental.
2. Macroglossus ManiMmus .sccccceceesereeee Oriental and Australian.
, 3. Rhinolophus ferrwm-equinwm ....000+ Ethiopian and Palearctic.
4, Vesperugo s€70tinus ..scesecseessceseeves All regions except the Australian,
5. Vesperugo noct ula ......csgeveeeccecreeees Ethiopian, Oriental, Palearctic.
6. Vesperugo Mars ..sccececccserccsececees Oriental and Palearctic.
JT. Vesperugo G07 QMus..c.ccccececsereeveecece Oriental and Australian,
8. Vesperrigo Kunin .........o.seedesoesoree Oriental and Palearctic.
9. Wyecticejus crepusculanis ....00.cceeee Nearctic and Neotropical.
10. Atalapha noveboracensis ........... ,... Nearctic and Neotropical.
WLS Atalapna cinerea ....cccrcecgeeacesgerere Nearctic and Neotropical.
12. Harpiocephalus har pra .....ccc.ccceeeees Oriental and Australian.
13. Vespertilio Adversus ......eceesseceeeees Oriental and Australian.
14. Vespertilio Capaccinti ...secccrssrevenee Oriental and Palearctic.
15. Vespertilio danubentontt .........ceeeeeree Palearctic and Oriental.
16. Vespertilio muricola ....cscccecereceeeees Oriental and Australian,
17. Vespertilio Tctfrugus ....ccecececeecsecees Nearctic and Neotropical,
18. Kerivowla har dmichit..ccccccccccoessceces Oriental and Australian.
19. Miniopterus schreibersit ..sccccscaseee Oriental, Australian, Ethiopian, and
Palearctic.
20. Taphozous nUdiventrts ...cecccecseseeees Ethiopian, Oriental, and Palearctic.
21. Rhinopoma microphyllum,.....c.ece0e- Ethiopian, Oriental, and Palzarctic.
22. Nyctinomus brasiliensis ....0.:.....00e Neotropical and Nearctic.

Estimating the total number of known species of Chiroptera at 400, it
follows that 55 per cent. only wander beyond their respective zoological
regions, or, in other words, 944 per cent. are characteristic. It is also
noticeable that more than two-thirds of these wandering species belong
to the family Vespertilionide, which has by far the widest geographical
distribution, and includes the least specialised forms.

The following table exhibits the numbers of families, genera, and species
inhabiting each zoological region; and shows that in the regions situated
principally within the tropics (as the Oriental and Neotropical regions)
the number of species is more than three times that of those lying chiefly
in the temperate zones (as the Nearctic and Palearctic regions).

160 REPORT—1878.

Palearctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian | Neotropical \ Nearctic

8 8 g FS | 3 }a{.!
alelsiaigig |jele\3elelsielé|siaisi4
Bl/o(a}ealélia lalolalel(sla|els| a lals ja
| Pteropodidee .-|—|—|—]} 1] 3 /}18}} 1) 5} 20 1) 7 133) —)}— jt
| Rhinolophide ...)1]2| 5} 1) 3/11], 1| 3] 28 ]}1]3] 6|—|/—| —|J— ——
Nycteridie ...... | jh P| i UR VP a Wn Ps: Tolslhelel eleoicic
Vespertilionide.| 1 | 7 ]25|/ 1) 6 |28|) 1) 6) 47 |} 1] 7 {18} 1) 5} 24 |} 1) 5 14
Emballonuride..| 1 | 2] 2/|/1/5/18})1/5)13]}1/4] 7) 1] 8) 2@)1)1/1
Phyllostomide...] —|—|—|/—|—|— || —|—| — ||—|—|]—]} 1 | 81] 65 ||— pigs
Sella Ae Pisa ee CA lice | an co
Total . 3 }11]32)| 5 |} 19) 83|| 5 |}21)111}) 4 | 21) 64)! 3 | 44/105) 2) 6 -

In considering the geographical distribution of each family of the

Chiroptera and the range of its genera and species, I think it well to:

commence with the Vespertilionide and Emballonuride, as these alone are
to any extent cosmopolitan in their distribution.

Of the sixteen genera of Vespertilionide five (Antrozous, Nycticejus,
Atalapha, Natalus and Thyroptera), are peculiar to America, but these are
represented by nine species only. Of the remaining eleven genera, eight
are peculiar to the Eastern hemisphere, and of these Nyctophilus and
Chalinolobus (subgen.) are limited to the Australian region; Synotus,
Otonycteris, and Plecotus (subgen.) to the Palearctic. A second species
of Plecotus (the type of a well-defined subgenus Corinorhinus) is found in
the Nearctic region only. Two genera alone, Vesperugo and Vespertilio
are cosmopolitan ; but of the fifty species of the former, eleven only inhabit
America, and the few American species of the latter genus are closely
related to one another. A single species of Vespertilionide—Vesperugo
serotinus—is alone known with certainty to extend intv both hemispheres,
although it is probable that V. abramus and V. borealis may be found
hereafter to have as wide a distribution.

Although the genera of Emballonurids are much more equally distri-
buted in number between the two hemispheres, half of the whole being
American, a single genus alone, Nyctinomus, is common to both, and it
is worthy of note that, of the twenty-one species of this genus, four only
inhabit America, and these are all closely related to one another, and very
far removed from any of the Old World species. Furia, Amorphocheilus,
Rhynchonycteris, Saccopteryx, Diclidurus, Noctilio, and Molossus, repre-
sented by twenty-six species, are peculiar to the Neotropical region, while
the remaining genera with thirty-seven species are limited to the Hastern
hemisphere. Of these Mystacina with a single species is found in New
Zealand only. Colewra appears to be limited to East Africa and the
Malagasy subregion, but the species from these subregions are very
distinct. Emballonura extends from Madagascar to the Malay Archipelago,
and throughout the larger islands of the Polynesian subregion, but has
not been recorded from any part of the adjacent continents.

The Neotropical genera of this family are, on the whole, more closely
related to each other than to any of the old world genera; nevertheless
there are certain peculiar forms of limited distribution in the Hastern
hemisphere, which seem to have their nearest allies among neotropical
species. Thus, the very remarkable species, Cheiromeles torquatus, which
has not been found beyond the Indo-Malayan subregion, appears to be

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHIROPTERA. 161

closely related to some of the species of the Neotropical genus Molossus
than to any of the Old World forms; and the same remark applies to
Nyctinomus australis, which is characteristic of the Australian region.

Although the Emballonuride have as wide an eastwardly and west-
wardly distribution as the Vespertilionidsw, yet they are far exceeded by
the latter family in their northern and southern range. While the
Vespertilionidz extend in the Northern hemisphere as far as the isothermal
of 32° Fahr. or thereabouts, the Emballonuride are rarely found north or
south of the isothermal of 55°.

The Rhinolophidx are limited to the Eastern hemisphere, and within
these limits the species have much less extended bounds than even those
of the preceding family. No species has as yet been recorded with cer-
tainty from the Polynesian subregion, from Tasmania, or from New
Zealand. With the exception of Rhinolophus ferrwm-equinum, which
extends throughout the Ethiopian and warmer parts of the Palearctic
region, the species of this family inhabiting each of the zoological regions
comprised within the area of its distribution are distinct and charac-
teristic. No species of the subfamily Phyllorhinine extends into the
Palearctic region ; Celops is limited to the Oriental region, and Rhino-
nycteris to the Australian ; these last two genera, however, include but
a single species each. The very remarkable forms Phyllorhina commer-
soni and Ph. cyclops belong to the Ethiopian region, but the former
species alone extends int> the Malagasy subregion.

The Nycteride are limited to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, one
species only passing slightly beyond the limits of the latter region, and
none have as yet been found in the Malagasy subregion of the former.
The Hthiopian species of the genus Megaderma are more closely related to
each other than to the Oriental species. The distribution of Nycteris is
remarkable: six species are limited to the Ethopian region, the seventh is
found in Java, and differs from all the rest in the large size of the second
lower premolar.

The Phyllostomide present the only instance of a family of Chiroptera
limited to a single zoological region. None of the species are known
with certainty to inhabit permanently any of the countries beyond the
recognized limits of the Neotropical region. This family is therefore
eminently characteristic of that region. Although Central America and
Southern Mexico have representatives of almost every genus of Phyllo-
stomidée, none of the species have been, with any certainty, reeorded from
the Southern States of North America, though the mean annual tempera-
ture of a great part of these countries equals or exceeds that of many
parts of South America where representatives of the family are abundant.
It is worthy of note that Macrotus waterhousii, which has been alone found
as far north as Cape St. Lucas in California, is apparently omnivorous,
living indifferently on fruit, insects, and probably on small bats; and
Trachyops cirrhosus recorded doubtfully from South Carolina and from
Bermuda, is evidently, judging from its structure, of the same habits.
The power possessed by these species of varying their food evidentl
renders them more capable of extending their range beyond the limits of
their original homes. Few, if any, of the species of this family, in the
present state of our knowledge, can be said to be characteristic of any of!
the Neotropical subregions; but certain species appear to be limited in’
their distribution within the region. |

aes Megachiroptera, represented by the single family Pteropodide,

ate: __M : a

162 REPORT—1 878.

present probably more peculiarities in their distribution than any other
group of Chiroptera. Like the Rhinolophide and Nycteride, they are
strictly limited to the Old World, and scarcely extend anywhere beyond
the tropics. Their limitation to the tropical parts is easily explained by
a consideration of the fact that there only is found a continuous supply
at all seasons of the tree-fruits on which they subsist; but this does not
account for certain peculiarities in their distribution in an eastwardly or
westwardly direction. While the family is distributed throughout the
Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions (except Tasmania and New
Zealand), a single genus only, Cynonycteris, extends throughont all these
regions. Hpomophorus, which includes certain species so different from all
other Megachiroptera, as to almost necessitate the formation of a distinct
subfamily for their reception, is strictly limited to that part of the
Ethiopian region included within the continent of Africa. Cynopterus is
also limited to the Oriental region ; a single anomalous species, C. latidens
(which differs widely from all the other species in the form of its teeth)
being found in the Moluccas. Honycteris is, as yet, known from the
Indo-Malayan subregion alone; Notopteris appears to be limited to the
Polynesian subregion; Harpyia and Cephalotes are characteristic of the
Austro-Malayan subregion.

The distribution of the genus Pteropus (which includes more than half
the whole number of the species of Pteropodide) is more remarkable than
that of any of the other genera of Chiroptera. The Comoro Islands
in the Mozambique Channel form its westward limit, thence the species
extend throughout the Malagasy subregion, even to the small hurricane-
swept island of Rodriguez (from which I have lately described a new
species), and northwards through the Amirantes and Seychelle Islands
to India, where their westward limit is found at the southern frontier of
Baluchistan : from India they extend eastwards throughout the Oriental
and Australian regions (except Tasmania and New Zealand), inhabiting
Polynesia as far eastwards as Samoa and Savage Island. Although one
thousand miles of unbroken ocean divide the Seychelle Islands from the
Chagos group (the nearest intermediate land to India), the Indian and
Madagascar species (Pteropus medius and Pt. edwardsii) are very closely
allied ; while, on the other hand, not a single species crosses the narrow
channel between the Great Comoro Island and the African coast, although
certainly two species (Pteropus edwardsii and Pt. livingstonii), and pro-
bably a third (Pt. vulgaris), inhabit the Comoro group.

The following table exhibits the very remarkable distribution of the
species of this genus :—

Number

Regions Subregions of Species Remarks
1
Ethiopian... 2 African ......... None
4, Malagasy ......... 5 All these species very distinct.
1. Hindostan......... 1 Very closely allied to one of the
. 27 Ceylon i 5...2 0... Malagasy species.
a 3. Indo-China ...... 4 Three very closely allied.
4, Indo-Malaya...... 4 Three very closely allied.
1, Austro-Malaya... | 15 yy.
Anat 2. Australia tpl ees 5 All the species very distinct.
3. Polynesia ......... 5
4. New Zealand...... None

163

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHIROPTERA.

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164 REPORT—1878.

From the table (p. 162) it may be observed, that of the 39 species, 30
(or nearly 80 per cent.) inhabit the Malagasy subregion, and the Austra-
lian region; and that more than 50 per cent. of the whole are found within
the narrow limits of the Malagasy and Austro-Malayan subregions.

It is worthy of notice, that of the nine species inhabiting the Oriental
region, three only can be considered very distinct, and these are closely
related to some of the species from the Malagasy and Austro- Malayan
subregions, so that it appears evident that the species now inhabiting
the Oriental region, were derived at a comparatively recent period from
the above-named subregions.

The sum of the foregoing remarks is well set forth in the second
table (p. 163), which exhibits the number of peculiar genera and species
of each and of all the families of Chiroptera in each zoological region,
and also shows their percentage on the total number of the genera and
species. This table also shows that among the Vespertilionide and
Emballonuridex only, which are cosmopolitan in their distribution, does the
percentage of peculiar species in each zoological region fall below 90,
while even in these families it is rarely as low as 70.

We may now proceed to consider to what extent the recognised zoo-
logical regions are severally characterised by the possession of peculiar
families, genera, or species of Chiroptera.

In the first place, the two primary divisions of the earth, Palzogrea
and Neogwa, are well characterised by their Chiropterous fauna: the
former by the possession of three peculiar families, the Pteropodide,
Rhinolophide, and Nycteride, and by the absence of the Phyllostomide ;
the latter by the absence of the three first-named families, and by the
presence of the latter. Although the Vespertilionide and Emballonuridse
are common to both hemispheres, one species only is known with certainty
to inhabit both the New and the Old World, and all the genera except
three are peculiar.

The remarkable poverty of the Nearctic and Palearctic regions in
species, and especially in peculiar species, is well shown in the table.
In the Nearctic region the number of peculiar species is but one-tenth of
those which are characteristic of the closely connected Neotropical region;
in the Palearctic, one-sixth of those in the Ethiopian, and one-seventh of
those in the Oriental region. Moreover, the few species which appear to
be peculiar to these two regions do not present such marked differences
in structure from the species of the adjoining regions as the peculiar
species of other regions; in other words, they are not so characteristically
peculiar. This taken into consideration with the comparatively large
percentage of non-peculiar species which are found in these and in the
adjoining regions, and which extend as a rule into the southern parts only
of these regions, shows that the Chiropterous fauna of the Nearctic and
Palearctic regions is mainly, if not wholly, derivative.

This is precisely what we should have expected theoretically ; for, know-
ing that the greater part of the Nearctic and Palearctic regions was covered
with ice at a comparatively recent period, and therefore uninhabitable by
a class of animals few of which now extend even in summer as far as the
limit of permanently frozen ground, we must suppose that on the cessa-
tion of the glacial epoch, these regions derived their Chiropterous fauna
from countries lying south of them.

It appears evident, however, that the Nearctic region has derived
many of its species from the Palearctic, probably by way of Bebring

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHIROPTERA. 165

Straits, at a time when more dry land existed in the northern parts of the
Pacific Ocean. Although Vesperugo serotinus is the only species known
with certainty to extend from the Palearctic to the Nearctic region, yet
so close is the connection between many other Palearctic and Nearctic
species (between Vespertilio mystacinus and V. nitidus, Vesperugo abramus
and V. hesperus, Vesperugo borealis and V. propinquus, e.g.), that it is not
necessary to require long separation to account for the few specific dif-
ferences now noticeable.

Of the eleven species which appear to be peculiar to the Palwarctic
region, both the species of Rhinolophide are evidently very closely
related to Ethiopian forms ; and the Vespertilionide, with the exception of
Plecotus auritus, and Synotus barbastellus, are also represented by nearly
allied forms in either the Ethiopian or Oriental regions.

The Nearctic and Palearctic regions are therefore more characterised,
so far as their Chiropterous fauna, by the absence rather than by the
presence of peculiar genera and species.

The remaining four regions, however, present a remarkable contrast in
this respect. Each region appears to be as well characterised by its
Chiroptera as by any other order of Mammalia.

This is especially noticeable in the Neotropical region, which possesses
a very remarkable family, the Phyllostomide, nowhere represented beyond
its limits; also six peculiar genera of Emballonuride (amounting to 75
per cent. of the genera of that family); and two of Vespertilionide,
making in all 39 genera peculiar to this region.

The Ethiopian region (excluding Madagascar and its islands) is cha-
racterised by that very remarkable genus of Pteropodide, Epomophorus,
which stands so far apart from all other genera of this family; also by
71 species of other genera, of which more than 90 per cent. are peculiar.

Madagascar and adjoining islands, included by Mr. Wallace under the
name of the Malagasy subregion, although possessing some species
(Phyllorhina commersonii, Nyctinomus acetabulosus, Taphozous mauritianus,
Vesperugo minutus, e.g.) which are also found on the African continent,
has other species representing a genus of which the remaining representa-
tives are found in far distant continents. Thus, as I have remarked
when treating of the distribution of the Pteropodide, the genus Pteropus
is well represented in Madagascar and adjoining islands, and in the
Oriental and Australian regions as far as the Navigator’s Islands, although
not a single species extends into the continent of Africa. This genus
includes by far the largest and most highly organised species of Chiro-
ptera, which in number also amount to more than one-tenth of the whole
order; and their remarkable distribution can only be accounted for by
adopting the hypothesis of the existence at a comparatively recent date
of a continent, or, more probably, of an archipelago of very closely con-
nected islands, in the wide space of ocean now separating Madagascar
from India and Australia. It is inconceivable that species to which a
narrow channel of less than 200 miles suffices to act as an effectual
barrier, could traverse thousands of miles of unbroken ocean in other
directions.

Even if we suppose that their presence in Africa is prevented by some
cause unknown to us, still it is difficult to imagine species so slow in their
flight as those of this genus crossing a channel of even half the width
of that separating the Comoro Islands from the coast of Africa. But
Pteropus medius of India is so closely related to Pt. edwardsii of Mada-

166 REPORT— 1878.

gascar, that by many zoologists it would most probably be considered a
variety only of the former species—a variety, it is quite conceivable, which
might result from separation in a comparatively very short period.

The Malagasy subregion also possesses four other species of Pteropus
all very distinct from each other, having their nearest allies in the Aus-
tralian region. One of these species, Pt. rodricensis, recently described by
me, inhabits the small wind-swept island of Rodriguez, where its means of
subsistence must now be very limited. It is difficult to account for the
presence of such large and highly-organised species in these small islands,
except on the supposition that the islands were not only much larger at
some former time, but were also, as I have already remarked, closely
connected with a chain of slightly separated islands, uniting them with
the Indian and Australian continents.

The Oriental region falls very slightly short of the Ethiopian in the
percentage of its peculiar species, and slightly exceeds it in genera. Of
110 species eighty-eight are peculiar ; of these eight only are also found in
the Ethiopian region, and they also extend into the Palearctic. The
genera Cynopterus, Honycteris, Celops, and Cheiomeles are characteristic, but
the latter three are each represented by a single species only. Of the
remaining seventeen genera, two, Pteropus and Hmballonura, are also com-
mon to the Malagasy subregion and to the Australian region, and ten are
also found in the Oriental and Australian regions. With the exception
of such cosmopolitan species as Miniopterus schreibersti and Vesperugo
abramus, the Oriental species extending into the Australian region appear
to inhabit only the adjacent parts of that region. The distinctiveness of
the Oriental and Australian Chiropterous faunas is well shown by a collec-
tion made lately in Duke of York Island and New Ireland, in which,
out of twelve species, two only are also known from the Oriental region.

The Australian region comes next to the Neotropical in the number of
its peculiar genera; of the twenty-one known, six are peculiar, and of these
four belong to the Pteropodide, being nearly half the whole number of the
genera of that family. This region may therefore be considered the cradle
of the Megachiroptera, although the total number of all species falls far
short of either that of the Ethiopian or of the Oriental region, yet in the
percentage of peculiar forms it holds an intermediate place.

Two of the Australian subregions, the Austro-Malayan and the New
Zealand, claim particular attention, the former for the great number of
its species, the latter for the opposite reason. Of sixty-four Australian
species, fifty-seven are peculiar, and of these nearly half appear to be limited
to the Austro-Malayan subregion ; while two species only, of which one is
peculiar, inhabit New Zealand.

Great Britain, which nearly equals New Zealand in extent, has eight
times the number of its species; and Madagascar, which is alone com-
parable with it in peculiarity of fauna, exceeds it almost in the same
proportion.

The poverty of this subregion in species is, therefore, unequalled, and
undoubtedly depends to a great extent, if not altogether, on the com-
parative absence of insects, and probably especially of those species on
which bats prey. The peculiar structure of Mystacina tuberculata* appears
to indicate that this species seeks its food among the branches and leaves
of trees on which Longicorn Coleoptera, which are most abundant among

* See my paper on this species in P. Z. §., 1876, p. 486.

ON RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PORT OF DUBLIN. 167

the New Zealand insects, feed. This remarkable species of Emballonurides
constitutes a distinct group of that family, but has its nearest allies in the
species of the group Molossi. Its fancied relationship to the Phyllostomide
of the Neotropical region (as set forth by Mr. R. F. Tomes) is altogether
illusory, as it depends only on the agreement between it and the species
of that family in possessing a third phalanx in the index finger, which is
related, as I have shown,* to the peculiar manner in which the wing is
folded in repose, and occurs not only in this species, but also in some of
the larger species of Molossi.
A review of the above-stated facts shows :—

1. That the Chiroptera, though possessing exceptional powers of loco-
motion, and therefore of dispersal, appear to be almost as strictly limited
by certain barriers as other orders of Mammalia.

2. That while the geographical distribution of the families, genera, and
species of this order on the whole adds further remarkable confirmation
of the accuracy of the division of the earth into six zoological regions as
defined by Mr. Sclater and subsequently adopted by Mr. Wallace, the
peculiar distribution of the most highly organised and distinct, as well as
of the largest genus, namely, Pteropus, adds additional strength to the
views of those who, in consideration of the very peculiar nature of the
fauna of Madagascar, feel disposed to form with it and the adjoining
islands a seventh zoological region, to which Mr. Sclater’s name “ Lemuria”’
has been applied.

On Recent Improvements in the Port of Dublin. By Bryvon B.
Stoney, M.A., M.R.LA., M. Inst. CE., Engineer of the Dublin
Port and Docks Board.

[PuatTss I., IL, AND III.]

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. |

Tur trade of few harbours in the United Kingdom has made greater
relative progress within the last twenty years than that of Dublin. This,
no doubt, is mainly due to the increased prosperity of the country as a
whole, but it may also be attributed in great measure to the convergence
of the main lines of internal traffic to Dublin, which has thus naturally
become more and more the mart and emporium for a great portion of
Treland. During this period of twenty years the tonnage entering the
port has much more than doubled. In 1857 it amounted to 880,844 tons,
and last year it rose to 1,973,781 tons, while during the current year
there is a good promise that it will surpass the 2,000,000 hmit. For the
sake of comparison I have placed in a tabular form the tonnage of Liver-
pool and Glasgow, as well as those of the three principal ports in Ireland,
for the three years preceding 1858 and 1878 respectively, so as to give
fair averages of their respective rates of progress within the last twenty
ears.
q From this table it will be observed that while the tonnages of Liver-
pool and Glasgow have respectively increased fifty per cent. in the last

* PLZ Sy lee

168 REPORT—1878.

twenty years, those of Belfast and Cork have nearly doubled, and that of
Dublin has considerably more than doubled in the same time. Also, the
tonnage of Glasgow is only one-fourth more and that of Liverpool is not
four times greater than that of Dublin.

Liverpool
(including | Glasgow | Dublin | Belfast Cork *
Birkenhead)

Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons

1855 4,096,160 1,666,518 882,719 744,364 328,658
1856 4,320,618 1,673,096 904,903 772,127 347,126
1857 4,645,362 1,612,681 880,844 796,968 384,167

Average of preced- || 4 354,947 | 1,650,765| 889,488 | 771,153 | 353,317
ing 3 years if

1875 6,588,731 2,249,857 | 1,677,543 | 1,434,754 623,463
1876 6,805,970 2,298,076 | 1,879,886 | 1,497,585 740,558
1877 7,000,726 2,428,616 | 1,973,781 | 1,566,752 740,201

Average of preced-

ing 3 years 6,798,476 | 2,325,516/1,843,737|1,499,697 | 701,407

The increase in the tonnage of the Port of Dublin is not confined to
one class of vessel alone; for we find that while the coasting trade
increased from 821,640 tons to 1,543,861 tons, or nearly doubled in the
last twenty years, the oversea trade increased from 67,848 tons to
299,876 tons, or more than quadrupled in the same period. Previous to
1865 the shipping quays of Dublin were, with the exception of a short
length opposite the Custom House, founded at or close to low water
level, and when the tide was out the foreshore used to strip ont a lon
way in front of the walls. .To meet the demand for a greater depth than
this, timber jetties had been from time to time constructed along portions
of the North Wall, so as to give about 8 feet at low water in line of keel;
and for many years this expedient was found to answer for the cross-
channel steam trade and for a few of the smaller oversea vessels, while
the larger vessels of the latter class either discharged in Kingstown
Harbour, or in a small excavation called Halpin’s Pool, which had been
dredged in the open harbour beyond the end of the North Wall. The
first real attempt at providing deep water quays was commenced in 1864
by rebuilding nearly 700 feet in length of the east end of the North Wall
quay, so as to allow vessels drawing 17 feet to lie afloat alongside at low
water; but the most important improvements of this kind were not
commenced till 1870, since which date 6500 feet of quay have either
been rebuilt or constructed where no quays existed before, so as to give
depths of from 15 to 24 feet at low water, and enable the cross-channel
steamers to sail at fixed hours independently of the tide, as well as allow
the larger class of oversea vessels which now frequent the port to lie
always afloat. It will be observed that the rebuilding of the former
quay walls at a greater depth did not add to their length, though it
enabled rather more vessels than formerly to be accommodated in a given
length of wall, and the extending commerce of the port rendered it
necessary to provide additional deep water accommodation to suit the
oversea trade, which, as already observed, has increased more than four-

* The tonnage of Cork Harbour is exclusive of vessels calling for orders, mails,
or passengers, and not loading or unloading cargo.

LONGITUDINAL SEGTION OF FLOATING SHEARS SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY

anaeyssantal |

Musteating MU" BOB. Stoneys Paper on Recent tmprovenents in the Port of Dublin.

———

END ELEVATION oF FLOATING SHEARS i}

\__ hil Hi

TTT

mii’

Spatiproole &Calith London

48% Report Brit. Assoc. 1878. Plate I.

YY

O——————©) Vey

CROSS SECTION oF WHARF & FACE oF DCK.

swoode & Co. Lith. London.

Mus trating MY B.

IVUUDUUVODIDEODESEINTUEODEORDITEET EEE

CROSS SECTION of WHARF & Face oF BLocK FROKT ELEVATION of WHARF & CROSS SECTION oF BLOCK

Spocimevede Gs Lith Leelee

TWustrating M? B. B. Stone's Paper on Recent Improvenaents te the Port of Dublin

48% Report Brit. Assoc. 1878.

<\ AT TT tt
NET TT

———

Lor

Illustra ting

DivinG BELL and BARGE

LONGITUDINAL SECTION.

END ELEVATION |

spouirveede Oa ish Landon, |

Mustrating M° BB. Stoneyis Paper un Recent Improvements wm the Port of Dublin

. ON RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PORT OF DUBLIN. 169
fold in the space of twenty years. Accordingly it was determined, after
mature consideration, to extend the North Wall, and construct a large
tidal basin with 24 feet at low water inside and 22 feet along the river
face, so as to float the largest commercial vessels at all states of tides.
The masonry was commenced in 1871, and up to the present about 2500
lineal feet of wall have been built on a novel principle which avoids the
trouble and expense of cofferdams, pumping, staging and other tem-
porary works, the expenditure on which frequently exceeds the cost of
the permanent work to which they are merely ancillary. The new mode
of construction consists in the use of blocks of masonry of unprecedented
size in the foundations below low water level, as represented in the
diagrams which accompany this paper. Hach block is 29 feet high,
113 feet long, and 21 feet 4 inches broad at the base, and weighs 350
tons ; they are built on land on a block wharf (Plate II.), and about three
months after completion they are lifted by a powerful floating shears
(Plate I.), and conveyed to their destination in the quay where each
block forms 114 feet in length of the lower portion of the wall as far
as low water level, and when a number of these blocks have been thus
laid in position the superstructure up to the coping level is built over
them in the usual manner by tidal work, the total height of the wall
being 45 feet. Besides the large floating shears for lifting and moving
the blocks about, there is one other special appliance—namely, a diving
bell (Plate III.), also of unprecedented size and peculiar in construction.
This bell, which weighs 80 tons, is used for excavating and levelling the
river bed on which the blocks lie. The chamber is cast-iron, 20 feet
‘Square and 64 feet high, with a tube or funnel 3 feet in diameter, and
rising to a height of 44 feet over the bottom of the bell; and this is
the greatest depth of water for which the present bell is intended,
though by adding to the length of the funnel it might be worked in
greater depths. The upper end of the funnel forms an air lock 64
feet high, with double doors and suitable cocks for admitting the com-
pressed air from the chamber into the lock, or for letting that in the
lock escape into the external atmosphere, and by this arrangement the
workmen can pass up and down without lifting the bell off the bottom or
stopping the work of excavation. Inside the chamber are two large iron
trays, and the men shovel the excavated earth into these trays. When
they are filled the bell is lifted a few feet off the ground, and the
barge hauled some yards to the rear of the wall where the trays are dis-
charged, by pulling out a detent, and the barge is then brought back to
its working position, and the bell lowered as before.

_ The operation of lifting and setting a block is as follows :—The float-
ing shears is brought bow-on to the block wharf during flood tide, and
the lifting chains are attached to iron suspending bars which pass
through each block. The chains are then hauled in by the winches on
board, and water is pumped into a large tank at the after-end of the

_ vessel to counterbalance the weight of the block, which is then floated
away to its destination and lowered into place the following low water,
so that at one step 114 feet forward of wall are built up to low water level.

The cost of both floating shears and diving bell was under 25,000/.,
and the whole of this was repaid in the first 600 feet of wall by the

‘superior economy of this system over ordinary cofferdam and pumping
work, and the relative saving now amounts to about 16,0001. per annum.

It would obviously be useless to construct deep water quays if the

170 REPORT—1 878.

river channel and bar were not also deepened to correspond. Sixty
years since the depth of water on Dublin bar was about 6 feet; indeed,
there was, a few years ago, an old man in the harbour employment who
had in his youth stood on the bar at a good low water. At this time the
North Bull Wall did not exist, and the bar, consisting of hard sand,
extended in a curved direction about half a mile east of Poolbeg Light-
house. As soon, however, as the Bull Wall was built, the large volume
of water flowing and ebbing over the 2500 acres which were enclosed
between it and the Pigeon House Wall, was confined in direction and
augmented in velocity, so that it impinged against the bar and scoured
it away to its present depth of about 16 feet at low water, giving a depth
of 28 feet at high water springs, and this is still gradually improving ;
for 20 years since there was 3 feet less than at present, and it is believed
that there is no other instance on record of a bar being so successfully
deepened by artificial means. The depth in the river channel has
recently made great progress, corresponding to the other improvements
in the port. The average tonnage dredged in each of the ten years
preceding 1860 did not reach 150,000 tons, and it is now close on a
million tons per annum. The greater portion of this dredged material is
now conveyed to sea in very large hopper barges, each of which carries
850 to 1000 tons, according to the state of the weather, to a distance of
8 miles from Dublin, or about 2 miles beyond the Bailey Lighthouse,
where it is deposited in deep water beyond the influence of tides within
the bay. Very great economy has resulted from this system of large
hopper barges as compared with the older methods; for, multiplying
the present tonnage dredged by the saving per ton, the gross saving
amounts to considerably over 40,0007. per annum. Indeed, without this
economy it would have been impossible to carry out the other improve-
ments in the port; for Dublin, though one of the larger ports in the
kingdom, has relatively the smallest income, as there are no dues on
goods except some small ones on timber, bricks and marble, which in
the aggregate do not reach 2000/. annually. This will appear at a
glance from the following table, which gives the revenue derived by the
ports already mentioned from tonnage dues and dues on goods for the
year 1877, and also the income which each ton yields the several ports as
well as their respective debts.

F Income

Port Bares, art Total Besiies per Ton

ates oods onnage Register

£ £ £ Tons Pence £

Liverpool ...........- 377,612 | 599,024 | 976,636 | 7,000,726 | 33°5 {15,249,290
Glasgow ..........0002. 45,253 | 123,147 | 168,400 | 2,428,616 | 16°64 | 3,211,383
Dobliny ost. .ceesee ne see 58,451 1,799 | 60,250 | 1,973,781 7°32 330,734
Belfast fe.csssessrs ier 41,275 | 37,630 | 78,905 | 1,566,752 | L2-% 716,708
Cork Pa. tereceeeete: 13,432 | 18,306 | 31,738 740,201 | 10:3 103,885

The rates on goods for Liverpool include the so-called ‘‘ Town dues ”
on goods, amounting to 263,3291.; but as these were purchased by the
Mersey Docks and Harbour Board from the Corporation of Liverpool in
1857 for their then estimated value of a million and a half sterling, they
now form a very valuable portion of the port revenues.

ON RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PORT OF DUBLIN. Wt

The tonnage rates for Cork include 37911. derived from one half-
penny per ton levied on vessels using or entering the harbour as a port
of call, but not loading or unloading cargo therein. It represents a
tonnage of 1,819,860 tons, and is quite distinct from the 740,201 tons
which represents vessels loading or unloading cargo ; but, as it is avail-
able for port purposes, it is included in the tonnage rates of Cork
harbour, in the second column above. If this were omitted, the income
would be reduced to 9d. per ton register.

This table shows that for every ton entering their respective ports,
Liverpool receives more than four and a half times and Glasgow more
than twice the revenue that Dublin gets, while Belfast gets two-thirds
more, and Cork nearly fifty per cent. more.

The floating shears and diving bell are useful for many other purposes
besides building quay walls. Among others they are well adapted for
breakwater construction and laying the foundations of beacons and light-
honses in suitable localities. There is at present a lighthouse in process
of construction at the extremity of the Bull Wall which forms the north
side of the entrance to Dublin Harbour, the foundations of which in such
an exposed place would have been very costly if built by any of the ordi-
nary methods. The base is formed of two large semicircular blocks,
each sixteen feet high, and together forming a circle of thirty feet in
diameter and weighing nearly 700 tons. These blocks were built on the
block wharf and conveyed about three miles down the harbour, where
they were laid at a depth of several feet below equinoctial low waters on
the rubble stone forming the extremity of the Bull Wall which had been
previously excavated by the diving bell. On top of these blocks is built
in heavy granite ashlar with solid rubble hearting the lower part, or what
may be called the plinth of the tower, rising some feet over high water,
and on top of this again the shaft of the tower is in process of construc-
tion, formed of wrought iron lined with timber, ‘the total height from
foundation to top of lantern being 79 feet. Opposite this lighthouse, and
at the south side of the harbour entrance, stands Poolbeg Lighthouse,
erected in the last century at the extremity of the pier beyond the Pigeon
‘House Fort. The foundations of this latter lighthouse were laid at about
low water level in the centre of a mound of rubble stone, and it was
originally surrounded by a handsome cut stone platform, which was heavy
enough to stand ordinary rough weather, but which, with the rubble stone
on which it was laid, was constantly washed away by heavy storms from
the sea front of the lighthouse, leaving the base of the latter exposed and
liable to be undermined, and causing heavy annual expense from hauling
the rubble back again, to be again scattered in the next gale. The light-
house base and foreshore are now protected by large blocks weighing
140 tons each, two of which were carried at a trip by the floating shears
and dropped on the irregular foreshore in front of the lighthouse, which
they now protect from the violence of the sea which breaks on them before
reaching the lighthouse. This work was exposed to the full brunt of the,
great storm of January 3rd, 1877, which nearly cut across the east pier
of Howth Harbour and did considerable damage to the paved slope of
‘Kingstown West Pier, and to the railways both at Monkstown and at
Howth, which, strange to say, were apparently completely covered by
their respective piers. The big blocks, however, protected the base of
Poolbeg Lighthouse, and no damage whatever occurred to it. Besides
excavating, the diving bell has been used for removing portions of wreck

172 REPORT—1 878.

and pulling up pile stumps in deep water, in which latter operation it is
very successful, and three or four pile stumps can be drawn at one effort
by attaching chains hanging from the ceiling of the bell chamber to the
heads of the piles, and then raising the pile by its hoisting chains, which
have a surplus working strength of about seventy tons when the bell is
under water.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cavey, F.R.S.,
Professor G. G. Stoxss, F.R.S., Professor H. J. S. Smrra, F.R.S.,
Professor Sir Wiiu1am Txomson, F.R.S., Mr. James GLAISHER,
F.RS., and Mr. J. W. L. Guatsuer, F.R.S. (Secretary), on Ma-
thematical Tables.

[PLATE IV.]
Account of the Calculation of the Factor Table for the Fourth Million.

A pEscripTion of the different factor tables that have been .published
is given in the British Association Report, 1873, pp. 34-40; and a more
complete historical account of factor tables, especially of Felkel’s and the
manuscript tables of the last century is contained in the ‘ Proceedings of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society,’ vol. iii. part iv. pp. 99-138, 1878.
Itis only necessary, therefore, to give a brief notice of the extensive
tables that have been published during the present century, and which
it is the object of the Committee to complete.

These tables are :-— :

(1). Chernac’s Oribrum Arithmeticwm, which gives all factors of all
numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 from 1 to 1,000,000.

(2). Burckhardt’s Table des Divisewrs, which gives the least factor of
all numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 from 1 to 3,036,000.

(3). Dase’s Factoren Tafeln, which give the least factor of all num-
bers not divisible by 2, 38, or 5 from 6,000,000 to 9,000,000.

The reason of the gap between 3,036,000 and 6,000,000 is as follows:
—Burckhardt completed the publication of his three millions in 1817, and
some time previous so 1849 Crelle presented to the Berlin Academy the
manuscript of the factor tables for the fourth, fifth, and sixth millions.
IT 1850 Gauss urged Dase to calculate factor tables for the seventh,
eighth, ninth, and tenth millions, as the three intermediate millions
were in the possession of the Berlin Academy, and he did not doubt
that sooner or later they would be published. In 1860, through the
support of friends in his native town, Hamburg, Dase, who was
distinguished for his ability in calculation, was enabled to devote him-
self wholly to the carrying out of Gauss’s project. On September
llth, 1861, he died suddenly, leaving the seventh million complete and
the eighth million nearly complete; he had also determined a great
number of the factors for the ninth and tenth millions. Dr. Rosen-
berg, of Hamburg, undertook the continuation of the work, and the
seventh million was published at Hamburg in 1862, the eighth in
1863, and the ninth in 1865. In the preface to the ninth million it is
stated that the tenth million was near completion. There was thus left

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ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 173

a gap of three millions between the third and seventh millions, which
it was very desirable to fill up not only for the sake of completing the
table up to nine millions, but also in order to render more useful the
millions already published. Accordingly, Professor Cayley, the chair-
man of the Committee, wrote to Professor Kummer, the secretary of the
Mathematical Section of the Berlin Academy, asking if there were any
chance of the publication of the manuscript ; and Professor Kummer, in a
letter dated April 29th, 1877, replied that it had been examined on a
former occasion, and found to be so inaccurate that “the Academy was
convinced that the publication would never be advisable.’ The calcula-
tion was then at once commenced by Mr. James Glaisher, with the assis-
tance of two computers, and has been continued without interruption since.
The fourth million is completed and ready for press, and some. progress
has been made with the fifth and sixth millions, which are being calcu-
lated together, and which will be completed, it is believed, by the meeting
of the Association at Sheffield. The tenth million has not been published.
It remained in the possession of the widow of Dr. Rosenberg till the early
part of the present year, when it was presented by her to the Berlin
Academy.

The method employed in the calculation of the fourth million, and by
which the fifth and sixth millions are being calculated, is practically
the same as that which was invented by Burckhardt, and was adopted by
Dase. As the method is a very remarkable one, and as no description
of it (with the exception of a brief notice by Burckhardt himself) has
been published, the following account of it is given here :—

A form was lithographed (Plate IV.), having 78 vertical lines and 81
horizontal lines (besides several other lines used for headings, &c.) ; it is
thus divided into 77 x 80 oblong spaces which may for convenience be
called squares. The eighty rows are numbered, at the extreme left of the
sheet, 01,07...97; 01,03...99 ; 03,09,...99; there being two white spaces
separating the hundreds. This is the same as in Burckhardt’s or Dase’s
tables, each column representing 300 numbers. The advantage of having 77
columns is that the 7’s and 11’s are lithographed on the form and have not
to be determined and inserted by hand. Thus if 77 consecutive columns
of Burckhardt’s tables be taken, and all the headings and tabular results
except 7’s and 11’s be supposed to be removed, we havea representation of
the form. The form actually used was constructed to begin from 3,000,000,
so that for the exact representation of it we are to commence with the
column headed 201 on p. 3 of Burckhardt’s table (7.e., the 68th column).

Since each sheet corresponds to 77 x 300 numbers, a million occupies
about 43,5 sheets, and as on each sheet the number of 7’s lithographed is
880, and the number of 11’s is 480, it follows that, by adopting a form
which permits the 7’s and 11’s to be lithographed, about 59,000 entries
are saved in each million ; and, what is even more important, the accuracy
of these 59,000 tabular results is assured.

The squares to which the least factor 13 belongs were obtained as fol-
lows: Find the numbers between 3,000,000 and 3,000,000 + 13 x 300,
which are divisible by 13, but not by 2, 3, or 5. Take 13 consecutive
columns of any blank form and cut them off from the rest of the form ;
then, supposing the first column to correspond to the column headed
3,000,000, makea mark in the squares that correspond to the multiples of
18, previously found, and cut out the squares so marked. We thus have
a group of 13 columns, from which a number of squares (80) have been

174 REPORT—1878.

removed, and which may be called a screen or sieve. Place the sieve over
the first 13 columns of the first sheet of the fourth million; then either
empty squares or squares containing a 7 or 11 will appear through the
holes of the sieve; in each empty square write the number 13. Then
place the sieve over the next 13 columns and proceed as before, and so on
throughout the whole 44 sheets.

The sieve for the next prime, 17, contains 17 columns, and is made in
the same way, viz., by cutting out the squares corresponding to the num-
bers between 3,000,000 and 3,000,000 + 17 x 300, which are divisible by
17, and not by 2,3, or 5. Then this sieve is placed over the first 17
columns, and 17 entered in all the empty squares, then placed over the next
17, &c., and so on.

The sieves for 13 and 17 are drawn in the plate (Plate IV.), the
shaded squares being those that are cut out. The 13-sieve is formed of
the first thirteen columns of one of the sheets, and the margin, con-
taining the figures 01,07,..., is retained in order to show the arrangement
of the form, which contains 77 columns. Of course in using the sieve
this margin is cut off as in the 17-sieve. The 13-sieve shows the num-
bers between 3,000,000 and 3,000,000 + 13 x 300 which have least factors
7,11, or 18; thus, for example, from the third column we see that

3,000,613 3,000,739 3,000,823
3,000,641 3,000,767 3,000,851
3,000,683 3,000,781 3,000,893
3,000,697 3,000,809
have 7 as their least factor; that
3,000,679 3,000,811 3,000,877
3,000,701 3,000,833 3,000,899
have 11 as their least factor, and that
3,000,647 3,000,751 3,000,829
3,000,673 3,000,803 3,000,881

have 13 as their least factor. Of course the numbers such as 3,000,179,
for which 7 appears in a shaded square, have 7 as their least factor, and
are also divisible by 13; and similarly, when 11 appears in a shaded square,
the number has 11 for its least factor and is also divisible by 13.

The 80 argument numbers 01, 07,...97; 01, 03,...99; 03, 09,...99 cor-
respond to the 80 numbers 1, 7,...97; 101, 103,...199; 203, 209,...299 that
remain when the numbers divisible by 2, 3, or 5 are thrown out from the
300 numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,...300. The numbers 01, 03... at the side are
lithographed on the form, but the headings of the columns of course are
different for each sheet and are written in. Each page in the printed
table contains 30 columns, and one advantage of this method of construc-
tion-is that the original sheets, when completed, are sent to the printer as
they stand, so that there is no copying required.

The actual size of the form employed is 31°69 inches in length and
16:20 inches in width, exclusive of the argument numbers at the left. A
somewhat smaller form would have sufficed, but this gives ample space
in each square for four figures, and was not found to be inconveniently
large in use. The squares in the sieves were cut out bya punch made for
the purpose. The sieves drawn in the plate have been reduced to suit
the size of the page of this volume.

The sieves were formed thus: Take for example 13; the first uneven

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 175

multiple of 13 exceeding 3,000,000 is 3,000,023 : add 26 continually till
3,000,000 + 13 x 300 is reached, and then throw out the multiples of 3
and 5; there are thus left 80 numbers, which correspond to the squares
to be cut out from the sieve. The accuracy of the 80 numbers that
remain was verified by differencing them; as the differences recur with a
period of eight.*

In general the sieve for the prime p contains p columns, and it is to be
noted that every sieve, whatever its length, has exactly 80 squares cut
out, onein each line. To show that there must be one square cut out in
each line it is only necessary to observe that p must have some multiple,
not divisible by 2, 3, or 5, of the form 300 g + a, where ais any one of the
80 numbers less than 300 and prime to it. For, by a known theorem, if
p be prime to 7, and if p, 2p, 3p,...(r—1) p be divided by r, the remainders
are the r—1, numbers 1, 2, 3,...,.—1; in this case, therefore, if p, 2p, 3p,
...299p be divided by 300, the remainders are the 299 numbers 1, 2, 3,...
299, and if 2p, 3p, 4p,... and all the multiples of p divisible by 2, 3, or 5 be
thrown out, the remainders divisible by 2, 3, or 5 are thrown out also,and
the remainders left are the 80 numbers lessthan 300 and prime to it. Also,
there cannot be two squares in the same line cut out from the sieve, fora
being a given number, if 300g+a be divisible by p, the next number in
the same line divisible by p is 300gp+a, viz.,is a number p columns fur-
ther on.

The cube root of 4,000,000 is 158°74..., and in a factor table extend-
ing to 4,000,000, the prime 157 appears once, and only once, as the least
factor of a three-factor number, viz., for 3,869,893. Thus 163 and larger
primes will only occur as least factors of two-factor numbers, and we
may find the numbers to which they belong without the use of the sieves
as follows :—

Supposing that we are constructing a factor table from the commence-
ment, the least factor 163 first appears at the number 163 x 163, then at
167 x 163, 173 x 163, 179 x 163, 181 x 163, &e. ; 163, 167, 173, 179, 181,
&c., being the series of primes starting from 163; for we only consider
products of two primes, of which 163 is the smaller, that is, numbers
formed by multiplying 163 by the primes greater than itself. To obtain
the results of the multiplications it is only necessary to add to 163 x 163
the product 4 x 163, and to this 6 x 163, &e.; the work standing thus—

26,569 = 163 x 163
652= 4x 163

27,221 = 167 x 163
978 = 6x 163

28,199 = 173 x 163
978'=" -6°x 163

29,177 =179 x 163
326= 2x 163

29,503 = 181 x 163
&e. &e.

* It is easily seen that this must be so; for form the multiples of the prime p
that are not divisible by 2, 3, or 5; these are p, 7p, llp, 13p, 17p, 19p, 23p, 29p,
then the next eight are obtained by adding 30p to each of these and so on. Thus
the differences are 6p, 4p, 2p, 4p, 2p, 4p, 6p, 2p, recurring with a period of eight.

176 REPORT—1878.

This process will give all the numbers to which 163 belongs as least
factor up to (163)? = 4,330,747, where the three-factor numbers commence.
All that is required in order to reduce this to mere addition is a list of
differences of consecutive primes from 163 to +451, 1 being the limit of the
table, supposed less than 4,330,747, and a small table of even multiples of
163 from 2 x 163 to 2m x 163, 2m being the greatest difference between
two consecutive primes between these limits. If 7 be 4,000,000, the nearest

rime below +1451 is 24,533; and the greatest difference is 52, between
19,609 and 19,661.* The accuracy of the work can be verified at any
stage and as often as thought necessary by multiplying together the two
factors. Of course in the calculation of the fourth million the commence-
ment would be made at 18,413 x 163= 3,001,319, the smallest number
exceeding 3,000,000 to which the least factor 163 belongs.

There are thus two distinct methods, each of which has its special
advantages, viz., the sieve method and the method by calculation of multi-
ples. The latter is unsuitable for small primes, which appear as least
factors of numbers having three or more prime factors; in fact, this
method is only appropriate for two-factor numbers. On the other hand,
the sieve method is rather more suitable for the entry of small primes, as,
when the prime is large, the great size of the sieve is inconvenient; this
method, however, points out all multiples of the prime, not divisible by
2, 3, or 5, whether they be two-factor, three-factor, four-factor, &.,
numbers.

It is clear that up to 163 the sieve method should be used ; and that for
163 and beyond we may employ the multiple method. Burckhardt states
that he used sieves for primes up to 500, and the multiple method for
higher primes. In the calculation of the fourth million sieves were used
for primes up to and including 307, and the multiple method was employed:
for primes from 211 to 1999. The numbers corresponding to the least
factors from 211 to 307 inclusive were obtained by both methods.

As the multiple method only gives numbers where the least factor is
the given prime p, it follows that every number so found must correspond
to an empty square, and the verification thus afforded of the entries
already made was very valuable.

The sieve for 307 contains 307 columns, and therefore occupies four:
sheets all but one column: considered as a whole, therefore, it has only
to be moved 11 times for the million, while the sieve for 13 has to be
moved 257 times.f

Before the calculation was begun, it seemed as if the excessive length

* The greatest difference between two consecutive primes up to 100,000 is
72 (31,397—31,469). For a list of the differences that exceed 50 and other allied’
tables, see ‘ Messenger of Mathematics,’ vol. vii. pp. 174-175 (March, 1878).

+ In the fourth million the 13’s were entered by a sieve consisting of 13 columns,
the 17's by a sieve of 17 columns, and soon. In the fifth and sixth millions now in
progress, the 13’s were entered by a sieve of 78 columns, equivalent to six 13-sieves
fixed together. This was found to greatly facilitate the entries, as the number of
removals of the sieve was reduced in the proportion of 6 to 1, and there was less
risk of error. The saving of time effected by the use of the 78-column sieve
amounted to nearly one-half. For the 17’s a sieve of 5 x 17, = 85, columns was
used, for the 19’s a sieve of 4 x 19, = 76, columns, and so on, the number of columns
being made as nearly as possible equal to the number of columns (77) on a sheet.
It was found also that by the use of the long sieves the sheets were much better
preserved from wear and tear, as the sheet upon which the factors were being
entered was in general almost wholly covered by the sieve, and so protected from
friction, &e.

- ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 177

of the sieves (the 307-sieve is 10 feet 6 inches in length, and the
499-sieve 17 feet 1 inch) is productive of great inconvenience, and would
also necessitate very great accuracy and care in the lithographing and
printing of the sheets, so that the squares should correspond exactly, over
so great a distance; and it seemed surprising that Burckhardt should
have continued the sieve method so far. But this was on the supposition
that the portions of the sieve would be all fixed together, so that it would
consist of one long sheet. Experience, however, soon showed that nothing
was gained by fixing the sheets together, and in fact that it was a positive
inconvenience to do so. The sheets forming the sieve were numbered 1,
2, 3, &c., and all that was requisite was to use sheet 1 first, then sheet 2,
then sheet 3, then sheet 1 again (if the sieve consisted of only 3 sheets),
and so on ; in fact, the long sieves were found to be quite as easy to use
as the smaller ones. Above 307, however, it seemed to be scarcely worth
while to construct the sieves, as so little use was made of them, and as the
eae method was preferable in consequence of the verification afforded
yit. »

The mode of work was as follows: The entries were made by the
sieves, and one multiple of p obtained from each position of the p-sieve
was divided out by p, in order to verify that the sieve was always rightly
placed ; this verification was employed for each position of every sieve. The
numbers were then examined by Mr. Glaisher himself by the sieves. They
were then examined a third time by the sieves, and every number ticked.
The least factors obtained by the multiple method were read out and
entered on the sheets; and they were subsequently read out again in a
different manner and ticked. Any numbers found unticked were after-
wards specially examined. The proofs of the table when printed will be
read with the original calculations of numbers by the multiple method.

On the whole the method of construction is a very perfect one. It has
been explained in some detail, because Burckhardt contents himself with
a very brief sketch occupying only two paragraphs; and the process is
sufficiently interesting to deserve a more complete account. Hach sieve,
as stated, has 80 squares cut out, one in each line; though of course, as
there are only 80 squares cut out, whatever be the length of the sieve,
many of the columns on the longer sieves are left intact. The patterns
formed by the holes in the sieves were very curious, some being very
regular, while in others the holes were very scattered, and no two were
much alike. The sieves for 149 and 151 were remarkable, the holes
running steadily up in the one case and steadily down in the other.* The
reason for this is that these numbers are nearly equal to the half of 300,
the difference between two adjacent squares in the same line, so that
numbers distant from one another by even multiples of 150 are in the
same line. For a similar reason the holes in the sieves for 59 and 61, and
29 and 31, show a steady ascent and descent. When the sieve for 23 is
laid in its proper position on any one of the sheets a slightly ascending
row of 13’s (including some 7’s and 11’s) is seen through the holes ; this
is connected with the fact that 13 x 28=299, and differs from 300 by 1
only. Similarly, when the 43-sieve is laid on the sheets a slightly de-
scending row of 7’s is seen, as 7 x 43=301, and other instances of the
same kind were remarked. It may be observed that when the pattern

* Several of the sieves, including those for 149 and 151, were exhibited to the
Section at the Meeting at Dublin.
1878. N

178 REPORT—1878,

was regular (as in the case of the 13-sieve and 17-sieve, where the holes
slope down in parallel lines) the entry of the factors was much facilitated.
Great care was always required in order to be certain that no factor had
escaped entry ; but this examination was much more rapidly performed when
the pattern was fairly regular. The size of the volume would, however, be
increased very greatly if all the factors were given, without any propor-
tionate advantage. Burckhardt’s arrangement of the table is an admirable
piece of condensation,'as the least factors of 9,000 numbers are given, in
the space of half a square foot, on each page.

It will be evident from this description that it would be just as easy
to enter all prime factors in the table as to enter only the least; and if all
the prime factors were entered the verification would be easier, and in the
numbers entered by the multiple method no error could occur, unless the
same mistake were made independently in entering both factors.

The methods described in this section are no doubt practically iden-
tical with those employed by Burckhardt, and the calculation of the million
suggested no improvements upon them, except in a few matters of detail.
The construction of the table, though very simple in theory, required such
continual care at every step, and such constant supervision, that it could
not be undertaken by any one who was not prepared to devote a great
portion of his time to the work. ;

Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor EVERETT,
Professor Sir Wix~1am Txomson, Professor J. CLERK MAXWELL,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor Gurkiz, Mr. J.
GuaisHeR, Mr. Prneetty, Professor Epwarp Hou, Professor
Anstep, Dr. CLrement Lr Neve Foster, Professor A. S. HerscHEL,
Mr. G. A. Lzsour, Mr. A. B. Wrynnz, Mr. Gattoway, and Mr.
JosEPH DICKINSON, appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in
various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up
by Professor Everett (Secretary).

Dr. Sraprr has continued his observations of the temperature in the
St. Gothard Tunnel, and has contributed to the Swiss Natural History
Society a paper* of 56 quarto pages, embodying the results. .

The following is his description (pp. 26, 27) of the mode of observing
the temperature of the rocks in the tunnel :—

“The exact determination of the temperature of the rocks in the tun-
nel formerly occasioned a notable expenditure of time and money. At
first thermometers about a metre long (made by J. Goldschmid, of Zurich)
were employed for this purpose ; their tubes being cemented into a wooden
cylinder, so that only the bulb (surrounded by a perforated steel cap)
projected below, and the scale (extending from 15° to 30° C.) above.
Tallow was poured round the wooden cylinder, and the whole thermo-
meter was then thrust into a bore-hole a metre deep, so that only the

* «Studien tiber die Wirmevertheilung im Gotthard,’ i. Theil. ‘Der Schwei-
zerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu ihrer sechzigsten Jahresversammlung
in Bex gewidmet,’ von F. M, Stapfi. Bern, 1877.

ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 179

scale projected, from which readings were taken from time to time until
the temperature became constant. The final reading had to be corrected
not only for rise of zero but also for the temperature of the quicksilver in
the thermometer tube which extends from the opening to the bottom of
the bore-hole. Another very notable correction was required for the
more or less oblique position of the thermometer; for the hydrostatic
pressure of the quicksilver presses out the glass bulb so far that without
change of temperature the long thermometer reads from 0°4 to 1°-0 less
in the vertical than in the horizontal position.

“After about from three to ten days, the reading of a thermometer
luted into a bore-hole ceased to alter.

“‘ Separate trials with thermometers of similar construction, but different
length, showed moreover that, after months, the temperature of the rock
at about a metre deep was still unchanged. This is obviously owing to
the small difference of temperature between the rock and the surrounding
air.

“From the observations at No. 8 and No. 15, in Table IIL, it is seen
that the temperature at the bottom of the bore-hole was sometimes a little
lower and sometimes a little higher than nearer its mouth.

' “This mode of observing gave correct results, but was laborious and
costly, not only on account of the necessity of making special bore-holes
for the purpose, but because almost every experiment cost a thermometer.
The projecting end was often maliciously broken off, and on account of
the swelling of the wooden case it almost never happened that at the end
of an experiment a thermometer was drawn out again uninjured.

“ Hermann and Pfister remedied this latter evil by surrounding the
thermometer tube, from the bulb to the scale, with a glass case, and this
with a steel jacket. This arrangement, however, involves not only con-
duction through the steel, but also continual interchange of heat by
currents of air in the glass case, from the mouth to the bottom of the hole.
For these reasons the observations made with these thermometers could
not be employed ‘without intricate corrections.

“Later I tried a Thomson’s maximum thermometer,* kindly placed at
my disposal by Professor Everett, which (after previous strong cooling)
was left for several days at the bottom of the bore-hole, closed air-tight.
The results agreed with those obtained by other methods; but who can
guarantee that the higher temperature prevailing in a newly-bored hole
is always just so much depressed by the cold mass of the thermometer
and its copper case, that the rock temperature alone determines the final
indication of the maximum thermometer.

“This consideration induced me to employ for rock-temperature
observations (and they also serve for air and water observations) the
above-mentioned short thermometers with insulated bulbs, the first of
which Professor Everett caused to be made by Negretti and Zambra
for this express purpose. These thermometers, enclosed in a metal
box provided with a handle, are thrust to the bottom of the bore-hole, which
is at least a metre deep. To the handle is fastened a strong cord reach-
ing to the mouth of the hole, by which it can be drawn out again at
the end of the trial. The bore-hole, from the thermometer to the
month, is stopped with greased rag or other similar material, as_air-
tight as possible. After two or three days, the thermometers have

* It was one of the protected Negretti maximum thermometers constructed for

the Committee.
N 2

180 REPORT—1878.

usually assumed the temperature of the surrounding rock, that is to
say, their reading has ceased to alter. The insulation of the quick-
silver prevents alterations during the drawing out and reading of the
thermometer. The correctness of the result is in no way prejudiced
by sediment from the boring which may yet remain in the hole. The
pouring in of some water may even be useful in accelerating the experi-
ment. Wet bore-holes with standing water are, however, to be avoided,
because rock-temperature and water-temperature are not identical.

“In the manner last described, at every available opportunity, that
is to say, when the work of the tunnel is from any cause compelled to
cease for a few days, rock-temperature observations are now instituted in
bore-holes ready to our hand. The observations are simple, give exact
results if taken with proper precaution and suflicient duration of the
experiment, and cause no further expense, since the thermometers, being
sunk in the rock, are secured against wanton injury, and there are always
bore-holes available.”

Dr. Stapff further states by letter that, the two original thermometers
supplied by Negretti and Zambra having been broken, he has had others
made, in which he has introduced the improvement of hermetically seal-
ing the outer glass case, instead of closing it with a waxed cork, which
gradually admitted moisture.

In the Report for 1876 an account was given of the observations of
Herr Dunker in a bore about 4000 feet deep at Sperenberg, and allusion
was made to the undue weight which had been attached by some writers
to the empirical formula in which Herr Dunker sums up his observations ;
a formula which indicates a retarded rate of increase, and, if extended to:
greater depths, leads to the conclusion that the temperature reaches its
maximum at the depth of about a mile.

A discussion has been carried on in Germany on this subject,* chiefly
in the ‘ Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, &c., and the best authorities seem
to be unanimous in rejecting the hypothesis of a retarded rate of increase-
in the earth’s surface as unwarranted, either by the Sperenberg observa-
tions or any others. Herr Dunker himself concurs in this opinion. Dr.
Stapf also, though some of his own empirical formule indicate a retarded
rate of increase, writes to Professor Everett in the following terms :—
‘* As to my formulas, I beg you to remember that they are not con-
structed for expressing laws of Nature. They simply are made for
facilitating the view over a heap of figures and data of observation. And
generally [ beg you to be sure that those formulas in my mind cannot
express any law for the increase of warmth at greater depths than those -
in which the tunnel observations were made. The formulas give good
means for eliminating empirically some of the influences of the shape of
surface which occur in the profile of the mountain.”

Mr. W. Galloway, one of H. M. Inspectors of Mines, has taken
observations in Fowler’s Colliery, Pontypridd, South Wales. The shaft
is 846 feet deep, and the air current down it amounts to between twenty -
and thirty thousand cubic feet per minute.

In order to determine the normal temperature of the coal, a hole 15
inch in diameter was bored in the side of a narrow place that was being

* See papers by Mohr, Heinrich (two papers), Dunker, and Hottenroth, in the
‘Neues Jahrbuch’ for 1878, 1876, and 1877, by Brauns, in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir die

gesammten Naturwissenschaften,’ 1874, p. 483, and by Hann in the ‘ Zeitschrift der
Osterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie,’ 1878, p. 17.

ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 181

rapidly driven in the solid coal. The hole was bored in the very face, to
the depth of four feet. The thermometer (one of the Committee’s slow-
action non-registering instruments) was placed at the inner end; then a
wooden cylinder of nearly the same diameter as the bore-hole, and 9 inches
long, was pushed in until it came in contact with the copper case of the
thermometer ; and lastly a wooden plug, wrapped round with cloth, was
driven firmly into the mouth of the hole. The thermometer was at 58° F.
when it was put into the hole, and after remaining there from 2 p.m. on
August 25th, 1876, to 3.45 p.m. on the following day, it stood at 62°-7.
There was no water whatever in the hole, and the depth below the surface
of the ground was 855 feet.

The circumstances of this observation seem to preclude any consider-
able disturbance of the normal temperature; and combining it with the
mean annual temperature at the surface, which is said to be 51°°5, we
aot an increase of 11°-2 F. in 855 feet ; which is at the rate of 1° F. for

feet.

Two other observations were taken in other parts of the mine. They
are not directly available for the purposes of the Committee, but were
intended to test the influence of air-currents on the temperature of the
coal; and they show variations of 2° or 3° according to the season of
the year.

Observations are being taken for the Committee by Mr. G. F. Deacon,
Borough Engineer of Liverpool, in a bore which has attained the depth
of 1004 feet, in connexion with the Liverpool Waterworks at Bootle.

The temperature at this depth is 58°-1. The observation nearest the
surface was at the depth of 226 feet, the temperature at this depth
being 52°. We have here a difference of 6°1 in 778 feet, which is at the
rate of 1° for 128 feet, and the same rate is approximately maintained
throughout the descent. For instance, at 750 feet the temperature was
56°, which gives 1° for 131 feet by comparison with the depth of 226 feet,
and 1° for 121 feet by comparison with the bottom.

The bore is 24 inches. in diameter, and the observations were taken
with a protected Phillips’s maximum thermometer every Monday morning.
The operation of boring was continued up to twelve o’clock on Saturday
night, and was not resumed till the temperature had been taken on the
following Monday. The time that the thermometer remained at the
bottom was not less than a quarter of an hour, and was sometimes half
an hour.

The rock-formation consists of the pebble beds of the Bunter or lower
trias, and most of it is described as hard, close-grained, and compact.
The speed of boring is indicated by the dates of the observations at
226 and 1004 feet, the former being Nov. 12th, 1877, and the latter
Aug. 12th, 1878. A month was lost by the jamming of the drilling
tool, in May and June, 1878, when a depth of about 890 feet had been
attained.

The depth from the surface of the ground to the surface of water in
the bore has gradually decreased from 66 feet, when the bore was at 318
feet, to 52 feet when the bore was at 800 feet, and to 51°1 feet at the
present depth. It would thus appear that the inflow of water from below
has increased with the depth attained. There is a slow percolation
from the upper part of the water-column to an underground reservoir
near at hand, the top of the water-column being considerably higher than
the top of the water in the reservoir. Mr. Deacon remarks that the

182 REPORT—1878.

slow upward flow which supplies the water for this gradual discharge is
favourable to the accuracy of the observations (which have always been
taken at the bottom,) by checking the tendency of the colder and
heavier upper water to descend and mix with the lower. As bearing on
the subject of the disturbance of temperature by the stirring of the
water in boring, as well as by the generation of heat in the concussions of
the tool, it may be mentioned that the last observation before the month’s
interruption by the jamming of the tool was 57°5, at 886 feet, and the
first observation after the extraction of the tool. was 57°-0, at 898°6 feet ;
the former being on May 20th, and the latter on July 1st. The smallness
of the difference between these two temperatures seems to indicate
smallness of disturbance by the action of the tool.

It appears from these various circumstances that the observations are
entitled to considerable weight, and that the rate of increase of tempera-
ture downwards at Liverpool is exceptionally slow. It will be remembered
that the rate found by Mr. Fairbairn, at Dukinfield Colliery, in the
adjacent county (Cheshire), was also very slow, though not nearly so slow
as that indicated by these Liverpool observations.—(See our Report in
the Volume for 1870.)

Mr. E. Wethered, of Weston, near Bath, has also commenced obser-
vations in a colliery in that neighbourhood. Mr. J. Merivale, of “Ned-
derton, near Morpeth, has received a thermometer for observations in a
colhery. Mr. J. T. Boot, of Hucknall, near Mansfield, has received a
second thermometer (in place of a broken one) for observations in a deep
bore, and Mr. Rowland Gascoigne, of the same town, has received one for
a similar purpose.

In the eleven years which have elapsed since the appointment of this
Committee, a large amount of useful work has been done, by methods of
observation not requiring any elaborate or expensive appliances, or any
special training on the part of the observers.

Two difficulties are encountered in investigating underground tem-
perature. We have to contrive instruments which shall truly indicate
the temperature at the point of observation, and we’ have further to
ensure that this temperature shall be the same at the time of observation
as it was before the locality was artificially disturbed.

As regards the first of these difficulties, the Committee have been
completely successful, and have largely increased the resources at the
command of observers.

But in regard to the second difficulty, the same amount of success
has not been attained. The circulation of water in bore-holes and of air
in mines are disturbing elements difficult to deal with. Even such firm
plugging as was employed to isolate portions of the water-column in the
great bore at Sperenberg cannot altogether remove the error arising from
convective disturbance; for the long-continued presence of water at a
temperature different from that proper to the depth affects the tempera-
ture of the surrounding rocks, and the temporary isolation of a short
column would not abolish this source of error, even if the plugs them-
selves were impervious to conduction and convection.

After the experience which has now been gained of rough and ready
methods, it is time to consider the propriety of resorting to a more
special method, which has been more than once suggested, but has.
hitherto been postponed on account of the additional labour and skill
which would be requisite for carrying it out.

ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE FERMANAGH CAVES. 183

There can be no doubt that the surest way to bring any point of a
boring to its original temperature is to fill up the bore, and reduce it as
nearly as possible to its original condition. Several instruments have
been contrived which, when buried in the earth, with wires coming from
them to the surface, admit of having their temperature observed by
electrical means.

One of these is Siemens’ resistance thermometer, another is Wheat-
stone’s telegraphic thermometer, of which a description will be found in
the Report of the Dundee Meeting of the British Association; another
is Becquerel’s thermo-electric apparatus, which has been employed by its
inventor and his son and grandson for some forty years. It is described
in the following terms in the first report of this Committee (1868) :—

“The thermo-electric method might also be followed with great
advantage. T'wo wires, one of iron and the other of copper, insulated by
gutta-percha or some other covering, as in submarine cables, and
connected at their ends, might be let down, so as to bring their lower
junction to the point where the temperature is to be taken, their upper
junction being immersed in a basin of water, and the circuit completed
through a galvanometer. The temperature of the water in the basin
might then be altered till the galvanometer gave zero indication.”

Sir Wm. Thomson now adds the recommendation, that, in carrying
out this method, the two wires, each well covered with gutta-percha,
should be twisted together; that the wires should be stout and as homo-
geneous as possible throughout, and that a piece of stout copper tube
should be attached to the lower junction, this tube being uncovered and
in close contact with the earth all round, its purpose being to ensure that
the junction takes the proper temperature.

It would probably be desirable, ia filling up the bore, to mix clay
with the original material, to render it watertight, for it would be
‘ea to render the filling of the bore as compact as the surrounding
rock.

Several pairs of wires would be buried in the same bore, with their
lower junctions at different carefully measured depths.

The upper junctions would be kept in a room provided with a steady
table for a mirror-galvanometer.

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Hauauton, Prof.
Lert Apams, Prof. Barrerr, Mr. Harpman, and Dr. MacaListEr,
appointed for the purpose of Exploring the Fermanagh Caves.
Drawn wp by Mr. Tuomas Piunxert, Enniskillen, for Dr. Mac-
ALISTER, Secretary of the Committee.

Propasly there is no locality in Ireland where there are so many
interesting caves found as in the region of Knockmore, in Fermanagh.
Fifteen of these caves have been explored during the past three years,
every one of which yielded memorials of man, and were no doubt used by
savage tribes as dwelling-places.

A.—The first cave explored this year was partially excavated last year.
It penetrates a deep escarpment on the eastern side of a rocky hill, and

184 REPORT—1878.

attains a length of about fifty yards, and in width varies from three to
nine feet. The floor was irregularly formed, some parts of it being quite
level, but in some places the floor passed in with a very swift incline.

The first or top layer was composed of dark mould, and varied in
thickness from one to two feet deep. In this layer bones of the sheep,
goat, and Bos longifrons were found, also some sea shells and a large iron
cloak-pin or skewer, 54 inches long, which had a ring on the head or larger
end of the pin. Underneath this stratum there was a deposit of rock débris
and yellow clay, in which were found large angular blocks of limestone
which had fallen from the roof. Thisstratum was very irregular in depth,
and varied from two to eight feet deep; charcoal, rude pottery, and a
very large quantity of animal bones—some of them broken—were dug
out of this stratum, also flint flakes and one bone pin. Underneath the
above deposit there was a layer of calcareous breccia, covered over in
some places with sheets of stalagmite ; the latter in some places attained
a thickness of two feet. Animal bones were found embedded in the stalag-
mite, also charcoal, and in the stratum underneath, on which the sheets
of stalagmite rested, bone pins and flint flakes were found associated with
broken bones.*

The next stratum reached during the excavation was composed of
brown tenacious clay, which resembled brick earth and rested on gravel,
and was no doubt deposited at the period when water traversed the cave.
This was excavated to a depth of ten feet, but no animal remains or work
of art was found in it.

B.—‘ The Ram’s Cave” was the second explored, and occurs in the
top of a cliff several hundred feet high. It is a small chamber, about
four feet high and ten feet long, and was very dry inside. The deposit on
the surface of the floor was composed of black mould, which had a depth
of two feet, and contained charcoal, burnt bones, and a bronze pin. The
next stratum was composed of a gravelly kind of earth, and contained a
few angular blocks of limestone. This stratum yielded rude pottery,
charcoal, and the bones of the red deer, wild boar, goat, sheep, and fox.

C.—The third cave examined was about six feet wide, and extended
into the rock for a distance of twelve feet. This cave yielded a large
quantity of broken pottery, some of it very rude. The first stratum re-
moved was composed of carbonate of lime mingled with brown earth, and
contained bones of the pig and red deer, and pieces of pottery which bore
traces of ornamentation. The next layer removed was of an average thick-
ness of about eighteen inches, and was composed of dark mould, and con-
tained a quantity of charcoal and rude pottery devoid of any ornamen-
tation, also broken bones belonging to Bos longifrons, horse, deer, dog,
and sheep.

D.—The fourth cave explored opens out on a rocky slope, and the
surface of the floor passes in with a gentle incline for a distance of thirty
yards, when the passage becomes entirely choked up with a deposit of
stalagmite. The surface of the floor was covered over from end to end
with rough angular limestones; while these stones were being removed,
bones of the horse and boar were found mingled with them. These stones
rested on a deposit of yellow clay and carbonate of lime. During the
removal of this stratum a quantity of animal bones were found associated

* The bones have been submitted to Dr. Macalister fot examination, and his

report will be presented to the next meeting of the Association, The caves have no
local names, so we have indicated them by letters.

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 185

with charcoal ; nothing else of any interest was found during the explora-
tion except the tusk of a boar, which was whetted to a sharp edge, and
probably was used as a knife by the cave-dwellers.

E.—“ Shining Rock” cave enters a rock on the south side of Knock-
more, and prior to its excavation was nearly filled to the roof with rubbish
and débris. The top stratum was almost entirely composed of vegetable
earth, and of an average depth of two feet, and yielded some bones of fox,
dog,and deer. The layer underlying this contained a quantity of bronze
or iron clay, also bones of the pig, deer, and rabbit. Near the bottom
of the cave a quantity of bones were found in calcareous breccia. A
large portion of the bones found in the lower strata of this cave were
bound up in this material.

F. is a commodious cave a short distance from the above; it passes
through a rocky hillock and can be entered at either end. Midway it
assumes the form of a square chamber, which measured ten feet high
and six feet broad; the top stratum was of a dark mouldy character,
and yielded similar bones as the other caves explored. In the lower
stratum, which was composed of reddish clay, flint flakes and marine
shells were found.

The explorations were suspended after the exploration of F cave, as
the probability is that none of the caves in this district will yield bones
of extinct mammalia or objects of any great interest.

Siath Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Prestwicu,
Professor Harkness, Professor Hugues, Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins, Rey. H. W. Crosskry, Professor L. C. Mraz, Messrs.

_G. H. Morton, D. Macxintosn, R. H. Tippeman, J. E. Lex,
James Piant, and W. Penceity, Dr. Deanz, Mr. C. J. Woopwarp,
and Mr. Motynevx, appointed for the purpose of recording the
position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and
origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and
taking measures for their preservation. Drawn wp by the
Rey. H. W. Crosskey, Secretary.

Tis Committee has pursued its inquiries, and is able to record many
new and important observations. In many districts, however, the obser-
vations are not yet completed, and it will be necessary for the work of
the Committee to be continued for some time, before they can be justified
a classifying the facts collected, or in presenting any theoretical con-
clusions.

The Committee are favoured with the following notes on Boulders
near Kendal by Mr. J. R. Daxyns :—

The most remarkable boulders near Kendal are those of the granite of
Wastdale Crag, near Shap Wells. These boulders are specially interest-
ing, for two reasons: in the first place, boulders of the granite of Wastdale
Crag, or the Shap Granite, as it is often called, can be readily identified

186 REPORT—1878.

by means of the large crystals of pink orthoclase felspar which the rock
contains ; and, secondly, the distribution of these boulders near Kendal
would seem to show that they must have travelled over the high ground
south of the granite area, and not followed the course of the present drain-
age ; for I have traced these boulders, north of Kendal, directly towards
this area on the one hand, while on the other hand I have not noticed
them in the depression extending from Kendal to the river Lune, along
which the London and North-Western Railway runs, east of Docker Garth;
but as I have not minutely examined this part of the country, I cannot
say which is the precise eastern limit of the boulders. It seems, then, that
the Shap granite boulders came nearly due south from Shap Fells, across
the high ground over which the old coach road goes from Kendal to
Shap. The highest point where the granite occurs in place, viz., Sleddale
Pike, 1659 feet above the sea, is higher than the greater part of this
ground; but the greater part of the granite area is lower than the ground
across which the boulders travelled in their southerly course; nor is there
immediately to the north of the granite any ground as high as the granitic
fell itself. The greater part of this fell, sloping northward, drains into
Wet Sleddale, whose waters, forming the river Lowther, flow north, and,
joining the Eden, go out to sea by the Solway ; the remaining small por-
tion, including the site of the quarries, facing southward, overlooks Wast-
dale Beck. This beck flows N.E. along the strike of the rocks to Shap
Wells, where its waters turn sharp at more than a right angle, and thence
flow 8.8.E., and join the Lune at Tebay. On the south side of Wastdale
rise the Upper Silurian falls to the heights of 1691, 1589, 1494, 1588,
1544, 1523 feet above the sea; the lowest part of the range being the
Hause, over which the coach road goes. The height of this point is not
given on the Ordnance one-inch map; but it is between 1300 and 1500
feet above the sea, and is probably over 1400. Across this high ground
the Shap granite boulders travelled south from their parent rock, which -
attains an extreme height of 1659 feet at its most westerly outcrop, and
a height of 1478 on its steep southward face ; while north of these points
the granitic area falls gently away northward, the centre of the area being
about 1373 feet above the sea.

The general due south course of the boulders is further shown by an
examination of their distribution south of Kendal. Itis not to be expected
that very many boulders should now remain scattered over the surface of
the rich and highly cultivated land near Kendal; they have mostly been
long since cleared off the surface of the pasture and meadow land, and are
now to be found built into the walls, where, however, they are good evi-
dence of their existence in the country, because boulders are not carted
a long distance for walling in a country that has plenty of such material
at hand; but there are some large boulders still remaining unmoved, from
the place where they were once dropped by the ice, and in ploughed
lands others are from time to time turned up and placed among heaps of
stones for road metal.

Ihave traced these boulders as far south as Milnthrop; they occupy a
narrow band of country, whose long axis points directly for the granite
of Shap Fells. I have not seen any west of the river Kent. The most
westerly I have seen are some near Hincaster, still lying undisturbed in a
lane. A line drawn from Sleddale Pike, the most westerly outcrop of
granite on Shap Fells, to these boulders bears south by west. The most
easterly that I have noted in this neighbourhood is a large one in a field

—— SS

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 187

near Windy Hill, about two miles S.E. of Kendal railway station; but I
once saw one high up on the side of Grayrigg Fell, north of Grayrigg
V'arn, which lies a good deal farther east.

The chief boulders still in their original position are the following :
Several on Spital Wood; one near the Kendal reservoir; one or two on the
Castle Hill, Kendal; the one near Windy Hill; one on the east side of
Helm; some boulders of granite and of the altered rock surrounding the
granitic area near the footpath by Murley Moss to Oxenholme ; one in a
drift bank cut through by the canal near Larkrigg ; several in the fields
east of Stainton; others near the footpath from Stainton to Sedgwick ;
one on the top of a drift hill, half a mile due west of Sellet Hall; several
near Hincaster; some in front of a farm house at Wath Sutton. I have
also found granite boulders on the roadside between Natland and Helm,
at the inns near Helm End, and in a field a quarter of a mile west of Storth
End, and on the road half-a-mile N.E. by north of Storth End, and at
the bend of road east of Milnthrop station, besides in many other places,
which it would be tedious to mention.

Boulders of the dark compact altered rock that surrounds the granitic
area are generally found along with the granite boulders.

When the localities where granite boulders occur are marked on a
map, the steady lineal north and south direction of their course is very
striking.

Boulders of the ordinary volcanic rocks of the Lake Mountains indicate
other directions for the ice-flow ; thus a large boulder of volcanic breccia
from the Lake Mountains may be seen lying on the side of the Sedbergh
road, about two and a half miles out of Kendal, and east of the line of
granite boulders. As the granitic area of Shap Fells is at the extreme east
end of the volcanic rocks, this boulder must have crossed the line of flow
along which the granite boulders travelled. Amongst noteworthy boulders
is a monster boulder, by the natives designated by the undignified term
of a “cobble,” of voleanic ash in the beck course at Stainton, measuring
9x6~x4 feet, or 216 cubic feet.

The distribution of boulders on the bare limestone fells in the neigh-
bourhood of Kendal is in some particulars remarkable. Thus, on Farleton
Fell, a conspicuous hill of bare limestone on the east side of the Lancaster
and Carlisle Railway, there are very many large limestone boulders lying
on glaciated surfaces, and often having pebbles and small boulders of Upper
Silurian rock beneath them. Some of these limestone boulders, too, are
standing on edge with their planes of stratification vertical or highly
inclined, so that there can be no doubt about their being true boulders.
On the same fell there are, as already stated, many small boulders of
Upper Silurian rock; but I have met with no boulders of volcanic rock or
of granite on this fell. Unfortunately I could find no good scratches to
show the direction of the ice-flow ; but, considering the great size and
number of the limestone boulders, and the smallness of the Upper Silurian
ones, I should be inclined to think the ice came from the N.W.., in which

_ case it would traverse a great extent of limestone country, and the Upper

Silurian rocks that were the origin of the boulders would be several miles
distant ; and this transport of boulders probably took place while the
adjacent limestone area was free of drift, and therefore before the trans- °
port of the granite boulders, which, as being found in the drift that now
covers the low ground N.W. of Farleton Fell, belong to the time of the
deposition of this drift.

188 REPORT—1878.

The limestone fell immediately west of Kendal, which ends in the fine
escarpments known as Scout and Cunswick Scars, overlooking a broken
foreground of Upper Silurian rocks to the Lake Mountains in the distance,
is singularly free from limestone boulders. This is only what might be
expected, as it is the extreme north end of the limestone area; for
this fell is plentifully strewn with large boulders of Upper Silurian rock,
and small ones of voleanic rocks, though there are a few large boulders
of volcanic rock as well; for instance, one well-glaciated boulder of
volcanic ash about a mile and a half S.W. of Kendal, and a large one
above Cunswick Scar, near the footpath to Kendal.

Whitbarrow, too (another bare limestone fell), is generally free of
limestone boulders, except at the south end, where there are several large
ones; but Silurian boulders are pretty generally distributed over it, and
amongst these one large boulder of ash deserves notice. This boulder,
which is a tolerably conspicuous object on the fell, is situated on the
western side of the fell, perhaps a mile or better S.W. of Row. It is
about six feet high, and is split in two, the inner surface of one portion
corresponding to that of the other. But the southern portion has been
moved away from its fellow, slightly on the western side, but as much as
several feet (five or six) on the east; the general result being motion from
north to south. One might fancy that the boulder was originally split as it
fell off the end of the ice, and that subsequently the ice had shoved one part
slightly away from the other. Connected with boulders is the difficult
subject of the accumulation of drift. For a geologist who has a day to
spare at Kendal no more instructive walk can be recommended than this.
Walk ont along the Kendal and Sedbergh road for about five or six miles
till you come to the summit level, 930 feet above sea, then tarn south
-acoss the fell called New Hutton Common to its summit, 1097 feet high.
Looking S.W. from this point you will see spread out before you in the
Gatebeck and Saint Sunday Valleys, a tumultuous assemblage of mounds,
a truly wonderful sight. These mounds are the vast moraine, or system
of moraines, which the great glacier, or ice sheet if you will, of old threw
down in the low ground between Helm on the right and the uplands on
the left, ending in Scout Hill.

And if anyone wishes to see moraines of the ordinary Swiss type, shed
by local glaciers, let him go to the recesses of the mountains to the head of
Long Sleddale ; there in one of the finest dales of the lake country, though
one but rarely visited—he will see plenty such.

Mr. D. Mackintosh reports some new facts relative to the derivation of
boulders already discovered by members of the Committee, the existence
-of several large boulders previously unrecorded, and the extent to which
Treland has sent erratics into England.

In our Report for 1875 there is a full account of many large blocks of
felspathic rock in the neighbourhood of Bromsgrove, Worcestershire. I
have principally examined them between Catsbill and Hagley, in a district
from which granite would appear to be entirely absent. From a com-
parison of their shape, size, appearance of weathered surface and internal
structure as revealed by chips, I have no doubt whatever that these
boulders are what may be called an overshot load from the great Arenig
stream of erratics which has found its way through Llangollen Vale into
the central plain of England, and which has left large blocks about Chirk
‘and Welsh Frankton (west of Ellesmere). In our Report for 1876 there is
‘an account of the Arenig dispersion, and the enormous Cefn felstone

ed

i eS

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 189

boulder is mentioned. Some distance S.K. of Cefn, and abont a quarter
of a mile S.E. of Chirk Bridge, on the east side of the Holyhead road, there
is a felstone boulder, the greater part of which is evidently buried. The
exposed part is about 13 x 7 feet, and three feet above ground. Between
this boulder and Welsh Frankton, Arenig erratics are numerous, and
some of them are very large. A short distance west of Welsh Fr ankton,

and close to where a canal is crossed by the main road, 8 x 8 feet of an
Arenig boulder may be seen above ground. It is somewhat varied in
structure, part of it approaching the character of hornstone. Around
Welsh Frankton there are numerous moderate-sized, and a few very large
Arenig boulders, One, close to Mr. Oswell’s house, is quite 8 feet in
average diameter; and another, a few yards distant, 8 x 6 x 5 feet.

They a are accompanied by good-sized boulders of Silurian grit and Carboni-
ferous sandstone and quartzite from the Welsh borders.

Mr. Mackintosh lately found a number of lumps of a very oe rock
in a gravel-pit which had been excavated in an undulating continuation of
the large and abrupt mounds of middle drift age which may be seen south
of Ellesmere, Shropshire. He has since found many more lumps at
Wrexham, and, after much inquiry, he cannot hear of any rock like it in
situ. It looks very much like silicified chalk, but the fossil evidence is
in favour of its Jurassic age. A fragment of lias, with characteristic
fossils (now in the possession of Mr. W. Shone), was very lately found
about 8 feet down in upper boulder clay at Guilden Sutton, near
Chester; and Mr. Watts, F.G.S., has found large chalk flints and a
specimen of Gryphca incurva in a boulder clay at Piethorne, near Rochdale.
These erratics, in all probability, came from Ireland.

Mr. Motynevx reports as follows upon Boulders in the Midland
District :—

Stretching westwards from the town of Burton-on-Trent, and bounded
on the south and east by the Trent Valley and on the north by that of the
Dove, is a range of table-land, from 100 to 300 feet above the levels of
those rivers, and comprising within its limits the broad acreage anciently
included in the Royal Forest of Needwood. ‘The whole area is covered
more or less thickly with one or the other or each of the three different
deposits which constitute the Boulder clay group of the Midlands. These
deposits consist in well-defined divisions of sand, gravel, clay, and boul-
ders, and are of an aggregate thickness of 120 feet. On the less elevated
face of the country under consideration they repose directly on Red marls,
and on the higher tracts of Christchurch-on-Needwood and Bagot’s Park
are the lower division of the Rhewtic beds, which there appear in charac-
teristic force and condition. The boulders, or rock masses, occur prin-
cipally at from three to ten feet below the surface, intermixed with blue
and yellow clay, and consist of angular, sub-angular, and rounded frag-
ments of Carboniferous limestone and chert, Yoredale sandstone, Millstone
grits, Granites, Porphyry, Syenite, Greenstone, Trachyte, and Toadstone,
with smaller fragments of Liassic and Oolitic rocks, many of which bear
the usual evidences of the action of ice. There is also, stretching across
the high grounds of Hanbury Woodend, running east and west, an extra-
ordinary trail of Chalk flint flakes. The Boulder clays, with their asso-
ciated deposits, cap the high land of Waterloo Hill and Moat Bank on the
east side of the Trent Valley, and the same description of rock masses

190 REPORT—1878.

enters largely into the composition of the basement bed of the valley
gravels at Burton-on-Trent, but in a more rounded condition. Gryphea
and other Liassic shells are frequently found in the sand and gravel of
each deposit.

During some drainage operations at Sinai Park, overlooking Burton-
on-Trent, many hundreds of tons of boulders were excavated, the weight
varying from a few pounds to half aton each. Iam in a position to
place on record one only of these boulders, which deserves a place in the
catalogue of Staffordshire erratic rocks. This was exhumed from near the
surface of some gravel workings at Postern House, three miles due west
from Burton-on-Trent, and where the letter P, of Postern House, in the
Ordnance Survey map, occurs. It lay at 180 feet above the Trent
Valley, and is an angular fragment of coarse Millstone grit five feet six
inches long by four feet six inches deep, one of its sides being planed
down by ice action. Another sub-angular boulder of Syenite was about
two years ago obtained from the bottom of a well sunk in the valley
gravel at the brewery of Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, and Buxton, at a
point just north of the letter B in Burton-on-Trent, between the road and
railway, as shown on the Ordnance map. It lay at twenty-four feet
from the surface, embedded in a foot or two of Boulder clay, which there
comes between the valley gravel and the Red marls, and which with
other similar evidences is conclusive proof of the excavation of the Trent
Valley hereabouts before the Boulder clay period. The boulder weighs
nearly a ton, and was removed for preservation to the residence of the
writer, about a mile south of Burton-on-Trent on the Lichfield road.

Mr. James Piant continues his reports upon the Boulders in Leices-
tershire :—
(1.) Isolated Boulders.

The ‘“‘great erratic” from Humberston (briefly described in a former
report) has been recently laid quite bare to the bottom.

There is a great quantity of traditional material connected with it,
and it must have excited considerable interest in the ‘‘olden time.”
Several distinguished antiquarians have written upon it, and described
these traditions.

I believe that this block has a certain relation to the monolith “ St.
John’s Stone,” exactly three miles §.W. by W. across the valley of the
river. Both blocks are on the rise of the land, and visible from either
locality if a fire was lighted on each at night.

A festival (Romish) was formerly held near the St. John’s Stone (a
vestige of old “fire, or sun worship’’) on Midsummer Day, and this
Humberston block would be in the line of the greatest eastern sunrise.

This boulder is situated in St. Mary’s parish, on the Pochin estate, on
Kirby’s Farm, Humberston, Leicestershire, close to the bend of the road
from Humberston to Thurmaston. It measures 8 feet x 7 feet x 5 feet,
and its weight is nearly 20 tons. It is pentagonal, edges sharp and an-
gular. Longest axis is N.W. by S.E. It has about six deep irregular
grooves two inches deep on the top, sides nearly vertical and smooth,
and the striations are in direction of the longer axis. It is composed of
the syenitic granite of Mount Sorrel, distant 54 miles N.W. from the
locality. Many legends are connected with this block, and it is known

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 191

in the locality as Helstone. It is 230 feet above sea (ordnance datum),
and marks a boundary on the farm; all land on the farm east of the
stone is called Ost-end, and all west West-end. It lies amongst lower
glacial “ drift-clay,’’ and is quite isolated. It was thought by many per-
sons to be the rock in situ. It rests upon worn surface of Rhetic beds.
It is to be removed to the grounds of the Leicester Museum, and photo-
graph taken before removal.

Another large isolated boulder is situated at Loseby, Leicestershire,
on the estate of Sir F. T. Fowke, Bart., Loseby Hall, Leicestershire. It
measures 5 feet 3 inches x 3 feet 5 inches x 2 feet 4 inches. It is
rounded and worn, is long shaped, has never been moved by man, and has
small sroovings at various angles on all the sides exposed. It is composed
of millstone grit, which occurs 35 to 40 miles N.W., but it may have
travelled 80 miles if it came from the north. It is 650 feet (ordnance
datum) above the sea; and rests in “upper glacial drift,” composed of
sand, flints, chalk, lias, sandstone, millstone grit and pebbles of various
sorts, and lumps of clay.

(2.) Groups of Boulders.

The first group recently found in the “Coleman Road”’ (a new road

about two miles from here) is quite a new district for boulders. The group
occurs in Evington parish, near Leicester; the road is about two miles
long, in a ‘‘cutting” through “Crown Hill.” The largest boulders
are 3 feet 3 inches x 3 feet x 2 feet 6 inches; the smallest 1 foot 3 inches
x 1 foot x 1 foot. They areangular and sub-angular, except the block of
“‘limestone,” which seems rounded, but it may have been done in svtw.
All have been moved in excavating the road, and many broken up.
Most of the sandstones, grits, and limestones, have striations in various
directions on the top and sides, and at different angles. The localities at
which rocks of the same nature as the boulders occur are—Mount Sorrel,
Groby, and Markfield, east side of ‘‘ Pennine Chain,” in valley of River
Derwent, and Stanton, valley of the Erewash, Sherwood Forest, country
round Nottingham, Ticknall, Crick Hill, Wirksworth, Derbyshire. The
distances of these localities are as follows :—

Miles.
MVEGMTIT SOTTOL es. os crac daeor dues daaeaeecneeh gas sn vesteldavlcccads 8 N.N.W.
USL STOREY EECA Romige OAAReR ecocecnOOBeECetUctcct Pec eBCOseeOodnec 8 N.W.
IW EITO Gnas a cawas costae wccacest acest aideopntacinesoceacestuede se 10 N.W.
PADEILOTIN Se ino Graces tawakcecvlieecusceascaUadnassscacqcasecctics 22 N.W.
PBIRESVE Slee eon, sdasieetae ee ret ane cacetccdatalssedvacdesesateneness 24 N.W.
MBVSTWOTUDN sos aces cateaet creas coe coeeete eb eteroeeents 35 and 40 N.W.
Sherwood and Nottingham .............ssesesseeeeeeeees 24 N.N.W.
perce Fertsnlllets 82 tied ena 58s ct shidacabledads Sur dacmen dune gees 20 N.W.
@ricks ands W irks worth od... ccc ccccsaccsceeweesose soacs 40 N.W.

Sixteen blocks were measured and examined; 7 of these were syenite and
syenitic granite, 5 triassic sandstones, 2 millstone grit, and 2 mountain
limestone. A great many of the limestones, grits, and sandstones have
been broken up for road metal, being softer than thesyenites. The group
is about 350 feet above the sea. The area covered is about 50 yards long
by 10 yards wide. A few boulders occur in other parts of the road, but
of smaller dimensions; many boulders are left i the sides of the cutting,
and every indication seems to be that great numbers spread out in the

192 REPORT— 1878.

hill. The boulders were found at depths of four, six, and eight feet in
cutting the road through the hill, many lying in the gravel (flint
gravel) on the narrow end, as if all the materials had been solidified when
deposited on the lower lias clay..

A second group occurs in Aylestone parish, near Leicester, near the third
milestone from Leicester. The largest boulder is 3 feet x 2 feet 10
inches x 2 feet 10 inches; and the smallest 2 feet x 1 foot x 10 inches,
The boulders are angular, and all having been moved out of a sand-bed ;
no striations can be seen. They are derived from Groby, Markfield, and
Charnwood Forest. Groby is six miles distant N.N.W., and Markfield
eight miles N. All are composed of syenite. The group is 280 feet above
the sea, and has about two feet of gravel over it, and covers an area about
ten yards square. The boulders were all covered by a deposit of gravelly
drift, and were found in the sand.

A third group occurs in Aylestone parish, Belmont Park, Leicester,
half a mile east of Aylestone. The largest boulder is 2 feet 6 inches x 2 ~
feet x 1 foot 10 inches; the smallest is 1 foot x 10 inches x 9 inches.
The boulders are angular and sub-angular; and all have been moved in
making new roads. There are no striations. Rocks of the same nature
are found at Mount Sorrel, Groby, Markfield, Bradgate Park, in Charnwood
Forest, at a distance of six to eight miles. They are composed of syenite
greenstone, syanitic granite, 20 blocks were measured and examined.
The group is 320 feet above the sea, and covers an area about 100 yards
by 20 yards. It is covered by gravel containing flint.

A fourth group occurs in St. Margaret’s parish, on the estate of the
Freehold Land Society, Leicester, on the road leading to Evington from
Leicester. The largest boulder is 3 feet 1 inchx2 feetx1 foot 10
inches, and the smallest 1 foot 5 inches x 1 foot 2 inches x 1 foot 1 inch.
The boulders are rounded, angular, and subangular; out of twelve
boulders eight are syenitic granite, two triassic sandstone, one millstone
grit, one oolite. The gronp is 290 feet above the sea, and covers an area
100 yards square. It was uncovered by making foundations for houses ;
all have been moved. No striations exist on the igneous rocks, but the
sandstones and oolitic blocks are striated at various angles. Igneousrocks
of the same nature are found at Mount Sorrel, Groby, sandstones at
Nottingham, oolitic rocks at Ketton near Stamford, at the respective
distances of eight, twenty-six, and twenty miles.

A fifth group, occurs in Evington parish, ‘Spinney Hills” Road,
Leicester. The largest boulder is 3 feet x1 foot x1 foot; the smallest,
2 feet 6 inches x 1 foot 2 inches x 1 foot 4inches The boulders are sharp,
fresh looking, angles all round; no striations are visible. Rocks of the
same nature are found at Mount Sorrel, a distance of six and a half miles.
They are composed of syenitic granite, and are at the height of 290 feet
above the sea. They have been moved out of a field to the side of the
road, but are on the S.E. side of “ Spinney Hills,” and therefore must have
come over them.

A sizih group occurs in Saxe-Coburg Street, Leicester. The largest
boulder is 3 feet 3 inches x2 feet 2 inches x2 feet; the smallest, 2 feet
6 inches x 2 feet x1 foot 10 inches. The boulders are angular and sub-
angular; no striations are visible. Rocks of the same nature occur at
Mount Sorrel, a distance of six miles N.N.W. They are composed of
syenitic granite, and are 260 feet above the sea, and cover am area
twenty yards square. They have been exposed by the excavations for
streets and sewers, and foundations of houses.

ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 193

A seventh group occurs on the Town Estate, Victoria Road, Leicester.
The largest boulder is 2 feet 9 inches x 2 feet x1 foot 10 inches, and the
smallest 1 foot 8 inchesx1 foot 6 inchesx1 foot. The boulders are
angular, and without striations. Rocks of the same nature occur at
Groby and Markfield, a distance of five miles and seven miles N.W.
They are composed of syenite, and are 260 feet above the sea, covering an
area of 30 yards x10 yards. They have been exposed in excavations.

An eighth group occurs at Clarendon Park, near Leicester. The largest
boulder is 2 feet 6 inchesx1 foot 5 inchesx1 foot 7 inches, and the
smallest 1 foot 9 inches x 1 foot 5 inches x 10 inches. Three are rounded,
others are angular and sub-angular, but the rounded edges may have
been done in sz¢w. All have been moved out of excavations ; no striations.
Rocks of the same nature occur at Mount Sorrel at a distance of seven-
and-a-half miles N.N.W. The boulders are all composed of syenitic
granite, and are 300 feet above the sea, covering an area of 20 yards x 10
yards.

Report on the Present State of owr Knowledge of the Crustacea.—
Part IV. On Development. By C. Spence Bats, F.R.S.

[PLATES V., VI., & VII.]

Hayine, during the last three Reports, given an account of the present
state of our knowledge of the dermal skeleton of the higher forms of
Crustacea as it appears in various genera in the adult animal, it is
desirable that we should next obtain some knowledge of the forms that
these animals undergo in their passage from the ovum to the adult.

It is highly probable, judging from the very perfect resemblance to the
parent form that the animal attains while yet young, that the earlier
zoologists believed them to quit the egg in this condition. For when Bose
took in mid-Atlantic the small animal which he christened Zoé, he never
for a moment thought that it was the young of some other form.

Tt was in 1802 that it was first described, and ranged by the author
between the Branchiopoda and Amphipoda. But Latreille, inthe first
edition of the ‘Régne Animal’ of Cuvier, placed it at the. end of the
Branchiopoda, between Polyphemus and Cyclops, while expressing an
opinion that it approached nearly to the Schizopoda.

Leach seems to have held this same opinion, for without giving his
reasons, he placed it at the end of the legion of Podophthalma, by side
of Nebalia.

Desmarest, in his ‘ Consid. sur Crustaces,’ places it in the order
Branchiopoda, near Branchipes, while Latreille ranks it with “ Monocles,”
while Milne-Edwards ranges it, with doubt, at the end of the Decapoda,
with other questionable genera, after the Schizopoda, and before the

Stomapoda.

In 1830 Vaughan Thompson took a zoxwa in Cork harbour that while
in his possession passed into the Megalopa stage, which induced him to
assert that zozea was nothing more than the larval stage of one of the
erabs common to our shores,

This idea was much doubted by the naturalists of the day, more

1878. : 0

194 REPORT—1878.

especially Milne-Edwards, Latreille, and Westwood, as the idea of any
metamorphosis in the development of the Crustacea was contrary to
preconceived opinions, and to the careful and very complete observations
of Rathke on the development of the embryo in the common crayfish of
Europe (Astacus flwvialis).

The articles of Milne-Edwards in the ‘ Dictionnaire Classique d’ Histoire
Naturelle, and the remarks of Latreille in the ‘Cours d’Entomologie,’
were followed in 1835 by what appeared at the time to be an exhaustive ~
discussion of the subject by Mr. Westwood, His observations were
carried out upon the ova of some land crabs, that were living in the
Zoological Gardens, with an exactitude and care that has left little to be
added. Mr. Westwood’s memoir was published in the ‘ Philosophical Trans.
actions of the Royal Society,’ and he received the honour of the Society’s
gold medal for what, at the time, appeared to be a complete refutation of
Mr. Vaughan Thompson’s theory of metamorphosis in Crustacea.

Itis, however, a very remarkable coincidence, that the same volume of
the ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1835, that contains Mr. Westwood’s com-
munication on the absence of any morphology in the progressive develop-
ment of the Gegarcinus, also published a memoir of Mr. Vaughan Thomp-
son on the larva of the Cirripedia, showing not only that a very extensive
form of morphology takes place, but demonstrating conclusively that they
are crustaceous animals, and bear no relation to the mollusca among which
they previously had been generally classed by naturalists.

From this time until the present, the young form and development of
these animals have been of the foremost interest in marine zoology.

In 1839 Capt. Du Cane sent to the British Association, and pub-
lished in the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ a communication on the forms
in which the young left the egg in the common prawns and shrimps of our
coast. And soon after (1852), Mr, R. Q. Couch gave an account at the
Dublin Meeting of the British Association of the form in which the
young left the ovum in the common crawfish (Palinwrus vulgaris) of our
seas. In each of these the form so differed from one another, and from
any of the others, that it began to appear as if the young of every genus
in the Crustacea left the egg in a larval form, different in character.

This view appears to receive much strength from the development of
the larva, in Mysis, although many of the changes which this animal
undergoes are those of a subembryonic rather than a larval condition,
since they take place previously to the animal’s becoming an independent
creature. An elaborate account of the development of this animal is
given by Van Beneden, in his memoir on the littoral animals of Belgium.

Since then, the crowning interest was given by Dr. Fritz-Miller, when
he captured a small crustaceous animal in the high seas which in general
form corresponds with the small entomostracons genus known as
Nauplius. This he pronounced to be the early condition in which some
of the prawns, and especially Penzus, quits the ovam. Some naturalists
accept this hypothetical discovery as conclusive, while others more
cautiously consider that the evidence Fritz-Miiller has received is not
sufficient, the more especially since several genera of prawns are known
to quit the ovum in a more advanced form. (PI. V., fig. 1.)

It should be remembered in the reporting on this discovery of Fritz-
Miiller, that first it has not been taken in connection with the parent,
second, that it has not been traced from the nauplius to the zoza con-
dition, and lastly, has not been traced by Miiller beyond the Schizopod

a”

_ belonging to the family Huphauside, and this he states to

pp. 46

ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 195

stage, hence its connexion with Penzus has not been demonstrated at
either extremity of the chain of evidence.

The little creature, according to Miiller, is rather opaque and of a
brownish colour, darkest towards the extremities of the appendages.
It is by these little appendages that the young animal swims, lashing

the water and working its way upwards to the light.

The first change that is observable is that it becomes slightly larger,
and the terminal part projects into two pointed processes, terminating in
the two long caudal hairs which were previously present, and to which
others less important have been added. The number of hairs on the
natatory appendages have also increased.

At this stage the form of the carapace is first indicated in the presence
of a transverse line. In this we perceive an important variation from
the forms of either the Cirripedia or decapod Crustacea, and moreover
contrary to that of the Euphausia as illustrated by Metschnikoff.

In the youngest forms of Decapoda and Cirripeds the carapace is defined
from the earliest stages.

In Lophogaster, according to Sars, the development resembles that of
Mysis. The form of the embryo is more annulose and the formation of
the great dorsal shield is more progressive. According to Fritz-Miiller
the development of the carapace in the young of Penzus is upon the
same plan, and is first detected by the presence of a line immediately
behind the third pair of appendages. In the anterior pair may now be
seen that which after the next moult Fritz-Miiller takes to be the first
pair of antennz. The second pair becomes the second antenne, and the
third pair becomes the mandibles : close to which a large helmet-shaped
protuberance, which is taken to be the homologue of the anterior labrum,
is present. In this early stage Dr. Miiller sees within the third pair of
appendages the mandibles with a prominent acute tooth and a broad
transversely furrowed masticatory surface, and he says that the mandible
must bear a non-setigerous appendage. Posterior to these three pairs of
lobes, the embryonic condition of the future oral appendages make their
appearance; the eyes still continuing to be represented by a solitary
central organ.

The rudimentary appendages exhibit within the sacs the presence of
hairs, which induced Dr. Miiller to believe that after the next moult the
animal will pass into the Zooa stage. But here the progressive link is

_ broken in his researches, and there is nothing to demonstrate that this

Nauplius form passes into a Zocea stage more than the young of Mysis does. °
Previously to the time that Miiller found his Nauplius, Professor Sars
(1862)* studied the development of Lophogaster typicus, a Schizopod

be precisely
similar to that of Mysis.

In 1871 Metschnikoff communicated to ‘ Zeitschrift fiir Zool.’ his ob-
Servations on the young of Huphausia. The first specimens he found

in the open sea, and hypothetically assumed that they were the young of

Euphausia, although they were not in any way connected with the parent,

_ and had undergone one or two changes of form since quitting the ovum.
He says: “I was yet convinced that it by no means represented the
earliest larval form as it escaped from the ovum. I could only hypo-

Archiv. des Sci. Phys. et Nat., tome xxi., p. 87, and An. Nat. Hist., vol. xii., 1864,
1.
O02

196 REPORT—1878.

thetically point to a six-legged transparent Nauplius as to the earliest
larval condition of Kuphausia. This supposition has since been confirmed
by the examination of a considerable number of free-swimming Euphausia
larve. Besides the larve, which were in various stages of progress, I fished
up, he says, some ova from which I procured some Nauplii of the youngest
form, but as my observations on the embryonic development of the Schizo-
poda have not been concluded, I shall only describe the ovum containing
a mature larva.”’ (PI. V., fig. 2.)

“The ovum is a complete ball, in which one can distinguish two mem-
branes. Between the exterior membrane—the extraordinarily delicate
Morion—and the inner, the yolk skin, is a fluid clear as water, whick
I have also seen in the ova of Penzus. The yolk skin covers closely the
now quite mature and highly transparent larva, which latter shows three
distinctly developed pairs of extremities. Through the movements of the
larva the egg-membranes are torn, and there escapes a peculiar animal,
on the oval body of which three pairs of appendages are attached which
exhibit the peculiarities of the Nauplius form of Crustacea.”

“The first pair is simple, while the two others are branched and articu-
lated into three joints, 7.e. two basal and the terminal; the only existing
opening is the oral aperture which is in the median line between the
base of the third pair of appendages. It appears in the form of a very
small hole which leads to a narrow cesophagus. With the exception of
red tint on the ventral surface, the larva is otherwise colourless and
transparent, and it is with much difficulty that some of the interior
organs can be distinguished.”

Herr Metschnikoff was able to trace some of the early changes, and was
in bopes to be able to remove some of the objections against Fritz-Miller’s
treatment of the development of Penzus. He tried to follow the various
alterations in the same specimen, but failed to keep the animals alive
after a short period in his vessels. He was however here enabled to
trace the changes which conduct, he says, the larva ‘into that condition
which Claus has already described,” but remarks that all the forms
examined by him lost with their moulting the indented or crenulated
margin of the carapace, which shows that he had to do with another
species than Huphausia Mulleri of Claus. He concludes with saying that
he “must draw attention to a phenomenon which is common to the
Nauplius stage of Huphausia and Penzus, the contemporaneous formation
of the several pairs of appendages succeeding the larval and swimming
-feet.”’ ‘It is,” he continues, ‘‘remarkable that such a mode of formation is
not observed in any Entomostraca which have been developed through the
Nauplius metamorphosis. I have examined in this relation the Cirripedes
and Branchiopoda, and became convinced that in these crustacea the
maxillaries are developed apart from the other appendages, as has been
shown by Claus to be the case in the Copepoda.”

Professor Claus has given the subject his attention, but his researches,
like those of Fritz-Miiller, were carried on upon specimens taken in the
high sea, without any immediate clue to the parent from which they
derived their origin.

It is certainly remarkable that so advanced an observer as Professor
Claus should have been content to have drawn his conclusions from such
incomplete and unsatisfactory data, particularly as he considers that an
imperfect appreciation of the development of the Crustacea has occasioned
in recent days the supposition relative to the genetic relationship of

ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 197

insects, and as a further consequence to considerable inquiries about the
origin of Crustacea.

The importance of obtaining accurate knowledge of the relationship of
the young and immature forms with those of the adult animals, is exem-
plified by the numerous speculative theories which have arisen and depend
upon the correctness of Fritz-Miiller’s discovery.

Claus, in his ‘Crustaceen Systems,’ says that Fritz-Miller even
believed that he found in the Zowa of Crustacea the origin of the insects,
and very soon this view was made use of by others for the Arachnoidea.

“Anton Dorhn,’’ says Claus, “has endeavoured by peculiar reasoning
to prove the Zowa form to be a stage in the development of the Ento-
mostraca, and sought to show that the Phyllopodes, Ostracodes, and Co-
pepoda have once passed through a free Zozwa stage during the phylogmatic
development.”

Claus distinguishes two more typical stages in the metamorphosis of
Crustacea between Nuwplivs and Zowa, which he distinguishes by the
names of Metanauplius and Protozoed ; but as these are given to stages in
the progress of development rather than to forms that represent the stages
as they leave the egg and become free creatures, I doubt if this addition
to the nomenclature will ultimately be found to prove convenient. He
moreover contends that of all Crustacea now existing that of the Phyllopoda
is most probably that which bears the nearest resemblance to the primordial
type, and that Nebaliaand Branchipus most nearly approximate the earliest
representations.

In the Schizopoda and Peneide the larva he asserts is hatched as a
Nauplius, and undergoes its further development in free life ; the rest of
the Caridea go through the Nauplius and Protozoxa stages within the
ovum, and that the first stage of free life is that of the Zowa, mingled with
features of the Mysis-like stage. The Thalassinide and Paguride are
hatched in the Zova stage.

In the course of his researches Dr. C. Claus has determined the early
forms of Leucifer and Sergestis, neither of which, although Schizopods,
pass through the Nauplius condition, and Professor Sars says that Lophi-
gaster, one of the Huphauside, develops its young as Mysis. And we
know from actual observation that the young of the Anomura leave the
ovum in a form little distinguishable from the Zowa of the Brachyura, and
in a more advanced condition.

It is desirable in a Report which is intended to record the present state
of our knowledge of the subject, to define clearly what is understood by
the several names applied to the larve of Crustacea according to the form
in which they quit the ovum.

Here I feel it a duty to protest strongly against the terms larva and
pupa which have of late been much introduced into the study of carcino-
logy. They are the more objectionable at this present time when there
is a desire to trace the connection of one class of animals with another,
inasmuch as the terms are likely to convey the idea of a closer approxi-
mation by the resemblance of the nomenclature than may exist in natural
phenomena. The term larva is suggestive of the grub or caterpillar con-
dition in which insects leave their ovum, but as the condition in which the
young of the Crustacea varies in form and degree, is not only different in
families but in animals that might be classified as belonging to the same
genus, as is the case in Orangon vulgaris and Crangon boreas, but for the
different stages in which the young are hatched.

198 REPORT—1878.

For the term pupa I believe that Mr. Darwin is mainly responsible. He
having introduced it in his monograph on the Cirripedia, when there a'p-
peared to be a great change in the progressive growth of the young which
was thought to equal the metamorphosis of insects, if not to represent it
in kind.

I therefore propose to substitute the term Brephalus (from /péoc,
infant: adc, sea), or young marine animal, for the term larva, while
that of ‘‘ pupa ’’ had better be suppressed. Seeing that the development of
the animal is gradually progressive, there is no stage or state of the
animal which can be represented by it.

In this Report, whenever used, the term brephalus will mean the form of
the animal as it quits the ovum, no matter whatever stage of develop-
ment it may represent.

The several terms used for the young animal in its separate stages have
been taken from animals which had been previously described as adults.
These are, Nauplius, Zoza, Phylosoma, and Megalopa. Each of whichis
now recognised as being a stage in which the brephalus quits the ovum,
and therefore one in the development of the Crustacea. To these must now
be added those of Metanauplius and Protozcea.

The term nauplius, as representing one of the stages in which the
embryo of the Crustacea quits the ovum, was introduced by Fritz-Miiller
in 1864, in consequence of his having taken a small crustacean that
while in general form it resembled the entomostracan genus Nawplius,
yet exhibited unmistakable evidence of being the young of some macrurous
decapod : which he believed to be that of Pencus.

Metschnikoff has announced that the brephalus of Buphausia is in the
form of nawplius, while it is known to be that of all the cirripedes as well
as most of the entomostracous Crustacea, but these last, excepting Bran-
chipus, differ from the typical Nauplius in having but two pairs of free
appendages.

The nauplius, as it quits the ovum of the Malacostracous parent, is an
animal of an ovate form, having three pairs of free appendages, the first
of which is unibranched while the other two are biramose, and a single
ophthalmic spot or imperfect central eye, and a strongly projecting
labrum or anterior lip.

This is the state in which Euphausia (Plate V., fig. 4) is hatched accord-
ing to Metschnikoff; and Peneus according to Fritz-Miller. (Pl. V.,
fig. 1.)

; Shortly after it has become a free swimming animal it moults its
external skin, and with each successive exuviation it advances a stage in
development, its first apparent advance is in the appearance of lobes that
ultimately become the appendages of the mouth. Metschnikoff remarks
that this phenomenon is common to the nauplius of Huphausia and Pencus,.
that is, the contemporaneous formation of several appendages succeeding
the three original pairs of swimming feet.

He says moreover that it is remarkable that such a modé of formation
is not observed in any of the Entomostraca which have been developed
through the nauplins metamorphosis.

It is this stage for which Claus has suggested the term Metanauplius
(Pl. V., fig. 2), while that for which he proposes the name of Protozowa
is when the pleon is developed, but neither the pereiopoda or appendages
of the pleon are present. (Pl. V., fig. 3.)

But here we have so close an approximation to the Zova as it leaves the

| ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 199

ovum of the Brachyura, that it appears doubtful if there be any distinction
between Protozoa and Zoza.
: Fritz-Miiller comprehends under the term Zowa all those brephali(larve)
that have two pairs of antenne. The oral appendages and the gnathopoda
present the latter in the form of swimming appendages. Having in view
the young of the Brachyura, Anomura and Macrura, as wellas certain stages
in the development of the Stomapoda, whilst he could not include the young
Schizopoda with the six pairs of legs (Huphasia) which Claus considers must
be accepted as a zowa form. Claus considers that there is a highly im-
portant character excluded from this definition,—the stage of the develop-
ment of the pereion, or, as he terms it, the limbless central body ((ileid-
massenlosen Mittelleibes) in contrast with the pleon (Hinterleib) and its ap-
pendages. Thisis, he says, just the characteristic of the zoza, which needs
explanation, and at the same time contains the key tor the comprehension
of the structure of the zoza stage of the Malacostraca. It is necessary to
understand and explain the striking relation of the pereion that exists in
an immature condition, and from which sprout the five pairs of pereiopoda
between the cephalon, with its numerous well-developed appendages and
the well-formed but still limbless pleon. He says that almost in all forms
of brephalus (larva) the pereion is either completely suppressed as in the
Decapoda, or appears in the form of rudimentary somites, as in Schizo-
poda and Stomapoda. The pereiopoda are produced later than the ap-
pendages of the pleon. ‘“ Of course,” he continues, “ an exception must be
made for the zowa of Penceus, from which the limbs of the pereion are pro-
duced previously to those of the pleon, with the exception of the two
lateral appendages of the tail, which as belonging to the sixth somite of
the pleon appears sooner, or at least about the same period, as those of the
pereion.”’

In arriving at this conclusion Claus appears to have gathered his facts
from too circumscribed an area. Assuming his observations on the
development of Penceus to be correct, he has overlooked that of the
typical zoza when it quits the ovum, as seen in Carcinus Meenas, and that
of Stenorhyncus, Inachus and Maia, of the latter two of which he has
himself given figures that represent the pereiopoda advancing in develop-
ment anterior in degree to that of the pleopoda. Moreover, the- bre-
phalus (larva) of Homarus and Palinurus have the pereiopoda well ad-
vanced in formation previously to any evidence of the pleopoda being in
existence. Whilst others have them developed in a common ratio.

The zovea of Crustacea therefore may be defined as a brephalus (larva)
that has two pairs of antenne, the oral appendages and gnathopoda more
or less developed, but in which the pereiopoda and pleopoda are yet
absent or in an immature condition.

This is the condition in which the brephalus quits the ovum as the zowa
of the Brachywra, Anomura, and some Macrura. But in each there is a
persistent feature that distinguishes one form from that of the others, and
as far as my own observations have led me precludes their being con-
‘founded one with the other. .

The brephalus of the brachyura is a zoca (Pl. VL., figs. 3 and 4), and the
_ Most constant as to its general type of all the families of the class. With
the exception Gecarcinus, which quits the ovum in the Megalopa stage, I
‘amnot aware of any other of the short-tailed crabs that is not hatched
in the zowa condition.

‘* That of Carcinus menas, as our most common European species, may

200 REPORT—1878.

be taken as the type of zowa. When it quits the ovum, and throws
off the enclosing membrane, and swims first as a free animal, it has a dis-
tinct and well-developed carapace. It is dorsally arched and laterally
compressed and rounded off at the infero-posterior angles. It is, moreover,
armed with long characteristic spines on the dorsal and lateral surfaces,
and anteriorly with a great rostrum, but these features vary in different
genera, as shown in Pl. VI., where the two extremes areseen. In Tra-
pezia, fig. 3, the spines are all very long, in Gelassimus, fig. 4, they are very
short. The pereion is in a compressed or immature condition, and the
pleon has six well-developed somites, the terminal one ending invariably
in a fork-like extremity that varies in degree, and is armed with a greater
or less number of strong stiff ciliated spines that differ in a constant degree
so as to enable one almost to define the generic limits of species. It has
invariably two pairs of antenne, represented by the early budding con-
dition of the permanent organ in the first pair, and by deciduous represen-
tatives in the second in the form of two long teeth or spines; the
mandibles and two succeeding pairs of oral appendages ; the third pair,
or tetartognathus, being absent ; while the gnathopoda are developed into
large characteristic swimming appendages. Of these, which are invariably
biramose, one represents the permanent and the other the secondary branch
of the adult organ : in this early condition the primary or permanent branch
is five-jointed, and the second three. The number of these joints repre-
sents the more or less advanced condition of the zosa, and corresponds
with the progressive development of the animal. The pereiopoda are
represented by two or three small sac-like lobes, within which the several
pairs may afterwards be seen to be developed.

The brephalus of the Anomurais also a zowa (Pl. VL., figs. 1 and 2), and
differs from that of the Brachyura more in general appearance than in its
degree of advanced development. The anterior portion corresponds, ex-
cept in the armature of the carapace, very closely with the same part
in the zowa of the Brachyura, while the posterior portion of the animal
assimilates more nearly with that of the zoza of the Macrura.

If we take the zowa of Pagurus as the type, we find that the carapace
is dorsally more depressed than in that of the Brachyura, and extends
nearly horizontally from the rostrum to the posterior margin of the cara-
pace, the lateral margins are not so deep, and are produced posteriorly, so
as to form a prominent process or tooth on each side. This projection is
very constant, but varies in degree with separate families. The rostrum
also is generally prominent, and projects horizontally forwards.

The pereion is not appreciably developed. The pleon has six somites,
the posterior one being long, and terminating in a broad fan-like telson,
the posterior margin of which is divided into two halves by an excavation
that varies in extent in different genera. Hach division is furnished
with fine strong ciliated spines, which stand on their own well-defined
lobes, and the outer angle is armed with a short sharp tooth.

The eyes are large and ovate. The first pair of antenne resemble
those of the Brachyura, they are single jointed, and support several auditory
cilia, and two ciliated hairs, one apical, and the other (the longer) sub-
apical. The second pair of antenne consist of a basal joint and two appen-
dages: one is cylindrical, and tipped with two or three long ciliated hairs;
the other is formed into a broad flat squamose plate, straight on the outer
side, where it terminates in a strong tooth, and arched on the inner side,
and fringed with numerous long gpinous hairs richly furnished with cilia.

ort Brit. Assoc. 1878 Aes

nat.c. 3S, b.

F. Hawkes, del,

a,

D>

ANS MESS
Ma

ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 201

.The mandibles are without an appendage. The oral limbs are assum-
ing much of their permanent form, except the tetartognathus, which is
not visible. The gnathopoda are developed very similarly to those in the
Brachyura zoza, but exhibit a joint more in the development of the
primary branch of the second pair. One solitary hair, differing in length,
structure, and position from the others, appears to be constant in all forms
of the Anomura zoza. In some species it is nearer the base of the apical
joint than in others; but it is invariably constant, extremely long, and
furnished with very long and delicate cilia, that are inserted at right angles
with the main stalk of the hair. I do not remember having observed it
on any zowa but those of the Anomurous Crustacea.

The zowa of the Porcellanide (PI. VI., fig. 2) may readily be distin-
guished from those of Pagurus by the length of the rostrum and postero-
lateral processes of the carapace, which sometimes equal the length of the
animal, and sometimes half; by having unarmed spinal processes to
represent the second antennz, instead of a ciliated squamose branch, and
by having the last somite of the pleon terminating in a broad flat plate,
the posterior margin of which is posteriorly produced to a point, instead
of being hollowed, while it carries five ciliated hairs on each side of the
median line. In one species, Claus figures the termination as produced
to a long spine.

The zowa of Galathea(Pl.V., fig. 6) may be distinguished by the posterior
margin of the carapace being definitely serrated; by two dorsal teeth on the
posterior margin of the somites of the pleon; by the extremely long ovate
eye occupying about one half the length of the carapace ; by the presence of
a sharp serrated tooth at the distal extremity of the basal joint of the
second antenne; by the shortness of the cylindrical branch that ter-
minates in a small tooth and one ciliated hair; and the sharply pointed
distal angle of the squamose branch of the same antenne.

The zowa of Dromia (Pl. VI., fig. 1), much resembles that of Pagurus,
except that it appears to have no posterior processes at the infero-distal
angles of the carapace ; but more especially by the form of the telson, which
-is extremely deeply cleft in the median line of the posterior margin.

The brephalus of the Macroura differs very much in the character in
which it quits the ovum in separate genera. Those that leave it in the
zowa (Pl. V., fig. 5) condition are very distinguishable from those of the
Brachyura and Anomura.

The zoza of the common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris) may be taken
as the type of the form. It differs from the zoza of the common Prawn
(Palemon squilla) in very small details, one of which is in having a pointed
rostrum that it loses with the second moult.

The carapace, long, narrow and moderately compressed, furnished with
a slender rostrum projecting horizontally forwards, having no projection
or tooth along the posterior and lateral margins.

The pleon consists of six somites, of which the last is expanded into a
flat membranous plate, slightly indented in the median line of the pos-
terior margin, and fringed with six ciliated hairs, and one, the external,
small spine-like point.

The eyes, a, a, are large, and obliquely ovate.

_ The first antenne, b, b, are two-jointed; the basal joint is long and cylin-
drical ; it supports at the outer distal angle a stiff ciliated spine, and at the
extremity the second branch, which appears in the form of a small uni-
articulate joint, out of which near the extremity another seems ready to

202 REPORT—1 878.

bud, supporting at its apex a crown of auditory cilia, and one short ciliated
hair.

The second antenne, c, c, consist of a peduncular basal joint, supporting
two branches ; the internal gradually narrows from the base, and termi-
nates in a long spine-like hair fringed with cilia; the external is in the
form of a squamose plate, the external margin of which is straight, and
the internal becoming broader from the base, and then rapidly running
to an apex; the inner oblique distal margin being fringed with ciliated
hairs. The mandible and oral appendages are well formed, each assuming
an approximation to the adult condition, except the posterior, or fetarto-
gnathus, which assimilates to that of the gnathopoda, the character of
which it partakes. In each, the number of joints in the primary ramus
has increased to six, and the pereiopoda exhibit evidence of rapid develop-
ment, in the form of cylindrical pendulous sacs, which decrease in length
posteriorly.

There are slight variations from this form in different genera.

In Palemon the primary branch of the gnathopoda have but four
joints, and terminate in stiff short spine-like hairs; while in Crangon the
hairs are long, flexible, and ciliated. This latter is the case with the
zowa of Alpheus and Stenopus; while in that of Hymenocera the character
is more in accordance with Palemon.

The zowa in these orders respectively, Brachyura, Anomura, and
Macrura, while they differ from each other, yet possess characters that
are generally common to two. The form of the carapace in the zoza of
the Brachyura, with its great dorsal spine, which although in some genera,
as Gelassimus, Libinea, and Mencetheus, it is much reduced, so that in the
last it is a mere prominence, is still a feature peculiarly characteristic of
the zozea of the order. Next to which are the great spines on the lateral
walls of the carapace. The presence of these is not so constant, but they are
never seen on the carapace of any zoeea in either of the other two orders,

In the Anomura great lateral spines, and sometimes smaller spines,
project from the posterior margin of the carapace; these, together with
the rostrum, more or less important, is a feature peculiar to this order,
and from my own knowledge Iam not aware of any exception to this
rule. But Claus, in his work so frequently quoted, has given the figure
of one that has all the characters of the zowa of the Anomura; but he calls
it an “ Krichthina larva”’ (Pl. IV., fig. 1), but adds, ‘‘ Nach Willemoes-
Suhm die Larva von Leucifer ;’’ but certainly it bears no resemblance to
the young Hrichthina as it quits the ovum of the adult Squilla. Another
feature that especially belongs to the zoza is that of the terminal somite
of the pleon, or telson. It is always forked in the Brachyura, and the
few cases in which the terminal spines are short, still retain a distinct
and characteristic feature of the group.

In the zova of the Macrura the carapace is free from spines or processes,
and the terminal somite is flattened out into a broad thin fan-like plate,
divided in the median line by a more or less defined emargination.

Now, if we compare the zoxa of the Anomowra with these two
groups, we shall find that the tendency is to class them from their general
form with the zowa of the Macrura. And this, without exception, includes
the Porcellanide, Dromide, and other depressed forms, as well as the
Paguride. And the stage in development of the antennz exhibits an ap-
proximation to the Brachyura zowa only in the first pair, while in all
the other appendages the Macrwra features prevail.

aa

ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 203

It. would therefore necessitate, if the Anomwra be excluded from its
place in the classification of the Crustacea as a sub-order, as suggested by
Claus, that it should go over to the Macrura as a whole, including the
genera Dromia and Galathea. But it appears to me that if Claus’ figures
be those of Albunea (Crustacean Systems, Pl. TX., figs. 1-10), as he thinks
probable, the evidence is strongly in favour of the retention of the sub-
order, for the broad fan-like telson is suggestive of an internal Anomurus
structure.

It would appear, therefore, the evidence is much in favour of the argu-
ment that the development of Crustacea shows there is a group of zowa
between the two well-defined orders that exhibit features that belong to
it, and are not common to the others ; and these features show an advance
in the development of the crustacean embryo before it quits the ovum.

The nearest form of crustacean life to the zoza when it quits the ovum,
appears in the young of Squwilla, which has long been known by the name
of Alima. The advancement in development is shown in the distinctly
pedunculated character of the eyes; in the articulated condition of the
peduncle and the two distinct branches of the first pair of antenne ; in the
character of the gnathopoda, which assumes a resemblance more dis-
tinctly typical of the adult feature; and in the advanced development
of the four posterior pairs of pereiopoda.

Alima is more advanced in development when it quits the egg than
zoswa, but not so much so as the young of the genus Homarus, which is
developed in what Claus and Fritz Miller have named the Mysis stage ;
that is, the appendages of the cephalon are well advanced towards their
adult form, and those of the pereion carry a secondary branch, or ecphysis,
attached to the third joint or ischium of each pair of pereiopoda.

But in this last-named genus we find that some of the pleopoda are
present; and the curious phenomenon exists, that, while an enormous
amount of development has gradually proceeded to such an extent that

all the appendages are rapidly assuming the permanent type, those of

the pleon, which in some genera are in advance of those of the pereion,
in Homarus remains in abeyance, and appear not to have progressed
beyond the zoza stage.

This curious fact is exemplified more decidedly in the genus Palinurus,
where the pleon appears to be in a still more embryonic condition, while
the cephalon and pereion are distinctly pronounced, in a parallel con-
dition with that of Homarus, from which it differs most apparently in the
length of the pereiopoda in Palinuwrus, and in the absence of the chelate
character of the first pair of pereiopoda.

In the young of Crangon boreas (Phipps)—which naturalists have
been divided in opinion as to whether it should be embraced in the same
genus with Orangon vulgaris or not—the young is advanced in development
beyond the condition of the zowa as it is in Crangon vulgaris. It
quits the ovum with all its appendages conspicuously advanced, whether
they belong to the cephalon, pereion, or pleon. This we find to be also
the case in the genus Thalascaris, an undescribed deep-sea genus belong-
ing to the Challenger collection of Crangonide.

A still further advance is found in a form closely allied to Alpheus,
that I believe has been recorded as a species, but which I described in
the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society’ under the generic name of Homaral-
pheus, on account of its resemblance in the adult form to Alpheus, and
in its young to that of Homarus.

204 REPORT—1878.

A deep-sea genus, closely allied to that of Azius, that I have named
Eiiconazius, taken during the Challenger cruise in the Eastern seas,
has the same advanced condition of the embryo, and shows that the
Megalopa stage exists not unfrequently in moetas Macrura, although we
have previously had no evidence of it.

The fresh-water genus Astacus (Pl. VI. Ce 5) and the land crab Gecar-
cinus, long since made known to us, the former by Rathke, and the latter by
Westwood, leave the ovum in the last stage, which is that of an approxi-
mation of form to the adult animal, while it yet retains many features that
exhibit incompleteness of development. This is most apparent in those
parts which show a tendency to depart from the characteristics of the order
to adapt themselves to constitutional requirements; as, for instance, the
adult Alpheus mostly lives in dark places under stones, groping in mud
and in such like spots at the bottom of the sea at a few fathoms deep.
To suit this condition of things, it is highly convenient to the animal that
the eyes should be protected; and since the peculiar habitat of the animal
is that of dark holes, those in which the eyes are least improved by use
are as suitable to its existence as others; those which are protected and
least liable to injury become the kind most adapted to survive.

Thus it follows, that while the rest of the animal advances in growth
the eyes remain in abeyance, and the anterior margin of the carapace
extends beyond and overlaps them, thus affording protection, and by its
tenuity admitting a sufficient amount of light for the purposes of the
animal’s requirements. Thus it appears that the development of Alpheus
shows a relative retrograde character in the progress of the eyes to that
of other parts. So again, in the comparison of the pleopoda in the
Brachyura in the adult with those of the megalopa stage of the same
animal, we find that of the younger framed upon a simple type adapted
for swimming, while in the adult it is altered to suit other purposes—in
the female to support the gravid ovum, and in the male those of the
anterior to assist in copulation, while those of the posterior are more or
less rendered obsolete in consequence of the absence of any duty to fulfil.

The study of the several forms in which the embryo quits the ovum in
Crustacea is, I believe, very instructive, as bearing on the tendency of
variation of forms in adult animals.

From the earliest forms to that of the most perfect, in which the
brephalus quits the ovum, there is a series of stages in which the embryo
appears ready to take upon itself the conditions of a free and independent
animal. This capability does not appear to be connected with any par-
ticular adult type, or conditions of existence, but exists in closely allied
species and genera as well as in those that are extremely distinct: neither
does it appear to bear any relation to the more or less advanced character
of the several genera.

The following list is the order of the various stages of development,
‘when the brephalus quits the ovum, together with the adult form from
which it is derived.

TIBET 35 osccceconanoc ace Euphausia (Metschnikoff), Penzeus? (F. Miiller.)
2. Meta-nauplius ............ None.

3. Proto-Z0#a,.......0sseceeeee None.

A. ZOE |. calecescecoeaenmee enn Brachyura, Anomura, and some Macrura.

5. Phyllosoma ............0.+ Palinurus.

6. Megalopa ..........0.se000 Astacus (Rathke), Gecarcinus (Westwood).

—eE_O———E————————————<_—=—_—

ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 205

In this list the earliest or nauplius form belongs to Huphausia, or the
lowest stage in the classification of the adult animal; while the next
stage, or zowa condition, belongs to all the higher forms with the exception
of one genus only among the Brachyura, and some of the Macrura,
To these belong the phyllosoma and megalopa stages.

Before we can conclude our report on the development of Crustacea, it is
desirable that we should examine the earlier stages of the embryo, as well
as the character of the various ova in relation to the adult forms.

The eges of Crustacea vary in size in different genera and sometimes in
form, but not very much in this latter feature, never more than from
round to oval and egg-shaped. But in size the variation is greater, and
this not in relation to the proportion of the animal; for Palinwrus, which
is two feet long, has the ovum only one-quarter the size of that of Astacus,
which is only three inches long.

Some idea may be gathered by the following list of the diameter of the
eggs of the animals that have been examined ; that are from the ovum
of the fresh-taken animal and from specimens preserved in spirits.

Crangon ...... ma Thalasscaris ...... os Paleemon ...... is
Cr. boreas ...3 ATCHOS) 5.4 0255+ 000 x Palinurus ...... a
Homarus...... ip Astacus ............ § Willemeesia ...3;
Carcinus ...... xo Cancer re. .-oscoes 0 Pagurus......... 35

The ova are attached to the pleopoda of the mother in all forms of De-
capod Crustacea by means of a membranons filament that varies in separate

mera. In Palcemon, it is very thin and transparent, and differs from
that of the Brachyura and other forms. It is not easy to determine its
origin, but there are connected with it, as if incorporated in the structure,
certain epithelial-like cells, that in form and appearance resemble those
that Mr. Alfred Sanders has figured as living zoosperms belonging to
Palemon Squilla ; they are much larger and appear as if flattened, and
absorbed into the surrounding structure, which spreads out to an ex-
treme tenuity, and encompasses the entire ovum, which it holds and
suspends. In some genera it is exceedingly slender and delicate, and
easily ruptured ; in others it is strong, fibrous, and not easily broken.

The observations that I have made have generally been on the most
common forms that I could procure alive, such as Crangon, Palemon,
Homarus, Astacus, Palinurus, Portunus, Carcinus, and Cancer. The two
first of these are very suitable for examination from the beautifully trans-
parent nature of the vitellus ; while those of Homarus and Astacus afford
advantages from their large size.

The ovum is generally round, but in some species, as in Palemon, they
afterwards become somewhat oval. (Pl. VIL, fig. 1.)

The yolk in most instances fills, or nearly fills, the egg: but in some
cases, as described by Metschnikoff, there is a tolerable space between the
membrane that encloses the vitellus and the chorion. This he states to
be the case in the ova of Huphausia and Peneus, and I have observed
that the same condition exists in the ovum of the genus Nika. This space
is filled by a clear and slightly viscid fluid. At first the yolk consists of
numerous minute cells, very uniform in size, that appear to have little or
no cohesive property to each other. Taken separately, they appear to
be tolerably transparent, but in the aggregate they assume a colour that
is peculiar to each genus. In some the colour of the vitellus is grey, in
others yellow, orange, brown, green, and purple. Shortly the mass of

206 REPORT—1878.

the vitellus appears to divide into larger masses, each mass being the con-
gregation of a number of cells adhering together by compression, as if
the cells had increased in size and with the increase enforced a correspond-
ing pressure against each other; each cell, moreover, contained within
itself a number of smaller ones.

The vitellus at a not very distant period becomes transparent, accord-
ing to our observation, at one spot (Pl. VII., fig. 2a) on the margin,
When viewed laterally, it appears like a line of clear fluid near the chorion,
while the cells of the vitellus that are in contact with it have become
large and transparent, but tolerably even along its margin. This line
extends along the surface and deepens towards the centre. Later and
closer inspection shows that this transparent region extends to some
depth below the surface, and continued examination demonstrates that
it is progressive, so that the vitellus, while united at one point, is so
deeply divided at the opposite, that it appears to cover the embryo on
each side. Soon the cells appear to congregate together into lobes and
film over with a skin of extreme tenuity ; but these lobes, a, b, c, upon
inspection are repeated on each side, while a central one occupies a space
between them, while another, more important, is also apparent in the
same line; all these are, at this stage, nearly equal in progressive de-
‘velopment, the two central being perhaps the largest, certainly the longest.
(Pl. VIL, fig. 3.)

Soon after, three or four smaller lobes are seen to be formed in a con-
tinuous line with the preceding marginal ones, at this early stage the last-
named central lobe may be observed to divide into two equally prominent
ones at its extremity. A little later and all the several lobes become
clearly defined. The four latest pairs that appeared are less massive than
the three previously existing pairs, and the whole, even at this early
embryonic stage, may from their relative position and arrangement be
detected in their connexion in the advanced embryo. (PI. VIL, fig. 4.)

The three pairs of lobes that were first brought into existence are more
massive and globular in their appearance. They are marked a, b, c, in
the figures, and very soon may be observed to assume definite forms.
The first (a) is rather long and compressed. The second (b) globular
at one extremity but apparently extended at the other; while the third
(c) is extended and bilobed at its extremity. Under a slight compres-
sion these distinctions of form become readily appreciable to observation.

It is within our power to determine with confidence at this early
stage that these three pairs or sets of lobes occupy the position of the
future organs (a) of vision and antenne (band c). The great central lobes
that separate them, and which in the decapoda approach each other, cor-
respond, the one to the labrum, the other to the terminal extremity of the
animal; and the three or four smaller lateral lobes (d, e, f, 7) that appear
a little later correspond with the oral appendages of the future animal.

Having ascertained in this incipient condition the relation of the first
group of three anterior pairs of lobes to the appendages of the adult
animal, and observed how closely these lobes correspond with each other
at first, and how they vary and become distinct from the succeeding,—
a distinction that is suggestive of their being a separate group of append-
ages,—leads to the conviction that they correspond with the three an-
terior pairs of appendages in the earliest or nauplius form of Crustacea, as
they exist in the brephalus of the Cirripedia.

To strengthen this idea and give it demonstration, take the small dark

ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 207

spot that is considered to be an imperfect organ of vision. The oph-
thalmic spot is visible at this period in the embryo. (Pl. VIL, fig. 5.)

If we follow this examination through succeeding periods, we find the
progression of the development of the embryo to be distinct and con-
tinuous, and the changes important and reliable. The small ophthalmic
spot is present and the two central lobes are still in apposition, but have
become more elongated. The first (a) of the lateral lobes has enlarged and
become more massive and consolidated in structure. The second and
third (0, c) have increased very considerably in length and lost the lobe-
like appearance, putting on that of more extended appendages; whereas
those of the three succeeding pairs of lobes still retain their simple
lobe-like character. (Pl. VII., fig. 5.)

The several parts are now becoming very distinguishable in their
relation to the rest of the animal, and it is interesting as well as
instructive to examine the nature of the structure in detail.

The first or most anterior pair of lobes, a, meet together at the anterior
extremity, at the union of which the ocular spot is visible, while they
are separated at the opposite by the intervening central lobe which we
have already determined to be the labrum (/b.) The entire mass differs from
the other portions of the embryo by being of an opaline and less trans-
parent appearance. It is formed by an aggregation of exceedingly minute
cells that appear to cohere closely together; these lobes appear to be con-
tinuous with a great central mass that extends from one extremity of the
animal to the other. Soon we perceive some pigment cells forming a small,
dark, irregular stripe deep within the anterior lobes, a, and by its arrange-
ment apparently separating off a portion of the great opaline mass.
Chl VIE, fig. 5.)

This stripe of pigment is the early or incipient condition of the great
black cornea that is so conspicuous an object in all young Crustacea.
At the same period, near the opposite extremity of the ovum a small
and irregular pulsation may be observed. This is the position of the
future heart. At first the pulsation is very slow, feeble, and irregular;
a small corpuscular body may be seen jerked forward and backward within
a small sacular space or hollow, after unequal intervals of rest. After a
time a solitary corpuscle is seen to burst through an opening in the walls
of the sac. This at distant intervals is repeated, and after a time more
frequently, until in a day or two the throb of the sac becomes more con-
stant, the presence of the corpuscles more numerous, and the flow of
them increasingly more regular and continuous,

The vitellus has now decreased in size, but not to any very considerable
extent externally, but is gradually decreasing internally. At the opposite
extremity to the anterior lobes of the embryo, the margin of the vitellus
may be observed as having broken into a series of very even cells
(Pl. VIL. fig. 6), transparent in colour and regular in position, forming
two or three very decided rows, until they gradually disappear in the
undeveloped structure of the vitellus.

- The external surface of these several rows of transparent cells appears
(Pl. VIL. fig. 6) to be enclosed by a membrane of extreme tenuity, that
is evidently connected with and forms the outer walls of the alimentary
canal, al. The marginal cells appear to build up the fibrous structure of
the walls, while certain small particles of granular waste (gw) matter fall
into the central passage. Here they exist as foreign bodies of not any
large amount, and lie enclosed within a cavity of their own making ;

208 REPORT— ! 878.

within this cavity the small particles of opaque irregular granulose matter
move forwards and backwards with an uneven movement corresponding
to an irregular contraction of the walls of the alimentary canal.

When this organism is so far advanced as to extend to theregion beneath
the heart, it exists continuously to the terminal extremity of the pleon,
and the great dorsal artery, da, may be distinguished leading directly from
the heart to the terminal extremity of the animal, just beneath the dermal
surface of the embryo as it lies in close contact with the chorion of the
egg. The heart lies just beneath the dorsal posterior extremity of the
carapace, the posterior and lateral margin of which, mc, traverses the animal
just behind the heart in a slightly waved line to the eye. The antenna»
have a distinctly appendicular appearance, and reach beyond the three
or four succeeding pairs of lobes, and terminate, one, b, in a single pointed
branch, the other, ¢, in two branches terminating in a serrated extremity.

The oral appendages have not much departed from the lobular condi-
tion, but three other pairs, which appeared behind them, have enlarged
and are rapidly increasing and become double-branched. At the base of
these appendages the great opaline mass, ng, may be seen extending, being
apparently doubled on itself, just behind the last pair exhibited, but in
reality following the inflection of the ventral surface of the folded embryo.
This continuous opaline mass may now readily be determined to be the
embryonic condition of the nervous ganglia. ,

The several parts from this time rapidly and regularly progress in the
development of their structure. The ophthalmic lobes gradually appear
to increase in condensation, every cell exhibiting a distinct but not very
opaque nucleus. The larger and rounder cells are nearer the periphery,
those that are deeper become compressed into angular shapes, while
those that are nearest the cornea arrange themselves in columnar
masses, most distinct towards their base.

The antenne lie folded backwards along the margin of the carapace.
The mandible is directed inwards, and is invariably a single lobe, while
the two succeeding oral appendages are bilobed, with a tendency to
break up into more divisions. (Pl. VIL, fig. 7.)

The development of the pleon is completed, as far as its external and
internal parts are apparent, at the period when the development of the
heart is advanced go that it is enabled to pulsate. The remainder of the
period necessary for incubation appears to be devoted to the completion of
the anterior appendages, and that of the internal viscera. (Pl. VIL, fig. 8).

The vitellus is continuous with the development of the animal, and
exists in an inverse ratio with that of the growth of the embryo. When
it is entirely converted, the growing form has progressed as far as it is
capable through internal forces. To add to its further development, it is
necessary that it should obtain a fresh stimulus from agencies beyond its
own organization. Its vitality has advanced as far as it is capable, and
it forces its way by the rupture of the egg-case into other conditions.

As a free animal, the brephalus exists, as I have shown before, in
various forms, which are probably dependent upon the length of time
that the embryo remains in the ovum. Forextended observation appears
to demonstrate that it quits the ovum of various genera in almost every
stage of its embryonic growth.

ON THE EXAMINATION OF TWO CAVES NEAR TENBY. 209

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Nauplius (Brephalus) of Peneus. (After Fritz Miller.)

2. Metanauplius of Peneus. (After Fritz Miller.)

3. Protozowa of same. (After Fritz Miller.)

» 4. Nauplius (Brephalus) of Euphausia. (After Metschnikof.)
5. Zowa (Brephalus) of Macrura (Crangon vulgaris).

6. Zoxa (Brephalus) of Anomura (Galathee).

PLATE VI.

. Zowa (Brephalus) of Anomura (Dromia falaz).

. Zoxa (Brephalus) of Anomura (Porcellana longicornis).
. Zowxa (Brephalus) of Brachyura (Trapezia).

. Zora (Brephalus) of Brachyura (Gelassimus).

. Megalopa (Brephalus) of Macrura (Astacus fluviatilis).

PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. Ovum of Palemon recently excluded.

» 2. Ovum showing incipient stage of embryonic existence.

», 3. Ovum showing the presence of the three pairs of lobes that represent,’ a,
the eyes and, J, first and c, second, antennz: as well as the labium and
caudal extremity.

. Same still further advanced, with four pairs of lobes, d, e, f, g, added that
represent the future oral appendages.

. The same still further advanced, showing those which represent the:
future Gnathopoda, h and z.

. Section showing the forming of the embryonic heart, At, alimentary
canal, al, and ventral nervous cord, ng.

. Embryo approaching completion.

. Embryo previous to quitting the ovum.

Ot oo bo

>
ans a on Cd

Report of a Committee consisting of Professor Ro.ieston, Major-
General Lane Fox, Professor Busk, Professor Boyp Dawxtns, Dr.
Joun Evans, and Mr. F. G. Hitton Price, appointed for the pur-
pose of examining Two Caves containing human remains, in the
neighbourhood of Tenby.

OPERATIONS were commenced in the way of the exploration of the “ Little
Hoyle” Cave, Longbury Bank, parish of Penally, near Tenby, on Monday,.
July 22, 1878, and were continued during that week and upon the
ensuing Monday.

It will be well to begin our report by a summary of the results which
we have attained, and in the second place to give in detail the facts upon
which our general conclusions have been based.

The two caves which we here examined are contained in a peninsula of
mountain-limestone known as “ Longbury Bank,” bounded on either side:
by a valley which unites with its fellow at the bluffly-ending N.H. ex-
tremity of the “bank.” If we compare the levels hereafter given with
the facts spoken to by the raised beaches along this coast, and by other
observations we cannot doubt that Longbury Bank was once, and that
in no very remote geological period, washed on either side by the sea,
ented much the same general appearance as some of the still so

: P

210 is REPORT—1878.

conditioned banks in the neighbourhood of Pembroke. Of the two caves
examined by us, one contained no objects of special interest, and the other
had been previously investigated by other explorers, viz., the Rev. H. H.
Winwood, of Bath (see ‘Cave Hunting,’ by Professor Boyd Dawkins,
F.R.S., p. 183, and ‘ British Mammalia,’ Memoirs Palont. Society, 1878,
p- xxi), and Mr. Edward Laws, of Tenby (see ‘Journal of Anthropo-
logical Institute,’ August 1877). A very considerable segment, however, of
this latter cave had been left unexamined, and it has been by the ex-
amination of this undisturbed portion of the cave, and by the clearing
out and investigation of the contents of all the rest of the cave, and
comparison of them with the specimens previously obtained and most
liberally put at our disposal for this purpose by Mr. Edward Laws, that
we have been able to come to the following results.

The cave in question, known in the neighbourhood as “ Little Hoyle,”
in contradistinction to a much larger cavern close by, known as ‘“ Hoyle’s
Mouth,” may be divided roughly into two main segments, one beginning
with a large mouth opening northwards, and extending from that mouth in
a direction S. and with a sharp slope upwards up to a point distant 25 feet
from the mouth; the other of about 16 feet in length, dipping downwards
from that point in a §.E. direction, to communicate by a narrow hole with
a wide cave mouth on the S.H. side of the bank in which bones of man,
bear, and ox had been previously found by Mr. Laws. This second
segment of the cave had underlaid one of those “initiatory areas of
depression,” to use the phraseology of the late Professor Phillips (see
‘Report of British Association,’ Bath Meeting, 1864, p. 63-64), which
ultimately lead, and here had led, to the breaking-in of the cave’s roof,
and which might here be spoken of in the phraseology of the county as a
“sink” or “soaker.” It was filled up to a depth of nearly 10 feet with
fragments of limestone, and made earth containing bones of men, domestic
animals, foxes, rabbits, and oyster and limpet shells. We may speak of
it hereafter as the ‘“‘segment of depression.”

This “segment of depression’’ had been scarcely touched by any ex-
plorers previously to ourselves. The longer segment of the cave, opening
northwards, may be spoken of as the “north cave;’’ and a comparatively
low diverticulum 16 feet long, branching off from it to the east, and
widening from 3 feet to 10 feet for about 9 feet of its length, we may
speak of as the “east chamber.’ This last we found by means of smoke
to communicate through a narrow flue, with a small flat surface near the
top of bank, which was potentially an ‘‘area of depression,” but had
actually been a fox-earth. Having in mind the levels and communications
of the several parts of this cave, and considering in connection with them
the relative proportions and conditions in which the contents of the
cave, viz., (1) breccia and stalagmite, (2) red cave-earth, (3) black earth
mixed with angular stones, (4) worked flint and other implements,
(5) fragments of pottery, (6) ashes, and (7) bones of men and of beasts,
pleistocene and other, found in the different segments of the cave, we are,
on the whole, of opinion that though the main or north portion of the
cave was used by man for purposes of habitation in times at least as
early as those in which the brown bear (Ursus Arctos) was still living in
this country, the part of the cave in which the greater part of human
remains were found, viz., the ‘segment of depression,” has come to con-
tain those remains simply by the falling in of its roof, and of a burial-
place which had existed over it whilst it was yet only an “initiatory area

ON THE EXAMINATION OF TWO CAVES NEAR TENBY. “211

of depression.” We are further of opinion that at no geologically recent
time previous to that of our clearing ont of the cave can any very free
intercommunication have existed between these two portions of it, at least
at times when they were above the level of the sea; for the traces, at least
those which are unmistakeable and unambiguous, of its habitation at one
time by man and at another by pleistocene animals, are confined to its north-
ern portion, which it is difficult to think they would have been if its two
portions had been in open communication with each other; though the
north cave is intrinsically as at present, and must have been always, better
suited for the purpose in question. We have not found any evidence in
this cave of man’s having been a contemporary of the extinct pleistocene
animals. The remains indeed of these animals themselves consist mainly
of comparatively small fragments, and are representative merely of much
larger quantities which were washed out of it by the sea in some later
occupancies of its interior, or may have been otherwise removed.

There can be little doubt that, though man used the “north cave” for
purposes of habitation, the area above the south part of it was not used
except for purposes of interment. Otherwise, more relics of the articles
for daily use in life would have been found in that segment. But we have
no evidence to show that the first use of the “north cave” for habitation
may not have been even long anterior in date to the first use of the other
area for interment.

Nearly all the human bones, whether of the skull, limbs, or trunk,
which were found by us in this cave, came from the previously undisturbed
space in the “segment of depression;” some few, however, were found
externally to the north entrance of the cave, and must, ex hypothesi above
stated, have been passed down the whole length of the slope constituted
by the “north cave.’’ Nearly all, again, of the human skull-bones found
by Mr. Edward Laws (‘Journal Anth. Institute,’ Aug. 1877) were lying
close together, near the southern extremity of the north cave, where its
upward sloping floor reaches its summit and becomes continuous with
that of the ‘‘segment of depression.’’ In other words, nearly all the haman
bones found in this cave were in positions into which they might, as the
sections show, have been thrown or rolled if they had been lying on the
roof of the ‘‘ segment of depression,” when that roof fell in, and, as the depth
from the present natural surface round the ‘‘segment of depression” down
to the red cave-earth at the bottom of it may be taken as being from
12 to 14 feet, we have here a fall sufficient to account at once for the frag-
mentary condition of the human and other bones found in this space, and
for the space over and within which they were distributed or dispersed.
Hz hypothesi, these bones would be showered down upon a watershed-like
line of demarcation between the “north cave” and the “segment of
depression,” and scattered in either direction, much as is the sand in an
inverted hour-glass. In some cases a few bones such as the upper cervical

_vertebree and some of the cranial bones would retain their natural rela-
tions of apposition, especially at the circumference under the cave walls ;
in others they would be widely separated; and the long bones would
_ in almost every case be broken into longer or shorter segments. This
was actually the state of the case; a state not explicable on the hypothesis
of their having been introduced, as bones must so often be held to have
been, by water-carriage, to say nothing of the impossibility of the feeding-
ground, represented by the upper surface of the bank having been large
enough to furnish sufficient water for such flotation.

P2

212 REPORT—1 878.

Weare not aware that this explanation of the presence of human bones
mixed with those of domesticated animals in a cave by the gradual or
sudden descent into it of such bones from a superimposed interment is
necessitated by the phenomena of any other cave; it is obvious enough,
however, that the concave surface presented by an “ initiatory area of
depression’ would be very likely to suggest itself as a convenient site
for such a purpose to any race of men who might be sufficiently free at
once from the conventionalities of civilised life, and from the superstitions
of savage life, and might be glad to take an easy way of burying their
dead out of their sight. It must also he plain that no mode of burial,
whether practised by civilised or by savage men, would by itself account
for the scattering through so many (12-13) feet in depth of so many
human bones, of so many (9-11) individuals, and this in the absence of
any undisturbed burial of an entire skeleton or of a burnt body.

If the hypothesis of a number of interments having been let down into
the ‘‘depression segment”? will account for the presence of human bones in
that portion of the Longbury Bank Cave, the great abundance of certain
domesticated animals, viz., of the goat and cow, and the presence of
the pig and horse, as also of edible shell-fish—limpets, oysters, and
winkles—in smaller quantities, in the northern or larger portion of the
cave, as also the discovery in it and upon its natural floor of the ashes of
a fire-place, must be taken to prove that the main portion of the cave
was used as a human habitation. Some little weight, but not very much,
may also be given to the fact that of the few fragments of pottery and
bone implements found inside the cave, all were found either in this part
of the cave or on the surface elsewhere; and that of the worked stone im-
plements, all but the single specimen found in the ‘depression segment”
came also from the north cave. It would have been strange if this cave had
not been employed for purposes of habitation by some one or more of the
tribes of the neighbourhood, who must have become acquainted with it in
some one or more of the periods in which it was, owing to one of the up-
heavals which have taken place along this coast, left as comparatively dry
and commodious as it is at present. The easily available upward sloping
entrance, admitting of refuse being got rid of without much trouble,
and the height of the roof of this portion of the cave as well as the very
considerable ‘floor space” free from stalagmitic drip which it must
always since the glacial period have possessed in eras of upheaval, put
this portion of the cave at great advantage for dwelling purposes as com-
pared with the “segment of depression.” And this advantage appears
to have made itself evident to the pleistocene lower animals, as well as to
neolithic and later man. For though some not inconsiderable amount of
pleistocene remains, notably bones gnawed by hyenas, fragments of
teeth of rhinoceros, and large if not always identifiable fragments from
the large bones of that or other animals of similar bulk, were found in
the north cave; these animals were not represented elsewhere in the
cave. Further, it is highly probable that the north cave and the segment
of depression may at all previous periods have been connected by but a
small passage, the fragments from the roof broken off by the glacial cold
or by the shocks of earthquakes having been accumulated in a great mass
on the water-shed-like line of demarcation between them, and so having
rendered access from the one to the other difficult. The opening of the
north cave into the segment of depression is, from the top of the arch of the
cave down to the natural bottom, five feet in height; and on the east side of

ON THE EXAMINATION OF TWO CAVES NEAR TENBY. 213

the opening there stands a mass of stalagmitic breccia three feet in height,
and débris may very probably have been piled up in this place to a still
higher level than this. A fissure in the junction of the two parts of the
cave which still exists may have furnished an easy route for their descent.
It is of importance to note that the two portions of the cave appear to
have differed in function both in earlier and later times. The bones of
the pleistocene animals found in this cave were limited strictly to the
northern portion of it; the same may be said of the ashes, and, with the
exception constituted by a single worked flint, of the implements of man’s
manufacture; and in this portion of the cave, whilst a very large quantity
of the bones of domesticated animals was found, only a few human bones
were discovered, the number of which is not greater than what the
scattering northwards and downwards which the falling in of the roof
of the depression segment, subsequently eked out by occasional causes
such as the interference of men or of burrowing animals, foxes,
rabbits, and badgers would adequately account for. On the other hand,
whilst the majority of all the human bones were discovered within or imme-
diately adjacent to the periphery of the segment of depression, the bones
of domesticated animals found within it were not more in number than
might be accounted for by the hypothesis of their having been the relics
of funeral feasts, a view which their being intermingled with the human
remains, as they would be if accumulated at successive interments, tends
. to confirm.

It may, indeed, be considered a matter for surprise that any pleistocene
bones or teeth were left in the cave when we consider its level and the
slopes of its floor; but the few that were left, and its possible exposure
to the denuding influences of a pluvial period, it may be seen, might be
preserved from being washed out by lodgment in the pockets and an-
fractuosities along the sinuous walls of the cave.

With reference to the period at which the owners of the human re-
mains may be supposed to have lived, whether in the Stone, the Bronze,
or the Iron age, the existence of the sunken forest at Westward Ho, on
the opposite side of the Bristol Channel, forbids us to forget that it may
have very well been some time later than the commencement of the
neolithic period when the sea last encroached upon and overwhelmed
areas in this district tenanted by stone-using men. And as such an
invasion would have left the contents of this cave in a very different
state from that in which we found them, even though no traces of
metal of any kind were found inside any part of this cave, we must
not suppose that we are justified in placing the date either of the men
buried above or of the men who inhabited this cave far back in that -
period. But further. Two of the pieces of pottery found, either inside or
in the talus just outside the north cave, appeared to be of the same style
as one which was found in a round barrow, containing a cremation urn
and burnt bones and flint chips, on the Ridgeway Hill, immediately

_ above the Longbury Bank; and this may be supposed to suggest, though
it by no means proves, that the Longbury Bank cave-inhabitants were,
like the Ridgeway tumulus builders, of the Bronze age. Thirdly, in the
talus outside the north entrance, a spindle whorl made out of the bottom
of a jar of Samian ware, like two found in Dowker Bottom cave, in
Yorkshire (see Professor Boyd Dawkins’s ‘Cave Hunting,’ p. 113), was
found; and half of a saucer-shaped vessel of the same material showing
signs of ornamentation was found on the surface of the area of depres-

214 REPORT—1878.

sion by Mr. Laws, lying by a piece of iron slag, the only piece of metal-
work found in or near this cave. Now these specimens would bring the
date of the inhabitation of the cave, if they had been found in situ within
it, down to a period as late as that in which the inhabitants had oppor-
tunities at least of procuring articles of Roman manufacture. There is
other evidence to show that the date of the burials on the roof of this
cave may have been no earlier than such a date; but the finding of this
piece of pottery in the externally placed talus does not absolutely prove
the date of its being inhabited to have been so. But as regards the rela-
tive age of the human interments and of the human habitation of this
cave, it is of cardinal importance to note that two thin, flattish, fine-
grained red fragments of apparently Romano-British pottery were found,
in company with the human bones, deep down in the “depression seg-
ment.” No other articles of human manufacture, however, except one
worked flint, though many remains of domestic animals, were found with
them. Still, it is difficult to think that these fragments were not of the
same date as the human bones found with them. On the other hand, in
the north cave and on the natural bottom, known locally as ‘“ Rabb,”
were found the ashes and fire-place already spoken of; and in the red
cave-earth, just inside the mouth of the north cave and beneath the black
mould, were found a flint chip, a horn-stone scraper, and a bone needle,
the juxtaposition of which is not without significance.

The finding of the remains of several dogs, one old and several young
ones, so closely mixed up with the human remains at the line of commnu-
nication between the north cave and the segment of depression as to
suggest that the two sets of remains had been buried and had fallen down
together, and also the finding of a worked flint, and the absence of metal
in that segment, are phenomena usual or universal in neolithic interments.
But they have been all observed in interments even of the iron age.

On the other hand, the finding of the bones of the brown bear (Ursus
Arctos) in the black mould of the north cave, and notably also in the east
chamber, in company with, and similarly conditioned as to colour and
preservation to, the bones of man and of domestic animals, appears to
show with some probability that these latter remains should not take date
later than at least the time, about 900 years back, when this bear ceased
to infest Wales.

We have, then, in the stone and bone implements found in the north
portions of this cave some tolerable evidence to the effect that it was
inhabited by man in probably late neolithic times. And whilst the
pottery found in the ‘‘depression segment,” in company with the human
bones, appears to show that they, or, at any rate, the immense majority
of them, cannot be referred to an earlier than the Romano-British period,
the remains of the bear give us a certain datum line of at least 900 years
distance away from us as the latest period to which they can with any
probability be referred.

We append a short summary of the results obtained from examina-
tion of all the bones obtained from this cave, whether obtained by Mr.
Edward Laws or ourselves, after they had been washed, cleaned, and
otherwise prepared.

Some 160 or so fragments of bones and teeth referable either to
rhinoceros or elephant were found scattered throughout the northern
segments of the cave. We have not been able to find that they were in
positions apart frem the other bones of more recent daté, and usually of

ON THE EXAMINATION OF TWO CAVES NEAR TENBY. 215

different textural condition, belonging to domestic animals, to man, and
to certain fere nature still existing either in Great Britain or in Conti-
nental Europe which will be next specified. The steep slope of the part
of the cave in which they were found would render the disturbance of
them, and the interminglement of them with subsequent importations an
easy matter, whether the disturbing agent was the sea in a period of
subsidence, or rain in a pluvial period, or, finally, man himself in his
successive occupations of the cave.

No remains of hyznas’were found by us amongst these ‘palzolithic
bones; but the marks of gnawing, which are conspicuous enough upon
many of these bones, are so closely similar to those produced by the
teeth of this carnivore elsewhere, that it is difficult to think they are
not to be ascribed to it; and the more so as in other caves in this dis-
trict the hyzna is very abundantly represented both by bones and by
album grecum.

Most of the bones referable to the mammoth or rhinoceros are spongy
and waterworn; some combining the traces of gnawings with those of
waterwear. Some, on the other hand, have received much accession to
their weight and solidity, and have also become curiously polished on
their exterior by exposure to calcareous drip.

In the north cave and in its eastern diverticulum the remains of bear,,
roe, red deer, eagle, and black grouse were found, all being animals
which, without being extinct in Europe, or being foreign in strictness of
language to this part of it, would yet not be very likely to find their way
into this cave in the present day. Of the bear species, Ursus Arctos, three
individuals are represented by the bones and teeth found here.

Thronghont the length and breadth of the cave, from its communica-
tion with the south cave to its northern opening, and in the talus lying
outside this opening, were found bones of domesticated animals, goat,
small ox, dog, pig. In the talus outside the north entrance some pelvic
bones were found, which I think are sheep and not goat bones. In the
same locality a nearly perfect skull of a goat was found. Some of the
domesticated animal bones appear to have been but of recent date, but a
great number bear marks in the way of weathering and of staining of a
very considerable antiquity. They represent breeds of small size.

The horse is, though but scantily, represented in the collection from
Longbury Cave; and the wild boar we have failed to recognise here.

The badger’s, the fox’s, and the rabbit’s abound among the bones col-
lected here. The fox’s represent a small variety.

As regards the human remains, the great majority of them were found in
the segment of depression or in the southward termination of the north cave
immediately adjoining and continuous with it. Most of the human bones
found by Mr. Laws were in the latter locality; most of those found by
us were found in the former; but, either by Mr. Laws’or by us, human
bones or teeth were, though but in very small numbers, found in every
part of the cave, not excluding even the south cave. The numbers of
the several sets of fragmentary human bones may be given with some
approach to accuracy as follows:—In the entire cave, exclusive of the
depression segment, about 150 fragments of more or less perfect humax
bones were found; from the depression segment alone about 350 frag-
ments were collected ; into the talus outside the north entrance some
6 to 10 fragments of a child’and of an adult had found their way ; a human
tooth was found in the east cave; and a piece of a skull and of a lower

216 REPORT—1878.

jaw were found in the mouth of the south cave. ‘These numbers of
course very strongly support the view that these bones fell in from a
burial place corresponding to the segment of depression ; and that the
accident inseparable from such a tumbling down, and the subsequent
scattering inseparable from the presence of the burrowings of badgers and
foxes, account for the scattering of the comparatively insignificant num-
ber of bones found at any great distance from that area. It is instructive
also to put on record the fact that whilst a larger number of calvarial
bones was ‘found in the depression segment, which we suppose to have
underlaid the place of interment of the human remains, than in all the
rest of the entire cave, only three more or less fragmentary lower jaws
were found in company with them; whilst by Mr. Laws five more or less
nearly complete lower jaws were found in the north, and a large frag-
ment of a sixth in the south cave. The paleontologist will find the fre-
quency of the separation of the lower jaw from the rest of the cranium,
with which he is so familiar, illustrated by this fact.

We have absolute proof in the nine lower jaws just spoken of that
no less than nine human beings have their skeletons represented in the
collection made from this cave. Two fragmentary representatives of
lower jaws found—one in the talus outside the north entrance, the other
in the middle of the north caye—correspond probably to two other
skeletons, but it is just possible that they may be parts of some one or
other of the nine demonstrably distinct mandibles. Of these nine indi-
viduals, no less than five were males in or beyond the middle period of
life, one belonged to a woman in late life, one to a person about the age of
puberty, with the wisdom tooth as yet uncut, one to a child with the first
two molars just cut, one to a child with none but the milk teeth in
place.

Three more or less perfect calvaria have been reconstructed out of
the remains collected by Mr. Laws and ourselves; one from the cranial
bones found in the north cave, two from those found in the depression
segment. All of the crania are dolichocephalic; and one, a male skull,
that which came from the north cave, ‘‘ mecistocephalic,” in Professor
Huxley’s language, with a cephalic index of 69, and with the pear-shaped
contour when viewed from above, due to rapid tapering from the level of
the parietal tubera forwards, which has so often been spoken of since
the writings of Professor Daniel Wilson as characteristic of many skulls
from the earliest sepultures of Great Britain. There is no doubt that
this is a very ancient form of skull, but the well-known tenacity and per-
sistence of such ancient forms forbids us to use it as an evidence as to
date. Of the other two, one belonged undoubtedly to a man, the other
to a woman; and neither, though dolichocephalic, are exaggeratedly so,
as is the case with the first-named of the three.

The long bones are all more or less fragmentary; they do not pre-
sent any peculiarities specially worthy of notice ; the femora have not their
lineee asperce greatly developed, though in one or two the upper portion of
the shaft is somewhat flattened from before backwards in the origin of
the insertion of the gluteus maximus ; the tibize are not platyenemic ; and
neither these nor any other of the bones give the notion of their owners
being much above or below the average size and height. In a word,
they have not the peculiarities of prehistoric bones. The human bones
present much the Same appearance as to staining, wear and tear, and
weathering as the bones of bear and of domesticated animals found with

ON THE PHENOMENA OF STATIONARY TIDES IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 217

them. All three sets of bones alike differ from those belonging to the
paleolithic period found here in being, except in a few instances, free
from interstitial calcareous deposit, and from marks of gnawing except by
recent rodents.

In one instance, some human bones were found imbedded in reddish-
white breccia. This breccia had been formed in several places along the
east wall of the north into masses about 3 feet to 34 feet in height, which
stood out against the wall like brackets. One of these, just 15 feet from
the north entrance, had embedded on its upper surface, which was about
3 feet 10 inches above the natural floor of the cave, the lower ends of
two human femora, which thus came to occupy just such a position as
they would be likely to do if picked up from the floor by some human
inhabitant who was incommoded by their presence and placed on the top
of the shelf-like bracket which was in the process of being added to by
drip. With these two human bones are concreted some bones of frogs
or toads, and ata depth of one foot a humerus of a roe, Cervus capreolus, was
found similarly embedded. Itis of importance to note that these brackets
of breccia do not seem to be remnants of a floor which has disappeared from
between the side-walls of the cave; no corresponding deposits at least are
observable along the opposite wall on the west side, and, as is well known,
the stalagmite-forming drip, being regulated by the conformation of the
limestone, is very often anything but symmetrically arranged.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WILLIAM
Tuomson, Mr. W. Frovps, Professor Osporne Reynoups, Captain
Dovetas Gatton, and Mr. James N. SHooiprep (Secretary), ap-
pointed for the purpose of obtaining information respecting the
Phenomena of the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and
inthe North Sea; and of representing to the Government of
Portugal and the Governor of Madeira, that, in the opinion of
the British Association, Tidal Observations at Madeira or other
islands in the North Atlantic Ocean would be very valuable,
with the view to the advancement of our knowledge of the tides
in the Atlantic Ocean.

Tue Committee beg to report that last year the French Association
for the Advancement of Science, at their Meeting at Havre, which took
place subsequently to that at Plymouth, having had the subject of these
simultaneous tidal observations in the English Channel and in the North
Sea brought before them by the Secretary of the Committee, cordially
approved of the intended action of this Committee, and resolved to urge
upon the French Government that any observations required upon the
_ French coast should be undertaken by its engineers.

At the commencement of the present year, the French Government
undertook to do this, in accordance with a programme of simultaneous
observations, approved of by the Chairman of the Committee.

The Belgian Government likewise offered its co-operation at Ostend ;
and in Holland the observations were kindly undertaken by the authorities

218 REPORT—-1 878.

at the mouth of the North Sea Canal and at Flushing; while on this side
of the Channel, extending from Portland to Yarmouth, the port and other
authorities at the points selected also undertook the duties of making
the necessary observations.

The results have not yet been all received, and they are not in a suffi-
ciently forward state to be presented at this meeting.

In consequence of the great importance of accurate permanent tidal
records at Dover being available, the Chairman of the Committee urged
upon the Warden of the Cinque Ports, Lord Granville, that a self-
registering tide gauge should beerected at Dover; a proposal which met
with his Lordship’s cordial approval and support.

The Board of Trade have further consented to grant a suitable site for
the erection of a self-registering gauge on the Admiralty Pier, and have
undertaken to defray the cost thereof.

The exact form best adapted tothe place is at present under considera-
tion, but it is confidently hoped that before long a self-registering tide
gauge will be permanently at work at this very important locality.

The subject of tidal observations at Madeira was brought under the
notice of H.M. Government by the Chairman of the Committee.

A communication has lately been received from the Foreign Office,
saying that H.M. Minister at Lisbon, having urged the matter upon the
Portuguese Government, “has received the assurance that it will gladly
adopt the suggestion of the British Association and establish a tidal gauge
at Funchal.”

In consequence of the results of the tidal observations already under-
taken not being in a sufficiently advanced state for presentation at this
meeting, the Committee request to be reappointed, and also that £10 be
placed at their disposal.

Appendix.
Board of Trade, (Harbour Department),
Whitehall Gardens, 8.W., July 11th, 1878.

Sir,—With reference to a letter, dated the 3lst May last, addressed
to this department by Sir William Thomson, LL.D., in his capacity of
Chairman of the Committee of the British Association, ‘on Tidal Observa-
tions in the English Channel, &c.,” calling attention to the want of a
tide gauge at Dover, and enquiring whether the Board of Trade would be
disposed to undertake the expense of placing a continuous self-recording
instrument at the Government pier, where there is already a tide-well, I
am directed to acquaint you that this Board have received the sanc-
tion of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury to the
expenditure for this purpose of a sum not exceeding one hundred and five
pounds (£105) (the estimated cost as given by Sir W. Thomson), and I
am to state that your Committee are at liberty to take the necessary
steps for fixing the gauge.

Iam to add that Mr. Drace, the Resident Engineer and Officer of
this Board at Dover, has been instructed to give such facilities in the
matter as he is able to afford. ‘

I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
C. Cectt TREVOR.

J. N. Shoolbred, Esq.,
3 Westminster Chambers, S.W.

ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS. 219

Foreign Office, August 9th, 1878.

Sm,—With reference to my letter of the 7th inst., I am directed
by the Marquis of Salisbury to transmit to you herewith a copy of a
telegram which has been received from Her Majesty’s Minister at
Lisbon on the subject of the establishment of a tidal gauge at
Funchal.

I am, Sir,
Your most obedient, humble servant,
JULIAN PAUNCEFOTE.
J. N. Shoolbred, Esq.,
3 Westminster Chambers.

(Mr. Morier to Lord Salisbury.)
Lisbon, August 9th, 1878, 1.18 p.m.

I have received the assurance that the Portuguese Government
will gladly adopt the suggestion of the British Association and establish
a tidal gauge at Funchal. The official note on the subject cannot be
sent for some days,as Senhor Corro is absent.

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir
Winuiam Tuompson, Major-General Srracuey, Captain Dovcias
Gatton, Mr. G. F. Duacon, Mr. Rogers Freip, Mr. E. Roserrs,
and Mr. J. N. Soonsrep (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of considering the Datuwm-level of the Ordnance Survey of Great
Britain, with a view to its establishment on a surer foundation
than hitherto, and for the tabulation and comparison of other
Datum-marks.

Tur Committee, in their Report of last year, dealt with the question

of some uncertainties which existed as to the position of the

Ordnance datum-level, and of its relative position to other local datum-

marks in Liverpool. On the present occasion the Committee beg to report

that alist of local datum-marks, and the connexion of each with the

Ordnance datum, isin course of preparation. They beg to be reappointed,

with the grant of £10 (not drawn) to enable them to complete the list

of local datum-marks.

Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed
of Ships, consisting of Mr. W. Froupz, Mr. F. J. Bramwe.1,
Mr. A. E. Firercuer, Rev. E. L. Bertuoy, Mr. Jamus R. Napier,
Mr. C. W. Merririenp, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. H. M. Brunet,
Mr. J. N. Suootsrep (Secretary), Professor Jamis THomson, and
Professor Sir Witiiam THomson. .

Tur Committee regret to say, that the Chairman has been unable

to complete the second series pf experiments with the several instru-

ments for measuring the speed of ships.
_ The Committee therefore beg to be reappointed, and that the grant
of £50 (which has not been drawn) be renewed.

220 REPORT—1878.

Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of further de-
veloping the investigations into a Common Measure of Value in
Direct Taxation, the Committee consisting of the Right Hon. J. G.
Husparp, M.P., Mr. Caapwicx, M.P., Mr. Morey, M.P., Dr.
Farr, Sir George CamMpseLL, M.P., Mr. Hatuert, Prof. JEvons,
Mr. Newmarcna, Mr. Saann, Mr. Macneret Carrp, Mr. StepHEn
Bourne, Prof. Leons Luyv1, Mr. Hexwoop, and Mr. Hauuzrr (Sec.)

I. Your Committee presented to the British Association a first Report
of the results of their inquiry on this subject in 1876. In this inquiry,
following ordinary usage, they took income as the basis of their examina-
tion. They found, however, that in sundry proposed systems of common
valuation and assessment on this basis, incomes were sometimes considered
in themselves independently, sometimes in relation also to their owners.
The first consideration was directed to the real nature and constitution of
income, as the annual value, product, profits, or receipts of, or from,
some given source, whether land, labour, or capital. The other considera-
tion was directed to the income’s relation to personal circumstances, or
in other words, to the owner’s position in the scale of riches and poverty
as determined by his possession. Assessment on the former principle
would vary with the positive value of the income, on the latter it would
vary with the value of the income qualified by the individual condition of
the owner—his individual tenure for example or his individual necessities.
£1,000 a year from land held on a short tenure or subject to large family
claims, would on the latter view be differently assessable to the same
income held on a long tenure or not subject to these claims, whilst on
the former and sounder view the two assessments would be the same.
The Committee in dealing with the subject referred to them, confine their
attention to the income’s positive value. Positive value is the professed
basis of the present Income Tax, and were it possible to adjust an Income
Tax to differences of individual tenure and necessities, as well as to
differences of positive value, some uniform method of comparing and
measuring the positive values of incomes would still be essential. It is
impossible to estimate the relative effect of incomes upon different in-
dividuals without first knowing their values considered in themselves.

II. But the equal assessment of incomes according to positive value
demands a common measure of valne, and legislation, in the absence of
such common measure, must act on a mere nominal equality which often
involves it in a real and gross injustice. £1,000 a year from perishing
Jabour,—that for instance of a barrister or physician,—is taxed equally
with £1,000 a year from permanent Jand. The question then presented
itself, ‘‘ how does the difference between nominal equality and true equality,
or as it might be called, the difference between nominal income and true
income arise, and how is it expressible?’”” The Committee considered
that this difference was universally resolvable into the extent to which
the production of an income involved the expenditure of its source’s
value. Labour, land, houses, and other great sources of income, are
more or less consumed, impaired, or diminished—some more, some less,—
in producing income, and this varying diminution in the source’s value
appears as a more or less enlarged income and makes it of more or less
nominal worth. Such nominal income is in fact a mere mixture of true

ON A COMMON MEASURE OF VALUE IN DIRECT TAXATION. 221

income and source’s outgoings, and the more the source is impaired in
value, the larger is the proportion of these outgoings in its composition,
whilst the greater also will be its nominal excess above true income.
From these considerations the Committee arrived at the following simple
rule of general application :—‘ Deduct from the income as at present
returned the outgoings that belong to its production, and the remainder
will be its taxable amount.”

III. Under such a rule, taxable income would not as at present be
land-rent, house-rent, labour-wages, &c., but land-rent minus land-
outgoings, house-rent minus house-outgoings, labour-wages minus
labour-outgoings, &c. These outgoings are for the most part the
sequels of productive wear, tear, and depreciation, involving cost of
repairs, maintenance, or replacement either of the source itself or of its
value. By their deduction the source’s value considered as a capital or
principal, is maintained unimpaired, and the income left which would
always bear the same relation to source that interest bears to principal,
was called the source’s “interest value,” and was adopted as the common
measure of assessment. The plan of the Committee might indeed be
shortly summed up as the conversion of sources and incomes generally
to the form of principal and interest by uniform deduction of source’s
outgoings, and might be indifferently defined as, “Taxation of the
Interest value,” ‘‘Non-taxation of the Principal value as Income,”
“Bxemption of Essential Outgoings,” three equivalent expressions, each
one absolutely involving the other.

IV. Incomes in their positive or source aspect as the object of direct
assessment and interest value as the assessment’s common measure—
such are then the chief conclusions of the last Report. In the present
inquiry, keeping this object and this measure distinctly in miad, and keep-
ing clear of all purely personal aspects, whether those of personal tenure
or of personal ngcessities, the Committee propose to determine more fully
the method and practicability of applying this measure to the chief cases
of actual Income and to append an approximate schedule of results.

V. The rule of procedure in general is evidently that already given
for finding interest value, viz., ‘‘ Deduct from the income as at present
returned all the outgoings that belong to its production,” or speaking
independently of the Income Tax and its returns: “Deduct from the
total receipts of any given source, the total cost of producing them, and
the difference will be its interest value on taxable income.” This being
the rule, all that will be necessary for its particular application will be a
knowledge of the receipts, and a knowledge of the outgoings or costs in
each case in question. What are the costs to which land, houses, and
mines are naturally subject in producing rents and royalties? What
are the costs to which ships, machinery, horses, cattle, vehicles, trade-
fixtures and furniture, railways, mills, and manufactories, in a word
capital whether fixed or circulating, are subject in producing profits ?
What are the costs to which labour, whether of offices, of professions, or:
of trades is subject in producing salaries, fees, or wages? These costs
consist as before stated of the source’s outgoings through work, wear,
and tear, and through depreciation in value by age and exhaustibility,.
and equally with that of the source’s receipts a knowledge of them is:
implied in every comparison of values and is indeed the indispensable
condition of all rational accounts.

VI. Fortunately, however, the practicability of finding and deducting

222 REPORT—1878.

these outgoings, or costs, does not merely rest on the reason of the thing,
but in many cases is proved by actual precedent. The Income Tax Act
itself allows them in some cases, though it ignores them in others, both
recognition and non-recognition being equally haphazard and arbitrary.
It was recently stated by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, that deduction
for depreciation in ships and railways, though not expressly recognised
in law, were practically recognised in the assessment offices. Deprecia-
tion in machinery is now added by special enactment, whilst the Law
Courts have recently discovered that allowance for depreciation in mines
has always been the real though the hitherto hidden meaning of the Act
itself. Special clauses of the Act expressly allow cost of repairs and
renewals. The immemorial usage of calculating the profits of capital in
business, viz., that of valuation of stock at the beginning and end of the
business year, and the inclusion of the difference in the profit and loss
account, involves a distinct deduction of source’s outgoings, and the
Act in so far as it recognises this usage, recognises and allows this de-
duction. Moreover in other instances to which the Act is partially or
wholly blind, precedents of practicability are not wanting. Deductions
from gross annual value, in order to obtain rateable value, have ever been
recognised in local taxation, though in the absence of a common measure
of yalue, in a variable and uncertain manner. The Metropolis Valuation
Act of 1869, “an Act to provide for uniformity in the assessment of rate-
able property in the Metropolis,” and the various Valuation Bills proceed-
ing from it, are founded upon these deductions, to which they attempt to
give a uniform and common basis, and their appended schedules, if not
wholly accurate, are valuable precedents for direct taxation generally. In
these, lands without buildings are allowed a deduction of 35; with
buildings not houses of 7; houses are allowed a deduction varying
according to their class from } to 4, mills and manufactories a deduction
of 4, &c.: all these deductions representing the expenses to which the
several properties are liable, as necessary to “maintain the hereditament
in a state to command its rent.”

VII. In the case of labour, however, no deductions are allowed either
in practice or in legislation, and yet the income from the labour of men
is as subject to essential outgoings, costs of maintenance, depreciation,
exhaustibility, as the income from houses or from horses. A man’s
labour, it is popularly said, is his capital, but if so, it is both a con-
sumable and perishable capital. Like the labour of a horse, to take the
previous example, it undergoes a daily exhaustion of power that has to
be supplied by food. As the horse has to be clothed and stabled, so the
productive labourer has to be clothed and housed. As the horse by
age undergoes a depreciation of its value, so by age the productive
labourer undergoes a similar depreciation, and as the work and value
of the horse finally disappears, so does the labour and value of the
labourer disappear also. As questions of economic valuation, the cases
of the working horse and working man, be his work mental or manual,
are precisely analogous, and the outgoings of the labour’s value that are
capable of calculation and allowance in one case, are capable of calculation
and allowance in the other. The calculation in the case of horses, is the
necessary condition of maintaining a business in horses. A job-master,
for example, may receive from the hire of a pair of horses worth £200,
which he supplies with food, stabling, and attendance, full £200 a year.
The Income Tax assessment even, would scarcely venture to charge such

ON A COMMON MEASURE OF VALUE IN DIRECT TAXATION. 223

a capitalist with an income of £200 a year for each pair of horses thus
let; he would be allowed a deduction for the food, stabling, and hired
attendance. But the horses in the course of half a dozen years are worn
out, and have to be replaced, and he is allowed a deduction for this
expense also, if not in the shape of a fund annually put by for deprecia-
tion, at any rate in the shape of cost for resupply of diminished stock.
The Income Tax assessment, however, does charge in this manner the
labour of the capitalist himself, and thus not only is the man of industry
assessed on powers in his possession on which the man of idleness is not
assessed at all, but he is assessed on the gross receipts of these powers,
whilst their necessary expenditure, with the exception of the small in-
surance allowance, is absolutely ignored.

VIII. As an individual’s labour is thus a possession of limited and
uncertain duration, and subject to an annual expenditure for maintenance,
the true mode of valuing its income would be to regard it as a terminable
annuity, subject to an annual cost. In this aspect the amount of this
annuity would be that of the labour income at present returned, its term
the average labour period, and the annual cost that of the labour’s main-
tenance. This annual cost, which would in general be expressible as
some proportion or percentage of the income, added to the annual fund
necessary to replace the capital of the annuity, would be the deduction
required for finding the labour’s interest value, or taxable income. With
the requisite statistics, the calculation of this deduction is a question of
arithmetic. By a witness in the Hume Committee, it was stated as 4 of
the present assessable labour income, just as the deduction in mills and
manufactories is given as 3, and that of certain classes of houses as 1 of
their respective rents, and this, if not the exact truth, must be a close ap-
proximation to it. A summary of these deductions is presented in the
following schedule, and the general adoption of the single principle they
illustrate would secure the immense advantage of a uniform plan of
assessment throughout both local and imperial direct taxation.

Schedule of an Assessment of Incomes according to their Interest-value, the
Principal-value of each Source being maintained by deduction of all
_ Essential Outgoings.

SOURCES OF INCOME.

PROPERTY. .
Deduction per cent.
or proportion

1, Land. according to presence or absence of buildings | yom 5 to 10 or 2 to 2
2. Houses and buildings, according to class .......... From 16% to 25 or 2 to 4
3. Mines and quarries, according to class ............+++ From 10 to 20 or fi tol
4, Mills and manufactories, including blast and TO ras
smelting furnaces and kilns .........ceseeesceceeees 332 or }
5. Moneys invested in Exchequer Bills and Bonds, =
Perpetual Annuities, or Loans ............ceece0ee Nil
6. Moneys invested in Terminable Annuities ......... Sufficient to restore capital
7. Railways, Canals, Docks, Tolls, Waterworks, and pt
Gasworks ry ccismsenate-sasencisedet -. > !s00 So cascuseecese To\ be detefmined/ K
8, Ships, vehicles, machinery, trade fixtures, horses, decorctngs Gs tea cnakasee caleat

stock, and other forms of capital, whether valuation for stock taking and
fixed or circulating .........6.. «poceec CORE EEE eee ee ee

224 REPORT—1878.

LABOUR.
9. “Professions, Trades, and Offices,” including
salaried, agricultural, manufacturing, and
Commercial employMeENtsS ...ssccecsereerrereenceeee 50 or $

TX. Where the nominal or gross income is the joint result of property
and personal labour, as in all trades, and in many professions, we have
first to consider the property income and labour income separately. If
the property be valued by the foregoing rules as a principal or capital, it
is a truism to say that the interest of the principal will be the interest-
value of the property, and that this subtracted from the joint income
will give the labour’s nominal income. Deducting the labour’s out-
goings from the latter, we have the labonr’s interest-value, which added
to the property’s interest-value, makes the total assessable return re-
quired. Examples of the rule are given in the first Report. Being merely
a rule of valuation it is as legitimately capable of application by the owner
of a business, or by his recognised accountant, as any of the rules now ia
use, and being thus applied it involves no exposure of his capital or other
detail of his business. The following are forms of ordinary account,
illustrative of the application of the rule to particular cases.

LAND WITHOUT BUILDINGS.

Cr. Dr. £
Nominal or gross rent .......+0.066 -» 1000 Deduction for land-outgoings
BLS .cccnscecsecccccsvsebsereceseens
Land interest-value or taxable
INCOME 4iecs.c<one sasuenssem evvevecs 950
£1000 £1000
HOUSES BETWEEN £20 AND £40 OF GROSS ANNUAL VALUE.
Cr. Dr. £
Nominal or gross rent .....esseseeeee 1000 Deduction for house-outgoings
Bb csesessvonnsocsessieensaeenemeere 200:
House interest-value or taxable
INCOME + ..sc0seee0 wees ceseeecves 800:
£1000 £1000
LABOUR.
Cr. £ Dr. £
Nominal or gross labour income ... 1000 Deduction for labour-outgoings
Db) D onesoeetsesscadcaststeseeemeaeeee 500
Labour’s interest-value or taxable
INCOME Vencaee sete Be pppcci cone 500:
£1000 £1000
LABOUR AND PROPERTY COMBINED IN BUSINESS.
Cr. £ Dr. £
Nominal income from business of Deduction for labour-outgoings
£1000 consisting of :— Ot}. 0000. ives aeoep easement 300°
1, Interest of £10,000 of capital, say Business’ interest-value or tax-
at AiperiCenu)essensnsesessrcenss - 400 able Income; .tencesterescsese 700:
2, Nominal labour-income...........- €00

£1000 £1000:

ON COMMON MEASURE OF VALUE IN DIRECT TAXATION. 225

X. To the question of the mode and practicability of applying the
‘common measure of interest-value to cases of property and labour in-
come, the above is perhaps a sufficiently detailed answer. In all these
,cases the measure is applied to the positive, or source aspect of the in-
come, and not to the personal. In all, the deductions are intended to
represent the source’s average essential outgoings. In all, the interest-
value is the excess of receipts over these outgoings, or the principal-value
-of each source is, by means ofthe deduction, maintained unimpaired, and
hence in a condition to command its future income. The Dr. and Cr.
forms appended are exemplars of the modes of making the deductions.
They show that the process of making them is merely that of keeping a
strictly uniform and just system of accounts, and that any system of
accounts that omits them is neither uniform nor just. Moreover, the
balance of each account exhibiting the true taxable income, is that alone
needful for the return. It is not affirmed that the amount of deduction
given in each case is exact, but exactitude—at least insurable exactitude
—is purely a question of fact. From the facts obtained in a Government
office, for example, it might appear that as in the case of houses the pro-
portion of outgoings diminishes as the receipts increase, so would they also
in the case of labour. But if so the remedy already applied to one in
local assessment would be the remedy for both in imperial assessment,
viz., a scale of outgoings relative to such increase of receipts.

Comparison of the Measures of Interest-value and Capital-value.

XI. Such is the system of assessment which your Committee recom-
mend for adoption. In discussions however on the question of direct
‘assessment, another common measure has often been proposed. It has
been proposed to assess incomes, not according to their real annual or
interest value, but according to their total or capital value, or in other
words according to the present money value to which they are equivalent,
and from which they might be supposed to be derived. Valuation by
capital value, capitalisation as it is called, finds a common measure and
expression in the numbers defining what is called the years’ purchase of
the income. Thus an income valued at 25 years’ purchase, ceteris
paribus, is worth twice as much as one valued at 124 years’ purchase, and
in the system of capital-value would be taxed twice as much. The figure
defining the years’ purchase of an income, is thus at once an index or
measure of an income’s value and of its assessability. As this system is
a simple, popular, and well understood mode of valuation, it will be useful
to consider and compare the results it gives with those of interest-value,
and this comparison can be made by means of the annexed table (p. 226).
‘The first column expresses the series of incomes equal in present value,
but varying in annual amount, from £4 per cent. up to £20, a variation
that might evidently be extended either way, and this column alone is
sufficient to show the lack of consciousness, if not of conscience, in taxing
incomes according to abstract annual amount. The second column
expresses the capital value of each of these incomes in years’ purchase of
its annual amount. Under the supposition of a £4 per cent. normal rate
of interest, the third column shows the percentage amount of source’s
outgoings in, and of the consequent deduction from each income, and the
fourth shows the percentage amount of interest-value in each. A com-

neve, Q

226 REPORT—1878.

A series of Nominal Incomes of the same real present worth, with their com-

parative estimation by the two measures of Years’ purchase and Interest-
value. Hach income is formed at the same rate, viz., £4 per cent. of
real profit, every apparent excess representing the amount of undeducted
outgoings that the income exhibiting it contains.

: Their Capital-value) Their Outgoings | Their Interest-value
Ae) ae alle een eheee in percentage of in percentage of
from £100 : d :
of their amounts their amounts their amounts
£4 25 0 per cent. 100 per cent.
5 20 20 ” ” 80 ” »
6 16°6 33 43» 66 oy »
7 14:3 2 ae eT Dileeien hs
8 12°5 DU Ge Gs DUE 5s >>
10 10 60 ” ” 40 ” ”
15 66 FZ. spiky DTN No B*hay
20 5 80 ” ” 20 ” ”
etc etc. etc. etc.

parison of the figures of the second and fourth columns, representing the
respective valuations of the same series of incomes by the two measured
shows that these valuations are in exact proportion, and shows therefore
that at a given rate per cent., the taxation of an income on its interest-
value is the same as its taxation on the number of years’ purchase
expressing its capital-value. Thus for example in the above table an
income of 4 per cent. is worth 25 years’ purchase, and all of it, or 100 per
cent., is true interest-value. An income of 8 per cent. is worth 12°5
years’ purchase, and its interest-value is only 50 per cent. of its amount,
the other 50 per cent. being outgoings of principal. The figures express-
ing the number of years’ purchase of the two incomes, viz., 25 12°5, and
the figures expressing their interest-value, viz., 100 and 50, are propor-
tionals. So with any other corresponding numbers of the two columns,
and generally the two lines of figures, while proportional to each other,
have a measurable relation to the line of figures expressing the outgoings.
These relations, which strictly follow from the nature of capital and
interest, or principal and interest, are important, because though, for
reasons stated in the first Report, an interest-value measure as represent-
ing the annual increment or actual increase of value, is a better measure
of annual taxation than that of capital, yet a knowledge of the capital-
value of an income is often a rapid and useful mode of getting at its
interest-value. By means of such a table as is here shown, the value in
years’ purchase of any income from property. or labour being given, the
amount of outgoings to be deducted in order to maintain the source’s
principal unimpaired, or the amount of the interest-value, can be at once
exhibited. As an outcome of this comparison it may be said that to the
three equivalent sides or illustrations of the assessment doctrine of in-
comes already given, viz., “Taxation of Interest-value,” ‘“ Non-taxation of
Principal as Income,” “Exemption of Essential Outgoings,” we may add
what is practically a fourth, viz., ‘Taxation according to their Years’
Purchase,” always provided that a uniformity of basis and application be
preserved. ~

ON COMMON MEASURE OF VALUE IN DIRECT TAXATION. 227

XII. It appears to be sometimes thought that the capitalisation of in-
comes is equivalent to the conversion of an Income Tax into a Property
Tax, ‘This however is not so, An Income Tax, whatever the measure
used, always demands an income. A Property Tax, however, would take
effect if there were no income. It is indeed the necessary condition of
property, having value, to produce income sooner or later, and equal
properties in the long run produce equal incomes ; but the advantage of
an Income Tax over a Property Tax, is that it falls on the property only
when it does produce an income, and in proportion to the amount pro-
duced. One of the advantages of a Property Tax over an Income Tax is
said to be that of its incidence on certain forms of value not reached by
the Income Tax, as for example, lands annually increasing in value in the
neighbourhood of growing towns, but yielding no corresponding rent,
and also the furniture, &c., of private houses. If true income be in-
crement or increase of value it may be fairly questioned whether the
annual increase of value in these lands is not true income, and truly liable
. to Income Tax. Under the present system, a capital invested in such
property year by year increases in value, but pays no Income Tax on the
increase, whilst the same capital invested in funds or farms would be
annually assessed on its increase. It may be also questioned whether pro-
perty in furniture, rightly considered,is not as much property yielding an in-
come to its owner as the house which he owns and at the same time inhabits.
It has an annual utility, and its value invested in other forms would yield
income. Moreover, in this same form, if hired instead of owned, it yields
an annual income annually taxable, and it is difficult to see how the fact
of the same property being owned by one and used by another, and being
owned and used by the same person, can make a difference in the nature
of its annual use, value, or product. Questions of this kind, however,
belong rather to the province and extension of a direct tax than to its just
valuation.

XIII. Many of the objections which have been urged against capital-
value are probably grounded, not so much ona repugnance to the measure
itself, as to the mode in which it has been used, as for example, in re-
ference to the subject of tenures pointed out in the last Report. Uni-
formity of basis and application, whatever the measure may be, is of the
last importance, and the confusion that may attend the use of a true
measure was well exemplified in the arguments on the Knowles case, a
colliery Income Tax appeal, recently decided in the Court of Exchequer.
Inthis important case for Income Tax reform, the plaintiffs, maintaining the
principle that real income or profit is the difference between expenditure
and receipts, claimed at law a deduction from the taxable receipts of coal
mines for the exhaustion of the coal. Among the replies made by the Inland
Revenue Office as defendants, was “that if real income be the difference
between expenditure and receipts, why should not a person who buys a
lease in lands or consols be assessed to the Income Tax on the difference
between what he gives for his lease and what he receives from it””—a
difference that would practically amount not to the interest-value of the
consols or land, but .to the interest-value of his purchase money. The
answer is, “real income is the difference between expenditure and re-
ceipts, but the analogy of a lease is a fallacious one. In expending
money on a lease, you are not, as such, producing an income, nor are you
buying that which produces it; you are simply buying incomes already
made or to be made independently of your purchase. You are in fact a

Q2

228 REPORT— 1878.

dealer in incomes, just as you might be a dealer in sugars or teas, or in
any other commodity, taxable antecedently to your purchase, and you buy
them subject to all their burdens. Your receipts are in this case them-
selves incomes, themselves the difference between expenditure and pro-
duct, and the tax on them, though charged to the full amount, is a charge
on the money that buys them only in the same manner that the tithe is a
charge on the purchase money of lands.”

The fallacy of refusing a deduction to the products of perishable
sources, and the fallacy of claiming a deduction for the terminable tenure
of permanent products, are the obverse forms of a financial illusion. Both
fallacies arise from the phenomena of transfer. In the former, true
capital by transfer appears as income, and is taxed as income; in the
latter, true income by transfer appears as capital, and as capital would
be exempted. It is this double illusion, ever manifesting itself in investi-
gations on the Income Tax, that has probably confused the vision of
economists and statesmen, and hitherto rendered abortive all attempts at
reform. Whether direct taxation be incident on property or on its pro-
ducts—on capital or on income—for a series of years matters little ; but
it is monstrous that a tax which professes to be either a Property or an
Income Tax, should treat capital as if it were income, or income as if it
were capital.

XIV. It sometimes appears to be thought that after all there is little
practical difference whether taxation be levied on gross income or on net,
on the higher or lower level as it is called. ‘A certain sum has to be
raised, and what matters it whether it be raised as a smaller percentage
of a larger sum or as a larger percentage of a smaller one.’’ Doubtless
if gross income bore the same relation to net in each case such an argu-
ment would be valid, but no such relation exists. The “‘grossness’’ of
an income stands for the amount of undeducted expenditure the income
contains, and gross incomes are of every degree of “grossness.’ The
true net pound—the interest-value pound—is in all cases 20s., but the
gross pound is as variable as the nature of sources and the customs of
free contract. In land rent the gross pound is legally defined in the
Metropolis Valuation Act as 19s., in house rent as varying according to
the class of house from 15s. to 17s. 8d., in the rent of mills and manu-
factories as 13s. 4d., in the wages of labour, though not yet legally
defined, it is probably only 10s. All however are pounds gross, and in an
assessment proportioned to gross value like that of the existing Income
Tax, are equally assessable. By this mode of reckoning, an Income Tax
nominally 5d. in the pound, is indeed for ordinary principal moneys
really 5d., but for houses it is in some cases between 6d. and 7d., for
mills and manufactories it is 74d., and for labour it probably amounts to
10d. Gross value is thus not a single measure, but is a loose expression
including a number of measures, it may be a multitude of measures, pre-
senting a conspicuous absence of uniformity of relation both to true value,
and to each other. Perhaps the one positive point of community these
measurements by “‘ gross”’ value do possess is their inordinate pressure
on labour and the products of labour as compared with their pressure on
the permanent sources of income. Human labour and the works of
human labour have as their distinguishing marks waste and perishability.
They essentially constitute the great category of things, quce ipso usu con-
sumuntur, but it is “consumability by use” that “gross” value utterly
ignores. Between the permanent and the perishable it distinguishes

ON COMMON MEASURE OF VALUE IN DIRECT TAXATION. 229

nothing, and human labour in itself, and in its works, in its houses, its
mills, its manufactories, are the special victims of this ignorance.

XV. To contemplate modes of valuation such as these now employed,
as not the mere dicta of individual opinion, but as the accepted conclu-
sions of the State and the expression of its established law, would be to
despair of truth and justice in direct taxation. If, however, instead of
confining our attention to the present position of the valuation question,
we regard it in its successive changes and in relation to the progress in
the branch of science of which it is a part, reason for hope will appear..
Measures of value, like other measures, have their movement. The
history of measurement in general is in a high degree the history of
exact science, and whether the subject matter be lines or angles, forces or
values, this history presents an early state of ‘‘ grossness’’ and disorder
that only by the slow march of intelligence developes into definiteness
and uniformity. And the history of the measurement of values in par-
ticular, low down in the scale of accuracy as it now is, yet presents an
undoubted ascent from a still lower condition. Sceptics indeed, both
without, and also, we regret to add, within the limits of this “ Association
for the Advancement of Science,” have doubted the possibility of a science
of values—of the science, that is to say, which forms the peculiar charge
of this Section—but the ebb of doubt has ever attended the wave,of pro-
gress, and the best antidote to such doubt, as well as the best stimulus to
further progress, is the consideration of the onward course of statistical
facts themselves. In the particular subject under discussion, the two
great parliamentary commissions of 1851-52 and of 1860, in which
many of the leading members of this Economic Section took a leading
part, evidenced the awakening of the public mind to the necessity of a
change. The Union Assessment Act of 1862; the Metropolis Valuation
Act of 1869; the Local Valuation Bills grounded on these Acts annually
introduced into Parliament ; the recent decision of the Court of Exchequer
in the appeal case of Knowles v. McAdam; the deduction allowed in
this year’s Inland Revenue Bill for depreciation of machinery, are all
incidents of a progress towards a better measurement of values; and in
these incidents collectively considered, your Committee recognise a system
of lines of reform converging to the principle which they have attempted
in their Reports to define and illustrate. It need scarcely be added, that
the indirect results of true valuation, for example, its effect on the truth
of returns, are not less important than those which are direct. A false
system of valuation must of necessity encourage false returns. To
deceive or to be plundered are its only alternatives, nor is it wonderful
that popular casuistry often prefers the former. A true method of valua-
tion on the other hand encourages true returns; it may not absolutely
secure them, but it secures the removal of all that can obstruct them, and
cancels the invitation to fraud, afforded by the present law. A true
valuation alone can justify the exact and vigorous administration which
must be the characteristic of an equitable tax on income.

230 REPORT— 1878.

Report on Sunspots and Rainfall. By Cuartes Metproum, F.R.S.

[A communication ordered by the Council to be printed in extenso among the
Reports. ]

1. In 1873 and 1874 (see British Association Reports for those
years) I submitted tables of the rainfalls of various parts of the world,
and expressed the opinion that there was strong evidence of a connection
between rainfall and sunspots.

2. Having received additional observations, I now beg to submit the
principal results obtained by comparing the rainfalls of different countries,
and the levels of some of the rivers of Central Europe with Wolf’s rela-
tive sunspot numbers.

3. Probably the best method of comparing the sunspots with the
rainfall is that of the harmonical analysis. In a paper which was com-
municated to the Royal Society in January, 1876, I applied that method
to the annual mean rainfalls of the greatest possible number of stations
scattered over the globe, and to the mean annual depths of some of the
rivers of Central Europe, and found not only that there was a rainfall
cycle of nearly the same length as the sunspot cycle, but also that the
two cycles had the same characteristics with respect to the intervals

between the epochs of minimum and maximum and maximum and mini- ©

mum, a circumstance which strongly pointed to a causal connection.
But, as the method is laborious, I have not yet had time to apply it to
the rainfalls of single stations, or even to the mean rainfalls of different
countries. I hope to be able to do so soon, and to communicate the
results on another occasion.

4. In the meantime the probability or otherwise of a connection
between sunspots and rainfall may be shown by the old method of arith-
metical means.

5. Although the mean length of “the sunspot cycle is about eleven
years, yet, in employing the method of arithmetical means, it would be
objectionable to commence with any year whatever in a long series of
observations, and taking the greatest possible number of periods of eleven
years each, compare the annual mean rainfalls with the annual mean sun-
spots ; for by doing so the maximum and minimum years might be so
much dispersed over the common eleven-year period thus formed as to
conceal any periodic variation that might exist. It is essential to refer
the comparisons to the epochs of maximum and minimum, and this can-
not well be done by commencing with any year whatever.

6. With aview of avoiding that objection as far as possible, and at the
same time of obtaining a simpler and more expeditious method than that
of the harmonical analysis, I make two comparisons, in one of which the
maximum years of sunspots are taken for the point of reference, and in
the other the minimum years.

7. As the epoch of maximum sunspots occurs on an average 3°7 years
after the epoch of minimum, and the epoch of minimum 7°4 years after
the epoch of maximum, the maximum years in the first comparison are
all placed in the sizth of thirteen terms or series of years, while in the
second comparison all the minimum years are placed in the eighth or
ninth of other thirteen terms or series. Then, with the object of dimi-
nishing the effects of so-called accidental irregularities in the rainfall, the

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 231
thirteen terms are reduced to eleven, and these, for convenience, are
called the ‘ mean cycle.’

I.—Sumspots.

8. Applied to Wolf’s relative numbers of sunspots (latest edition),
the above method gives the following results for the years 1811-77 :—

TasLe 1.—Sunspot numbers.—Maximum years in 6th line.

n | - |Years
@ |1811-23/1824-36/1832-44|1843-55/1855-67 1865-77, Means nice vee | of
yele| tion
tal | Cycle
1} 16 | 81 | 263 | *131 | 77 | 314 | 147) — | — | —
2} 49 | 162 | *94 | 193 | *51 | 147 | 116] 14:9 ]—33-9] 1
3] 126 | 350 | 133 | 383 | 229 | *88 | 21-8] 25-4] —234 | 2
4] 162 | 512 | 59:0 | 596 | 562 | 368 | 465 | 488] O00] 3
5 | 352 | 621 | 1193] 97-4 | 903 | 786 | 805 |\ 77-0 | +282 |. 4
6 | 46°9 | 67°2 | 136°3 | 124°9| 94°8 (131°8 100°4| 91°9 | +43'1) 5
7| 399 | 67:0 | 1041 | 95-4 | 77-7 | 1138 | 83-0 | 83:0] +342] 6
8| 297 | 594 | 834 | 698 | 61-0 | 997 | 65:7 | 656/+168) 7
9} 235 | 263 | 61:8 | 632 | 45-4 | 67-7 | 480] 490] + 02] 8
10| 162 | *94 | 385 | 52:7 | 462) 431 | 342] 346 ]—142] 9
11] 61 | 133 | 23:0 | 385 | 31-4 | 189 | 21:9 | 24:6 | —24-2 |-10
12| 39 | 59:0 | *131 | 210 | 14:7 | 113 | 205 | 22:5 | —263 | 11
13 | *26 | 1193 | 193 | 7-7 | *88 70} 27-6) — |. bbe

‘9. In the above table all the sunspot numbers for the maximum
years 1816, 1829, 1837, 1848, 1860, and 1870, are in the siath horizontal
line, and the places and the numbers for the minimum years are denoted
by asterisks, The “ means” for the thirteen terms or series of years are
given in the eighth column, and they show that the sunspots increase
from 11°6 in the second term to 100°4 in the sixth, and then decrease to
20:5 in the twelfth. The “mean cycle ”’ in the next column is formed as
follows :—a, b, c, &c., being the first, second, third, &c., terms of the
a+2b+c

4

*‘means’’; the numerical value of is made the first term of

2
the “mean cycle,” the numerical value of Eae re &

5 its second term,

and soon. The “variation” in the last column but one is the deviation
from the mean value of the “ mean cycle.”’

10. With the exception of 1833 and 1867, which are respectively in
the third and tenth horizontal lines, the years of minimum sunspots are
all in the first, second, twelfth, and thirteenth lines (or terms), and all
the minimum sunspot numbers, except those for 1833, contribute to the
formation of the first and eleventh terms of the “‘ mean cycle.’’ It would
be better not to have the sunspot numbers for 1836 in the thirteenth
line ; but their position cannot be altered without altering the position of
the maximum year 1829, and the main object of this table is to obtain
_ approximate values of the sunspots for the mean maximum year, and for
one or two years on either side of it.

11. Some of the years are necessarily repeated in the succeeding
series, but this does not materially affect the ‘‘ means’ or the “‘ mean
cycle,” the average of the latter being 48°8, while the average value of
the sunspots for the whole period (1811-67) is 46°9.

232 REPORT—1878.

12. It will be seen that the ‘‘ mean cycle”’ exhibits a well-marked sun-
spot variation. Now if the sunspots are numerically related to the rain-
fall, an exactly similar treatment of the rainfall should give a rainfall
variation, corresponding, either directly or inversely, with the sunspot
variation.

13. In the next table the sunspot numbers for the minimum years
1823, 1833, 1843, 1856, and 1867, are all in the eighth line, and the
places and numbers for the maximum years are marked with asterisks.

Taste II.—Sunspot numbers.—Minimum years in 8th line.

| 2 Mean | Varia- |/Years of
Years {1816-28 raat hak abet ace 1860-72) Means Cycle | tion | Cycle

1 *46°9 35°0 | 119°3 | 95-4 | *94:8 ) 78:3 — — —

2 39°9 51:2 | *136°9 | 69-8 Litter te) ees 731 | +233 1

3 29°7 62:1 | 1041 | 63-2 61:0 | 64:0 64:3 | +145 2

4 23°5 | *67-2 83:4 | 52:7 45-4 | 54-4 546 | + 4:5 3

5 16:2 67:0 61°8 | 38:5 45:2 | 45-7 44-2 |— 56 4

6 671 59-4 38°5 | 21:0 314 | 31:3 30°8 | —19-0 5

7 eat) 26°3 23-0 CRG 14:7 | 151 17-3 | —32°5 6

8 2'6 9:4 13°1 SL 8's 73 12°7 | —37°1 7

9 81 13°3 19°3 | 22:9 36°38 | 20°1 244 | — 25-4 8
10 16:2 59:0 38°3 | 56:2 786 | 49:7 516 | + 18 9
11 35:0 | 119°3 59°6 | 90:3 |*131°8 | 87:2 80°'7°| +30°9 | 10
12 51:2 | *136-9 97-4 | *94°8 | 1138 | 98:8 946 | +448] 11
13 62:1 | 104:1 |*124:9 | 77-7 99-7 | 93-7 = — —

The table has been formed in the way in which Table I. has been
formed.

All the maximum years except 1829 contribute to the formation of
the first and eleventh terms of the mean cycle.

The mean of the mean cycle is 49°8, and the mean for the whole
period (1816-72) is 51:3.

As in Table I., the mean cycle exhibits a well-marked variation, the
sunspots decreasing to the seventh year, and then increasing to the
eleventh.

If, then, the sunspots and the rainfall are numerically related, a
corresponding variation should be found for the rainfall, when similarly
treated.

IT.—Rainfall of Great Britain compared with the Sunspots.

14, The rainfall of Great Britain, as represented by returns from
fifty-four stations in different parts of the country, is given in Table III.

The following table has been prepared in the same way as Table I.
(Sunspots), and it will be seen from the last two columns but one that
the rainfall and sunspot variations are remarkably similar, the rainfall
increasing from the first to the sixth year of the cycle, and then de-
creasing to the eleventh.

The same stations have been used in finding the annual mean rainfalls
for each series of thirteen years.

The mean of the mean cycle is 31:4 inches, and the mean rainfal}
from 1824 to 1867 is 31:2 inches.

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 233

The range of variation is about 3:7 inches.

The epoch of maximum rainfall occurs about one year after the
epoch of maximum sunspots.

The spot variation has been derived from Table I.

15. An important advantage of the above arrangement is that the
columns of “‘ means’”’ enable us to compare directly the mean of the sun-
spot numbers for the maximum years with the mean rainfall for the same

TasLe ITI.—Great Britain.—Maximum years in 6th line.

No. of
Stations) 10 18 2 $0 M Mean | Rain | Spot eee
eans
Cycle | Var. Var. Grele
Years |1824-36/1832-44/1843-55/1855_-67 y
in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
1 30°9 26-4 31:8 27:1 29°1 — — — —
2 26°6 29°4 26°9 35:0 29°5 29-2 — 2:2 | — 37-2 1
3 23°7 25°83 33°3 32°5 28°8 29°7 | —1°7 | — 22°8 2
+ , 29°5 29:0 35°1 34:1 31-9 31:4 00 | + 4:4 3
5 33°0 34:2 28°6 37:0 33°2 32°6 + 1:2 | + 33:0 4
6 287 | 26'2 37:3 | 361 32:1 | 32°5 | +1:1/+43°8 5
7 30°8 28-4 30°6 40°7 32°6 32°9 | + 1:5 | + 32°9 6
8 32°3 32:1 29°9 42-7 34:2 32°7 +13 | + 14:3 7
9 26:2 25°3 29:3 38-2 29°7 321 | +07|-— 29 8
10 29-7 34-1 39°1 36-1 34°8 318 | + 0-4 | — 16°6 9
11 24:5 24:9 30°9 32°5 28:2 30°7 | — 07 | — 24:7] 10
12 28°6 29°7 28-4 40:0 31:6 30°3 | — 11 | — 24:0} 11
13 33°5 24:3 25°5 37-1 301 — — — —

years, and also the sunspots with the rainfall for two years on either side
of the maximum years, with very little risk of distortion from the mini-
mum years not being all in the same horizontal line.

16. With regard to the way in which the “ mean cycle” is formed, it

may be remarked that } in the expression Gist Pi 8 (see par. 8) gets

double weight, and that the quotient is put down as the rainfall of the
first year of the “ mean cycle,’ which year corresponds with the’second of
the thirteen terms or series of years, that is, with b. This is somewhat
similar to the common practice of tracing with the hand an approximate
average curve through the peaks and hollows of a jagged or serrated
curve.

17. An example of the converse process, namely, that of placing the
minimum years in the eighth line or term, is given in the following
Table, which has been constructed from the annual mean rainfalls of ten
stations, “‘ widely separated,” as given by Mr. Symons, in the ‘ Report of
the British Association for 1865.’

Table IV. has been constructed in the same way as Table II. (Sun-
spots).

Now it would appear that on the whole the rainfall attained its mini-
mum a year or two after the epoch of minimum sunspots.

In fact, both this table and Table III. show that the rainfall lags
behind the sunspots in respect of time.

The mean of the mean cycle is 28°1 inches, and the mean for the
whole period (1816-61) is 28°3 inches.

From the column of “ means’’ we see that although the rainfall was

234 REPORT— 1878.

above the average in the mean minimum year, yet it was below the
average in the previous and two following years, thus forming, on the
whole, around the minimum year, as shown in the “ mean cycle,” a group
of four or five years in which the rainfall was below the average ; and
the mean rainfall for these years is scarcely affected by the positions

Taste [V.—Great Britain.—Minimum years in 8th line.

Years |1816-28|1826-38|1836—48|1849-61| Means toe at Spot Sore
in in. in. in. in in in
1 293 | 23-7 | 335 | 2985 | 98.7 | — a J a
2 | 297 | 295 | 245 | 263 | 275 | 289] 401] 42431 1
3 | 303 | 330 | 271 | 267 | 293 | 294} 4113/4175] 2
4 | 304 | 987 | 313 | 355 | 315 | 2971 +16]4+ 841 3
5 245 | 308 °'| 247 | 27-4 | 268 | 286] +05|/— 27] 4
6 299 | 323 | 335 | 224 | 995 | 278} —03|/—168| 65
7 | 266 | 262 |° 25:5 | 234 | 95-4 | 274] —-07]/—304| 6
t= 3 311 29°7 30°4 25:9 29:3 27°5| — 0-6 |— 361 7
9 30:9 | 245 | 93-7 | 257 | 262 | 970] —11|—272] 8
10 | 266 | 2985 | 979 | 228 | 264 | 969] —12/— 35] 9
1 93-7 | 335 | 296 |. 285 | 288 | 98:0 | —o1] +4247] 10
12° | 295 | 245 | 968)] 333 | 283 | 290) +09] 4420| 11
13 330 |. 271 | 360 | 27-0 | 308 | — cer i pee Pa

occupied jn the table by the maximum years. It is to be remarked, also,
that if a greater number of stations were taken, as in Table III., it would
be found that the rainfall in the mean minimum year is below the
average; but it was desirable to adopt Mr. Symons’s figures alone,
because they furnish independent evidence of a rainfall cycle, even for a
small number of stations.

On the other hand we have, around the mean maximum year in
Table III., a group of five or six years in which the rainfall is above the
average.

From these two tables (III. and IV.) it is concluded that there is
strong evidence of a rainfall cycle for Great Britain.

18. I will now compare with the sunspots the rainfall of Edinburgh,
as given in the ‘ Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society.’

Taste V.—Edinburgh.—Maximum years in 6th line.

ea : Mean |} Rain Spot |Year of
Years |1824—36)1832-44)1843—-55|1855-67| Means Cycle | Var. Var. | Cycle

in in. in. in, in in in
1 24°8 23:2 23°8 20:3 23-0 — — — —
2 22:1 20:9 20:9 28°5 23°1 22°83 | — 2:8 | — 37:2 1
3 15°3 21:0 26°6 24°9 22:0 23°38 | —18 | — 22:8 2
4 32°6 25°2 315 24:3 28°4 26°3 +07) + 4:4 3
5 25°2 33:0 22°8 25°9 26:7 28:0 + 2:4 | + 33:0 +
6 30°0 26's 30°6 33°44 | 30'2 | 28:9 +3°3 | +43°8 5
if 33:2 31:0 22°2 28°6 28°8 28-4 + 2°8 | + 32:9 6
8 24°5 23°4 21°3 3a°9 25°8 261 + 05 | + 14:3 7
9 23'2 25'5 22:8 25°6 24:3 25:2 | —O4]— 29 8
10 20°9 26'2 31:5 28°1 26°7 246 | —1:0 | — 166 9
11 21:0 169 21°8 23°6 20°8 23:1 | —2°5 | — 24:7 10
12 25°2 23°8 20°9 27°2 24°3 23°99 | —17 | — 240 uf
13 33:0 20°9 20°3 31:0 26°3 — — — —_—

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 235

Here we have a remarkable parallelism, both the sunspots and the
rainfall attaining their maximum and minimum in the same years, and
rising and falling together with considerable regularity.

The mean of the mean cycle is 25°6 inches, and the mean rainfall is
25°7 inches.

19. The next table gives the results of the converse arrangement for
the rainfall of Edinburgh.

TasLeE VI.—Edinburgh.— Minimum years in 8th line.

in. in, in. in in. in in
1 15:3 33°0 22°2 33°4 26°0 — — — —
2 32°6 268 21:3 28°6 27°3 27°2 + 1:2 | + 24-7 1
3 252 31:0 22°8 33°9 28:2 278 |} +18 | + 15°9 2
4 30°0 23-4 31°5 25°6 27°6 27°6 +16)+ 56 3
5 33°2 25°5 21°8 281 27-2 264 | +04)]+4+ 54 4
6 24:5 26°2 20°9 23°6 23°8 24-1 —1:9 | — 204 5
7 23°2 16:9 20°3 27:2 21°9 23-4 | —2°6 | — 363 6
8 20:9 | 23°8 | 28°5 31:0 26:0 | 24:4 | — 1°6 |-—-42'1 7
9 21:0 20°9 24:9 28°6 23°8 246 | — 1:4 | — 28°6 8
10 25:2 26°6 24:3 22°2 24°6 25:2 |} —O8|+ 2°79 g
11 33°0 31°5 25°9 2271 28°71 26°8 + 0'8 | + 35:3 10
12. 26°8 22°8 33°4 23°2 26°4 28-2 | + 2:2 | + 48°9 11
13 31:0 30°6 28°6 38°2 32°1 — — — —

We have here also a remarkable parallelism, but not quite so much so
as in Table V.

The rainfall reaches its minimum in the year before that of minimum
sunspots. :

The mean of the mean cycle is 26°0 inches, and the mean rainfall is
also 26:0 inches.

The variation range is about 6 inches, the rainfall being 3:3 inches
above the mean in Table V., and 2°6 inches below it in Table VI. .

20. Similar results might be given for the rainfalls of other individual
stations in Great Britain, but it is unnecessary to do so. For the present
it is sufficient to know that the annual mean falls at fifty-four stations,
virtually obtained at haphazard, as well as the mean annual falls at
Mr. Symons’s ten stations, which were selected by him for a different
purpose, show, on the whole, a well-marked rainfall cycle corresponding
with the sunspot cycle.

21. The rainfall of Greenwich, although greater in the maximum than
in the minimum years of sunspots, is not nearly so favourable as the
rainfalls of Edinburgh and other stations.

III.—Rainfall of the Continent of Europe compared with the Sunspots.

22. Through the kindness of Mr. Estourgies and the Directors’ of
various Observatories, I obtained some time ago returns of the rainfalls
at forty-five stations dispersed over the Continent of Europe. The re-
sults, according to the method adopted on this occasion, are given in the
next two tables.

As at Edinburgh, the year of maximum rainfall coincides with the
year of maximum sunspots.

236 REPORT—1 878.

The mean rainfall for the mean cycle is 26°6 inches, and for the whole

period (1824-67) 26:8 inches.
Owing to some heavy floods in 1844, 1855, and 1867, the rainfall for
the eleventh year of the mean cycle is somewhat above the average.

TasLe VII.—Continent of Europe —Maximum years in 6th line.

No. of 5
Stations ‘ | » 20 ty M Mean| Rain | Spot |Yearsof
cae Cycle} Var. Var. | Cycle
Years 1824-36|1832-44 1843-55|1855-67
in. in. in. in in. in, in.
1 27:7 22°5 29-1 27-2 26°6 —- — — —
2 22°8 28°8 30:0 25°1 26°6 | 25°8 — 08 | — 37:2 1
3 21:4 22-0 31:3 19°7 23°6 | 24:8 — 1:8 | — 22°8 2
4 27:0 241 29°8 22°1 25:7 | 25:3 —-13/4+ 44 3
5 25:6 27°6 26:7 2671 26°5 | 27:0 + 04 | + 33-0 4
6 29'3 28°7 30°'5 29°4 29°'5 |27°3.| + 1':2|\/+ 43°88 5
7 23:0 27°8 27:2 25°1 25'8 | 27°6 + 1:0 | + 32:9 6
8 29°4 30°7 31:2 26:2 29°4 | 27:7 + 11} 4+ 14:3 7
9 22°1 27°9 30°6 24°5 26:3 | 27-2 +06/— 2:9 8
10 27:7 28°5 28°2 23°4 26°9 2671 — 0°5 | — 16°6 9
Wik 19°9 2671 29°6 22:5 24:5 | 25°8 — 08 | — 24-7 10
12 25:3 30°3 27:0 2771 27:4 | 27:2 + 06 | — 24:0 11
13 27°6 30°5 30°7 29°3 29°5 — — — —

23. The converse arrangement of the yearly rainfall at eleven stations
gives the following results.

Taste VIII.—Continent of Europe-—Minimum years in 8th line.

5, : Mean Rain ‘| q Years of
Years | 1836-48 | 1849-61 | Means Cycle Var. Spot Var. Cycle
m.m. m.m. m.m. m.m. m.m.
1 660 668 664 —- — -= —
2 ews 817 767 726 + 40 + 44:7 1
3 676 73 706 718 + 32 + 30°0° 2
4 739 648 693 694 + 8 +128 3
5 685 681 683 677 - 9 — 6:2 4
6 647 656 651 665 — 21 — 23-4 5
7 611 744 677 677 -— 9 — 37:3 6
8s 756 650 703 676 —10 — £1°0 7
9 743 499 621 653 — 33 + 30:0 8
10 735 603 669 665 — 21 + 70 9
11 714 692 703 698 + 12 + 18°6 10
12 704 735 719 700 + 14 + 375 11
13 687 636 661 —_— = — —

The above table has been derived from a paper by the late Dr. Carl
Telinek, of Vienna, published in the ‘Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen fiir
Meteorologie,’ for March, 1873, in which the rainfalls at fourteen stations
are given. Three of these stations, the returns for which are not com-
plete, have not been used in forming the table.

The mean rainfall for the mean cycle and also for the whole period
(1836-61) is 686 m.m.

The rainfall was at its minimum (33 m.m. below the mean) in the
year after the year of minimum sunspots, and at its maximum when the
sunspots were at their maximum.

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 237.

Considering that there are only two sunspot periods, the results may
be regarded as favourable. The rainfall and sunspots were both above
(+) or below (—) their respective means in the same years. ;

T have used Dr. Ielinek’s table in preference to a more extensive one,
because, like Mr. Symons’s table, it furnishes independent evidence.

24. In the next two tables the rainfall of Paris is compared with the
sunspots. The series of observations at this station is so long that eight
complete sunspot cycles might be taken, but, as objection has been made
to going back much farther than the time when Schawbe commenced his
observations, only four cycles are taken in one of these tables, and five
in the other.

Taste [X.—Paris——Maximum years in 6th line.

Mean | Rain} Spot |Yearsof

Years |1824-36|1832-44|1843-55|1855-67| Means Cycle | Var. Var. | Cycle
mm | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm, | mm,
1 572 456 542 344 478 — —_— — —_
2 469 503 571 565 527 502 —11 | — 37-2 1
3 410 421 581 492 476 493 — 20 | — 22°8 2
4 501 438 564 466 492 501 —12 /+ 44 3
5 585 611 430 545 543 541 + 28 | + 33:0 4
6 560 | 548 575 655 | 584 563 | +50 |+43°8) 5
7 573 542 597 458 543 554 + 41 | + 32°9 6
8 529 580 563 516 547 522 + 9 | + 143 7
9 456 455 469 426 452 487 — 26 |-— 29 8
10 503 527 597 366 498 472 — 41 | — 166 9
11 421 342 454 542 440 484 — 29 |— 247) 10
12 438 542 614 644 559 520 + 7 |—240/ 11
13 611 571 344 565 523 — —_ —- _—

The maximum rainfall’coincides with the maximum sunspots.

The mean of the mean cycle is 513 m.m., and the mean rainfall for the
whole period (1824-67) is 517 m.m.

As in the case of the annual means for forty-five stations (Table
VIL.), the rainfall is somewhat above the mean in the eleventh year of
the cycle.

25. The converse process is given in the following table.

Taste X.—Paris.—Minimum years in 8th line.

z Mean} Rain | Spot Years
oS po
S 1816-28/1826-38 1836—48]1849-61|1860-72| Means Cycle| Var. | Var. - of
: 'ycle
mm | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. |-mm.| mm.|] mm.
1 546 410 611 597 655 564 — — — _—
2 565 501 548 563 458 527 531 | + 20 | + 23:3 1
3 432 585 | 542 469 516 509 525 | + 14 | + 145 2
4 615 560 580 597 426 556 516 |+ 5|+ 4:8 3
5 378 573 455 454 366 445 501 |—10|— 56 4
6 584 529 527 614 542 559 501 |— 10 |— 19:0 5
7 424 456 342 344 644 442 492 | — 19 | — 32°5 6
8 457 503 542 565 565 526 | 502 | — 9 | —37°1 7
9 572 491 571 492 512 514 510°} — 1 | — 25-4 8
10 | 469 438 581 466 ATT 486 499 |— 2] + 18 9
11 410 611 564 545 418 510 510 |— 1j|+ 309} 10
12 501 548 430 655 527 532 535 | + 24 |+ 448] 11
13 | 585 542 575 458 671 566 a — — —

238 ' REPORT—1878.

The rainfall decreases till the sixth year of the mean cycle, that is,
the year before that of minimum sunspots, and then increases to the
eleventh year.

The mean of the mean cycle is 511 m.m., and the mean rainfall from
1816 to 1872 is 515 m.m.

26. As another example of the rainfall variation. at a single station on
the Continent of Europe, I will take Prague from 1832 to 1867.

Taste XI.—Prague.—Maximum years in 6th line.

Mean Rain Spot |Yearsof

Years | 1832-44 | 1843-55 | 1855-67 | Means Cycle Var Var Cycle

in. in. in. in. in, in,
1 10°8 17°5 17-7 15:3 — — — aes
2 19°3 23°6 14:9 19°3 17:0 + 05 — 42:1 1
3 101 17°5 14:9 14-2 15°6 -— 09 — 27°5 2
4 10:4 18°5 15°5 14:8 15°8 — 07 + 35 3
5 16°6 23°3 19-1 19°7 18-2 +17 + 38°2 4
6 18°6 16:9 20:6 18°7 18'2 +1:7 +50°9 5
if 15:9 15:7 16°5 16:0 17°5 + 1:0 + 36:5 6
8 18°6 20°5 18°9 19°3 17°6 +11 + 16:3 7
9 14:6 18°4 14:7 15°9 16°3 — 02 + 05 8
10 18°8 14:5 9-4 14:2 14°4 — 21 — 12°5 9
11 9-4 18°6 121 13°4 14:5 — 2:0 — 26:3 10
12 175 16-4 175 171 16°6 + O01 — 38-4 11
13 23°6 17-7 15:5 18°9 — — — —

The maximum rainfall coincides with the maximum sunspots.

The mean rainfall for the mean cycle is 16°5 inches, and 16:6 inches:
for the period 1832-67.

The variation is less regular than at Edinburgh and Paris, but we
have only three periods.

27. The next table shows the converse rainfall variation for Prague.

Taste XIJ.—Prague.—Minimum years in 8th line.

Years |1836-48|1849-61| Means Orale Rain Var. | Spot Var. one
in. in. in. in, in.
1 166+)! 15-70) 0164 ahi 2 2% ji
2 186 | 265 | 225 | 195 | +20 + 48:8 1
3 19 | 184 | 171 | 180 | +05 + 29°6 2
4 186 | 145 | 165 | 166 | —09 4 124 3
5 46 |:'186°| 166 | 168 | —07 OG 4
6 188 |..164 | 76. | 163°) _— 12 — 23:8 F
7 94 | 177 | 135 | 182 | —23 ~ 377 6
8 17'5 14:9 16:2 16°2 —-13 —41°4 7
9 936 | 149 | 192 | 177 +O ~ 305 8
10 76 | 155 | 165. | 177 | +02 Ws ante 9
ul is5 | 191 | 188 | 190 | 415 18-2 10
12 23:3 | 206 | 219 | 198 4 23 + 37-1 ml
13 169 | 165 | 167 | — ES mes +

On the whole the rainfall decreases to the sixth year of the cycle, and
then increases to the eleventh.

The mean of the mean cycle is 17:5 inches, and the mean rainfall
from 1836 to 1861 is 17-4 inches.

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 239

IV.—The Levels of Rivers of Central Europe compared with the Sunspots.

28. A paper by Herr Gustav Wex, ‘ On the Decrease of Water in the

Wells, Streams, and Rivers,’ published in 1873, contains a number of
Tables, giving the yearly mean heights (or depths) of water in the Elbe,
Rhine, Oder, Vistula, and Danube, for various periods from 1728 to
1871.
_ Having been favoured with a copy of that important paper, I have
compared the annual mean levels of the rivers with the sunspots, in the
same manner as the rainfall has been compared, and the results are given
in the next five tables.

Taste XIII.—Depths of Rivers:—Maximum years in 6th line.

Pa 25 o 3 nS 5 a ® H + (aus
eee oor aet ota | ah @ |'Se) Be bed lee
b|1g11| & 3 % Py 3 ie bk Sued ele ie ele cles
— — 1 —_ a bb
ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in.| ft. in.| ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. ft. in.
1/8 02/4 10°8)6 87/4 11:0/6 1:3)7 2516 3-7) — — — —
215 O7/6 51/6 43/6 02)7 3:0)4 1171/6 O1/6 09; O 00] — 26:2) 1
317 T6l6 83/5 9415 646 6-2/3 8-2)5 11:7)/5 10-7) —0O 2:2}—141] 2
4\6 64/6 2816 63/4 O7/6 42/4 09/5 76,5 9:3)—0 36|/+ 5:4) 3
516 8416 48/7 02/4 9:06 0-3/4 3°8/5 10:-4/6 2:0) +0 11] + 261) 4
6\'8 7°2'8 6:5|8 8.8/7 2°14 6°6| 6 2°38|7 3°7\|6 9°3' +0 8'4'+ 347; 5
718 3917 GOT 55/6 665 O5)4 71/6 7116 9:2) + 0 83) + 25-9) 6
818 17/6 O9)7 45/7 366 9:9/3 76/6 67/6 44.4+035]}4+ 99] 7
9/7 1:2)5 10:2)4 11:0)/7 4:7|/6 85|2 61/5 9°0)5 10°6|—0 23);— 3:7) 8
10/6 75)6 O8/6 O2/6 2:05 75/4 48/5 98/5 9:6) -—0 3:3]/—141|] 9
11|7 1011/7 81/5 64/3 82)6 8-713 58/5 99/5 7:9) —0 5:0] — 21:2} 10
12/6 3:°9)5 53/4 0-7/6. 5:0) 5 100) 2 11°3)5 2:0/5 7:7) —0O 5:2) — 22-9/ 11
13/5 8115 77/4 90/8 767 25/6 46/6 4:6) — — — os

From 1799 to 1811 we have (in Austrian feet and inches) the levels
of the Rhine, Elbe, and Oder; from 1811 to 1823 those of the Rhine,
Elbe, Oder, and Vistula; from 1824 to 1844 those of the Elbe and
Vistula; and from 1843 to 1867 those of the Elbe, Vistula, and Danube.

As might have been expected from the results for the rainfall of
Europe (Table VII.), the maximum height or level was attained in the
mean year of maximum sunspots, and, as a rule, the rivers fluctuated
with the sunspots. .

The mean of the mean cycle is 6 ft. 0°9 inches, and for the whole
period (1799 to 1867) the mean is 6 ft. 1°8 inches.

If we omit the years 1799 to 1811, as being in the opinion of some
too early, we still get similar results, and likewise similar results for the
still later periods 1824-67.

29. The converse process gives the following results :—

In the next table we have the Rhine, Elbe, and Oder from 1804 to
1816; the Rhine, Elbe, Oder, and Vistula from 1817 to 1829; the Elbe
and Vistula from 1827 to 1839; the ‘Elbe, Vistula, and Danube from
1850 to 1862; and the Vistula and Danube from 1861 to 1871.

The levels in the years of minimum sunspots are placed in the seventh
line, because the river variation was found to overlap the sunspot varia-
tion to a considerable extent. "

240 REPORT—1878.

Taste X[V.—Depths of Rivers.—Minimum years in 7th line.

© o EA a = £ oH
Peli Ta a a ik 7 itt 5 gaa] Ss 248 alles
s = — xs — i) qo s og 538 2.8 eh
Hl & oO o % o B Ss | ao | ee ane | 30
I co ce onl a al 4
ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in Tipe
1/8 7217 69)6 63/7 21/8 80.4 2:2)7 14) — — = SY
2/8 3916 0-9/7 02/6 66/8 463 15/6 69/6 82) + 0 56) +164] 1
3/8 1:7/5 1102/8 88/7 36/7 1:6)1 90/6 58/6 7:5)+049)+ 53) 2
417 1216 O817 55/7 4:7)9 61/4 4:8/6 11°8)6 86) +060)— 54] 38
516 7517 S17 45/6 2-0/7 63/3 34/6 53/6 4:2) +016)—177| 4
6|6 10°55 53/4 11:0/3 8-2/9 95/2 67/5 65/5 10°77) —0 3:9) — 276] 5
7\5 7°8\5 7°7\6 0°2|6 5°O|6 5°5|6 2'5|/6 0'8/511°4| —03°2| —31'0| 6
8/5 3:66 10:7/5 64/8 7:6/5 6°7/4 10°7/6 1°6/5 11:3) —0 3:3} — 21:8] 7
9/6 53/5 11:5)4 O7|/7 1:2/5. 51/3 86/5 54/5 81)—-0 65| + O04] 8
10/6 2:95 2-7/4 9:0/7 53/5 91/5 8-2/5 10-2)5 11-4) — 0 3:2| + 238) 9
11/5 11:3/6 78/7 21/5 11°6/8 63/5 8916 80/6 3:4) + 0 0°8| + 33:2) 10
12/5 10:0\6 8416 6:6)4 7:8)6 O02) — |5 11:4/6 3-6) + 0 1:0) + 30°0} 11
13/8 17/8 OO|}7 365 45/4 51) — |6 7:3) — — — —

The lowest level is attained two years after the mean year of mini-
mum sunspots.

The mean of the mean cycle is 6 ft. 2°6 inches, and for the years 1804
to 1871 the mean level is 6 ft. 3°6 inches.

30. Taking the Elbe alone, we get the following results :—

Tapte XV.—Depths of the Elbe.-—Maximum years in 6th line.

Mean | River Spot /Yearsof
Years |1824-36)1832—44|1843-55)1855-67| Means Cycle | Var. Vor. Gycle
ft. in, | ft. ims) ft.in.) ft. in. | ft. in.) £. in. | ft) in:

1 6110} 5 00| 7 2:0|7 7:0)6 80) — aa a wes
2 6 3216 40! 7 90/6 0O0| 6 7:0} 6 4:1)+0 31] — 37:2 1
3 5 73\5 87)16 40| 4 7:0| 5 G67] 5 10:0|/—0 3:0} — 22:8 2
4 7 14/4 #1:5/6 40/5 00|5 77) 5 86/—0 44] + 4:4 3
5 7 $2\4 90) 6 90|5 00] 6 06] 6 1:4/+0 0-4] + 33:0 4
6 7 1141/7 2°05 3°0'6 7:06 89/6 6:3|/+05°:3\+43°3 5
7 7 80! 7 00) 5100) 5100) 6 70) 6 87\+0 7:7) + 32:9 6
8 8 00/7 60/7 50/5 20) 7 02)6 72/40 62) +4 14:3 v/
9 5 00/5110! 7 7:0|4 9:0] 5 97) 6 15/+005)— 2:9 8
10 6 4016 50| 6 5:0] 4 50) 5107/5 8&4/—0 46) — 16:6 9
11 5 $7|4 50/6 80) 4 1:0) 5 27) 5 58\/—0 7:2) — 24:7] 10
12 4 15|)7 2:0|7 00) 4 10! 5 71|5 94/—0 3:6] — 24:0 11
13 4 9017 9:0} 7 70/6110|6 90; — — pad, rae

The mean maximum level (6 ft. 8°7 inches) is attained soon after the
maximum sunspots.

The mean depth for the mean cycle is 6 ft. 1:0 inches, and for the
whole period 6 ft. 2°2 inches.

31. The converse arrangement gives the following results for the
Elbe :—

The lowest mean level occurs about two years after the epoch of
minimum sunspots (as in Table XIV.), and there is a considerable
amount of overlapping, the river lagging behind the sunspots.

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL.

92

~

41

The mean for the mean tycle is 6 ft. 4:7 inches, and also 6 ft. 4:7
inches for the years 1816 to 1861.

Taste XVI.—Depths of the Elbe.—Minimum years in 8th line.

Mean | River

Years |1816-28 1826-38/1836-48/1849-61} Means Cycle | Var.
fein. |tb. in. | Tit, THe etbeine eth, wos thy ae | tba:

1 7 35!) 5 7:3/| 4 9:0] 5 10:0] 5 10-4 — —
2 6. 76).7 1:4] 7 20) 7 50] 7 10/6 87/+0 40
3 5 28)7 8217 00/7 7:0] 6105) 7 0:2/+0 7:5
4 7 O7| 7114) 7 60! 6 5:0] 7 2:8] 6 11:1/+0 6-4
5 5 32|)7 80) 511:0)} 6 80/6 45/6 9:5/+0 4:8
6 7 49!)8 00/6 50/7 00] 7 2:5) 6 75/40 2:8
7 5106; 5 00} 4 50|7 70)5 86]6 26/—0O 2:1
8 5 546 4:0'7 2'0'6 0:0|'6 2°86 1:3\-03°4
9 6110; 5 87|/7 90) 4 7416 3:0!16 05|—0 4:2
10 6 32) 4 15/6 40/5 0015 5215 7:6/—0 91
11 5 73/4 9:0] 6 40/5 00] 5 51)5 95!—0 7-2
12 7 14|7 20) 6 90! 6 7:0) 6 108] 6 5:0/+0 0:3

13 7 82) 7 00|5 3:0)5100/6 53] — —

H ro |
Saya ne

l+t++
aCe.

meet JOT Te

me nwwmwre
ORwnN :
SAVORS 1 HE GO HE Cr oo

|

Years of
Cycle

|

| Scag annewtor |

32. The next table gives the fluctuations of the Rhine from 1799 to

1835.

Taste XVII.—Depths of Rhine.—Maximum years in 6th line.
(aac SN RAR A ae PR OENPIOE

1799 to
1811
ECs
10 7:0
6 10:0
11 00
8 10°5
8 50
10 8°5
10 50
11 11°5
9 2:0
30
30
6:0
15

Years

CONQarwhoe

9
10
8
8

Mean River
1811-23 | 1824-36] Means Cycle Vat!
fi nie th eine Shia ne | tbe cine eben ane
8 1:5 11) 3*4:/ 10» 0:0 — —
9 02} 8 4:2! 8 O8!] 8 76/—0 2:8
8 14] 6 14] 8 49] 8 58/—-0 46
8 60; 9 93) 9 O06] 8 S1I—O 2:3°
7114) 8 3:4) 8 26] 9 05/40 21
12 4:2) 9 OL) 10 83/10 O-1/4+1 17
ll 41) 9 74/10 55/10 5:0/+1 66
8 34/10 11:3) 10 O07] 9 53/40 69
6 70; 5105) 7 2:5) 8 26/—0 7:8
7 G1) 8 32) 8 41] 8 2:6/—0 7:8
10 06} 6 78] 8118} 8 50!—O 5:4
611:7| 6 75) 7 4:4] 7 11:8/—0 106
8 40 — 8 27 — =

Spot
Var.

—_
> bo 63 |
Ondo od

HE Niro
DODDNOMOOD
a

fb ttrttt
DAW AN

1 |
Ree

Years of
Cycle

[FS |
RKPOSDADMRWHH

The Rhine attained its mean maximum level about one year after the
year of maximum sunspots.

The mean of the mean cycle is 8 ft.

1799 to 1836 is 8 ft. 8-2 inches.

V.—Rainfall of America compared with the Sunspots.

10°4 inches, and the mean for

33. The rainfall returns for America, thirty-four in number, have
been obtained from ‘Tables and Results of the Precipitation in Rain and
: Snow,’ published by the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1872).

.

1878.

R

242 REPORT— 1878.

Taste XVIII.—Rainfall of America.—Maximum years in 6th line.

No. of :
Stations} 7 a 2B ” Mean | Rain | Spot |Yearsof

—— Cycle | Var. | Var. | Cycle

Years |1824-36/1832-44|1843-55|1855-67

in. in. in. in. ines eine

is
B

1 39°0 409 42-9 42:4 | 41:3 —_ — — _
2 33°1 39-6 374 35°6 | 36°5 38°8 | — 2°8 | — 37:2 1
3 45:2 35°3 38:2 46:0 | 41:2 40°6 | — 1:0 | — 22°8 2
4 50:1 36:7 41°5 46:0 | 43°6 425 | +09 |]+ 4:4 3
5 34:3 391 45°5 47-7 | 41°6 421 | + 0:5 | + 33:0 4
6 53°11 | 35°4 | 40°0 | 37°8 | 41°6 | 41°8 | + 0°2/+43'8 5
7 51:0 37°3 39:0 42:4 | 42-4 42°9 | + 1:3 | + 32:9 6
8 52°6 37°2 46°5 44-4 | 45-2 43°6 | + 2:0 | + 143 7
9 45-2 40:2 367 44-3 | 41°6 424 |} +08 |— 2:9 8
10 388 43°8 43-1 39°2 | 41:2 41:3 | — 0:3 | — 16°6 9
11 39°1 41:5 39°9 44:0 | 41-1 40°9 | —07 |— 247] 10
12 38°7 42:5 38°9 407 | 40:2 402 | —14]— 240] 11
13 381 36:2 41-1 42°8 | 39°5 —_ = = ae

The maximum rainfall occurs about two years after the maximum
sunspots.

The mean rainfall for the cycle is 41°6 inches, and for the forty-four
years 41.3 inches.

34. From the converse process we get the following table :—

TasLE XIX.—Rainfall at ten stations in America, from 1849 to 1861.—
Minimum year in 8th line.

Mean Rain Spot Years of
oS seis! Cycle Var. Var. Cycle
in. in. in,
ul 38-0 — — — —
2 48°8 43-2 + 1-4 + 26°9 1
3 375 41-2 — 06 + 146 2
4 41°3 40:0 —18 + 41 3
5 40:0 40:0 —18 — 100 4
6 39-0 40-1 —17 — 25°6 5
7 42-4 39°8 — 2:0 — 373 6
8s 35°7 39'9 —1'9 — 37°4 7
a 46-0 43-4 + 1:6 — 20°9 8
10 46:0 46-4 - +46 + 8&8 9
11 4AT‘7 44:8 + 3:0 + 35-4 10
12 37°8 41-4 — 0-4 + 41°8 11
13 42-4 — = a a

The minimum rainfall took place at the time of minimum sunspots.

The mean of the mean cycle is 41-8 inches, and the mean from 1849
to 1861 is 41-7 inches.

35. The longest series of observations was made at New Bedford.
galene the period 1824-67, we get the following results for that
station :—

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL.

243

Tape XX.—Rainfall at New Bedford.—Maximum years in 6th line.

Years |1824—36)1832—44/1843-55|1855-67| Means

1 42°]
2 33°9
3 48°7
4 55:9
5 34:7
6 581
7 57°5
8 54-4
9 438
10 37-9
11 40-1
12 42:0
13 38:1

Mean | Rain

Cycle | Var.
in. in. in, in.
36°4 418 — —
33°0 352 38:7 | — 3:2
38°6 42°5 407 | —1:2

44°6 38°6 404 | —1°5
38°5* | 43:3 411 | —08
456 39-1 — —

* Interpolated.

ll++t+t+41 1

|

Spot |Yearsof
Var.

moRPoe rw

nonwre

|

2 |

HH 2 ROH BS (gg Co Re tS

See SES eo Os

Cycle

=
HOODIA wr |

The maximum rainfall occurs about two years after the maximum of
sunspots, and the minimum rainfall near the time of minimum sunspots.

The mean of the cycle, and also for the period 1824-36, is 41°9 inches.
_ 36. By the converse arrangement, the rainfall of New Bedford is least
_ near the epoch of minimum sunspots, but generally the variation is

irregular.

VI.—Rainfall at Stations in India compared with the Sunspots.
As yet the rainfalls of only a few stations in India have been examined.

Taste XXIJ.—Rainfalls of India.—Maximum years in 6th line.

No. of
Stations

Years |1824-36/1832-44

in.
33°8
64:1
69°6
84:7
799
51:2
52-1
73:0
46°2
10 54:2
11 547
12 52:0
13 66-4

CONngqurwhoe

in.
ATT
56:4
59°3
63°2
59°4
52°5
52:0
63°9
60°4
63°3
69°3
57°6
68:2

Rain
Var.

Spot |Years of
Var.

Cycle

| 5

[++] 1) +++]

wIOOSHM mom
WONHAMNARAHS

[tebe se £1

bo 2 |
Sa

moo Ras
HAH > bo HE DW Co

bopper

|

SAADRSHWdSHOLAN

t=
HSOOCDIA MP Woe |

The mean rainfalls of Bombay and Madras are taken from 1824 to

1836; of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta from 1832 to 1855; and of

Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, and Nagpur from 1855 to 1867.

37. In the year of maximum sunspots the rainfall is somewhat below

the average, and there seems to be a tendency toa double oscillation of the

rainfall during the sunspot period, the principal maximum occurring a
R 2

244 REPORT—1878.

year or so before the epoch of maximum sunspots, with a small minimum
and maximum between the principal maximum and the principal minimum.
But this apparent irregularity may be owing to the fewness of the
observations.

The mean of the mean cycle is 60°3 inches, and of the rainfall for
the whole period 59°3 inches.

38. In the next table the rainfall of Madras is omitted, but the
general results are still the same.

TapLeE XXII.—Rainfall of India.—Maximum years in 6th line.

No. of 2 2 3
Stations Mane Mean | Rain | Spot |Yearsof
SS jl €ans! Qycle | Var. | Var. | Cycle
Ni 1824-36 | eee a 1855-67
in. in. | in. in. in. in. in.
1 34-0 62°4 61:3 45:2 50:7 a _ —_- —
2 72-2 66-0 69°5 58-2 66°5 | 62:0 | — 6:3 | — 37-2 1
3 78'5 69°6 57°9 51:2 64:3 | 664 | — 19 | — 22°8 2
4 81-0 74-0 75:2 51-4 704] 713 | +30) +4 44 3
5 122:0 66°7 74:2 58-4 80°3 | 72:7 | + 4:4 | + 33:0 4
6 65°6 | 54°11 | 67°3 53'1 | 60°0| 67°9 | — 0°4| + 43°83 5
7 719 51:9 92°7 69-0 71-4 | 69°3 | + 1:0 | + 3279 6
8 101°8 69°3 63:3 63-4 744 | 72:0 | + 3:7 | + 143 7
9 741 61:2 77°6 58-7 679 | 692 | +09 |— 2-9 8
10 714 65°8 75°3 52°9 66-4 | 67-2 | —11 | — 166 9
11 70°5 856 57:3 59-2 68:2 | 669 | —14]— 247] 10
12 62°6 61:3 74:3 61:7 650 | 66:8 | —15|— 240] 11
13 88-0 69°6 55'8 62°9 69-1 =

39. The next table gives the rainfall of Bombay and Madras from
1816 to 1838; of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta from 1836 to 1861; and
of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta from 1860 to 1872.

Taste XXIII.—Rainfall of India.—Minimum years in 8th line.

No. of 5 ‘ a
Stations x : : M Mean| Rain] Spot |2-9
ans! Cycle| Var. | Var. | oO
| Years |1816—28/1826-838 1836-48]1849-61|1860-72 a
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. ant
1 55:6 69-6 59°3. 751 46:7 | 61:3 — ~- — —
2 83:6 84:7 52°5 54-5 61:0 | 67°3 66:0 |+ 4:9 |4+23°3 i
3 78°6 79°9 52-0 73:2 571 | 68:2 66°71 }+ 5:0 |4+14°5 2
4 57:0 51-2 63-9 745 57-7 | 608 | 61:3 |+ 07]+ 48] 3
5 73°6 52-1 60:4 50°2 51:5 | 576 59°9 |— 1:2 |— 56 4
6 64:8 730 63°3 63°9 548 | 63:9 61-7 |+ 0°6 |—19:0 5
7 85°9 46°2 69°3 47-9 591 | 61:7 60°2 |— 0°9 |—32°5 6
8 441 | 54°2 | 57°6 | 59°0 | 53°3 |53°6 | 55°6|— 5'5|~37°1| 7
9 33'8 54:7 67°9 57-7 53°6 | 53°5 53°8 |— 7:3 |—25°4 8
10 64:1 52:0 51:2 56°9 49:5 | 54:7 57-7 |— 34 1+ 1:8 9
11 69-6 66-4 7607 63:2 634 | 67:9 63°9 | + 2°8 |4+30°9 | 10
12 84:7 569 76°5 50°3 578 | 65:2 65°6 |+ 4°5 |}4+44°8 | 11
13 79:9 515 63°1 63°7 63°9 | 64:4

The minimum rainfall occurs very nearly at the epoch of minimum
sunspots, but there are still indications of a double oscillation.

The mean for the cycle is 61:1 inches, and of the rainfall for the whole
period 61:5 inches.

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 245

40. For Bombay alone we have the following results :—

TasLE XXIV.—Rainfall of Bombay.—Maximum years in 6th line.

Years |1824-36|1832-44|1843_55/1855-67| Means eae elt ee Tru.
in. in. in. iriewe | cane in. in.
1 | 3t0 | 741 | 593 | 412 | 521 | - we
29 | 792 | 71-4 | 654 | 669 | 687 | 633 | —90/—372| 1
3 | 735 | 705 | 547 | 51:3 | 637 | 665 | —5:8|—228| 2
4 | so} 626 | 739 | 624 | 700] 736 |4+13/+ 44] 3
5 |1220 1 880 | 760 | 77-2 | 908 | 796 |+73|+330| 4
6 65°6 64°6 75:9 62:1 67:0 75'S | +3°5 |+43°8 5
7 | 71-9] 508 | 1149 | 769 | 786 | 747 | +2414 329| 6
s |1018 | 736 | 502 | 736 | 748 | 761 | +38/+143] 7
9 | 741 | 631 | 911 | 77-7 | 765 | 730 |+07/—- 29] 8
10 | 71-4 | 71:5 | 693 | 456 | 644 | 704 | —19|—166| 9
1 | 705 | 952 | 626 | 778 | 765 | 72:0 | —03|— 247] 10
12 | 626 | 593 | s21 | 7841] 706 | 704} —1:9|—240] 11
ios) 880 | les4-} ‘4i-9.| 6938 || e42 |) — |) — Diss ORs

The rainfall is at its maximum about a year before the time of
maximum sunspots.

The mean of the cycle is 72°3 inches, and of the rainfall for the
forty-four years 71:4 inches.

If the minimum years be placed in the eighth line, it will be found
that the minimum rainfall occurs a little after the minimum of sunspots,
and that it is eleven inches below the mean, but, generally, the variation
is rather irregular.

41. The Madras rainfall gives the following results :—

Taste XXV.—Madras.—Maximum years in 6th line.

mn 3 Years
S |1811~23|1824-36]1832-44/1843-55|1855~67|1865-77|Means| ean | VAN | op
BH : yele| tion Cvel
'yele
| in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
Pie l-s3-7 | 184 | -60-3:| 999 | 40-6 aba | om oe fe
2| — | 560 |-371 | 65-4 | 47:0 | 51-4 | 51-4 | 453 | —32] 4
3| 451 | 607 | 390 | 381 | 529 | 244 | 434 | 483 | 02] 2
4] 394 | 884] 415 | 798 | 49:5 | 41-4 | 553 | 513 | +28] 3
5| 560 | 379 | 448 | 810 | 551 | 323 | 512 | 512 | 427] 4
6 41:2 36:9 49:3 54'8' 27°6 74:1| 47:3| 48:1; — 0-4 5
7| 636 | 324 | 523 | 398 | 372 | 563 | 469 | 487 | +02] 6
8| 762 | 443 | 531 | 369 | 382 | 73-7 | 537 | 504 | +19] 7
9| 363 | 184 | 586 | 643 | 546 | 51:8 | 473 | 515 | +30] 8
10| 700 | 371 | 583 | 727 | 472 | 629 | 580 | 507 | +22] 9
11| 471 | 390 | 365 | 388 | 41:6 | 37:1 | 395 | 45-4 | —31] 10
12| 596 | 41:5 | 50:3 | 43:2 | 51-4 | 215 | 446 | 491 | —64] U1
13| 266 | 448 | 65-4 | 323 | 244 | 450 |397 | — | — | —

Here we have evidence of a double oscillation in the rainfall.

The mean of the rainfall from 1813 to 1877, and also for the cycle is
48°5 inches.

As a matter of fact, the Madras rainfall is below its mean when the
sunspots are at their maximum.

42. The following results are obtained for Madras by the converse
arrangement.

246 REPORT—1878.

TasLe XXVI.—Madras.—Minimum years in 8th line.

a 4 Years
S /1816-28|1826-38]1836-48 1849-61/1860-72} Means | Ca" | Rain | Spot
= 'ycle| Var. ar. | Cycle
iF ane es in in in. in in in, i
1| 412 | 607 | 447 | 398 | 276 | 428] — | — | — | —
2| 636] 884] 493 | 369 | 372 | 551 | 51-7 |4+27|4 233] 1
3| 762 | 379 | 523 | 643 | 382 | 538 | 523 14+3:3\+ 145] 2
4| 363 | 369] 531 | 727 | 546 | 507 | 510 |+20\+ 48] 3
5| 700 | 324 | 586] 358 | 472 | 488 | 488 |-o2/— 56| 4
6| 471 | 443 | 583 | 432 | 41:6 | 469 | 455 |—35|-190] 5
7| 596 | 184 | 365 | 323 | 51-4 | 396 | 408 |—s2/—325| 6
8 26'°6| 37:1 | 50°3 47:0 24°24; 37:1 | 40°0 |— 9:0, — 37°1| 7
9| 337 | 390] 654 | 529 | 41-4 | 465 | 433 | 57/954] 8
10| 560 | 415 | 380 | 485 | 323 | 4341490 | oo|+ 18| 9
11] 60:7 | 448 | 798 | 551 | 741 | 629 | 57-4 | + 8-4/4 309 | 10
12| 884 | 495 | 81:0 | 276 | 563 | 605 | 588 | +9:8/4+ 448 | 11
13 | (379 | 623 | 648| 872 | 737 | sa! — |. — | tp

The rainfall is least when the sunspots are fewest, and (apparently)
greatest when the spots are most numerous, but this last result probably
arises from the maximum years not being all in the same series.

The mean rainfall of the cycle is 49-0 inches, and the mean rainfall
from 1816 to 1872 is 49-1 inches.

43. The rainfall of Calcutta, as far as is known, is greater in the years
of minimum than in those of maximum sunspots.

VII.—Rainfall at Stations in the Southern Hemisphere compared with the
Sunspots.

44, The observations obtained from this part of the world are few in
number, and the periods also few, but the results, when compared with
those of the northern hemisphere, are interesting.

TasLeE XXVII.—Rainfall at five stations in the Southern Hemisphere,
from 1855 to 1867.—Maximum year in 6th line.

PD 2 3 ra
i HH
- ebecbe ies Se) | caeitee
n a ‘3S 12) () 2 a5,
é Ea hae Fie Ml tues wel a mete od) dese) Cee 3 | 8°
Pal ies Malis fie cles ol Sef [eset | od) eel
in. in. | in. in. in in in. in.
1855 42-7 | 24°6 | 23:1 | 28:2 | 52°8 | 34:3 — — 4 =
1856 46°2 | 21°9 | 24-9 | 29-7 | 43:3 | 33-2 | 33-5 |—O1 | — 39-2 1
1857 43°4 | 22-7 | 21°2 | 28:9 | 50°99 | 33:4 | 32°33 |—1:3 | — 22-7 2
1858 35°3 | 24:1 | 21°5 | 26:0 | 39°6 | 29°3 | 323 |—13] + 7:0 3
1859 72-1 | 36:7 | 14°8 | 21:8 | 42:0 | 37:5 | 36°38 |+ 3:2 | + 33°5 4
1860 57°3 | 29'1| 19°7 | 25°4| 82°8| 42°9 42:0 + 84 + 40°0 5
1861 87:1 | 25-4 | 25-1 | 29:1 | 58-4 | 45-0 | 40:0 |+ 6:4 | + 28:4 6
1862 36°0 | 32-0 | 22°9 | 22:1 | 24:0 | 27-4 | 33°6 00 | +118 7
1863 42-4 | 25:6 | 228 | 36:4 | 47-1 | 34:9 | 325 |—11/] — 02 8
1864 30°6 | 18:9 | 188 | 27-4 | 69:1 | 33:0 | 31-7 |—1:9 | — 76 9
1865 56-7 | 18-7 | 14:7 | 15:9 | 36:3 | 28:5 | 266 |— 7:0 | —17°8 10
1866 | 25:1 | 19-2 | 19-8 | 22-4 | 36:8 | 24-7 | 279 |— 5:7 | — 32°0 11
1867 | 42:0 | 23:0 | 19-2 | 25:8 | 59:7 | 33:9 — — — _

The rainfall and sunspots are at their maximum about the same time.

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 247

The mean rainfall of the cycle is 33°6 inches, and for the years 1855
to 1867 it is 33°7 inches.

45. The next table gives the results obtained by the contrary arrange-
ment. From 1848 to 1860 we have the rainfalls of the Cape, Adelaide,
and Sydney; and from 1859 to 1871 the rainfalls of the same three
stations, and of Mauritius, Brisbane, and Melbourne.

Taste XXVIII.—Rainfall at three and six stations in Southern Hemi-
sphere.—Minimum years in 9th line.

Years | 1848-60 | 1859-71 | Means Hae Rain Var.| Spot Var. ea
in. in. in. in. in.
1 313 34:5 32°9 = = = _—
2 23°8 42°8 33°3 34:7 + 2:0 + 40°5 1
3 32°6 46°1 39°3 34°8 + 21 + 23°8 2
4 28-7 26:3 27:5 32:3 — 0-4 + 94 3
5 31-4 39:0 35°2 32°6 — O1 — 19 4
6 31-4 34:2 32°8 311 —16 — 126 5
a 21°5 25:7 236 | 27-4 — 53 — 26:0 6
8 33°5 26:0 29-8 29°2 — 35 — 38°5 7
9 30°0 37°% 33°7 32°42 — 0-3 | — 38°6 s
10 31°6 33°8 32°7 33°0 + 0°3 — 18-9 9
11 28°4 37°9 33-1 34°4 +17 + 16°6 10
12 31-2 458 38°5 37-4 + 4:7 + 461 11
13 43-9 35°5 39°7 = = == =

The minimum rainfall occurs about a year before the epoch of
minimum sunspots, and (apparently) the maximum rainfall about the
time of maximum sunspots.

The mean for the cycle is 32°7 inches, and for the period 1848 to 1871
it is 32°9 inches.

46. The next two tables are formed by taking Australia alone for
single sunspot periods.

TapLbE XXIX.—Rainfall at four stations in Australia, from 1865 to
1877.—Maximum year in 6th line.

Years |Brisbane|Melbourne|Adelaide |Sydney | Means Ms ah Sa er Heer
in. in. in. in. in.

1865| 24-1 15:9 22-7 | — — = —_
1866} 51:2 22-4 32°5 | 32-0 | — 5°7| — 39-7 1
1867| 61:0 25°8 41-4 | 36:0 | — 1:7| — 39°9 2
1868| 36:0 18:3 288 | 33:5 | — 4:2) — 169 3
1869| 54-4 24°6 35:2 | 37-3 | — 0-4) + 24:3 4

1870, 79°1 33°38 50:2 | 43°3 | + 5°6|/+ 56°9 5
1871| 45:4 30-2 37:8 | 40°3 | + 2°6| + 57°6 6
1872} 49:2 32°5 35:5 | 38°6 | + 09) + 381 7
1873| 62:0 25°6 456 | 41:0 | + 3°3| + 12°4 8
1874| 38-7 281 37-4 | 41-2 | + 3°5| — 13°9 9
1875; 67:0 32°9 44-4 | 39-1 | + 14| — 34-1 10
1876| 53-4 23:9 30:4 | 33-0 | — 4:7| — 45°0 11
1877| 31:2 24-1 26°5 | — — _ _—

Considering the fewness of the observations, and the shortness of the
period of observation, the results are rather remarkable. The variation
is irregular; yet the maximum and minimum rainfalls occur at or near
the epochs of maximum and minimum sunspots.

248 REPORT—1878.

The mean rainfall for the cycle is 37-7 inches, and for the period 36:0
inches.

47. From the rainfalls at the same stations we get the following
results for 1859 to 1871 :—

TaBLE XXX.—Rainfall at four stations in Australia, from 1859 to
1871.—Minimum year in 9th line.

Years | Brisbane Melbourne Adelaide| Sydney |Means Or ae nae oa fora
in. in, in. in. in. in. in.

1859) 35-0* 21°8 14:8 42-0 28-4 — |— — —
1860} 54:6 25-4 19°7 82:8 45°6 | 41:2 |+ 49/4 33-0 1
1861} 69:4 29°1 25°1 584 45:5 | 40:2 |+ 3°9)+ 21-4 2
1862} 28-4 22-1 22-9 24-0 24:3| 34:5 |— 1:8/+ 4:8 3
1863} 68:8 36-4 22°8 47-1 43°8 | 381 |+ 1:8)— 7-2 4
1864 47:0 27-4 188 69-1 40°6 | 36:9 |+ 0°6)/— 14-6 5
1865) 24-1 15°9 14:7 36°3 22°7 | 28:7 |— 7:6)— 258 6
i} 1866} 37-2 22-4 19°8 36°8 29:0 | 30:5 |— 5:8|/— 39-0 7
(|1867) 61:0 25°83 19'2 $9°7 | 41°4) 35:1|—1°:2|/— 39°2 8
1868) 36-0 18°3 ile) 43°6 28°9 | 33°6 |— 2°7|/— 16-2 9
1869} 54:4 24:6 13°6 48°2 35-2 | 37:4 |+ 11/+ 25:0 | 10
1870) 79-1 33°8 23-9 64:5 503 | 43-4 |+ 7:1)+ 576] 11
1871} 45:4 30:2 23°5 52°1 37°8 — |} — — --

* Interpolated.

The minimum rainfall took place about a year before the minimum
sunspots, and the maximum rainfall about the time of maximum
sunspots.

The rainfall for the mean cycle is 363 inches, and 364 inches for the
years 1859 to 1871.

48. As an example of the rainfall variation at a single station in the
southern hemisphere, we may take the Cape observations. There are
only two periods, but the results, as given in the next two tables, are
significant.

TaBLE XXXI.—Cape of Good Hope (Observatory).—Maximum years
in 6th line.

Years | 1843-55 | 1855-67 | Means ee Rain Var.| Spot Var. poke
in. in, in. in, in.
1 24-8 246 247 = = = oe
2 18°8 21-9 20°3 2-7 | —23 | — 390 1
3 20:9 22°7 21:8 213 | —92 | —995 2
4 225 24-1 23-3 24-4 +04 | + 47 3
5 22-4 367 295 271 +31 | 43365 4
6 | 232 | 293 | 261 | 266 | +26/| +445] 5
7 24-6 25-4 25-0 27-2 +32 | +310 6
8 3355 32-0 32°7 28-3 443 | 4198 7
9 20°3 25:6 22-9 24-8 +08 | + 0-4 8
10 23-9 18:9 21-0 21-2 28 | — 86 9
ul 21-2 18-6 19-9 20:1 —39 | —207 | 10
12 20-0 192 | -19°6 207 | — 33.) sequen
13 246 22-9 23-7 is pa ee 23

The mean of the mean cycle is 24°0 inches, and 23:9 inches for the
years 1843 to 1867.
49. The converse arrangement gives the following results :—

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 249

Taste XXXII.—Cape of Good Hope (Observatory).—Minimum years

in 8th line.
Years | 1849-61 | 1860-72 | Means Oras oe he pee Ngee
in. in, in. in in,
1 24-6 29-1 26°8 ee Esk Bal ct
2 3355 2-4 294 | 279 | +33 | + 230 1
3 20°3 32-0 61 | 265 | +19 | + 86 2
ar 23-9 25-6 a4 | 237 | —09 | — 27 3
5 21-2 18-9 Dively Al pacsow k | = Bed 4
6 20-0 18-7 193 | 201 | —45 | — 268 5
7 246 19-2 a9 | 213 | —33 | — 393 6
8 21:9 23°0 22'4 22'3 — 2:3 —39-4 7
9 22-7 29-9 998 | 940 | —o6 | — 19-7 8
10 24-1 32-3 29 | 279 | 433 | + 158 9
re 36-7 28-1 99-4 | 99-4," () 4. Be ley 455%. [4010
12 29-1 201 246 \ STO | 4 ee aera) | 11
13 25-4 29:3 27-3 Bs ES fe x

The mean of the mean cycle is 24°6 inches, and the mean rainfall,
from 1849 to 1872, is 24-9 inches.

Tn both tables the rainfall and the sunspots are respectively below or
above their means in the same years.

VIII.—Oombinations of the preceding Results.

50. Combining some of the results now obtained, we get the following
table, from which it will be seen that the maximum and minimum
rainfalls apparently coincide with the maximum and minimum sunspots
respectively.

Taste XXXIITI.—Combination of Tables If1., VII., XVIII., XXI., and
XXVII.—Maximum years in 6th line.

n Contnt. Southern : : : Years
es Pied of /America| India| Hemi- |Means a a. Hale Baob of
va Europe sphere y : * | Cycle
in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in
1| 29:1 26°6 41:3 45:3 | 34:3 35:3 | — _— = =
2} 29°5 26°6 36°5 61:0 | 33-2 37-4 | 36:7 |— 2:0 |— 38-7 1
3 28°8 23°6 412 57:9 33-4 37:0 | 37:8 |— 0°9 |— 22:8 2
4 31:9 25°7 43°6 68°8 29°3 39°9 | 39°5 |+ O'S |+ 57 3
5 | 33-2 26°5 41°6 68-4 | 37°5 41-4 | 40°6 |+ 1:9 |+ 33-2 4
6; 321 | 29°5 41°6 | 53°42) 42°9 /|39:9 | 40:6 |+ 1:9|+41°9 5
7 | 32°6 25°8 42°4 60:0 | 45:0 41:2 | 405 |+ 1:8 |+ 30°5 6
8 | 34-2 29-4 45:2 62°1 | 27:4 39°7 | 39-2 |+ 1-1 |+ 13:0 7
9] 297 | 26:3 416 59-4 | 34:9 38-4 | 38°9 |+ 02 |+ 1:5 8
10 | 34:8 26°9 412 60:9 33°0 39:4 | 38:2 |— 0°5 |— 12:1 9
ink 28:2 | ° 24-5 411 57:2 28°5 35°9 | 36°9 |— 1:8 |— 21:2 10
12 | 31-6 27-4 40-2 581 | 24:7 36-4 | 36°7 |— 2:0 |— 28:0 | 11
13 30°1 29°5 39°5 58°9 33°9 38-4 = == = Sr

51, All the preceding tables have been formed in the manner described
in paragraphs 4, 5, and 7.

52. If it should be said that in the first half of the method the
sunspots and the rainfall for the minimum years are too much dispersed,
and that in the second half the sunspots and the rainfall for the maximum
years are also too much dispersed, the reply would be that the method

250 REPORT—1878.

gives well-marked sunspot cycles, and that in all the comparisons both
the sunspots and the rainfall have been subjected to exactly the same
treatment ; and it might be added that the amount of dispersion is much
less than it would be in a method in which both the maximum and the
minimum years were dispersed over more than one half of the common
cycle.

58. In order, however, to remove such a possible objection, I will, as,
far as possible, compare the rainfall with the sunspots, cycle by cycle,
from 1823 to 1867.

TaBLE XXXIV.—Comparison of rainfall with sunspots, from 1823 to
1834,—Maximum year (1829) in 7th line.

nm o
‘=| Ygn 2 n ws) os Es
ge / sss] ¢8 Boles fo) || ae a es

2 |eses |328 | 8S as a ei - @ 22

ss on | sex eS a S S AS 5 ao

o Ho Oley iv) g nN © iva) oO o oS 2, on

al oa | Oona an AN =| = G D ae)

in. in. in. in. in. in in.

1823 311 26°4 49°8 44-1 37°38 | — — — —
1824 30.9 27:7 39-0 33°8 32°8 | 35:0 | — 50 | — 314), 1
1825 26°6 22°8 33-1 64:1 36:6 | 36°55 | — 35 | — 213 2
1826 23°7 21-4 45-2 69°6 400 | 410} +10) — 58 3
1827 29°5 27:0 50°1 84:7 | 478 | 447 | +47) + OF 4
1828 33°0 25°6 34:3 799 43°2 | 43°7 | + 3°7 | + 205 5
1829| 28°7 29°3 53:1 51°2 40°6) 40'9| + O'9) + 25°7 6
1830 30°8 23:0 51-0 52-1 39-2 | 41-4 | +14 | + 25:0 7
1831 32°3 29-4 52°6 730 | 46:8 41:9 | + 1:9] + 12:9 8
1832 26:2 22°1 45-2 46:2 34:9 | 385 | —15| — 98 9
1833 29-7 27:7 38°8 54-2 376 | 361 | — 39 | — 25:5} 10
1834 24°5 19:9 39-1 54-7 345 — as a ——

The mean for the cycle is 40-0 inches, and for the whole period (1823
to 1834), the mean is 39°3 inches.

The rainfall reaches its maximum about two years before the year
of maximum sunspots, and its minimum at the time of minimum sun-
spots.

There is, apparently, a tendency to a double oscillation in the
rainfall.

The mean cycle corresponds with the years 1824 to 1833.

54, The variation for each country is given in the following table.

Table XXXV.—Rainfall variations from 1824 to 1833.

Years of Great Continent

Cycle Britain | of Europe America India Mean Var.} Spot Var.

1 + 08 + 08 — 43 -—171 — 5:0 — 31-4
2 — 21 —17 — 69 — 31 — 3°5 — 21:3
3 — 3:2 — 2-2 — 11 + 11:0 +11 — 58
4 — 01 -—O1 + 0-4 + 18-7 + 47 + OFT
5 + 2:0 +155 — 16 + 12-9 +37 + 20°5
6 + 1:3 + 1:5 + 3:3 — 24 + 09 + 25:7
7 +16 + 08 + 74 — 39 +15 + 25:0
8 + 14 + 06 + 58 0:0 +19 + 12°9
9 — 0-4 0-0 + 0:9 71 -— 16 — 98
10 — 15 —10 — 41 — 87 — 38 — 25°5

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 251

It will be seen that the variations for Great Britain and the Continent
are nearly alike, and that those for America and India show a tendency
to a double oscillation.

55. Taking now the sunspot period 1833 to 1844, we get the follow-
ing table :—

Taste XXXVI.—Comparison of rainfall with sunspots from 1833 to
1844,— Maximum year (1837) in fifth line.

g re 2 > E A 3 H Pa
aie ae) eeamby sewed ahs | Beets
S gas (sss Re a3 a a 22
meee eae! | pela lee.) 8 Z oe oe
Sloane oss: | 4S Fen = = s eS
in. in. in. in in. in. in
1833 29-4 28°8 39°6 56°4 38°5 es — _— —
1834 25°8 22-0 35°3 59°3 35°6 | 369 | —1°9 | — 356 1
1835 29-0 24-1 36°7 63°2 38:2! 380] —08 | + 33 2
1836 34:2 27°6 39°1 59-4 401 | 385 | —0O3 |) + 49-1 3
1837 26°2 28'7 35°4 52°'5 35°7| 36°9| — 1:9 | + 64°7 4
1838 28-4 27:8 37°3 52-0 36°4 | 373 |} —1:5 | + 47°6 5
1839 32-1 30°7 37:2 63°9 41:0 | 39-2 + 04 | + 23°8 6
1840 25°3 27°9 40:2 60:4 38-4 | 400] +12) + 20 ff
1841 34:1 28°5 43°8 63°3 42-4) 40:9 +21; —189)| 8
1842 24-9 26°1 41°5 69°3 404 | 408 | + 2:0 | — 349 9
1843 29°7 30°3 42°5 57°6 40:0 | 40-0 +12 | — 42:2; 10
1844 24:3 30°5 36-2 68:2 39°8 — — — —_—

The years of the mean cycle are 1834 to 1843.

The mean rainfall for the cycle is 38°8 inches, and for the years 1833
to 1844 it is 38°9 inches.

The rain increases from the first to the third year of the cycle,
but in the fourth decreases, rising again till the eighth year, and then
falling to the tenth. This indicates a double oscillation, as in Table
XXXIV.

The general results of the comparison, however, are unfavourable, the
maximum rainfall coinciding nearly with the minimum sunspots in the
ninth year, and the minimum rainfall with the maximum sunspots in the
fourth year of the cycle.

It will be seen by inspecting the columns for the mean rainfalls of the
several countries that these unsatisfactory results are mainly due to the
rainfalls of America and India, which are represented by ten and three
stations respectively.

56. Taking Great Britain and the Continent of Europe alone, the
results as given in next table are obtained.

The mean for the cycle and also for the years 1833 to 1844 is
28°2 inches.

The maximum rainfall occurs two years after the year of maximum
sunspot.

The minimum rainfall occurs, first, in the year of minimum sunspot
at the commencement of the cycle, and, again, nearly in the year of
minimum sunspot at the end of the cycle.

There is a tendency to a small second minimum about the time of
maximum sunspot.

252 REPORT—1878.

Table. XXXVII.—Comparison of the Rainfall of Europe with the sun-
spots from 1833 to 1844.—Maximum year (1837) in 5th line.

Years Baa Mean Cycle| Rain Var. Spot Var. oral Re
in. in. in.
1833 29°1 — —_ - —
1834 23°9 25°8 — 24 — 35:6 1
1835 26°5 26°9 — 1:3 + 33 2
1836 30°9 28°9 + 07 + 49-1 ae
1837 27°4 28'4 +0°2 +64'7 4
1838 28:1 28:7 + 0°5 + 476 5
1839 31°4 29°3 +11 + 23'8 6
1840 26°6 28:9 + 07 + 2:0 df
1841 31:3 28°6 + 0-4 — 18:9 8
1842 25°5 28:0 — 0-2 — 34-9 9
1843 30:0 28:2 0-0 — 42:2 10
1844 27-4 — — — —

As these results, derived from the rainfalls at thirty-seven stations are
decidedly favourable, the results in Table XXXVI. must be regarded as
only partially unfavourable.

57. For the next sunspot cycle we get the following results :—

Taste XXXVIII.—Comparison of rainfall with sunspots from 1843 to
1857.—Maximum year (1848) in 6th line.

aH | _
ale 8| 8 | a | ea 3

Bj) BEs (Son se | Se |Se eg i eS ee ere

6 (oe? (ee?) o@ | ce |ebo) 8 | 8 |g lee les
bh |Omn ORR 4 ES o |ania| & = ee mn |HO

Tk cP fens aae in. in. in. in. in. in.

1843 | 31:8 | 29: 49-9: | BPG | 81-0) | “86S | Oi — |—
1844 | 269 | 300 | 37-4 | 682 | 17°38 | 36:1] 35°38 |—1:8 |—310.| 1
1845 | 333 | 31:3 | 382 | 51:2 | 19:9 | 348) 368 |—0O-8 |—147| 2
1846 | 35:1 | 298 | 41:5 | 767 | 24-7 | 41:6] 396 |+ 20/4102] 3
1847 | 286 | 267 | 455 | 765 | 25:0 | 40:5 | 40:2 |4+ 2614+ 41-3] 4
1848 37°3 30°5 | 40°'0 63°11 | 21°5 | 38°5 | 39'2 |+ 1°6 | +571 5
1849 | 306 | 27:2 | 39:0 | 75:1 | 25:0 | 394 | 38-7 |+ 11 |+428] 6
1850 | 29:9 | 31:2 | 46:5 | 545 | 264 | 37:7| 384 |+ 08 /+ 210] 7
1851 | 29:3 | 306 | 367 | 73:2 | 255 | 391 | 39-4 |+18/+ 87] 8
1852 | 39:0 | 282 | 431 | 745 | 253 | 420 | 395 |+1:9/— 18] 9
1853 | 309 | 296 | 39:9 | 50:2 | 241 | 349 | 36-7 |— 0-9 |— 15-9 | 10
1854 | 284 | 27:0 | 389 | 639 | 17-7 | 35:2) 347 |~ 2-9 |— 31-5 | 11
1855 | 25:5 | 30:7 | 41:1 | 47-9 | 23-9 | 33:8 | 34-6 |— 3-0 |— 43-2 | 12
1856 | 31:4 | 29:0 | 35:4 | 59°0 | 23-4 | 35:6 | 34-9 |— 2-7 |— 43-3 | 13
1857 | 29:3 | 295 | 42:3 | 57-7 | 219 | 347] — | — i} —

For the above period (1843-57) we have two stations in the southern
hemisphere, namely, the Cape and Adelaide. The Melbourne and Sydney
observations cannot be used, because in the former there is a blank for
the years 1851 to 1854, and because the latter were not commenced till
ae the observations previously to that year having been made at Sonth

ead.

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 253

The mean for the cycle is 37°6 inches, and 37°4 inches for the years
1843 to 1857.

The maximum rainfall occurs about one year before the year of
maximum sunspots, and the minimum rainfall in the years of minimum
sunspots at the beginning and end of the cycle.

There is apparently a tendency to a double oscillation, the rainfall
diminishing a little from the fourth to the seventh year of the cycle, and
then increasing a little to the ninth year.

58. The following table shows the variation for each country or
district.

Table XXXIX.—Rainfall variations from 1844 to 1856.

Continent Southern
cae Grea of America India Hemi- ey ta

Europe sphere ij

in. in. in, in. in. in.
if —16 + 0-9 — 1:5 — 26 — 40 — 18 — 31:0
2 + 08 + 1:4 — 16 — 21 — 2°6 — 08 — 14-7
3 +17 + 0:2 + 1:2 + 63 + O-4 + 2:0 + 10:2
4 +11 — 08 +27 + 9:3 + 0:9 + 2:6 + 41:3
5 + 21 — 05 + O07 + 5:5 + O-1 +16 + 57-1
6 + 0:8 — 0-2 +07 + 3:0 + 1:3 +11 + 42:8
7 —14 + 0:8 +17 + 0-4 + 27 + 08 + 21:0
8 + 05 + 09 + 03 +49 + 2:5 + 1:8 + 87
9 + 3:2 —O1 + 0:3 + 4:2 +19 + 1:9 — 18
10 + 1:0 — 06 0-0 — 42 — 03 — 08 — 159
11 — 3:0 — O07 — 07 — 75 — 2:3 — 2:8 — 31°5
12 - 36 + O1 —13 — 93 — 09 — 3:0 — 43-2
13 —1:9 — 1-4 = 29 — 80 0:0 — 27 — 43:3

In Great Britain the maximum and minimum rainfalls are respectively
in or very near the years of maximum and minimum sunspots, but there
seems to be a tendency to a double oscillation.

The variation for the Continent of Europe is, on the whole, unfavour-
able. This arises from heavy rains having occurred at a good many
stations in 1844 and 1845,

Both in America and in India the maximum rainfall occurs one year
before the year of maximum sunspots, and the minimum rainfall in
the years of minimum sunspots, with, however, a tendency to a second
minimum and maximum between the principal maximum and mini-
mum.

The variation of the mean rainfall of the two stations in the southern
hemisphere is similar to the variations of the rainfalls of Great Britain,
America, and India.

59. Coming now to the next sunspot cycle, 1856 to 1867, we get the
results as given in Table XL.

Not having the rainfalls of the ten American stations for 1868, I have
taken the thirteen years 1855-67 instead of the years 1856-68.

The mean rainfall for the cycle is 38°4 inches, and 38°5 inches for the
years 1855-67.

The years of maximum and minimum rainfall coincide with the years
of maximum and minimum sunspots, except in the eleventh year of the
cycle, and there is little or no appearance of a double oscillation.

254 REPORT—1878.

Taste XL.—Comparison of Rainfall with Sunspots from 1855 to 1867.—
Maximum year in 6th line.

a 5
a comet bpd ie 2b an ee
Exe) wu ‘
g|ags|22| 2 |EBe|. | 212 | = |:
2 lassless| Bo | $8 |S HS! 8 = ae ee pee
a |on2/1a Sn |2Ba| & 5 3 eit
o HHS BABS Ho ge 5 on o o = e a
pm |omMn |ORs!] a5 Sa [ato] & P=) °Gj nm |PO
in. in. in, in in. in. in in
1855 27°1 27°2 42-4 42:0 34:3 34°6 —_ — — —
1856 35:0 25°1 35°6 55:4 33°2 36°9 | 36:2 |— 2:2 |— 39-7 1
1857 32°5 19°7 46:0 51:7 33-4 36°7 | 366 |— 1°8 |— 39:9 2
1858 34:1 22°1 46:0 50°6 29°3 36°4 | 37°6 |— 0°8 |— 16:9 3
1859 37:0 26°1 477 57°6 37°5 41:2 | 39°3 |+ O99 | + 24:3 4
1860| 36'1 29°24 | 37°8 46'7 | 42°9 | 38°6| 40°3 |+ 1°9'|+56'9 5
1861 40°7 251 42-4 61:0 45:0 42°8 | 40°9 |+ 2°5 |+ 57°6 6
1862 42°7 26°3 44-4 BY Gil 27-4 39°6 | 40°4 |+ 2°0 |+ 381 7
1863 38°2 24:5 44:3 577 34:9 39°9 | 39:0 |+ 06 |+ 12°4 8
1864 36°1 23°4 39°2 515 33-0 36°6 | 37-4 |— 1:0 |— 13°9 4)
1865 32°5 22°5 44:0 54°8 28°5 36°5 | 36:9 |— 1:5 |— 34:1 | 10
1866 40:0 27°71 40°7 591 24°7 38°3 | 38:1 |—0°3 |— 45:0 | 11
1867 371 29°2 42°8 53°3 33°9 39°3 — — — —
60. The variations for the several countries are as follows :-—
Taste XLI.—Rainfall Variations from 1855 to 1867.
Years of |} Great | Cont. of : . Southern Mean Spot
Cycle | Britain | Europe sae a eae Hemisphere] Variation | Variation
in. in. in. in in in.
1 — 41 — 05 — 2°8 — 33 — 0:3 — 22 — 39°7
2 — 3:0 — 31 + O07 — 21 —1°5 —18 — 39:9
3 — 21 — 2-2 + 37 —18 — 155 — 08 — 169
4 — 05 +12 + 21 — 13 + 3:0 + 0°9 + 24:3
5 + 0:9 + 2°8 —13 — 14 + 8:2 + 19 + 569
6 + 3°5 + 1:7 —10 + 2:0 + 6:2 + 2:5 + 57-6
if + 4:5 + 08 + 11 +38 — 02 + 2:0 + 38:1
8 + 2°3 — 01 + 03 + 1:6 —13 + 06 + 12-4
9 — 0:8 — 12 —11 — 06 1°5 + 1:0 — 13°9
10 —13 — 09 — 08 + 0°6 — 5:2 —15 — 341
itt + 0:9 + 17 — 07 + 21 — 59 — 0-4 — 45:0

In Great Britain the rainfall increases to the seventh year of the cycle
and on the Continent to the fifth year, after which it decreases to the
tenth and ninth years, and then increases in the eleventh.

The rainfall at the American stations has, apparently, a tendency to a
double oscillation.

At the Indian stations the rainfall increases to the seventh year as in
Great Britain. It then decreases to the ninth year, but increases in the
tenth and eleventh years.

The mean rainfall of the five stations in the southern hemisphere
increases from the second to the fifth year, and then decreases to the
eleventh, and the maximum and minimum rainfall occur in or very near
the years of maximum and minimum sunspots.

61. Omitting the stations in the southern hemisphere, the mean
variation for Europe, America, and India is given in column one of the

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 255

following table; in column two the mean variation for Europe and
America is given ; and in column three the variation for Europe alone is
given.

1 2 3
a ee Spot Var. Years of
Rain Var. | Rain Var. | Rain Var. Cycle

in. in. in.
— 2-7 — 2°5 — 2:3 — 39:7 1
— 13 —1°8 -— 30 — 39:9 2
— 06 — 01 — 21 — 16°9 3
+ O04 + 0-9 + 0:3 + 24:3 4
+ 02 + 0°8 + 1:8 + 56°9 5
+15 + 14 + 2°6 + 576 6
+ 2°5 + 21 + 2°6 + 38-1 7
+ 1:0 + 0'8 + 11 + 124 8
— 0:9 — 10 — 10 — 13°9 9
— 06 — 10 —11 — 341 10
+ 1:0 + 0°6 +13 — 45:0 11

Each of these variations shows that the sunspots and rainfall were
below or above their means in the same years, except the eleventh. This
exception is owing to heavy rains at some stations in Great Britain in
1866, on the Continent in 1867, and at Bombay in 1865 and 1866.

On the other hand, the rainfall at the stations in the southern hemis-
phere was greatly below the average in 1865-66-67. Hence the mean
rainfall variation for all the stations (Table XL.) is a closer approximation
to the sunspot variation than the variations in the above table.

62. The seventy-nine stations in Table XL. include almost all the
principal observatories in the world. If we take the latter alone, we get
the following results :—

Taste XLII.—Rainfall at forty Observatories from 1855 to 1867.

Years. Brea Mean Cycle | Rain Var. Spot Var. Dede
in. in. in,
1855 29-2 — — — —
1856 29:2 28°3 — 05 — 39:7 1
1857 25°7 26°7 — 21 — 39:9 2
1858 26°2 27:2 — 16 — 169 3
1859 30°7 29°9 + 11 + 24:3 4
1860 32:0 31-4 + 2°6 + 56:9 5
1861 311 30°9 + 21 + 576 6
1862 29°7 29°9 + 11 + 38-1 7
1863 29:4 28°8 0:0 + 12-4 8
1864 26:9 27'5 -— 13 — 13°9 9
1865 26'8 27:3 — 15 — 341 10
1866 29:0 28°7 — 01 — 45:0 11
1867 30:2 — —_ — —_

63. Taking only ten observatories, as widely separated as possible, the
results as given in next table are obtained.

64, The comparisons which have now been made between the rainfall
and the sunspots for each of the four cycles from 1824 to 1867 are not
liable to any objection that may be founded on the plea of a dispersion of

256 - - REPORT—1878.

the years of maximum and minimum in the previous comparisons, and yet
the results are similar. It may be urged, however, that the “mean
cycle” is formed by ‘“‘bloxaming” the “ means.”’ But this objection,

Taste X LITI.—Rainfall at ten Observatories from 1855 to 1867.

n of o
Z a E oy 5 2 2
2 on ad as a FI SS H o
Years| 2 E a1 ae |e | 3 By) cae ieee Ss 6
Bee | alee | Be dve-| || Sie @ | ae
etd | Sea a| Feay ig Sh cms lees eS] ei Ol Mesa Sole Ome ‘S 8
HAIB ISA IAI42P/OH |/Alaelol;/a lala] a | kw
Tale echo peaaly |fpnbely Rea in. in. | in.| in.} in.| in. | ing] in,
1855 | 15:2) 20°3] 138°5| 25-4) 36°4 | 47°6 | 41:2) 42°6) 24-6) 28-2) 29-5) — | — | —
1856 | 12°2] 28°5| 22°3) 27-2) 33-0 | 53°8 | 65:9) 46-2) 21-9) 29°7| 34-1] 32-5] — 2.0] 1
1857 | 12:6] 24:9) 19-4| 26-6) 38:6 | 57°9 | 51:3) 43-4) 22°7| 28-9) 32-6) 32-7) — 1:8] 2
1858 | 11-8] 24°3) 18-3) 24:8) 42:4 | 45-4 | 62-4) 35-3) 24-1] 26-0) 31:5) 34:0) — 0°5| 3
1859 | 15°8| 25:9] 21°5| 28:3) 48°9 | 59-3 | 77-2) 72-1) 36-7| 21-8] 40°7/ 37-0] + 2°5| 4
1860 | 15-3] 33°4| 25:8) 19:4] 38°3 | 45-1 | 62-1) 57-2| 29-1) 25-4) 35:1) 37-7] + 3-2) 5
1861 | 18-0} 28-6) 18:0) 22:5) 44°7 | 50°3 | 76:9) 87-1) 25-4| 29-1) 40-1) 37-6] + 31! 6
1862 | 13:5] 33-9] 20:3) 21:6] 41-4 | 57-2 | 73-6) 36:0] 32-0) 22-1) 35-2| 36°7) + 2-2) 7
1863 | 16°6| 25:6) 16°8) 23:4) 44-4 | 56:4 | 77-7| 42-4) 25-6) 36-4/ 36°5| 34:2} —0°3] 8
1864 | 20:7] 28:1) 14:4| 24-1) 39°5 | 39:4 | 45-6) 30-6) 18:9] 27-4| 28-9] 32-2) — 2:3] 9
1865 | 18:3) 23°6| 21-4) 26:1) 44:6 | 43°6 | 77-8) 56°7| 18°6] 15-9) 34:7) 32:3) — 2:2] 10
1866 | 26-4| 27-2) 25:4) 12-2) 38:5*| 35-5*| 78-4| 25-1) 19-2) 22-4) 31-0) 32°5) — 2:0} 11
1867 | 25°2| 31:0) 22°2/17:0| 45°6 | 41°7 | 62-3) 42-0) 22-9) 25:8) 33-6) — } — =

* JInterpolations.

also, if it is one, may be removed by making a direct comparison. Taking
the thirteen “means” given in Tables III., VII, XVIII, XXI., and

XXVIL., we get the following results :—

Taste XLIV.—Direct Comparison of the Rainfall with the Sunspots.—
Maximum years in 6th line.

) é ao o

qd a oO Pa a

2 | 3 lie | S

Y oie ie s & re 5 a =
Rr lset hex Leg [ly gy. sac) 8 01° we Mees
ica |) ORG] as A we S ee RB ~

in. Thee in. in. in. in. in.

1 29-1 26°6 41:3 45°3 34:3 35:3 | —3:2 | — 351 =e
2 29°53 26°6 36°5 61:0 33°2 374 | —11 — 371 1
3 28°8 23°6 41-2 57°9 33-4 3870 | —1:5 |] — 21°6 2
4 31:9 25°7 43°6 68°8 29°3 39°9 | + 1:4 + 83 3
5 33°2 26°5 41°6 68°4 37°5 414 | +29] + 43:8 4
6 32'1 29°'5 | 41°6 53°4 42:9 39°'9 +14] +55°6 5
a 32°6 25°8 42°4 60°0 45:0 41:2 | + 2-7 + 36:3 6
8 34:2 29°4 45:2 62-1 27°4 39°7 | +12] + 188 7
9 29-7 26°3 41°6 59-4 34:9 384 | —O1 + 03 8
10 348 26°9 41:2 60°9 33°0 394 | +09 |] — 99 9
11 28°2 24:5 41-1 57-2 28°5 359 | —26| — 206 10
12 316 27°4 40°2 58-1 24-7 364 | —21|] — 23°6 11
13 301 29°5 39°5 58:9 33°9 38-4 | —O1 | — 153 —

The mean rainfall is 38°5 inches, and the mean of the sunspot numbers is
48:1. Now, the rainfall and the sunspots are below or above their respective

ON SUNSPOTS AND RAINFALL. 257

means almost in the same years of the common period, and the epochs of
maximum and minimum sunspots coincide nearly with the epochs of
minimum and maximum rainfall.

IX.— Summary of Results.

65. If we knew exactly the annual rainfall for the whole globe during
the four sunspot periods 1824-67, and found that it varied as the sun’s
Spotted area varied, we should conclude that there was very strong
evidence of a causal connection between the two phenomena, especially
when it was considered that the comparative frequence or absence of solar
spots, facule, and prominences indicated a variation in the sun’s radiant
energy, upon which the variations in terrestrial meteorology mainly
depend. But as we do not know the total annual rainfall over the whole
surface of the earth, and have only approximate values of the annual
amounts of solar maculation, all that can be done is to compare the rain-
fall at the greatest possible number of stations in different parts of the
world with the available values of the sunspot areas, and see whether
there is anything approaching to a correspondence. This has been done
in the preceding pages, chiefly for the years 1824-67, and the principal
results may be summarised as follows :—

(1.) The mean rainfalls of Great Britain, the Continent of Europe,
America, and India, as represented by all the returns that have been re-
ceived, have, notwithstanding some anomalies, varied as Wolf’s sunspot
numbers have varied, and the epochs of minimum and maximum rainfall
have nearly coincided with those of the sunspots.

(2.) The rainfall at five stations in the southern hemisphere for
shorter periods give similar results.

(3.) The levels of the principal rivers of Central Europe have also
varied with the sunspots, although, as in the case of the rainfall, there
are discrepancies.

(4.) The rainfalls at individual stations, such as Hdinburgh, Paris,
New Bedford, Bombay, &c., afford unmistakable evidence of a connection
between sunspots and rainfall.

(5.) The variations in the levels of individual rivers of Central
Europe, such as the Rhine and Elbe, give similar evidence.

(6.) The results obtained by taking each sunspot cycle separately are
all favourable, with the exception of those for the cycle 183443, which
are unfavourable for ten stations in America and three stations in India,
but favourable for thirty-seven stations in Europe.

(7.) When the final results for each country are combined, by taking
means of all of them (Table XXXIIT.), it is found that the rainfall and
the sunspots are below or above their respective means in the same years,
and that the epochs of maximum and minimum rainfall apparently coin-
cide with the epochs of maximum and minimum sunspots.

(8.) The mean range of rainfall variation for the four cycles from
1824 to 1867, taking all the stations, is about 4 inches, and the annual
mean rainfall 38°5 inches.

(9.) There is a tendency to a double oscillation in the rainfall, a small
second maximum and minimum occurring after the principal maximum.
This is especially the case in India.

(10.) The principal maximum and minimum epochs of the rainfall do
not oo at the same time in different countries, but oscillate to the

° s

258 REPORT—1878.

extent of a year or two on either side of the sunspot epochs. On an
average, however, the rainfall epochs occur somewhat later than the sun-
spot epochs.

66. The rainfall and sunspot observations being themselves probably
but rough approximations, the evidence of*a connection between them is
necessarily qualitative rather than quantitative. But, considering how
apparently capricious an element the rainfall is, it is difficult to account
for the results which have been obtained for widely distant countries and
under all conditions of climate, except upon the supposition that they
are the manifestations of a general law. The number of rainfall returns
is no doubt small, but it is to be remembered that they are all that are
available, that they are not a selection, and that virtually they have been
obtained by haphazard. Moreover, the experience of seven years has
shown that as the number of rainfall returns increased, so did the evidence
of a connection between sunspots and rainfall.

67. The present discussion has been almost exclusively confined to the
four cycles from 1824 to 1867, because it is supposed that the sunspot
observations for those years are superior to earlier observations. But it
must be remarked that exactly similar results have been obtained for
previous cycles. The rainfall variations for the cycle 1811-23 show a
most marked coincidence with the sunspot variations, and similar rainfall
results have been obtained for still earlier cycles. Further, the variations |
in the levels of the Elbe from 1728 to 1868, and in those of the Rhine from
1770 to 1835 were as favourable in the last century as they have been in
the present. The cycle 1868-78 is not yet complete, but judging from the
rainfalls in 1870-73, and from the droughts which have occurred since
1875, it is not improbable that the general results will be the same as for
previous cycles. We know already that the mean rainfall at six stations
in the southern hemisphere from 1865 to 1877 is favourable.

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors during the Year 1877—
78, by a Committee consisting of Jamus Guatsumr, F.RS., &c.,
Re oP. "Gane, 7 .GIS., “FORAS:, “C. Brooke, J 2i8e. erate
G. Forses, F.R.S.L., Watrer Fricut, D.Sc., F.G.S., and Prof.
A. S. Herscuzr, M.A., F.R.A.S., (Reporter).

Tur meteoric events of the greatest interest during the past year, of which,
as far as space will permit, the principal characters are described in this
Report, consist in part of the successive appearances of a rather unusual
number of very grand and remarkable fireballs which have been seen in
different parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and which have been
very satisfactorily recorded in those countries; and in part also of some
new observations of meteor showers, and of some falls of aérolites, which
have added to the increasing store of knowledge of the nature and dis-
tribution of those astronomical phenomena which we possess.

A stonefall of considerable abundance and importance took place on
the 18th of October, 1877, at Soko-Banja, N.E. of Alexinatz, the circum-

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 259

stances of which, as far as they are yet known and investigated, will be
found described in the Appendix treating of Aérolites and of the pro-
gress of recent researches on them, at the end of the Report. Of similar
events and of large fireballs observed in foreign countries, the Committee
has also to record some other announcements which it has received. A
detonating meteor of unusual magnitude made its appearance in the
United States on the afternoon of November 20th, 1877, and was one of
unusual grandeur. As it was visible at Richmond and at towns of Vir-
ginia and North Carolina, where it exploded, all of them near the capital,
and was also seen by many persons in Washington itself, the inquiry
undertaken by Professor J. L. Campbell, of the Washington and Lee
University, regarding all the special characters of the great Virginia
meteor already in part successfully accomplished will, without doubt, con-
tribute some important additions to this department of our meteoric
knowledge.

A fireball of the same description, scarcely less imposing, appeared (a
few days after the former one) in England on the evening of the 23rd of
November last, and was carefully described by a multitude of accounts of
it which were preserved, and which were communicated to Captain
Tupman. It appears to have been a member of a very well-known
meteor shower, whose shooting stars have often afforded plentiful and
pretty striking exhibitions in November, with a definite centre of
divergence in the head of Taurus. The “ Taurids I.,” as they have been
called, were very abundant in November, 1876, amounting to bright
showers, especially on the morning of November 20th in that year ; but
they were remarkable by a nearly total cessation of the stream last year
in the month when this great fireball appeared to compensate, apparently,
for the absence of the lesser meteors of the shower. It is premature, until
future cases of a similar kind corroborate such a conclusion, to infer that
aérolitic meteors are sometimes furnished by ordinary star-showers, since
radiant points of very different and independent meteor systems are some-
times found to be closely adjacent to each other ; but the evidence thus
presented of such a connection existing between a meteor shower and an
aérolitic fireball certainly demands close attention and investigation, by
the certain determination which was made last year of an almost exact
resemblance between two such foreign visitants in the positions of their
radiant points.

The orbit of a certain comet, it may be noticed (that of 1702), coincides,
as far as the rough observations of it that were obtained will perhaps
allow us to conclude, with the date and position of this double meteor
radiant-point ; and not less likelihood exists that the comet and the two
kinds of meteor-bodies formed members together of a common system
coursing round the sun, than that the aérolitic meteor itself was only a
very large individual of the meteor shower. Captain Tupman has com-
puted, on the other hand, the orbit of a smaller fireball which he saw on
the night of the 27th of November, 1877; and this meteor, he discovered,
had a nearly circular orbit, slightly inclined to the earth’s, which it was
overtaking with a periodic time of revolution round the sun of only about
462 days. A large fireball was seen in full sunlight on the forenoon of
March 25th, 1878, travelling over the North Sea from the neighbourhood
of Berwick to that of Aberdeen. Its height and real path were very well
determined, and this large fireball appears to have been directed in its
real orbit very nearly straight from the sun towards the earth. The next

s 2

260 REPORT— 1878.

large meteor seen shot from over the north of Yorkshire to the Firth of
Forth, where it disappeared at a height of 15 or 20 miles very nearly over
Edinburgh, on the evening of May 12th, 1878. A report like thunder
heard at Galashiels, seems to have resulted from a division of the fireball,
seen at Scarborough, by a fragment falling from it some time before
the end of its course, when it must have been passing over Galashiels at a
distance of about 35 or 40 miles. It belonged to a radiant point in Virgo,
very probably identical with that of a new and rich shower of April and
May shooting stars, seen by Mr. Denning (and perhaps also, on April 18,
1841, by Professer Forshey, in America) at about 205°-10°, in 1877.

A fireball descended with a detonation to a low height over a point
near Market Harborough; on April 2nd, 1878. It was well observed at
two places, and its radiant-point in Ursa Major was very well determined.
A large fireball which passed slowly over Devonshire on the 7th of June,
from the English to the Bristol Channel, probably had the same radiant
point, with one or two companion fireballs on the same evening, as the
detonating meteor (investigated by Professors Galle and Von Niessl) of
June 17th, 1873, in Austria and Bohemia. Of this fireball and of one seen
on the night of July 29th over the neighbourhood of Manchester, however,
the heights, real courses, and velocities have only been very partially
established from the observations.

Among the chief annual meteor showers observed during the past
year, all but the April Lyrids were pretty notable displays, denoting well-
marked returns of the several special star-showers of the year. The
August display of Perseids, in the year 1877, was as bright as, or perhaps
a little brighter than the average; but not much more so (if even quite
. so bright as usual) in August, 1878, the state of the sky at some places
being, on August 10th, in both years, very fairly favourable for the
observations. The Orionids were well seen, and reached a maximum of
22 meteors per hour on the morning of October 18th, 1877; the
meteors were bright, leaving very characteristic streaks, and radiated
very exactly from the point near y Orionis, which is the usual centre of the
shower. The Leonids were re-observed in England and in America, where
two observers counted thirty of them per hour on the morning of
November 14th. The Andromedes were seen both on November 25th and
27th, about as numerous as the unconformable meteors on those nights.
The Geminids appeared in greater numbers than usual, reaching a
maximum on December 11th, 1877, which was well seen, and the
characters and radiant point of the shower were last year very well ob-
served. The meteors of January 2nd also made their appearance in a
pretty bright stream, seen in England to be very active on the morning of
that day, and affording a pretty good new determination of its radiant-
point. Among these regular returns of special showers, the display of
the Lyrids of April 19th—21st, in the year 1878, was, on the other hand,
somewhat scanty, and inferior to those of the other showers; only a few
of its meteors being noticed, and those on the nights of the 21st and 22nd
of April, principally, when the meteor shower of the Lyrids ordinarily is
well-nigh extinguished.

Throughout the autumn months, in the spring, and again on the ap-
proach of the August meteors, Mr. W. F. Denning recorded appearances
of meteor showers in watchful observations of the sky whenever the ab-
sence of the moon and freedom from clouds offered opportunities for their
detection. Of such showers, many were new, and presented other features

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 261

of especial interest. A selection of the brightest and most important
examples of these new views of meteor systems obtained by Mr. Denning
during the past year is included in the third Appendix, following the
above notices of the greater annual showers, with extracts from his list of
the almost innumerable shower centres of which he succeeded in tracing
and recording the existence. From the meteor lists of foreign observers,
also, Mr. Denning deduced a vast number of meteor showers, and he has
published a list of them in conjunction with that of his own observations.
In these two parallel lists the agreements are often very satisfactory and
close. Mr. Greg has prepared a valuable abstract of them, showing the
many points in which these new results confirm and verify the results of
older observations. A similar abstract by Mr. Greg of the extensive
shower-catalogue contained in the late Professor Heis’ forty-three-year
summary of his meteor observations, which was published last year,
accompanies the former abstract; and to these lists is added, in the same
part of this Report, the well-known catalogue of meteor showers deduced
by Professor Schiaparelli from Zezioli’s observations of shooting-stars
at Bergamo in the years 1867-69, of which no perfect transcript has
hitherto appeared in these Reports. Fhe

The fourth and last Appendix of the Report describes, as in former
years, the occurrences of stone-falls which have taken place, and the
results of researches on aérolites and meteoric irons which have been pub-
lished during the past year; and it will be seen from its perusal that the
study of the nature of the substances, and of the circumstances of the falls
of aérolites, is being pursued with the same activity and success as has
characterised during the past year the observation of shooting-stars and
fireballs.

It now begins to appear extremely probable, especially from the results
of Mr. Denning’s recent observations and reductions, that the highest
attainable accuracy in mapping the observed directions of the apparent
paths of shooting-stars is the real key to the solution of the problem pre-
sented by their nightly flights. Numbers of co-existing radiant-points,
which would have escaped detection by less careful observations, are thus
shown to be capable of recognition, and of being disentangled from each
other with precision. The question of the possible connection of large
fireballs, and among them of aérolites, or large stony masses, with such
showers, and accordingly, it may be, in certain cases with comets, depends
also for its solution upon accurate observations of these meteors. In all |
the aspects which they present in appearance or position, whether on a
large scale of grandeur, or as the smallest scintillations, these singular
bodies are certainly attractive objects for accurate investigation and de-
scription from the profound obscurity in which at present the whole of
the history of their origin appears to be involved. The Committee has
thought it desirable, from these considerations, to offer some suggestions
to observers, taking the form of general directions for recording exactly
any particulars of the occurrences of shooting-stars, fireballs, and
aérolites, of which circumstances may enable them to furnish perfectly
definite and reliable accounts. The different heads and paragraphs of
these directions are added in a convenient series of sections at the end of
the Report.

REPORT—1 878.

262

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APPENDIX.
I. METEORS DOUBLY OBSERVED.

Among the lists of occasional observations of shooting-stars received by
the Committee during the past year, a few examples occur of simultaneous
observations by observers at distant stations of meteors which agree
together in every particular of their description, and which, on account of
the regularity of the watches kept, the few meteors noted on the same
dates, and the good accordance also of the apparent paths when allowance
is made for the observers’ positions as regards length and direction of
the base-line between their stations, were undoubtedly independent
views of the same meteoric bodies, and will, therefore, afford approximate
data of the distances and positions, and of the lengths and directions of
their real paths. One additional observation of each of two meteors re-
corded in last year’s Fireball List has been received, and the descriptions
of those meteors, at 10" 44™ p.m., June 10th, 1876, and 108 25™ p.m.,
August 10th, 1877, already given, are here repeated for comparison with
the new descriptions of them which have since been received.

The radiant-points concluded from the recorded paths by their direct
projections are added in the last column but one of the list. But to
these positions, when the tracks nearly overlie each other, and therefore
give results very largely and doubtfully affected by the errors of observa-
tion, too much importance must not be attached in respect of the varia-
tions which they sometimes show from the independent estimates of their
probable radiant-points which were originally attached to them by the
observers. Radiant positions thus found are yet data of the first and
greatest interest to be extracted from such observations. A complete
discussion of the heights, velocities, and other particulars of these
meteors’ real paths, and of those of a similar list of doubly observed
shooting-stars presented in last year’s Report, is postponed at present,
until materials for a more general communication on the results of such
comparisons present themselves in the course of future observations.

II. Large Mereors.

Many of the descriptions of fireballs seen during the past year have
furnished reliable materials for determining their real courses and the
probable astronomical relationships of their orbits. A condensed account
of these occurrences is given in this Appendix, as most of the following
notes were collected from very scattered sources, and are not the results
of preparation and of systematic watches, like those of the foregoing
Appendix. The two lists which are included in this Appendix contain
the final determinations of the real paths of the most brilliant and widely
observed of the past year’s bolides and detonating meteors, and such
accounts of others, not so widely observed, as private and published
descriptions of them have enabled the Committee to collect.

On June 14th, 1877, 85 52" p.m., Paris Time. The large fireball
of this date seen in the south of France by M. Gruey at Clermont Ferrand
(Puy-de-Dome) was also observed at Bordeaux and at Angouléme with
accurate positions by the stars. The agreement of the recorded paths with

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 265

each other and with a radiant point near ¢ Bodtis is very close, and this
star was culminating at the time on the south meridian. The initial
points of all the tracks begin so near it, probably by an extension to which
there is a natural tendency in observations, that the initial height of the
fireball thence obtained is without doubt much overrated, while its dura-
tion in seconds was very well determined by the independent estimations.
There appears no reason (from the greatly overrated length of path) to
accept M. Gruey’s calculation that the real orbit of this fireball was a
hyperbola of very great eccentricity, as the measure of its real length of
path and velocity is based upon very questionable data? A loud detona-
tion followed the meteor’s disappearance at Bordeaux, 55 miles from its
end point, in five minutes; the distance which sound would travel in
that time is about 62 miles.

On October 19th, 1877, 6" 13" p.m., Ireland, and the West of
England. <A very magnificent fireball made its appearance westwards of
the English coast, over Ireland and St. George’s Channel, during full
twilight, and before any stars were yet plainly visible, on the above
evening ; and many accounts of its unusual appearance were presented in
the daily journals. The strength of the daylight hindered all definite
measures of its position, and a solitary description by the stars at Mon-
mouth, together with a careful sketch of its course forwarded to the Com-
mittee from an observer near Dublin by Professor Ball, of the Dunsink
Observatory, are the only available accounts among a score or two, for
determining the real direction of its course! Its flash was like lightning at
Swansea, amid the glow in the west lingering after the departed sun.
By the few who saw the meteor itself, it is described (at Weston-super-
Mare) as a balloon of whitish light, falling slowly; at Stoke Prior,
Wolverhampton, as a glowing poker rushing through the air; and a
strange spectacle seems to have been presented by it (as described in the
‘Times’ of October 24th) near Templemore, in the south-west part of
Ireland. ‘“ We had one of the most brilliant meteors here last evening
that I ever saw; indeed, it was rather startling, as the whole heavens
seemed open, or rather divided. It was a quarter to six o’clock (Irish
time), and I was on the terrace when I suddenly heard a crackling noise,
or rather the intense light and noise came together. I looked up and saw
a great light. The meteor went from east to west. I did not see it fall
to earth, as it seemed to vanish away into space. It began small, then
grew alarmingly large, and gradually disappeared, although the light re-
mained visible for over seven minutes. I called M. from the piano, and
A, ran down from my room wondering what had come to pass. I went
down (100 yards off) to call K. and his family to look at the light, which
was still very bright, thongh not so intense as it had been, and which had
then assumed a semicircular shape, and gradually grew paler. It was
quite seven or eight minutes visible. I shall never forget the sight, it was
so grand and awful.’”’ Templemore is in the direction from Monmouth
which the meteor took, as it descended vertically, in the position there
noted near Arcturus; and the alarming nature of the spectacle seems to
indicate that its nearest approach to the earth must have been not very
far from Templemore.

The observer (Mr. John Parker) near Dublin, also gives a singular
description of its appearance. “ First indication :—A momentary brilliant
illumination of all surrounding objects, casting a well defined shadow, as
in sunlight, and not such as is caused by lightning.

266

RESULTS OF DOUBLE OBSERVATIONS OF LARGE FIREBALLS)

Date and Hour (Local Time, or)
G. M. T. Size and General
Appearance.

1876, July 8 (84 45™ p.m.)
1877, Jan. 19, 64 27™ p.m.
April 6, 95 26™ p.m. ....... .
April 16, 10" 50™ p.m.

ae eeescee
se eeeneee
”
”

ower

» June 14 (8" 52™ pm.); =
full moon at last ; white, with
tail of red and blue. Detona-
tion in 5 min. at Bordeaux.

1877, Oct. 19, 64 13" pm. Glo-
bular, white nucleus. Left a
bright white streak, becoming
serpentine, for 8 or 10 minutes.

1877, Nov. 20 (afternoon). Splen-
did fireball, with flame-track,
and long-enduring cloud-streak.
Violent explosion over Dan-
ville, Halifax, &c., N. Carolina.

1877, Noy. 23, 8" 24" p.m. Great
detonating meteor; 4} diam. of
moon; of extreme brilliancy ;
streak 40 miles long, 2,000 ft.
diam. ; explosion very loud in I.
of Man, N. Wales, and Cheshire.

1877, Nov. 27, 10" 26" p.m. Blue,
globular with sparks; } diam.
of moon in middle of its course ;
small in first and last parts.
Motion curved, extraordinarily
slow ; about 22 seconds.

1878, March 25, 10°22™a.m. Large
meteor, in sunlight. Conical;
white or red ball, with long
taper tail of fire; burst at last ;
smoke wreath remained visible
10 minutes.

1878, May 12, 8853" p.m. Very
brilliant head ; white, with not
much tail; dropped a red frag-
ment near disappearance ; re-
port heard in 2 minutes, like
thunder, at Galashiels.

1878, June 7,9" 53" p.m. + diam.
of moon; bluish; pear-shaped,
with flickering tail; long, slow
course, with uniform size and
brightness; no streak or sparks.

1878, July 29, 9 25™ or 30™ p.m.
%). Two flashes, the first
vivid, white; burst into red
fragments leaving a long mo-
mentary red-starred track;

REPORT—1878.

Principal Places of —
Observation

Ind. and Ohio, U.S.....

Wales, and 8. of Ireland
Wales, and 8. of Ireland
Leicester; I. of Man ...

(88m.

Clermont Ferrand, An-
gouléme, and _ Bor-
deaux, France.

Monmouth, Swansea,

Bath; and Dublin,
Waterford, and Tem-
plemore, Ireland.

Richmond, Washington,
Bristol, Halifax, &c.,
in Virginia, and N.

Carolina, U.S.

England, Wales, Scot-
land, and Ireland.

Greenwich, Writtle near
Chelmsford, and Bris-
tol.

Coupar, Callander, New-
castle, Hawick, Wig-
ton; Scotland and the
North of England.

Edinburgh, Bathgate,
Galashiels, Stonykirk ;
York,Scarborough,and
the middle of England.

Bristol and Shrewsbury ;
Knole and MHawk-
hurst, Kent ; West and
South of England.

Manchester, Lancaster,
Cumberland and N.
Wales.

motion pretty swift.

VELOCITIES, AND

Meteor’s Real Course.

Beginning ; Height

End; Height and |
and Locality. |

Locality.

Ottohee, Ohio
Milford Haven
Kildare ctvites
Yorkshire

34m. L. Michigan |
45m.St. G. Channe
20m. Cape Clear..
30m. Yorksh. Coast)

75m.
80m.
60m.

27m. 10m. W. of Biz
berac, Dordogne!
55m. from Bo

175m. (?); 20m. S.W.
of Nerac, Gers.

deaux.
60m. over Milford|40m. over Cape
Haven. Clear.
70m.; 15m. N. of|lOm.; 25m. a little

S. of E. fro

Danville, Virginia.
Danville, Virg.

96m.; 15m. N. of|l4m.; 17m. N.N.W
Derby. 40m. over) of the Greab
Liverpool; first out-| Orme’s Head,
burst; the meteor
suddenly became
very luminous,

56m.; llm. N. of/l3m.; 12m. W.

Margate, Kent. St. Omer, France’

E.S.E.|22m.; 45m. E.N.E
from Aberdeen

50m.; 30m.
from Berwick.

78m. over Northaller-/17m.; over Boness
ton, Yorkshire. near Edinburgh

W.N.W./37m. ; 15m. E.N.E
from Lundy Isle
Bristol Channe

65m.; 20m.
from Guernsey,
Channel Islands.

82m.; 8m. W. from|20m.; midway be
Manchester. tween Presto
and Blackpoo

coast of Laneg

——

\DIANT POINTS.

istances (‘m.’, or ‘miles’) in British Statute Miles.

_ Length of Path and
5 Velocity.

Observed Radiant Point

se ereeesscsces soceee|UD FP fb soeesevenveeseesesees
eee eee eee
ee We weer eee seesaee

weceeeneescceseees| LEU TP OU (i) casenecevssenes

70 miles (?)in4secs.(three
estimations); vel. 423
‘miles (?) p.sec. (parabolic
speed 11 miles per sec).

212 + 12 (+ 3°), near ¢
Bootis.

ery uncertain path ; ac-
curately described at
Monmouth only, and
roughly in Dublin.

20 + 15 (2?) near 7 Pis-
cium (assuming the
course to have been
nearly horizontal).

bout 70 miles (as deduced
from this position).

About alt. 60°, 35° N. fr.
W. (by this descrip-
tion).

Smiles. Velocity (from 25/62 + 21 (+ 3°) near e
estimations of duration),| Tauri.

173 miles per second;
(parabolic speed 19 miles
per second.)

8 (+ 5) miles in not less|285 (+ 1) + 64 (+ 5), at
than 15 seconds. Ve-| 4(6,0) Draconis. [=G
locity not greater than 5} 166; Schmidt, Heis,
miles per second). Nov. 1-15; Clark, and

DG;, Nov. 23—Dec. 9.j

30 miles. Duration of the|332 — 20 (+ 5°)
whole flight about 7 sec. ;
velocity 183 miles persec.

65 miles in about 10 se-
econds for the whole
course ; 154 miles per sec.
(parabolic speed 15.5
iles per sec.).

214—7 (+ 4°) near ¢
Virginis,

miles in 8 or 9 seconds;
about 19 miles per se-
pond. (Parabolic speed
miles per second.)

247 —25( + 5°); close to
Antares.

t.
70 miles in about 3 secs.,/290 + 42; near 6 Cygni;
miles per sec. (Para-| (or between 285° + 45°
lic speed 21 m. per} and 300°+35°).
Sec.),
: )
%

‘
—_—___

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

EEN IN THE YEARS 1876-78; SHOWING THEIR REAL PATHS,

267

For full ac-
counts, see
vol. of these!

Nearest known Radiant Point; and Remarks.
Reports for}
1877,pp. 149,

156.

202° + 9°, May, Heis. 210° + 20°, July 4-11, G.
89. (No known radiant near this place in
June.) Calculation of the meteor’s real path
by M. Gruey, ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ 1877, Oct. 1;
vol. Ixxxv. p. 632.

Piscids IT. 20° + 14° Oct. 13-29, 1876, Denning.
Slow meteors. (No dependence can be placed)
on the asswmed position of the fireball radiant.)
A very splendid meteor; the streak perhaps
sunlit.

Description of the meteor’s real course by Prof.
H. A. Newton. (Letter in the ‘ Richmond
(U.S.) Daily Dispatch,’ Dec. 13, 1877.)

T. 35. Streak visible 45™.

D. 8 (1877); =+ ) ; nostreak.
Draconids I. (G.47). Detonated.
G.45 (2); 3 x 9.

A slight alteration of the radiant (diminishing;
its longitude) brings the orbit nearly into
coincidence with that of gthe comet of
1702. A well-known radiant, Taurids I.
(Calculation of the course by G. L. Tupman
‘The Observatory,’ vol. i. pp. 316 and 351.)

The real orbit of the meteor cannot have been
far from circular. Period 549 days about ;!
motion direct, with inclination about 30°.
(See the calculation of its path, p. 270, by
G. L. Tupman).

Radiant a little S. of the Ecliptic. Directed in
its real orbit very nearly from the sun’s
place (R.A. 4°3, N. Decl. 2°).

D 46 (1877), 210°—10°; rich and probably new
shower; Corder, Apr.—May, 1877, 208-6;
Forshey, Apr. 18, 1841, 198°-8°.

Radiant of fireball, 1873, June 17th, Aus
tria and Bohemia (Galle, and von Niessl),
248°_20°,

Denning, end of July, 1878, 284°+44°; a
radiant of bright slow-moving meteors.

268 REPORT, 1878.

The meteor appeared as a distinct well-defined silver-coloured streak,
W.S.W. of Dublin, forming a spiral curve, with a distinct head or nucleus of
white light, which after being visible for nearly two seconds, burst into frag-
ments with a loud noise[?] The spiral streak continued visible for seven

Fie. 1.
Fia. 2.

V2
AI

minutes, during which time the spiral form became moreand more developed,
until the circles became lost by evaporation. The sky was clear and the atmo-
sphere calm.’’ At Newtown the meteor fell from near the zenith to S.W.,
leaving a streak for nearly a quarter of an hour which curled on itself

thus 3 and afterwards acquired this form Cee: Its cloud-masses

must have been lighted up by the sun’s rays, and were more striking,
even, it would seem in England than they have been described in Ireland.
The appearance which it exhibited at Monmouth is noted in Mr. Watkins
Old’s observation of its course in the accompanying Fireball List. Mr.
A. W. Batson, of the South Wales
Institution at Swansea, who is a
good artist, made two sketches of
it, which are thus referred to in the
‘Standard’ of October 23rd :—‘‘ The
meteor fell perpendicularly, almost
due west, over the light of the sun.
After its disappearance there re-
mained an immensely bright, jagged
trail of light, which gradually as-
sumed a spiral form, and floated in
a southerly direction. In its last
form it looked like a letter C with
flourishes. This phenomenon was
visible for fully ten minutes, at the
end of which time it dissolved into
a cloud of phosphorescent light.”’
1877, November 28rd, 85 24™
p.m., Lancashire, and most parts of
England, Wales, Scotland and Ire-
land. Accounts of this detonating
fireball, which appeared as large as
the full moon at Manchester and
Liverpool, and was at least as brilliant, appeared in a great many con-
temporary journals, local and leading newspapers, and scientific periodi-
cals, very quickly after its occurrence. A letter from Captain Tupman,
of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the ‘ Times’ of November 30th,
soliciting particular accounts of its appearance from observers in Wales,

Fie. 3.

EEO

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 269

Lancashire and Cheshire, was responded to by fally 120 communications,
the substance of which Captain Tupman has discussed and presented in
three papers, which are contained in the first yearly volume of the newly
edited and published journal of Astronomy, ‘The Observatory’ (at pp.
282, 316, and 351). The general features of the fireball, and of two
others seen on the same evening, are discussed, with a plate of several
phases of its appearance seen by Mr. Plant at Manchester, in the first ;
and the materials furnished for comparison, with particulars of the in-
dividual accounts, and with the final results to which their examination
led him, are presented in the remaining two of Captain Tupman’s papers.
The same letter in the ‘Times’ which invited these communications also
described a meteor of singular interest and brightness, seen by Captain
Tupman at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, on the night of Novem-
ber 27th, which will be the subject of the following paragraph of this.
Appendix. A striking statement of an observer at Queenstown, Cork
Harbour, followed in a few lines after the impression of the same letter,
that at the hour of the fireball’s appearance a meteor of extreme bril-
liancy was observed travelling, in bright moonlight, across the northern
sky, showing the vast extent of country over which this large meteor,
which burst forth directly over Liverpool, was satisfactorily observed.
A fireball only slightly less conspicuous was, it appears, noticed at
several places at 78 25™, an hour before the appearance of the large one,.
and sufficient accounts of its course and apparent path were forwarded
to Captain Tupman from observers who were fortunate enough to witness
both meteors, to show that it was probably a member of the same meteor
stream and diverged from the same radiant-point as the larger one. A
detonating fireball of great brilliancy was also seen at Strassburg, on the
same evening, at 6 o’clock p.m.*

The position of this fireball focus, or centre of emanation of at least
one detonating or aérolitic fireball of the 23rd of last November is.
sufficiently remarkable to become the source of a new series of conjectures
and researches regarding any aérolitic or detonating meteors that may in
future times be observed ; for it was discovered that in the real direction
of its flight this unusually striking fireball’s radiant-point agrees in
position with that of a very notable and important star-shower diverging
from near the Pleiades and Hyades in the middle and early part of No-
vember. The star-shower thus indicated, known, since Mr. Denning’s
and Mr. Corder’s successful investigations of it in November, 1876, as
“ Taurids I.,’’ wasfound by Mr. Denning, among frequent rich displays of
its meteors in that year, to reach a conspicuous maximum on the morning
of November 20th, 1876, with a radiant-point marked with the greatest
certainty at 62°+22°. It is exactly at this place that by a complete dis-
cussion of all the observations furnished to him, Captain Tupman found
that the great detonating meteor’s radiant-point of the 23rd of November
last was situated. It is thus a very plain and obvious inference that the
shooting stars forming the body of the stream which the earth encounters
striking it from Taurus about the middle, and on a few later nights of
November, are of the same hard, compact materials, in smaller fragments,
as that of which the fireball must have been composed to produce the
loud and violent concussion of the air with which its explosion was marked
by a thunder-like report in Wales, Lancashire, and the Isle of Man.

* «Strassburg Gazette ;’ and ‘Nature,’ vol. xvii. p. 114.

270 REPORT—1878.

The “ Taurids I.” are apparently small aérolites ; and it may be added that
the comet of 1702, whose fragments, if they strike the earth at all, must
do so from a radiant point at about 56°+20° on the 27th of November,
appears to be so closely associated with the new-found maximum of the
“ Taurids I.” on November 20th, that if the aérolitic character of that
meteor shower is certainly established, a fair presumption then suggests
itself that the material of the comet itself is a firm and solid substance,
and that the ‘‘ Taurid”’ shooting stars, and even detonating fireballs which
sometimes accompany them, are but small fragments compared with
much larger stony masses which may be pictured as congregated to-
gether in the nucleus of the comet!

Besides the many scattered accounts, and the general review of their
contents given, with an engraving, by Captain Tupman, in his first Paper,
a full and varied collection of descriptions of the meteor’s appearance by
different observers was published in ‘ Nature’ (vol. xvii., pp. 94 and 113).
Particulars of these various descriptions, including some original accounts,
will be found in the list of observations of large meteors accompanying
this Appendix ; and the real height and description of its course, from 96
miles above the neighbourhood of Derby to a point 14 miles above the
Irish Channel, about 20 miles north of the Welsh coast near Llandudno, are
detailed at length in the list of such determinations (pp. 266-7) of several
large meteors during the past year which is hereappended. The meteor’s
apparent path was noted pretty exactly at ten, and less perfectly at five
or six other places in England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, by the
stars or planets; by estimated bearings and altitudes at some twenty-five
places, and by exact measurements of the same data at four or five. From
two observations of the latter kind by Mr. T. S. Petty, at Llandudno,
and by Captain Watson on board of the Algeria, in the Irish Channel,
very near the meteor’s place of disappearance, Captain Tupman regards
the final height as having been only 14, instead of 26 miles, and the
radiant-point at 62°+4+21° instead of at 63°+415°, which were the first
deductions of its real course arrived at from the other observations,
Whatever discrepancies in the end-height and radiant-point are thus
exhibited, the adopted corrections thus finally introduced appear to be
absolutely necessary ones to satisfy some of the nearest well-observed
positions, and especially the two last-named very important observations.
Of the two explosions, or first outburst and final disruption, between
which the meteor was a most vivid bluish pear-shaped fireball, with a
long tail of red stars or sparks following it, the first took place at a height
of about 40 miles exactly over Liverpool, and in a considerable part of its
track before this point the meteor was described as resembling an ordinary
shooting-star. It left no long persistent streak, and burst at last into a
shower of highly-coloured fragments with an explosion, the report of
which was loudly heard in two or three minutes like artillery and thunder
onthe Lancashire and Welsh coasts, and in the Isle of Man.

The following is the calculation by Captain Tupman of the real course
of the bright fireball which he observed on the evening of November 27th,
1877 :—

A Marnor of Short Periodic Time, By Captain G. L. Tupman.

On the 27th of November, 1877, at 105 26™ G.M.T. precisely, the
sky being clear, I observed a fine fireball, of normal type, descend from

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 271

about 6° above the star Castor to a point about 5° or 6° to the left of
Sirius. The terminal point was exactly the same altitude as Sirius, and
about the same distance to the left. The meteor began as a first or
second magitude star ; and, after traversing one-fourth or one-third of its
path, it suddenly increased in brilliancy and apparent size to a fine
bluish-white fireball, and emitted a train, coloured blue, red, and green,
many degrees long. At this time the pear-shaped ball was 10 or 12
minutes in diameter. At about two-thirds of its course it began to dimi-
nish in lustre, and, turning a dull red colour, moved very slowly towards
the end, so slowly, that it seemed to come almost to a standstill. It was
then seen through a thin cloudy haze, and was about equal to Sirius in
lustre. I counted 22 seconds duration, making a mental allowance for
the time that had elapsed before I commenced to count; but immediately
afterwards, by imagining the course to be described again, I thought the
duration was 15 or 16 seconds. It could not have been less than 15, and
may have been 20 seconds. The path was gently curved towards Orion.
The place of observation was half a mile Hast of the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich.

The meteor was also seen by Mr. Henry Corder, at Writtle, near
Chelmsford, who thus describes it :—

Nov. 27, 105 25™—At the commencement it was of the 3rd or 4th
magnitude, rapidly increasing to first magnitude, of deep red colour and
red train. Then equal to Venus, greenish blue. It began 83°+ 31°,
ended 91°—1° in a cloud. Path 38° long, traced on the chart among
the stars of Taurus and Orion; parallel to 6 Tauri and a Orionis, and
when produced the path coincided with 5 Monocerotis. Mr. Corder sup-
posed that the meteor ended at the extinction of the bright light, all
farther view being cut off by the clouds. The duration was not noted,
as he endeavoured to call the attention of a friend ; but he was struck by
the great length of time it remained visible—estimated at about 5 or 6
seconds.

The real ending was seen by Mrs. Ursula Ware, at Clifton Down,
Bristol, at an altitude equal to that of Sirius, and about 1° to the left of
the vertical of Procyon [by a diagram]. It moved very little during the
3 seconds it was visible. Time 10 40™,

These descriptions afford the following coordinates as basis of calcu-
lations :—

Began Became Bright Became Dull Ended.

‘Azimuth Athans | Aceh, Ales bedi WOATH.- bAcimathe PATE

Greenwich |N. 85° H.| 44° |S. 81° B....| 34°.../S. 69° E....| 20° |S. 59° E....162°
RUM eueewcl Su Gin bleh, BO) pk lscectencessasealecoueaten SRG oped lB yy DO eee ie er
Brat ta cate Saecemasncallsaee tert (Sizes esses ofzi\|wacoulma(hladcenisasiaagact||doaess oa S. 793 E....|/43

These positions are in remarkable agreement, and the following true
path satisfies them all, both azimuths and altitudes, within 1°.

When the meteor first became visible, it was at the real height of 56
statute miles vertically over a point off the mouth of the Thames, 11
miles north of Margate, or in lat. 51° 33’ N.; long. 1° 21’ EH. It moved
in the direction S. 26° E., in a path inclined 35° to the horizon, and dis-
appeared at the height of 13 miles vertically over a point 12 miles west

242 REPORT—1878.

of St. Omer, in France, or in lat. 50° 45’ N.; long. 2° 0’ E., the total
length of the path being 78 miles + 5 miles.

The radiant point is obtained with precision in 285° + 64° (neglecting
the slight zenithal deflection, the Right Ascension being certainly within
1°, the Declination within 5°), corresponding to 340° of longitude and 7°
of ecliptic North Polar distance.

The other elements required are—

° /
Longitude of the Sun............seseeesseeee 245 50
Longitude of the apex of the earth’s
MMOLION 22 .......0sccecenensvccesccesecsesecess 156 25
Log. radius VECtOr ......0eessereeeeereeeeeees 9°99394
Harth’s orbital velocity........scsc.seeeeees 19:1 statute miles per second.

Now assuming, as usual, the meteor to have been moving with the
velocity due to a sensibly parabolic orbit—that is to say, 191 x / 2h
the aberration of the radiant would have been 44° 35’, and the relative
velocity 169 miles per second. The meteor then would have traversed
the 78 miles of its visible path in about 44 seconds of time, or the 50
miles of it seen by Mr. Corder in less than 3 seconds. Altering the
position of the radiant, even as much as 10° in the direction of maaimum
effect, i.e., away from the apex of the earth’s motion, produces no sen-
sible effect upon this “ parabolic’ duration. .

The actual duration was certainly not less than 15 seconds; it may
have been 20 seconds (I should say it was 17 seconds, for I frequently
test my habit of counting seconds, and generally find it about 5 per cent.
too slow.) It is impossible that I can have been many seconds in error
in counting 15 or 20. Mr. Corder was struck by the long duration. He
made no attempt to count it, as he tried to call the attention of a friend.
His rough estimate of 5 or 6 seconds refers to about two-thirds of the
visible path.

Taking 15 seconds as the real duration, the relative velocity is only
51 miles per second, corresponding to an orbital velocity for the meteor
of 20:4 miles per second. Since the radius vector is common to both
orbits, we have the relation—

Vitp=a4 VV? (2 — p)}

where V,, V are the orbital velocities of the earth and the meteor re-
spectively, a the mean distance of the meteor’s orbit, that of the earth
being 1, and p the common radius vector.

Whence a= 171691, corresponding to the periodic time 462 days,
and the other elements of the orbit are—

gq = 9858
e = '1568
~ = — 4° 16’
az = 70° 6
Q = 245 50
4=15 0

Motion direct.

I will now suppose that the actual duration was only one-half of that
taken before, that is only 7} seconds. As the radiant point is determined
with a degree of accuracy that will not allow it to be shifted many degrees
farther away from the apex, the true orbital velocity of the meteor, on

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 273

this extreme supposition, is no greater than 21'5. Thence the mean dis-
tance 1:3785 corresponding to a periodic time of 591 days, the other
elements being—

gy = 9859

e = ‘2848

@ = — 2° 29
w= 68 19

2 = 245 50
% = AVS. OF

It is not worth while to consider the case of the duration having
possibly been much greater than 15 seconds; for had it been so great
as 30 seconds, the elements of the orbit would be sensibly the same as
for a duration of 15 seconds.

It is remarkable that the elements of the orbit of this meteor, with the
exception of the inclination (7), are determined with a degree of accuracy
equal to those of a well-observed comet. The node is, of course, given,
by the mere record of time, within 3”: the perihelion distance is accurate
to the fourth place of decimals: the anomaly (#) and the longitude of
the perihelion are within a few minutes, while the mean distance and
eccentricity must be very approximate. Such favourable conditions,
however, as the present will rarely happen.

Many observers have recognised a radiant point of shooting stars very
near to that of this fireball, and about the same date [see Mr. Greg’s
comparative list, in ‘ B. A. Report,’ 1874]; but there are as yet no records
of the apparent velocity of the meteors. If the radiant be persistent and
the apparent velocity of the meteors be slow, there must exist a meteoric
ring of nearly circular form occupying the position in space defined by
the elements given above.

So far as I am aware, the assumption of a parabolic orbit has satis-
fied, within probable limits of error, all previous observations of this
character. Hyperbolic orbits for fireballs have been deduced, but only on
the assumption that the observed durations were accurate. Experience
proves that the most reliable observers cannot avoid errors of 10 or even
20 per cent., and that in favourable cases of long duration.

The orbit deduced above for the fireball of 1877, Nov. 27, is inde-
pendent of any reasonable error in estimating the duration. It is suffi-
cient for the establishment of a short periodic time (such as 500 days)
that the meteor “moved slowly” from a fairly well-determined radiant
point, distant about 90° from the point in the heavens towards which the
earth’s motion was directed. :

On the Perseids I. 1876, August 9,10,11. By Captain G. L. Turman.

On the three evenings above mentioned, while residing at St. Moritz,
in the Engadine, I set myself the task of determining the position of the
Perseus radiant as accurately as possible. I watched the immediate
neighbourhood of the radiant, and only took account of those paths
which from falling favourably among stars could be mapped with great
accuracy. The number of such paths obtained was of course very limited,
but they are more valuable for the purpose than a large number of
roughly recorded paths. I made use of Mr. Proctor’s ‘ New Star Atlas,’
first edition. It is not to be supposed that the determination of the exact
Bera. beginning and ending of each track was attempted—that would

. T

274 REPORT—1878.

serve no useful purpose—the care was expended on the true direction and
general position of the paths.
The following observations of true Perseids were obtained :—

Mose timelBegimning| End | Mag.
1876. | h. m. = An Se is
Aug. 9. 8 50 199 + 56 | 209 + 20 % |Swift, bright streak.

9 5 | 191 + 57} 199 + 20 % |Very swift; streak very fine.

9 22 19 + 59 | 355 + 58 Q |Very swift; very bright.

9 40 223 + 60 | 221 + 20 Q |Very swift; very bright streak.

9 45 222 + 30 | 220 + 0 y% Very swift.

10 0 255 + 16 | 246 — 3 9. |Very swift; bright streak.

Aug. 10.) 9 30 204 + 50 | 210 + 17 2 |Very swift; streak.

9 35 19 + 583 0 + 58 y b “64 streak.

9 50 23 + 603) 348 + 58 y > as streak.

9 55 218 + 75 | 218 + 45 y 7 » bright streak,

11 30 29 + 41 23 + 32 2 A iy streak,

11 35 39 + 44 | 34 + 27

11 40 25 + 63 | 351 + 62

11 45 0+ 60 | 339 + 53

11 55 37 + 60}| 33 +613) 9 [Nearly stationary; 1° long; half
as broad; many seconds; very
red.

12 0 49} + 58 |Stationary| 2% {Almost stationary; very slight
motion; less than 4°, away
from Cassiopeia.

Aug. 11. 8 53 45 + 77 | 235 + 81 1 |Very swift.

8 55 80 + 57 | 87 + 564 1 |Slow; red; streak.

9 0 0 + 72 | 330 + 72 Rather slow.

9 40 70 + 59 79 + 59

10 5 58 + 58 65 + 573) ° Slow.

Mean Alt. of the

Perseus Radiant.
1a a Nee Ee 5
Aug. 9, 8 50 to 9 50, counted 5 Perseids and 4 others .........0+- 24
Aug. 10, 9 30 to 10 35, * 2C Perseids and 15 others.........++ 28
> 10 55to12 0, * 22 Perseids and 9 others............. 37
Aug. 11, 8 55 to 10 38, 3 26 Perseids and 22 others ........... 26

I find the radiant point to be distinctly double. 12 of the above
tracks indicate with great precision the position 46° + 57°°6, and 8 give
38° + 56°0 with equal accuracy. Although hardly 4° apart, I have no
doubt these two centres of radiation are distinct.

1878, March 25th, 10" 22™ 308a.m. Forfarshire and the east coast of
Scotland. The fireball, described as brilliant in daytime, and in bright
sunshine, in Scotland and in the northern counties of England on this
date, pursued its visible course over the North Sea from a height of 50
miles over a point 30 miles E.S.H. from Berwick to a height of scarcely
more than 20 miles over the sea 45 miles E.N.E. from Aberdeen. This
path is 130 miles long, descending with a slope of about 13°, from 5° or 6°
'W. of South, towards 5° or 6° KH. of North, referred to the horizon of
places near Dundee and Aberdeen. Of the duration of the meteor’s flight
in this course but few accounts were preserved; but at a height of 35
miles when it was off Arbroath (“a little north of east” from Callander),

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 275

110 miles north from Newcastle-on-Tyne, and 75 miles in a direct line
from Dunbar, a first outburst of sparks and scintillations (seen at Cal-
lander) seems to have taken place, agreeing nearly in its altitude (16°)
with the apparent altitude of 12° or 15° at which it first attracted
observers’ attention by its unwonted size and luminosity, at Newcastle.
It is in the last 60 miles of its path from this point that durations of its
flight varying from one-and-a-half to two seconds were noted at Newcastle
and at Callander; while an observer, apparently of its whole path, near
Stranraer, gives four seconds for its duration. Hither of these estimates
gives nearly 35 miles per second as its real speed of flight. The radiant
point was at 332°—20° (R.A. and Decl.), and the speed of a meteor from
this radiant point with a parabolic orbit is 33 miles per second; a velocity
which the observations therefore substantiate very nearly. Measurements
of the meteor’s course at two places near Callander, and at two places
~near Newcastle-on-Tyne, as pointed out by observers there, were obtained
by Professor Herschel, and corroborated each other at those places within
a few degrees. In answer to a request for similar measurements addressed
to observers of the fireball in the ‘Scotsman’ of May lst, by Professor
Herschel, a very exact description of its apparent path by carefully
observed positions of the line of light, or cloud-streak left upon its track,
at Coupar Angus, 15 miles N.W. from Dundee, was sent to the Committee
by the head railway porter of that station, Mr. John Robertson. And good
accounts of its course at Wigton and Hawick, in the south-west part of
Scotland, and at Darlington, as a more distant point of observation in
England, were also recorded, of which the collected statements carefully
compared together, combine to fix with considerable certainty, and with a
degree of accuracy which only admits of very small corrections, the
height and situation, and the real direction and velocity, of the meteor’s
course, as above described. A peal of distant thunder, heard at about the
time of the meteor’s appearance at Dunbar, is perhaps attributable to it,
though the distance of the nearest point of the meteor’s track was there
70 miles, which sound traverses in five minutes and a half ; and throughout
its course it was indeed between 50 and 70 miles distant from all the
easternmost points of the coast, and from the principal towns of the east
part of Scotland, where it was very widely noted and observed.

The real direction of this fireball’s motion round the sun and arrival
upon the earth is remarkable, as but little below the ecliptic (about 9°),
very nearly at the place which would belong to the path of a body
projected with parabolic velocity directly from the sun itself. In its real
orbit it approached the earth from a point of the heavens within 10° of
the sun’s place (about 3° behind it in longitude, and 9° south of it in
latitude), which was in the ecliptic at longitude 44°. The following table
gives the elements of its orbit, supposing it to have been parabolic: and
the conclusion arrived at from the observations is that the perihelion
distance, or the least distance of the meteor in its orbit from the sun’s
centre during its closest approach to and passage round the sun, was
about =1,th (0022) of the earth’s distance from the sun, or about four of
the sun’s radii distant from its surface as it neared it, and made the rapid
circuit of its sharply returning orbit round it!

& = 184° 30’
eis Motion retrograde.
q = 0:022

72

276 REPORT—1878.

A LIST OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND

Hour
Date Approx. Place of

Position or

G.M.T., or| Observation Apparent Size, Colour fee Apparent Path
(Lel. Time)
1871.| h m

Sept. 4| 9 30 p.m. |Ross, Hereford-|5 or 6X Q .ccoccesleeceeceeeesorens ..|Moved slowly|Beginning at al
shire. about 30° N.E
and disappear
ing at about ali

10°, due N.

1876.

Jan.29| About |St. Mary’s Os-|Bright meteor ...}.....ccseres Saacjoseecssn Sesssedee Passed _ throug
9 p.m. cott [?]. Andromeda.

Feb.27} 6 15 a.m. |Melrose, Scot-|Bright fireball ...)....cccccsecseseoelsreeescecescseeees Passed from N, t

land. S.W.
May 8|8 45 p.m. |Ibid ............ Brilliant MCteOr. | scacecs.scocswonan|caseveccesscsentne Moving toward
5.W.
Jun.10| About |London ......... Nucleus rather|Beautiful |Rather swift.|/Between Leo Mi
10 40 p.m. small,butbright} blue colour. nor and Le(
and dazzling. Major

July15]11 7 p.m. |Clapton, Lon-|Very fine meteor. |...........scssee[ecseesereeeeeeeees Began just beloy

don, a Pegasi, and
disappeared ai
or near w Pis
cium.

‘Aug. 7] 9 37 p.m. |St. Germain en/Large fireball .../First white,/About 2 Began in the Con

Laye, France. then bril-| seconds. stellation Lyra
liant green. and passed im
mediately be
low that
Aquila.

Sep. 23] 7 40 p.m. |Melrose, Scot-|Bright meteor ...)......scsseseevseslecesererecseeeeees Passed from N.W

land, to §.K.

Noy. 8/5 35 p.m./Rossiniére, Parse fire alk Weslcctecncsssdostent aceesynteenwaveran Point of first ap
the same] Vaud, and pearance clos
hour, 5"| generally ob- to a Tarand
5™ p.m.) served in (Bode) at 4 (Po)
G. M. T.,) Switzerland. é laris, e Cassio]
to a mi- peiz); [25°
nute, as 76°.] Disap)
that of pearing at alt
the large 20° or 21°.
fireball
seen in
England. :

Dec.13| 4 45 p.m. |Northfield, near|Brighter and White cacrves os Motion quick/In the S8.E., froz

Birmingham.| larger than ? (no time to} about alt. 609
appears at night call atten-| to about 30°
tion).
1877.

Feb.11| 7 40 p.m.|Birmingham ...|Very brilliant — [.......+e...008 .».|Motion very|In the north-west

meteor, slow, com-} no part of it

| pared to] path having
thatofmost} very great ap
meteors. parent alt.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 277

BEFORE THE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878.

peneth of | Direction or Radiant-point | Appearance, Remarks, &c. eapadihcan
»
Biiccwscenscsnes [Near 8 Aquarii by the com-|Like a large roman-candle ball.|H. Southall (commu-
od bined paths; 345°—15°| [The same meteor’s apparent|/ nicated by G. J.
(+4°in R. A., and 48° in| path and appearance at Dur-| Symons.)
d Decl. ] ham is recorded with asketch
: in these Reports. Vol. for
: 1872, p. 74.]
ae Epcana Hs tO) Wie. scechiedarstaccsavs|sccsnsersacsvccscesce<wens ASSEAECAREEOOOS Communicated by G. J.
Symons.
USE osc.gccvccsecrceccessansesnesccse|sevasecascecteteovseeveaseucaantconceseces Id.
Mecsas |tecadorccoveccecsocccsscccecccscecsscce|nstevecstescsceccccceossesecnsestccerceces Id.
Mibdececccessses Moving .in a direction from|Its light in the West attracted|Frank Dennett, ‘ Eng-
N.to W. attention to it; end of its} lish Mechanic,’ vol.
path concealed by trees; no] xxiii., p. 404; June
train. Also observed at Writ-| 30, 1876.
tle, Chelmsford, see these Re-
ports, vol. for 1877, p. 104.
Rep ereaves<c-v-[svsuseccoss ngandooeadaccdcascenoce dees [oasenecte Pandaeeceasceasehensencos cn cakes J.D. H. Ibid. p. 485,
July 21, 1876.
Bigsksvasba55<s Directed towards Saturn...... Nucleus white and _brilliant/K. Ferriéres. ‘Comptes

when first seen, expanded| Rendus,’ vol. 1xxxili,
just before disappearance like] p. 459 (Aug. 14,
a green fire-work. 1876).

duck uac wane scecvs cdeapsies sus seston delaioets «a's seseeeeeseeee(Communicated by G.J,
Symons.

Fell quite perpendicularly.|End of path hidden behind ajM. F. Ward (com-
[Radiant in Cepheus or| mountain-top, 2 miles from,| municated by G. J.
Lyra ?] and 4,000 above the observer’s} Symons.)

point of view.

TUET TEE eee) .

pa east eeeseweree

Globular nucleus. In clear,|Mrs. F. Impey (com-
bright sky, with no stars,| municated by J. E.
yet clearly visible. [Other} Clark.)
descriptions of this meteor

appeared in these Reports,

vol. for 1877, pp. 114-116.]

Descending thus

[Probable radiant
1
!

point near foot
of Bootes. ] '
Travelling towards the North

CP ase esaaserseere

‘Birmingham Daily
Post,’ February 14,
1877.

PPP ee Serer err)

278 REPORT— 1878.

A List oF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Hour
Approx. Place of ose i . Position or
ae G.M.T., or| Observation | “Pparent ae 20 ie Apparent Path
(Lcl. Time)
1877. | hm

Apr.20/ About |Newcastle,
9 p.m. Wicklow,

Brilliant meteor.

Treland.
May21; About .|Fianarantsoa, Large fireball; de-|Fiery red en-|.............ec00«
6 p.m. Madagascar. | tonating. circled by
blue; halo
and tail
comet-like.
place was de-
serted. ]
May 30/11 26 p.m.|Writtle, near/Small at first ; at}Orange ; then/Rather slow ;/From 335° + 472°
Chelmsford, last= Y. bluish 2 seconds. | to 319°+36°;
Hssex. white, observation
very accurate.
Jun. 16) 9 30 p.m./Birmingham ...]= 9 o.......ceeesceeee Reddish ; 3-0 seconds. |From o Leonis to
4 then white. a Cancri.
July24) 9°15 p.m.|Bridport, Dor-}= 2 .........cesseeeee RCW cceaceueeee 24 seconds. |From 20°N. of E.,
setshire. alt. 30°, to alt.
10°, due E.
30! 9p.m. |Pontresina, En-|= Sirius ............ Yellow ...... Slow speed. [From 245°+ 4°
gadine. to 228°— 3°
Aug.1l} lam. |Writtle, near SD eecceartensteee Greenish...... 1 second. From 80°+45°2
Chelmsford, to 75° + 32°
Essex.

17) 8 13 p.m. |Putney, London|As bright as the|Bluish green.|About 2 or 3/From near £ to
moon in its first seconds. near w Piscium ;
from 344° +2
to 3574° +6°)

17} 8 14 p.m.|Colchester,

About half the ap-/Very pale, or
Essex.

parentdiameter} white; red
of the moon.

eee eee eee eT ey

eeeeee

31) 7 45 a.m./Ballinasloe, A very brilliant

Ireland. meteor.
Sept. 7] (About 10 /Bloomington, MGAY SEMHELEOL: st |+<.cbecceeesessee
5 p.m.) Indiana, U.S. second or] stationary
more. where it ap-

peared (in Vul-
pecula) at about
295° + 15°.

| OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 279

THE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—continued.

‘Length of : t : i Observer or
t Path Direction or Radiant-point Appearance, Remarks, &c. Refesaiee
E.... sabaees Pees eaai caches csesocccccvsnsccheratscesruse The illumination of the meteor|((Communicated by G.
i lit up the sky.
ae Be eB arssnsssesadavaecedoonsbesstsascaese Resembled a comet or rocket|T. Brockway. ‘Chroni-
i with halo and tail, and a
; cloudy appearance round it.| Missionary Society,
[ Burst into two bright star-| 1877; (communi-
\: like appearances at last ;| cated by H. Corder).
followed shortly by a long
' low peal of thunder.
Nena cecesves Horizontally from N. to S.;|Ended with a flash, and small|H. Corder.
radiant in Cassiopeia (?) terminal spark. Left an
orange streak for 2 or 3
seconds.

seeeeeeeseesses ooe

{confirmed generally by the
Bristol observation. ]

Downwards, left to right ; in-
clined 45° from vertical.

From direction of Pegasus...

[Agrees with Denning’s
new radiant fors August
10-13, at 97° +71°.]

seeleeennec eae eeeseeeseaeesereeseseeeeeraee

ot more
_ than 4° afterwards three meteors
(anda fourth some minutes
later), equal to Ist mag.

stars, appeared almost

same place.

Radiant S. 5, 6, in Virgo;|Flickered

without motion at the

in transit ;
dimmed by twilight.
seen at Bristol; see these
Reports, vol. for 1877, p. 122.]

light|W. H. Wood.

Seen in twilight ; left no streak.|J. E, Clark.

Left a streak.......cscssssseseeeeee H. Corder.

Apparently not a Perseid.|Left a streak for 20 or 30\Id.

seconds. Similar meteors at
2» 8™ (8° N.E. from Polaris)
and 2% 27™ am. (behind
clouds in N.E.) lit up the sky
like this one.

Nucleus a large round ball,|James L. McCance.

‘The Observatory,’
vol. i. p. 177, Sept.,
1877.

with another smaller body
(one observer remarked) fol-
lowing in its track; also
noticed in the north of Lon-
don, see the ‘Standard’ of
August 20, 1877.

Pale coloured nucleus with alChelmsford Newspaper

(communicated by

long trail of light emitting
H, Corder).

sparks of ruddy hue. Ap-

pearance very different from

that of the Perseid shooting’

stars. ;

Communicated by G. J.
Symons.

In the course of afew seconds|Observer’s attention attracted|John Graham. Letter

from D. Kirkwood
in the ‘Scientific
American;’ (‘ Lon-
don Iron Trade Ex-
change,’ Oct. 6).

by the light in the sky; in-
creased in brightness till it
disappeared.

280 REPORT—1878.

A List OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Hour
Approx. Place of
G.M.T., or| Observation
(Lel. Time)

Position or

Apparent Size. Colour Duration Apparent Path

Date

1877.; hh m_ s
Sep.11/)(About 8 0|Petit Saconnex,|Large bolide...... Pale green ...|About 3 Beginning in the
p-m. Swiss;| near Geneva. seconds. north-east, it
or 7 40 p.m. passed from
Paristime). thence across

in the south
before reaching
the summit of
Mont Saléve.
11} (About |Boén, Loire, {Extremely bril- |............scsecslecscoscceeess .»...|Moved at a small
7 45p.m.)} France. liant fireball. altitude above
the eastern hori-
zon,

11) (8 7 p.m./Rossiniére, Nearly OF Qiite].......0cceoscssee Travelled Began just above
Swiss; or} Vaud, Swit- as brilliant as rapidly. [? below] 7 An-
746p.m.| zerland. that of Aug. 25, dromedz, and
Paris 1877; [noother close by y Pe-
time). description of gasi to rAquarii,

this “previous ” where it burst,

large __ fireball

given. ]

16} 9 33 p.m.|Birmingham ,..)=%Y .........eeeeee WRLC: vcsaoet 1:5 second .../From a Arietis to
j uw Ceti.
28; About (jHoier, Ténder, |Apparent size of|/Red, then Rapid ......... Shot upwards,

7 30 p.m.| Germany. the full moon. white. crossing the
zenith from no
great altitude
in the S.E.;
and passing
about 5° N. of G
disappeared
near a Urs ma-

Oct. 2} 8 59 p.m.|Bristol ......... =Ist. mag. « for|Very bright |Rather slow |From } (a B) Ce-

3 of its course;} white. motion. phei, towards,

then, with a and a degree

flash, >= 9. past a Andro-
mede.

2) 9 46 pmJIbid. ..........0. S71) Ceres -.|Bright white,|.....ssccccssssss: At a low altitude
in the N.N.W.

3} 8 38 p.m.lIbid. ............ =a Ree aeia Rema Use lob ses caiceinoseo se Very swift ...|A few degrees to

the right of a
and 8 Urs ma-
| joris.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Traversed a
| large arc of
_ the sky.

| Direction or Radiant-point

[About N. to S.] ...sececeeeeees

Direction of motion from N.
to S. Path sensibly
curved.

Ce eeereereeerereecseereseoee ees

[Probable radiant in, or

southward from Aquila,
(or ? from Cygnus) j.

This meteor and the next
were from a radiant of 7
or 8 bright shooting stars
seen in 5 hours on the same
night, in Quadrans, at
225° + 52°,

| rseees Rteracccss From the same radiant as the|A meteor = Ist mag. +, at 11" 17"

last.

../Directed from Polaris; ra-

diant (from several meteors
of the same and previous
nights), 165° + 77°, be-
tween the Pointers and
Polaris,

281

THE YEAR ENDING IN AuGuST, 1878—continued.

Observer or

Appearance, Remarks, &c. Reference

The nucleus appeared spherical,|Geneva Newspaper.
brighter on its southern than
on its northern side; died
out, leaving a light-streak
visibie for a few seconds,

Left a streak like that of a/V. Duram. ‘ Comptes
rocket on its path. A slight} Rendus,’ vol. lxxxv,
noise was heard during its| p. 577, Sept. 17th,
passage by more than one ob-| 1877.
server.

The nucleus threw out smaller|M. F. Ward.
bodies, like the fire-ball of
Aug. 25th, on its course. Left
a light-streak for 1] minutes,
falling at the ends to a per-
fect bow-shape before disap-
pearing. Shooting stars were
frequent there and the sky
was very clear.

SORE aCCORECUOCOCUCCOOCEEO 6 nectar W. H. Wood.

(Com-
municated by G. J.
Symons.)

First aspect like the full moon,/Towald K6hl, German
but redder; shone out as it} Monthly Journal,
passed Mizar with a light} ‘Gea,’ vol. for
like the sun’s; andfromthere| 1877, p, 793.
to near Dubhe left a light-
streak 15° long, visible at the
bursting-place for 14 hour;
became § shaped and drifted
westwards, the end-patch to
n Urs, where it was hid
by clouds. No explosion
heard.

At its point of maximum or ex-|W. F. Denning,
plosion, ashort nebulous light
streak remained visible 3}
minutes, drifting 5° towards
Cassiopeia before fading out.

was also directed from this
point (near 7 Urs majoris) ;
short course, with sparks, in
Quadrans.

Left a bright streak on its path,|Id.
2° long., visible for 15 seconds
in a very hazy sky.

282

Hour™
Approx. Place o - : Position or
oe GALT, or} Observation eee ee paleea oo Apparent Path
(Lcl. Time)
1877.| hm
Oct. 8} 7 O p.m./Clermont Fer- |= 4, but < ?../Colour dis- |Less than 2 |Began near a
(?) rand, Cler- tinctly seconds, Ursz majoris,
mont, France. green. and descended
to the horizon.
8(?)| 7 O p.m.|Tiffanges, Ven-|Extremely bright}...............c0/secees SHasesoco. Just below the
dée, France. meteor. stars of Ursa
major.
811 50 p.m.|Bristol ......... IMeteoriiwithy: 73) vsvesaccessesece|seeeessnsocesneren A few degrees
bright flash = above the E.
STO Se RCCAT CE horizon ; from
109° + 17° to
116° + 12°.
19) Precisely’ |Monmouth, Extremely bril- |White; the |........ssceeceserlees cabs ac cosneeh sunetoee
6 15 p.m. Wales. liant meteor in | streak for
[Similar de- | strong twilight} 20 seconds n ,.e
scriptions at | and moonlight) adazzling- |., e
Cullompton, | (Arcturusplain-| ly white & spcrunus .
Bath, Hun- ly visible). [At) wand;then e .
gerford, Cork it illumi-| gradually (Eine URSA e
Strandtown, nated the whole! srowing MAJOR
and Omagh, city. ] fainter.
in Ireland,
&c., contain
no more exact
particulars. ]
29] 8 1 30 |Dunecht Ob- /A very brilliant!,.,.......... sasbalcess ease chensaasee Point of explosion,
servatory, meteor. and of the per-
Aberdeen, sistent streak
Scotland. at 268° + 60°
(equinox of
1855).
DO|ccnssvesveseans St. Lawrence, (Brilliant meteor..!........ ecesccustolcccecseeesensetene] -Asepeaserautecsmsseauns
Kent.
Nov. 4) 8 4 p.m.|Birmingham ...|=— 2 ......c.cseeee Bright yellow/2°5 seconds...|From 350°—¥° to
[and red]. 327° —17°.
410 13 p.m.|Sunderland .../About = 9......... (Deep orange .|About 1 From } (20 Ceti,
: second ; 5 Piscium) to 3
quick. (Mars, Aqua-
rii) starting a
few degrees be-
fore the former
’ point.
7| 9 4 p.m|.York ............Afinemeteor= ¢;/Fiery red .../21 seconds; {From 100° + 59°
brightness uni- “moved to 190°+ 51°.
form. slowly.
14) 3 23 a.m.|/Sunderland .../= Y....ecsecseeeeenes Orange ......1°4 second .,.|From 47° + 27° to}
d 24°+ 17°,
16) 6 21 p.mjIbid. ............/At least= ¥ ....../Yellowish, - |Very slow, 3 |From 270° + 16° |
and green- | seconds. to 255°+ 16°°5.
ish; at last

REPORT—1878.

A List OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

orange.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 283

THE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—continued.

Observer or

_ Length of

” Path Direction or Radiant-point | Appearance, Remarks, &ce. Refotanice
Bir ecapeqecceses ...||Radiant from these two ob-/This and the next meteor are|M. Hugon. ‘Bulletin
servations in R.A. 35°, and| identical,and thefirst of more| de 1lAssociation
Decl. between + 5° and +| than one seen on the same Scientifique de
35°, approximately. ] night in France. France,’ vol. xxi.
p. 224, Jan. 6th, 1878.
SCE ...---|Moving towards the Hast ...|Burst with sparks of various/P. Gustin. Ibid.
; colours.
Bieecas sseeeeeeee+|Conformable to a radiant Left a streak 4° long. visible for}W. F. Denning.
point at 77°+ 31° of 5 3 seconds.
meteors seen on the same
evening.

Fell some Fell quite vertically till hid/The streak curved gradually}W. Watkins Old.
degrees. by a cloud-bank at a point} northwards, and drifted for 8} (Communicated by
2 (7 Urse majoris,Arcturus),] minutes until it lay almost] W. F. Denning.)
as in the sketch. [The me-| horizontal (see the sketch) ;
teorat 5" p.m.,Oct.18th(see| clouds then rising upwards
Nov. 23rd, Note to the] obscured it. [The length of
Hertford account) though} the ‘spear’ or ‘comet’ (end
quite similar, was yet, no} cloud and streak together) at
doubt, a separate and ear-} Dublin, was ‘5 lunar diame-
lier meteor. ] ters,’ and its altitude above
the horizon there-‘about 50°.’
See discussion of the meteor’s
real course in this Appendix. ]

streak Draconis; streak and the] its track for 10 seconds.
scarcely $°.} meteor’s course both fore-| Though not itself visible to
shortened near the radiant} him directly, the’ meteor’s

ture,’ vol. xvii, p.
29.

point. flash was yet seen by Mr.
Lohse.
EMERe Es avescsase|accccsscseess aatacenessat consecbaanosae Its course and appearance were|Communicated by G
obscured by clouds. J. Symons.
oo SEEPS wooo Radiant R, in Musca. ([Oct.JAnterior half of nucleus ruby|W. H. Wood.

31lst—Nov. lst, 1877, Den-| red; tail white, 15° long.
ning; 46°+ 26°. ]
Setesercescsse osc 2a Leonid; too swift for aj/Left a blue or green streak on|T. W. Backhouse.
| Taurid. [Muscid; same} nearly its whole course for 2
tadiant, R,, as the last me-| seconds; not so bright com-

teor. ] pared to the head as those of
the Leonids.
”_-esnogcdepd Bases Manpacoccothontce tr SsOncereerEEes Left no streak. Fifteen other,G. A. Walpole, ‘ Na-
meteors were noted on the} tural History Jour-
same night. nal,’ vol. i, p. 152,
i Dec, 15th, 1877.
RUE e cn scsesese Leonid. [Directed nearly {Ended with a flash, and with aT. W. Backhouse,
from A, « and 7 Leonis. | green streak there for 3|
seconds.
Batees:s Rameces Directed from e Aquile. [Brightest in mid-course; faded Id.

[From unknown radiant in| gradually; left no streak.
Aquila or Aquarius (?).]

284 REPORT—1878.

A List OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Position or

Halifax. |

large again as
the moon’s
diameter, with
considerable
elongation to-
wards the tail.]

ments
especially
into which

23) 8 26 p.m.|2 miles N. of|/Two maxima, the

Hertford.

first at + Hercu-
lis and the next

seceroeee

take G.M.T., or Duration Apparent Path
(Lcl. Time)
1877.} h m s
Nov.16 ah Oh ese Depo [Blue ....0e«.,23 seconds, |From 80°+ 87°
very slow to 210°+ 48°;
speed. course slightly
curved.
NG OIA TNO [Eid s \ ccsccssccre| = Ocecssseee acosess-[DUle ——.2csceaes Slow motion ;/From 273° + 38°
p.m. about 14 to 256° + 20°,
second.
16) 914 p.m. jAckworth, [= % or 9 .. ......[Bluish ......|sccoosssssssssnsns From Ursa Major
Yorkshire. across the ze-
nith to a Lyre.
Path curved.
UG els LO wali Gaence oceccense| = allie a cevacesteces| DIUISN 0" ceeeae 3 seconds ...\Began near a
p.m. Cephei, passed
within 1° of a
Lyre, and dis-
appeared near
n Herculis, °
23) (After- {Richmond (and/Fireball of thel...........c00 Soro avncasscasolarasenaen iaesaseeesseeee
noon) the States of} largestsize; de-
Virginia, and} tonating.
N. Carolina,
U.S.)
23) About {Llandulas, N./! or 2 diam, of|Bluish white,|14 or 3 se- |Seen in the last
8 25 p.m.| Wales the full moon.) with train) conds (two) part of its path
A } in. magne-| ofredstars.| estimates.)| to pass between
sium tape pro-| The moon- B and y, and
duced by ex-| light faded between ¢and 7
periment the} and colours Draconis, and
same illumina-| of flowers to disappear be-
tion 4 ft. from) showed low Draco. The
the ground. elearly in first half of its
its light. course must!
have been from
near Auriga.
23} About /York; [and Mr./[In most accounts|[Blue, green,|...........cse00+/From 352° + 22°
8 25 p.m.| Crossley’s the breadth of} white or to 295° + 7°;
Observatory,| the head was| yellow, and end well seen at
Bremerside, | not less than,] red. The 1° below and 1°
or even half as} colours of beyond a Aqui-

le ; beginning
of the track
marked by the
light -streak
pointing back
to middle of the
square of Pega-
sus, as the first
appearance.

its path seen to
pass Herculis

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

_ THE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—continued.

| Length of
Path

Direction or Radiant-point

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

20° .rrevvsecees

Long path ...

1) EaeaReee

About 30°
while in
sight,

3° or 4° inj/[The same direction of its|[The equatorial room filled/E. Pickard and A.

Feteoko
25
By

mm
2 Il

on

Perse eeereeorsnees

ae I Sl te SES:

[ Radiant, if common to both|Nucleus with a short tail of|E. Pickard. (Commu-

meteors, at 35°+ 36°, Tri-

angulum. | were two perfectly similar; Clark.)
meteors; but not from the
same radiant point [?].
eeegacecccccscecereas RaveWeenesovsasses Nucleus with a short tail of/Id. Do.

ee eeescoes @aeneceesesece CO ere eeeerasese

N,

The direction only well ob-/The head was circular in out-|Dr. Grimesdale, and

served in the last part of
its flight.

course (‘from square of
Pegasus to near Altair ”’)
was noted at Rotherham,
near Sheffield, by Dr. S.
Drew; bluish green, glo-
bular, then elongated, rud-
dy, with tail, Slow; no
sound of bursting; (‘ Na-
ture,’ vol. xvii. p. 94). ]

shooting star at first, but

suddenly enlarged, as if

sparks, This and the next

sparks ; appeared 10 seconds,
after the last meteor.

[The course, as roughly stated,|E. Catchpool.

is almost the exact opposite
of that described at York !]

Course, serpentine or wavy...|Appeared far brighter thanjId.

Vega Lyre, when passing it.
[The other two stars form
with Vega a large triangle
which is nearly right-angled
at a Lyre !]

Real course 8° or 10° W. of|Exploded over the S.E. corner|/Memoir on the Meteor
of Halifax County, 15 or 20) by J. L. Campbell,

miles W., a little S. from
Clarksville, Va.

line, followed by a tail of
red stars, estimated at be-
tween 10° and 15° in length.
After a lapse of between 5™
and 10™ a loud distant ex-
plosion, lasting about 1 se-
cond, came from the West.

with green light; turning to
the west window, saw the
fragments of the explosion
falling in the sky, the colours
of their streaks of light
being red and green. At
44 10™ p.m., Nov. 22nd, a very
vivid flash of (?) lightning
made an open book look quite
green. |

Fell vertically. [Like a fine|The slight light-track or trail/F, A. Buxton, .

left, vanished immediately.
[An account of its appearance

285

Observer or
Reference

nicated by J. EH.

a

(Com-
municated by J. H,
Clark.)

(These four de-
scriptions are in the
‘Nat. Hist. Journal
of Societies i
Friends’ Schools,’
vol. i, p. 152.)

in the ‘Scientific
American,’ vol iii. p.
2, 1878.

Richard Caton.
(Communicated by
R. P. Greg.) Fuller
descriptions and dis-
cussions of this large
meteor are elsewhere
given in this Ap-
pendix.

Pumphrey. ‘ Natural
HistoryJournal,’ vol.
i. p. 153, Dec., 1877.
[Joseph Gledhill. ]

‘Na-
ture,’ vol. xvii. p.
94; Nov. 29th, i877.

Date

1877.

Nov.27

27

Dec. 2

bo

286

Hour
Approx. Place of
G.M.T., or| Observation
(Lel. Time)
hm

10 26 p.m./The Royal Ob-
servatory,
Greenwich.

10 25 p.m.|Writtle, near
Chelmsford,
Essex.
About |St. John’s,

8 15 p.m.| Devonport.

8 15 p.m.|Babbacombe ...

5 38 p.m.|Sunderland

6 23 p.m.|Writtle, near
Chelmsford,
Essex.

8 13 p.m.|Bromley, Kent.
(+ 2”). N. lat. 51°
24/3, H. long.
2/2,

11 36 p.m.|Writtle, near

Chelmsford,
Hssex.
19. (58pimi|lbidseeeeeee cesses
About |Southend-on-

Sea, Essex.

REPORT—1 878.

A LIST OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Apparent Size Colour

at termination.
Estimated dia-
meters would be
illusory from
its prodigious
brightness.

= @ in the third|White or

quarter of its} blue; and
course, growing} at last dull
fainter thence} red.

to disappear-

ance.

Position or

Duration Apparent Path

to a point ¢
sudden disay
pearance aboy
the horizon, a

= toa Ist mag. «/Red at first,|
at appearance ;| then green-
= ? at disap-| ish blue.
pearance.

Asplendid meteor’.,........0..s00

Large meteor...... Green,
changing
to violet.

ELIS ata come trels Bright green ;
short train
of bright
red sparks.

= Phe 2B eee Pale green

= ¥ in the last/Bluish mauve

part of its
course ; less
bright at ap-
pearance.

8 (+ 2) x aLyre Emerald
green ;
streak yel-
low.

=H SITUS ycsss00sine ..|Pale emerald
green.

SOUS ae aeieaiscesss Pale mauve...

Large luminous}...............06.

250° + 30°.

Duration not/From 6° abov
less than} Castor toa poii
15 or 20) 5° to the left:
seconds, Sirius.
fairly
counted.

Part of path|From 79° + 31
seen, 6 or 8| to 91° — 1°
seconds. and from othe

accounts CO}
tinued severa
degrees.
aais sesdeceass} c| GOSLDION NOL”
course from >
to W.

bee seosrcveses [PLL tromeariine
5° above ti
S.W. horizon.

Moderately |Disappeared (hi
quick, hind a_ hous:

at 197° + 35°.

4or5seconds|From 48° + *

to 55° — 1(

4 seconds .../From 285° + 7

to 289° + 3(

16 (+ 0'3)\Shot from 3

second.’ Camelopardi
(+ 12) acros
pw Lyre (+1
and disappear«
about 6° beyon:

0-5 second .../From 135° + 47

fore LAT? 4. ae

1} second ...|From 120° + 7

to 250° + 91

3 seconds ...|Passed from §..

to N.W.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 287

THE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—continued.

Observer or
Reference

panei of Direction or Radiant-point Appearance, Remarks, &c.

plunging” into “fiery ele-| atCathedine,Brecknockshire,| [At that page and at
ments” and drawnbythem| states that in the previous} p.114 there arenum-
to the earth, then it first] month at5"p.m.on Oct.18th,} berless accounts;
melted to a drop, and a se-| a beautiful meteor, “like the] finally also of a de-
cond time broke into frag-| evening-starsettingrapidly,”| tonating meteor at
ments as it disappeared.| fell in the West; and its} Strasburg, at 6 p.m,
(Writer in the‘ Manchester) glow remained there when| on the same night. ]
City News,’ Feb. 23rd,} the meteor set behind the

1878.) ] Alt. ‘The Times,’ Nov. 27th. ]
Brcccbicccscanalos Aectaseescres neee she naectenedasetesis Moved, especially towards the|G. L. Tupman. ‘The
end, with extreme slowness. | Times,’ Dec, 3rd,
1878.
Directed from Lyra..........4 Nucleus followed by a red|H. Corder.
train; faded rapidly after
reaching its greatest bril-
liancy.
(oo cence Gocael Sad eSe ae soe SBE: EE ESOGecBESc EE fatal Meee arOLpeEred ip eecr ceo cbecco8ds .-»-.-|Communicated by G. J.
Symons.
SebAdegbeood sontnocaceee +s..../[t exploded twice, giving off|Id.
orange sparks. °
sesseseeeeereeeeee( Directed from about 2 (8, $)|A part only of its course was|T. W. Backhouse.
Urs Majoris, seen; the point of disap-
pearance accurate within 1°
or 2°,
eM sasescascss Radiant in Triangulum (?)...|Nucleus with a slight train ;/H. Corder.

flashed out several times;
but seen in haze and behind

¢ trees.

{40° ............,|Radiant at «5 Geminorum .../Left a streak; position not\Id.
very accurately mapped.

_ RESSSESosSereeg Basecae Rcswacluaiesesihwerwele naceonannr A brilliant meteor ; left astreak/W.M.F.P. ‘ Nature,
visible for 1 second. [Iden-| vol. xvii. p. 124,
tical with the last meteor. ] Dec. 13th, 1877.

etna s'saee (CHEMUNG, scesensdocecucacesscesctas eftia: steals. screccess. <0 wotunesshion H. Corder.

O° ..seeeeeeee-{Radiant at «5 Geminorum .../Left a streak; path not accu-|Id.,
: rately mapped.
Poseserssccesseeres|oee anEoe BPAY ery Clecdontrccnctae ..{Though veiled behind cloud|Newspaper Paragraph.
, and haze, it appeared ex-
tremely large.

288 REPORT—1878.

A List OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Hour
Approx. Place of : : Position or
Date G.M.T., or| Observation Apparent Size Colour Duration Apparent Path
(cl. Time)
1878.| h m s
Jan. 10|10 36 20 |London(3 miles|As bright as, and].......ssccccscsos[errsesssereceeeeee|Occulted 5 Cassio-
p.m. N. of St.) 2xdiam. of y% peie lying on
Paul’s). “then in the the cross wires.
field” [?].
13|(4 24 p.m.)|Salthill, —_be-/Very bright me-|Tailand globe)..........«...+«-[In the north-west,j
tween Kings-| teor. of explo- at an altitude of
town and sion light about 10° or 15°
Dublin, blue. a distant fire-

31| 4 56 am.lYork ............[About 3 diameter|Bluish green |4 seconds ...[From 50° W. o
of the moon,
and as bright as
Sirius. 10° or a little

more; too low

parison with
any neighbour-
ing fixed stars.
3 seconds. |Passed a few de
Moved grees _ belo
slowly. Mars, movin

south - easterly

towards Cano-

Feb.17|(7 58 p.m.)|New York, U.S./Brighter than
America. Venus,

18\(12 47 Dublin, in the/About 2+ diameter|Bluish white,
a.m.) east part of} of, and more} train

the town. luminous than} yellowish.

the moon,

teesesseseeseeeree| Began in Draco

10° from the
horizon, in th
north.
seccseceeeesseesee/Passed over . th
town and ex
ploded to the
westward.
About 4 se-|Hrom an apparen
conds, altitude Oo
about 50° in th

March| (About |Lahore, India...j)As bright as the
15] 8 30 p.m.) full moon.

25| About |Wigton, Dum-jLarge; dazzling,
10 15 a.m.| friesshire, even in sun-
Scotland. light.

ridge; altitud
about 25° in th
east.

25/10 17 a.m.|Clitheroe, Lan-jAt least equal in
[10 20 cashire [and] area to half a
a.m. | Hawick, Rox-| full moon; and
burghshire]. | in brightness 10

Serer scveccecces)ascsecscssccsereeeA little to the eas
of north. [See
near its disap
pearance, in th

HE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—e

Direction or Radiant-point

ontinued.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

°ofits path Directed nearly towards y

tical towards the south.

Seen in the finder of an altazi-|E. Catchpool. ‘ Natural

length, and globe of some

size, when

seen in the! Cephei; 19° from horizon-| muth telescope, magnifying] HistoryJournal,’ vol.
field of tal, from W. to E. 15 times. li, p. 11.

view.

Bee's +++s..-./Inclined about 10° from ver-|Nucleus with tail 5° or 6° in|O. W. Reilly. ‘Nature,’

bursting.

See ‘Travelled almost horizontally.|A fine bolide. Nucleus globu-
lar, without tail; went out

Path slightly curved.

-bout 30° .../Directed from Andromeda ..,/Nucleus followed by sparks for/Paragraph in the
1° or 2° behind it; showed

tical, descending from left!

to right. explosion seen, or sound} 28th, 1878.
heard ; passed behind houses.
Its light surpassed that of
the moon, which was then
strong enough for reading
print.
on 6d sesseeeeeee/ Unusually large fireball ; burst,/The ‘ Homeward Mail,’
scattering fragments in all} April 8th, 1878.
directions with a report like
thunder.
COBEN Descending there at a slopel..........sssessescecsssesccesseeseeserees(J- H Walker. (Com-
of about 45° from vertical) municated by J. E.
(see the sketch). % Clark.)
! ra
WY
ez =
Jw
Bewedsts ses Descending perpendicularly. Nucleus followed by a train 5°/W.Garnett. The ‘ Man-
‘ [Descending with an in-| or 6° in length. A grand] chester Guardian,’

clination of about 40° to
the horizon. ]

1878

without explosion.

an apparently spiral move-

ment. 1878, (communi-
cated by J. E. Clark.)
: About 5° inclined from ver-/A ball of light, leaving a con-/H. Hatfield. ‘ Nature,’

tinuous luminous train; no

meteor, even in the brilliant

sunlight.
U

[In bright sun-

289

Observer or
Reference

vol, xvii. p. 221.

‘Natural History Jour-
nal,’ vol. ii. p. 11.

‘Scientific Ameri-
can’ of Feb. 23rd,

vol. xvii. p. 342, Feb.

March 28th, 1878.

290 REPORT—1878.

A List OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Hour
Approx. Place of : : Position or
arate G.M.T., or| Observation apperentinbize lone mraeaieon Apparent Path
(Lcl. Time)
1878.| h m
times more in- east,descending
tense. towards the

north point of
the horizon. ]
Mar.25|10 20 a.m.|Newcastle - on -|Meteor with large Body and tail|l3 or 2 se-|Fromalt.about10

[10 23 Tyne [and] apparent disc. white, or| condswhile} toalt.2°or3°(to
a.m. | Darlington, yellow,pur-| in sight. the horizon),be
Yorkshire ]. ple-edged. tween 7° (Wal

bottle), and 12

(Little Benton)

N.N.E esti
mated. ]

25/10 22 a.m.|Coupar - Angus|Bright enough t0].........-sreesesereeeerees eeeeee{Prom near the}
(Exactrail-| Railway Sta-| attract atten- sun’s apparent)
waytime.)| tion, Perth-| tion of all per- place (alt. 32°

shire. sons looking 30° E. from §.)
eastwards. to alt. 11}°, one

point N. of mag:
netic east (due |
N.E. by E.; meas
sured point of
disappearance
by top of a sig
nal post). |
25) About |Callander, and|Lengthof thecone|White; with|About 1} sec. From alt. 16° o
10 26 p.m.| Pass of Leny,| 14 or 2 diame-| a violet} (in bright-) 18° E.S.E. (first)

Perthshire. tersofthemoon;| halo, merg-| est part of} appearance),
[For other] [about three} ing out-| its flight). | a point of firs i
views of the] times as great) wards into scintillation
meteor in| as its breadth;) crimson, about E. by
Scotland, see] at Lennoxtown;| round it. and of disap}
the general| round in front, : pearance at alt}
account in| tapering to a 8° or 9°, 30° Ni
this Appen-| point behind.] of E., behind a
dix.] hill (measure@
path from. tw@

descriptions.) }
April2|A few min-|(No place re-/3 or 4x Y «00 Silvery white|Rather slow |Started [or? too

utes be- | corded.) changing speed. its direction
fore to pale red. from Ursa Ma
8 O pm. jor; andremain

ing stationa
a second or tw
between Orion}
belt and Sirius
fell thence
the horizon.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 291

THE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—continued.

Observer or
Reference

Length of

Path Direction or Radiant-point Appearance, Remarks, &c.

} shine; followed by a tail.
| Jas. Elliott, ‘ Nature,’ March
28th. ]

[20° or 25°,|Slope of path 10° from ver-| Other notes of its appearance|W. Clark ; J. A. Woods.

_ estimated.]) tical, thus (Walbottle):—| at and near Newcastle (‘Na-| (Communicated by
; ture,’ vol. xvil. p. 466), by Mr.| A. S. Herschel.)

T. P. Barkas, agree with these.|[A. Backhouse; com-

MGS municated by T. W.
/ Backhouse. ]
[Fell vertically. ]
[Appearance at Darlington. ]
Wis cacrcucleodese's The streak began east of, and|Head conical; left a cloudjJ. Robertson. (Com-

was directed nearly from| streak 20’ broad,sharp-edged,| municated by A. S.
the sun’s place. The me-| and quite straight for two} Herschel.)
teor itself not seen, but} minutes, on nearly its whole
described to the observer. | track, which then curled up
into separate wisps along it,
and grew diffuse; no dense
parts in it; nor report heard.

| Sc assesnpbeoae Direction of the course to-|Aspect a cone of fire, of elec-\J. B. Hamilton. (‘ The
wards the N.E. 4 N. point| trical brilliancy, dwindling] Scotsman,’ March
of the horizon; inclination] behind to a tail; the latter] 27th), and W. Mc-

there about 20° (a close} visible some moments after} Dougall. (Com-
average of two indepen-| the nucleus had disappeared| municated by A. S.
dent measurements). behind a hill; some sparks,) Herschel.)

but no cloud streak observed.

sseereseeeeeees-|Hell vertically (“in a direct/Nucleus pear-shaped. | Grew/‘ The Times,’ April 4th,
line to the horizon ’’), red as it approached the hori-| 1878. .
zon, where it disappeared
behind acloud leaving a long
track of light behind it.

292 REPORT—1878.
A List oF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE
Hour
Approx. Place of : ;
Date G.M.T., or| Observation Apparent Size Colour Duration
(Lcl, Time)
1878.| h m
April 2} 7 52 p.m.|/Birmingham .../About 4 diameter/At _ first 5 or 6 seconds,
or of full moon. bluish ; moved very
7 53 p.m. then burst | slowly.
into red
fragments.
2| Abont [Leicester ...... About + diameter/Yellow or
7 55 p.m. of the moon;| orange.
cast the observ-
ers’ — shadows
like the moon.
15} 7 30 p.m./Bolton, Lanca-|A fine meteor ...|.........seseeeeecleseeeeees
shire. ‘
May12} About |Derby............ Hine! meteor with), «.....sc.0.0s0s0e|soucuebescssoueses
8 50 p.m. well-defined
disc.
12 RSeoosp.m: VOLK: <ss.cceses0n Almost as bright|Brilliant
as 9. white, or | and light
yellowish. | seen two or
three _se-
conds ear-
lier.
12) 8 51 p.m.|Scarborough, |Large fireball .../Brightwhite;/Very slow
Yorkshire, tailreddish| passage ;
(and Preston, several se-
Lancashire.) conds in
* sight.
(Slow
| -speed; 5 or
6 seconds).
12} About |Whitby (and|(An incandescent (Very bright}5 or 6 se-
8 53 p.m.| Wakefield), body of some| white; the!) conds.

Yorkshire.

bulk.)

chain

ing it

of

fire follow-

Sasvenceene .eeeee-(SHot from 5° H. of

veeeee ee Jn the north-east.

Started from the

From near

Position or
Apparent Path

Major and Leo
(from 176° +
41° to 176° +
24°, by a sketch
of the track
among the
stars.)

a towards, an
nearly as far as

constellation of
the Lesser Bear

near the N.N.W.
horizon.

Capella,
10° above it in
altitude to alt.
about 9° or 10°
in the same azi-

the!
southern

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 293

'THE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—-continued.

Direction or Radiant-point Appearance, Remarks. &c. Obsenyer or

Reference
-o SESPSORES [Radiant-point, by a projec-|Light of the meteor like that of|T. Barclay. ‘ Natural
tion of the Birmingham) full moon overhead. Burst} History Journal,’
and Leicester tracks, 177°) into fragments at last. vol. ii. p. 65, June,
+ 46°, in Ursa Major. ] 1878.
Babies sates Fell almost perpendicularly ;|/Nucleus with short tail; left/F. T. Mott. ‘Nature,’
course slightly zigzag. no streak, Three minutes] vol. xvii, p. 466.
after disappearance a report
like distant thunder followed
from its direction.
Pen bias oicce oo N.W. to S.E, .........s0e0ee0ee../900n after sunset; in strong|A. Greg. (Communi-
daylight. cated by R. P. Greg.)
Tech os ce dey ce secciccsssoncscosseseouies ----./Pwilight still very bright and|‘ Derbyshire Adver-
no stars visible. tiser and Journal,’

May 17th, 1878.

24° while in|Fell quite vertically; azi-|Noted (through window panes)|W. T. Jackson. (Com-

sight. muth 36° W. of true N. by| byseveral observers called in} municated by J. E.
a compass, agreeing with} time to see it. No streak] Clark.)
the azimuth by Capella. or sparks; but split at last
into two, one fragment 3°
behind the other, when both
went out, or passed behind
low clouds.

MIPECBMMELUC eco. sScsccccsscassadecessdesssevesas Nucleus bright white, even inj/A. Rowntree; com-
north, de- the northern twilight; with] municated by J. E.
scending e a short reddish tail (followed} Clark (correspon-
obliquely, URSA. by a tail 3° long., which} dent of ‘Nature,’
E. to W., MAJOR ° ceased when the meteorbroke,| vol. xviii, p. 77, May

_ from about! -° near the end of its course,! 16, 1878).

alt. 60° to °° into several pieces, and soon
alt. 15°.) after disappeared),

; Be

CEMINI " ca
jo
"AURICA

ns i ea Nucleus with not much tail,|J. T. Sewell. (Com-

alt.,a little double headed (see the} municated by J. E.

_ 5. of .West, sketch); let falla piece like] Clark.) (H.S.M.
toapointof a red-hot cinder just before] the ‘Yorkshire Post,’

the horizon going out, or passing behind] May 15th, 1878.)

294

REPORT—1878.

A List OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE ©

Hour
Approx. Place of : : Position or
Date GWT yin) ‘Observation Apparent Size Colour Duration Apparent Path
(Lel. Time)
| 1878.) h m s
glowed at] Sketch of the meteor’s course.
times with
purple ‘and| ©° ~ \f ===52_. 26
emerald ae
hues.) eas
THE Sty
MOON 2 ®CASTOR
RECULUS POLLUX }
Mayl2} About |Kirknewton, (|(4 the apparent/Fine violet|(5 or 6 se-|From about alt.
8 55 p.m.| (and other) size of the} colour. conds. ) 50°, 30° E. of
places in or} moon.) (Front part the moon,passed
near) EKdin- white ; rear alittle W. of the
burgh. [See and tail of zenith to alt.
also the ap- sparks red) about 50° or 60
parent path N. W. by
at Bathgate from the ze-
described in nith (the angle
the general measured wi
account of the two pencils held
meteor in this across each
Appendix. | other ; the com
pass _ bearing’
not quite so
certain).
12} About |Galashiels (and|Large HVCOPOU- ltrs sec eseeatenecet 5 or 6. se-|Passed along the
9 p.m. Stonykirk, 5) (Largeandbeau- conds in| valley to the
miles §. of} tiful; same ap- view. N.N.W. (Gene
Stranraer), pearance as at ral position of
Scotland. Edinburgh.) its path direct-
ly over New
Galloway.)
12/ (About |Geneva, ‘Swit-|Large fireball. — [.........cecceeeeslesseeeees wsseccces|sopeenace scoaemeedccoes
9 45 p.m.)| zerland.

27\(7 30 p.m.)|2 miles S.W. of/10 or 15 x 9./Head bril- |Motionmode-|Began at alt 25'
Funchal, Ma-| More brilliant] liantgreen;) rately fast.| or 28°, N.E. b
deira. in the twilight} in striking E., and passe

than ¢ appears} contrast to a point be

at night. with the hind some tre
tail, bright at alt. 20°
red. about due N

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

THE YEAR ENDING IN AuGustT, 1878—continued.

295

Length of
Path

Direction or Radiant-point

Appearance, Remarks, «ce.

Observer or
Reference

over

'| Middles-
| borough

|} and Dur-
ham, about
40° W. of
north.)

eee twee eeneeeres

Shape of Do. when the

the head. red _ particle
separated
from it.

(From midway between the
horizon and the zenith to
a point very near the
horizon over Otley.)

(At first horizontal; and at
last descending towards
the direction of Fettes
College and Corstorphine
Hill.)

oe CeCe EeePC eer ere ere Cer ereeerrr reir)

path slightly concave to
the horizon.

Oblong, giving off sparks in

Head around ball of electricity.

.|[Corresponding in time of ap-

Somewhat descending, in a\Head a round ball, thirty or

a cloud. [Fell vertically,
due N., at Calne, Wiltshire,
and in London; ‘ The Times’
and ‘Nature,’ May 16th;
and slowly in the N.N.W. at
Manchester. (R. P. Greg).]

irregular outline, and leaving
a trail of stars behind it;
then burst into pieces, and
disappeared. (Nucleus fol-
lowed by a tail of red sparks
or ‘cinders,’ about ten times
the head’s diameter in length;
the whole forming an elon-
gated firebolt.)

D. R,. Stewart. ‘Na-
ture, vol. xviii, p.
77, May 16, 1878.
(‘ Astrologer,’ ‘T.R.,’
‘The Scotsman,’
May 15th and 16th,
1878.)

Taillong and tapered, of the
same brightness as the head ;
both at last melted away.
Two minutes after disap-
pearance one loud deep peal
of thunder heard; sheet
lightning began a quarter of
an hour later, and continued
to flash for some time.

pearance to about 9" 20™ p.m.
G.M.T.]

forty times more bright than
a Lyre (?), a star seen just
below it among clouds; fol-

J. 8. (and J. D.). § The
Scotsman,’ May 16th| .
(and 20th), 1878.

‘Nature,’ May 23rd,|

1878.

W. A. Sanford. ‘Na-
ture,’ vol. xviii. p.
169, June 13, 1878.

lowed by a rocket-like tail
of sparks, which was not
persistent ; no report heard.

296

REPORT—1878.

A LIST OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Hour
Approx. Place of : : Position or
ios GILT. or| Observation Senne Colas penton Apparent Path
(Lcl. Time)
1878 | hm
June 6 9 25 p.m.|/Cambridge, Fireball, withsen-|Crimson in|5 or 6seconds\In the northern
Massachusetts, sible disc; very} front, like} in sight;) sky; began at
U.S.A. brilliant. a strontian| burst in 3} o Urs Majoris,
flame ; tail) or4seconds) and passed
and rear through an hour
part of the angle [ ? azi-
nucleus muth ] ofatleast
bluish vio- 1 30".
let.
7, About |Bristol, and AMATO-e Mire balllicc:|sncbeessrscescaes|scaseceesseer anes No good descrip-
515pm.| neighbouring tions of the ap-
or5 20p,m.| places. parent path pre-'
; served..
7| 8 30 pm.jClifton [and |Large meteor. [Bright blue.|6 or 7 seconds|Descended from
Bathwick ; {Large and —Head Iu-} or more; near the zenith,
and Ridland| splendid even} minous exceeding-| alt, 50° or 60°
Green (?Bris-| in the nearly) with pale| lyslowmo-| N.N.E. north-
tol) ]. broad daylight] greentinge] tion. wards, disap-
(Bristol ?).] (Bristol ?).] pearing in haze
near the N. or
N. W. horizon,
about alt. 10°
N.N.W. Mag-
netic bearings;
taken with al
compass.
7| 9 45 p.m.|Glastonbury, (Fireball with ajPale blue ...|20 seconds, |.....sscscsccsecesseneee
Somersetshire| large disc. moved
rapidly.
7| 9 52 p.m.|Knole Park Brighter than the|Very pale [Time of Began 5° from,|
(Kent), near} moon inits first} green, like| flightabout} and passed 3°
London, [and| quarter. a glow- 20seconds ;| below the moon
Cheltenham, worm’s slow and (reckoning its
&e. | light. majestic.] | diameter at 3°
roughly) and
disappeared
about 20° fur-
ther northwards
7| About |Bristol,[and |= 4; about i [Exhibited [Motion slow/From slightly be-
9 500r 9 55) Bathwick.] diameter of the} most bril-| andgradual| low a Libre to
p.m, moon, liant green, slightly above
purple, and a Leonis, pass-
gold rays. | ing about 1°
above Spica (a)
Virginis, and 6°
above the moon
[164° + 4°; alt.
213°, 23° S. of
W.
7| 9 52 p.m,/Hawkhurst, Large fireball; -|(Headorfore-|After watch-|From alt. 9° or
Kent, (and light equal to} part bright) ingita 10° due S.W.,
Brompton the moon’s. green, like) moment to almost exact-
Road, Lon- nickel sul-| counted 34| ly the same alt.
don). phate; tail) not very about 20° N. of

Length of
Path

teen ne eneeeee

ween ewe ere eenneee

Very long
flight ;

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Direction or Radiant-point

297

THE YEAR ENDING IN AuGusT, 1878—continued.

Observer or

Appearance, Remarks, &e. Reference |
|

Its apparent course was about
due west, [which o Urse
Majoris was also from the
N. Pole; not conformable
to the radiant in Scorpius
of the two next meteors. ]

Descending from right to
left, slope of path about
30° from vertical ; positions
by memory and measure-
ment’ soon after. [From
E. to W., appearing to
strike the earth on or near
Durdham Down (? Bristol). |

RHP COUN Wie lovcwscecsssceeeemecte

8. to N., very nearly parallel
to the horizon, with a very
slight declination towards
the north. [Almost due
E. to W.]

From EH. to W., almost hori-
zontal and parallel with

about 70°. | the ecliptic. From a
radiant near Antares.

*

MF eaida sib sojdev00| Slowness, and horizontal di-

rection of the motion was
very remarkable. 8. to N.,
roughly, descending slight-
ly northwards. (8. to N.;

G. H. E. Trouvelot,,
‘The Science Ob-
server’ ( Boston,
U.S.), vol. i. p, 78.

Nucleus egg-shaped, in length
half as long again as its
breadth, and smallest behind,
with a long luminous train
following it; the latter
formed of several globules
(five or six at least) in a
row, the brightest near the
head.

Seen in daylight .............. sae

Communicated by W.
F. Denning.

Andrew Lighton.
(Communicated by
W. F. Denning.)
[Captain Cunning-
hame; and G.
Holmes ; newspaper
extracts. |

Nucleus pear-shaped ; not undu-
lating in its motion, nor
emitting sparks, nor nearly
so brilliant as that seen
at about 9.45 p.m. on the
same evening. [Like the later
meteor, it had a long tail—
Like a globe of liquid and
transparent fire (Bristol ?).]

Nucleus round; emitted jets|‘Central Somersetshire
of large sparks as it moved} Gazette.’
along.
At first cast the observer’s|H. Middleton Rogers.
shadow like the moon, which} ‘The Times,’ June

looked a muddy yellow disc} 10th, 1878. [Ibid;

beside it; disappeared sud-| seen also at South-

denly. [Like a Bengal light} ampton, Tunbridge

passing through the heavens.]| Wells, and Becken-
ham. |

W.F. Denning. ‘The
Times,’ June 10th,
1878. [Captain
Cunninghame ;
newspaper extract. ]

Nucleus pear-shaped, varying in
brilliancy; casting off a
short train of sparks as it
sailed along ; very fine even
in strong twilight and moon-
light. [Nucleus with tail of
light behind it “ten yards”
in length, “was seen for a
few seconds after the tail
had disappeared.” ]

T. Humphrey. Com-
municated by A. §S.
Herschel. (L. J.
Whalley, ‘Nature,’
vol. xviii. p. 185.)

Nucleus with very little tail;
but smoky atmosphere or
cloud-haze round it. Disap-
peared without explosion,
with a gradual extinction.

298

Date

1878.

June7

14

Hour
Approx.
G.M.T., or
(Lel. Time)

hms

9 52 30
p.m.

9 53 p.m.

9 53 p.m.
[About 10
p-m. Paris
time. |

/9 14 p.m.

REPORT—1

878.

A LIST OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Greenwich,
Kent.

Silverton Sta-
tion, Devon ;
(Jersey) ;

[ Versailles,
and Depart-
mentofAisne,
France. |

Bristol

seem eeee

|About the same
| size and bright-
| mess as the
moon,

(Rather more than
3 apparent dia-
meter of full
moon; and shin-
ing far more
brightly.

[ Width, 4 diam.
of the moon. |

Centre of tail
and nu-
cleus pale
orange,
fringed
with violet
rays.

First white or

pale blue,

then deep
blue; and
fragments
after the
explosion

were blood-

red. (A

beautiful

white
light).

Pearly white.

Place of ; : Position or
Observatian Apparent Size Colour Duration Apparent Path

or rear part) fast (7 or| W. Passing un-
of a red) 8 seconds)| der the moon at
purplish while it about 2 of its
hue.) was in alt. in the early
| sight. part of its flight,
| and grazing
| some house-
roofs (positions
measured) there
and near its dis-

appearance.
Twickenham, |Longer diameter|Bright eme-|[4 seconds or|Shot from south-
Surrey, [and) of its figure] raldgreen;} more; co-| west to north-
Prees, 143, about 3 of the| throwing a) lour green-| west, passing
miles N. of diameter of the} distinctly ish white.]| under the moon
Shrewsbury. |! moon. green light. at alt. 14°,.69°

About 3 se-
conds in
sight.

Moved slow-
ly. (Alto-
gether
about 30
seconds. )

Slow motion.

W. from south.

wards. |
Grazing

roofs in
west, passing 6°
or 8° under the

moon’s lower
edge.
Shot towards Ursa|_

Major, and ex-|

constellation.
(First seen
about 30° from

the horizon, dis-
appearing there
behind a high

tude. ]

path) from alt.
35° to alt. 8%
(Measured alti-
tudes and bear-

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Direction or Radiant-point

HE YEAR ENDING In AuGuST, 1878—continued.

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

path declining a few de-

Path nearly parallel to the
horizon, declining very
slightly towards its disap-
pearance.

Rescsenes Moved horizontally towards

a point of the horizon
about two points west of
north.

seg Descending, from right to

left, about 27° inclined to
a vertical line.

grees towards the horizon.)

Disapeared very suddenly.
[Appearance near Shrews-
bury; see the sketch. Broke
into fragments of light. ]

Nucleus with tail six or seven
diameters of the head in
length ; not a perfect cone,
but winged or spreading at
the end.

Burst at last into several frag-
ments. (Nucleus round,
leaving a very faint light-
streak, and undergoing no
explosion while in sight.)
[Nucleus of extreme bright-
ness, with ‘tail about 23°
(four or five moon’s diameters,
in length. ]

A fine meteor seen in full twi-
light ; no stars yet visible.

299

Observer or
Reference

‘Nature,’ vol. xviii,
p. 185, June 13th,
1878. [John Allen
and . Beckett.
Communicated by
W. F. Denning. ]

A correspondent of
‘Nature,’ ibid.

‘Nature,’ ibid.

W. F. Denning.

Date

1878.
June
25

July22

29

29

29)

29

300

Hour
Approx.
G.M.T., or
(Lel. Time)

hms

10 48 p.m.
(Pretty
accurate. )

At night
(between
11> and
14%),

10 24 or
1025p.m.

10 25 p.m.

10 31 11
p.m.

10 25 p.m.

Place of
Observation

Debenham

seeeee

= 2; and near-
ly= @.

Bradford
(Hyde, &c.),
near Man-
chester.

Styall; 11 miles
nearly due $8.
from Man-
chester.

Middleton, 5
miles nearly
N. from Man-
chester.

Bristol (and

Colwyn Bay,
near Conway,
N. Wales).

REPORT— 1

878.

A List OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Apparent Size

Breadth of the
nucleus nearly
the distance be-
tween Alcor and
Mizar ; of the
end of the tail
z or 4 diameter
of the sun.
Much brighter
than Vega or
Arcturus.

ee eee reer rrr ry

2 diam. of the
moon (more lu-
minous than
any lime or
electric light ;
making the
smallest objects
visible).

Sensible dise
much larger
and _ brighter
than ?.

Large; the flash)
like sheet light-
ning

Most brilliant me- Bright bluish|Motion

teor. (Like}

light of day, of
the electric, or
limelight.)

Colour

Duration

Reddish

eeceee

Position or
Apparent Path

Moved slowly|Began at a point

eee meee neers esses se eneeeesseeeeseae

(The flashes|(Short dura-

white ; the
stars or
fragments
left, bright
red.)

tion.)

Light of the/The whole il-

flash
blue,

eter twee eeeterses

white.
(Bright
bluish
white.)

very| lumination

14 second.
Pretty
swift.

From first
flash to dis-
appearance
between 2
and 3 se-
conds.

not
very rapid.

Passed
the centre of] —

forming a tri-
angle towards
the south, with
B and ¢ Cassio-| |
peiz ; disap-
peared near 7
Lacerte ; (path
and appearance
of the meteor
from a descrip-
tion.)

eee w een ees eeeneerene

In the northern

sky; began at
an altitude of
50° or 65°. (The
trail reached
from the zenith
in a north-east-
erly direction.)
through

the square of
Ursa Major,and
when emerging
from it, disap-
peared. The
first and strong-
est flash pro-
bably in the
head of Draco.

Position of the

persistent track
from 278° + 48°,
in Lyra, to
197° + 47° in
Canes Venatici.
An exact obser-
vation.

Near the horizon,

in thick haze,
descending

from the re-
gion of Cassio-
peia. (In the
northern — sky,| —
near Cassiopeia
and Polaris).

:

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

HE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—continued.

eneth of
Path

Direction or Radiant-point

of
trail
fully 4 of
the visible
_ heavens.)

5° or 6° of the
~ endof path,
only, seen.

Pete e eee eweene

....|The larger one, and two other

Ascended obliquely as in the
sketch.

meteors, from a very exact
radiant-point in Quadrans,
at 234° + 48°.
Descending obliquely east-
wards, at an angle of 70°
from horizontal. (In a
slanting direction from
west to east.)

‘Straight from the head of
Draco, and from Lyra.

ORR e eee ener ee teeter eee eesesteeeenes

Fell almost vertically. (From)
about 8. by W. to N. by E.)

301

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

Observer or

Head with a fan-shaped tail of|

Two fine meteors, among twenty-

A string of brilliant beads 15°

Not much trail or sparks visible

The flash while observing Jupi-

The appearance something like

sparks, as in the sketch.

five seen inthree hours. Four
or five Cassiopeiads,
about 10° + 52°.

in length formed its train,
and vanished with it. (Burst
into myriads of luminous red
fragments. The flash double ;
a ball of lurid flame when
disappearing, leaving a long
trail along its track). ]

more than 1 sec. after disap-
pearance of the head. The
first flash brighter than the
light at last. Disappeared
suddenly.

ter with a telescope. The
meteor just glimpsed when
disappearing; a track as
marked as that of a rocket
remained visible long enough
to record its place exactly.

the sketch; leaving no track
on its path after the second

Reference
V. Cornish. (Com-
municated by W. F.
Denning.)
W. F. Denning.
from
R. Wilson. (J. R,

Norman; ‘ Observer,’}
&e.) The ‘ Manches-
ter Examiner and
Times.’

R. P. Greg.

Thomas Kay. (‘ Man-
chester Hxaminer
and Times,’ July 31,
1876; communicated
by R. P. Greg.)

‘Edward Barker. Com-
municated by W. F.
Denning. (‘ Man-

burst of light. (A ball of fire
with unusually long tail at-
tached.)

chester Examiner
and Times,’ August
22.)

302 | REPORT—1878.

A LIsT OF FIREBALLS SEEN DURING AND BEFORE

Hour
Approx. Place of 3 ‘ : Position or
Date GALT, or| Observation PrEwenmeze Beles aaneenn Apparent Path
(Lcl. Time)
1878.| h m ters J
July29\10 25 p.m. |Whitehaven Large (lighting}..............000+ Illumination |Apparent positio
(and near} up the heavens, lasted ase-| about due sout
Lancaster). when first seen, cond or (From a littl
to disappear- two. east of the ze
ance). nith, 10° or 15°
fell to a poin
at some alti
tude, about 30°
in the 8.8.W.)
29| About |Loweswater, Almost as large as|White......... Moved very/Altitude about 55
1020p.m.| Cockermouth,| the sun’s disc at rapidly. or 60°([?]; du
Cumberland. |} noon. S., or a little
of S. (Path ill
seen ; position:
not very satis
factory.)
30| 1 44 am. |Bristol ......... (Meteor withiaflash|..:..vcsssssessses|1déssnsweseeeeee Between Fomal
Sl . haut and 6 Cap
ricorni.

The meteor was seen at Manchester, and at many places in the north
of England ; but it was principally seen in Scotland, and most brilliantly
in the neighbourhood of Dundee, as at Alyth, Arbroath, and other places
in Perthshire and Forfarshire. Notes of its appearance at these places,
and also at Dunbar and at Lennoxtown (near Glasgow), not noticed in
the catalogue accompanying the Appendix, were recorded in the
‘Scotsman’ and ‘ Dundee Courier and Argus’ of March 26th, and in the
‘ Blairgowrie Advertiser’ of March 30th (as the Committee was apprised
by Mr. John Robertson, of Coupar Angus), and in answer to its inquiries
the Committee also learned of its having been seen near Tyndrum, and by
the Scottish Meteorological Society’s observer, Mr. G. Croucher, at
Ochtertyre, near Crieff, in Perthshire. The description of the meteor’s
form and colour was substantially the same at all these points, being that
of a cone, pointed behind and round in front, in length about three times
its breadth; white or yellow in the centre, with a border of red light
surrounding it. At Alyth, “it had a streamer about a yard long, and as
it came between the observer and the sun it had a very imposing and
grand appearance.’ Another observer describes it as “a fiery figure,
shaped like an immense V, which [starting near the sun] flowed right
east, with a brilliancy eclipsing the sun even, and then it burst into frag-
ments.’’ At Dunbar, the conical head of the meteor, rocket-like at first,
was likened, as it slanted earthwards, ‘‘ to an umbrella half-closed,” bright
flames seemed to issue from four points of the central body, which was
yellow in the middle and bright red at the outer fringe. A long streak
of light marked its track for 15 or 20 minutes, and a peal of distant
thunder was heard about the time of its disappearance. At Dundee it
burned and flashed in its descent like a rocket, and on apparently nearing

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

THE YEAR ENDING IN AUGUST, 1878—continued.

303

Length of

Direction or Radiant-point

Appearance, Remarks, &e.

Observer or
Reference

Peee eee eee

Direction of its course

Course descending ; inclined
about 40° to the horizon
from 8. towards 8.E. [??]

Burst, leaving a long trail of

The tail merged imperceptibly

into a long line of light, left
visible for a minute on about

John Kinrade. ‘ Man-

{from ?] about north-east. | bright red atoms like rocket-| chester Examiner
stars for a considerable time.| and Times,’ August
3, 1872. (Commu-

nicated by R. P.
Greg.)

J. E. Walker. ‘ Natu-
ral History Journal,’
vol. i. p. 104, Sept.

10° of the last part of the} 1878.
meteor’s path.
|Short course. |Directed from 6 Aquarii...... Dived down with a flash and|W. F, Denning.

disappeared.

the earth it burst into a thousand fragments. The streak left on its track
was likened at Ochtertyre, as the meteor descended a short distance in
the N.E., to the “train of smoke left by a fast passenger train passing
along.” At Arbroath several observers noted it ‘as an enormous ball of
fire passing rapidly before them. At length it exploded with magnificent
effect, the fragments, as it were, remaining semi-enveloped in smoke for a
few seconds.” Though appearing (as at all these places) in bright sun-
shine it was yet seen by many there, and one observer at Arbroath, who
only saw it burst, was yet, like others who noted its startling apparition
at such an hour so struck by its descent in broad daylight as to be some-
what alarmed. The streak was long and straight at first, about 1° wide,
without any condensations (at Coupar Angus) for about two minutes, and
only curled up into separate wreaths as it slowly disappeared. A light-
train, 5° or 6° long, following it like q tail, was seen at the most distant
stations, but no indications of the enduring cloud track nor of the explo-
sion were noticed at a distance ; and the only record of a distinctly audible
report or detonation having apparently proceeded from the fireball is that
of a distant peal of thunder, which was noted at about the time of its
disappearance at Dunbar.

1878, April 2nd, 75 538™ p.m. A detonating fireball, Leicester and
Birmingham.—The observations of the fireball’s apparent path at these
two places were very carefully recorded by the stars. When projected
upon a single plane perspective chart of the sky for the observer’s
stations at the time of the meteor’s appearance, they are found to be in
excellent accordance with each other, although presenting an enormous
parallax, or displacement of the apparent positions of the end point of the
meteor’s path in the heavens at the two stations. This angle between

304 REPORT—1878.

the two observers’ lines of sight of the meteor’s point of disappearance is
just 90°, or half of the visible span of the heavens, proceeding from a
distance between the two observers’ stations of only 35 miles. The
meteor vanished accordingly at a height of only 14 miles above a point of
the earth’s surface, about three miles west of Coventry. The observations
suffice also to determine completely the length and real position of the
whole of the meteor’s visible path, or line of flight, before reaching this
point of explosion and of final disappearance. A complete view of the
track was seen and mapped at Birmingham, extending to a length of 17°,
which was traversed by the fireball in five or six seconds, so slowly, that it
must certainly have been seen very much foreshortened, and have first
come into view there very near its radiant point. Only the terminal
part of the flight was observed at Leicester, but its direction prolonged
backwards meets that of the Birmingham apparent path similarly pro-
duced, about 3° before the point of first appearance there, at a common
radiant point of the two apparent courses in R.A. 177°, decl. + 46°, near
x Urse majoris. In April, 1872, several remarkably bright meteors were
seen proceeding from radiant points in Ursa major (see these Reports,
Vol. for 1872, pp. 104, 116), and the peculiar brightness of meteors
belonging to a group of April showers with radiant points in that con-
stellation was noticed by Mr. J. E. Clark (‘ Nature,’ May 2nd, 1872) ;
one of them was doubly observed at York, and at Hawkhurst on the
night of the 19th of April, 1872, and its radiant point from the combined
projection of the recorded paths was like that of the present fireball,
close to x Urs majoris. Heis’ April-period radiant M8 (at 155° + 47°),
with Schiaparelli’s Nos. 52 and 56 at 163° + 47°, and 168° + 47° for
April 10 and 14, together form a general region of divergence at the
average place 162° + 47°, which is the last of three centres of the
April ‘Ursids’ in Mr. Greg’s general list of 1876 (Nos. 21 or 46,
45, and 56), and that to which attention was drawn by Mr. Clark, in his
letter in ‘Nature,’ above noticed, as producing meteors of peculiar bright-
ness. It is, however, the first of them, and especially Heis’ radiant M7,
April 1-15, at 180° + 49°, included in it, which agrees most nearly with
the real direction of the present fireball’s course.

With the real radiant point and point of disappearance of the fireball
as thus established, and with its apparent place of commencement as seen
at Birmingham, the beginning of its visible path is found to be at a
height of 80 miles over the town of Beckingham, near Market Har-
borough. ‘The length of its real course was 75 miles, descending steeply
from an altitude of 58°, 4° N. of-E., which was the direction of its
radiant point ; its time of flight was reckoned at Birmingham as abont five
or six seconds, giving, with the observed length of its course, a velocity of
about 134 miles per second as the fireball’s real speed of flight. This is
exactly the theoretical speed which corresponds, with the observed radiant
point, to a parabolic form of the fireball’s real orbit round the sun; this
concluding result of the combined projections gives fresh assurance to the
supposition that the fireball was really an unusually splendid and par-
ticularly brilliant member of an ordinary meteor shower.

At Birmingham the meteor’s light was like that of the full moon
overhead, attracting the observer’s attention to its falling globe of bluish
flame, and it burst into red fragments at disappearance. Ata place not
named (but apparently near Nottingham or Leicester), in the ‘ Times’ of
April 4th, 1878, where a rather more distant view of its appearance

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 305

seems to have been obtained (and where the meteor is also said to have

descended from the direction of Ursa major), the nucleus or head is said

to have been pear-shaped ending in a long tail of light; three or four
times as bright as Jupiter, and bright white, changing to pale red as it

approached the horizon. It moved slowly, and halted apparently for a

_ moment in its course as it passed between Sirius and Orion’s belt.

At Leicester, towards the close of its course, the width of the fireball’s
dise was about half the moon’s diameter, and it was so radiant as to cast
shadows like the moon. It left no streak, but it had a short tail, and in
colour it seemed yellow or orange. Three minutes after its disappear-
ance [the time taken by sound to travel about 36 miles] a rumbling
sound like distant thunder was heard proceeding from its direction.
The motion of the nucleus in the last part of its flight seemed to be
slightly zigzag.

The distance of the observed end point of the meteor’s course from
Leicester is 31 miles; and a point 10 or 12 miles before the end point,
along the meteor’s course, is 36 miles from Leicester, so that sounds pro-
duced by the explosion, and by resistance to the motion of the fireball in
the last ten or twenty miles of its course, appear to have been those heard
at Leicester, like the rumbling sound of distant thunder. At Birming-
ham no sound of the explosion was perceived, although the distance of
the end point of the meteor’s flight was only twenty miles from the
observer there; but the circumstance that the track was directed
nearly towards him, may have been less favourable than its flank
presentation towards Leicester for conveying to that distance the rambling
sound of its passage through the air; and as it does not seem to have
been a loud sound at Leicester, it may also be owing to its slightness that
the report of a terminal explosion, which may really have taken place
at the end of the meteor’s course, was not.noticed by the Birmingham
observer. i

1878, May 12, 88 53™ p.m.—A detonating fireball (?); Yorkshire to
near Edinburgh.—This fine (and perhaps detonating ?) fireball made its
closest approach to the earth in the neighbourhood. of Edinburgh; and
accounts of its appearance there, and at places not far from Edinburgh,
published in the ‘Scotsman’ of May 15 and 16, and in ‘ Nature,’ of May
23, by observers of its course, give very graphic descriptions of the
brilliant spectacle which it presented. Accounts at Wigton, in the
south-west part of Scotland, at Derby, in London, and at Calne, in Wilt-
shire, were furnished also in the ‘Scotsman’ of May 20, the ‘ Derbyshire
Advertiser and Journal’ of May 17, ‘ Nature,’ and the ‘ Times’ of May
16; further observations of its path of special accuracy being also sup-
plied from several towns in Yorkshire, in an article by Mr. J. E. Clark
on the real path of the meteor, in the ‘ Natural History Journal of Societies
in Friends’ Schools’ of July, 1878, in which he discussed all the observa-
tions of it in England of which he had received information. One of
the best of these was by Mr. W. T. Jackson, at York, who, witha party of
friends sitting in a gaslit room, saw the meteor descending, in a north-
west direction, through window panes, with a direction of fall towards
the earth, which was absolutely vertical. There was still much light in
the sky, and stars were only dimly visible, but Capella was observed near
the meteor’s course, about 9° or 10° on its left, as was accurately ascer-
tained by measurement. Rough sketches of the stars, showing the
meteor’s track among them, were also furnished to Mr. Clark by observers

1878. 2:

306 REPORT— 1878.

of its whole course at Scarborough and Whitby. That drawn at Scar-
borough by Mr. Rowntree assigns, one point of the meteor’s passage near
B Aurigsz, at about 97° + 41°, with tolerable clearness, and with some
degree of approximation; the course shown at Whitby (not very far
from Scarborough) also confirming the same position of its apparent path
at the place where the fireball in its downward course reached this point
of its descent. Combining the description with that of a corresponding
point noted at York of the meteor’s downward path, the real height
and. locality of the fireball, when its apparent altitude at York was a little
* above that of Capella, is found to have been just 50 miles over the little
chain of the Northumbrian lakes lying in the north part of the valley of
the Tyne between Haydon Bridge and Haltwhistle. A projection on the
map of the meteor’s onward line of flight from this point (by a straight
line drawn through it from York towards the point of the meteor’s
vertical descent, horizonwards, 36° west from north) passed (north-
westwards by north) through Hawick, and nearly over Selkirk, Gala-
shiels, and Peebles to Linlithgow, about 15 miles west of Edinburgh, on
the Firth of Forth. In its last part the track follows the direction of the
valley from Galashiels to Edinburgh, leaving Galashiels itself six or seven
miles, and the rest of the valley as far as Edinburgh ten or twelve miles on
its right. An observer on the Edinburgh road one mile north of Gala-
shiels ‘‘saw a very large and brilliant meteor pass along the valley to the
north-north-west. The head was large and round, like a ball of electri-
city, and the tail long and tapered, as brilliant as the head. It was in
view for five or six seconds, and seemed at the end to melt into nothing.
Two minutes after its disappearance [a time taken by sound to travel
twenty-five miles], I and others heard one lond deep peal, as of thunder,
and a quarter of an hour later sheet lightning began to flash, and con-
tinued to do so at intervals for a considerable length of time.’—(J.S.:
the ‘ Scotsman,’ May 16th, 1878.)

The presumptive course of the meteor arrived at by Mr. Clark, from
a projection of all the English observations, was from between 75 and 80
miles above Northallerton, in Yorkshire, to about 22 miles over a point
five miles west of Hawick, a flight of 108 miles in about nine seconds,
descending at an angle of about 38° to the horizon. But in this’ pro-
jection the only Scottish observation used (by Mr. D. R. Stewart, in
Edinburgh, ‘ Nature,’ May 23rd, 1878) was employed for the commence-
ment only, the description of the end point (see a letter by Mr. Clark in
‘Nature,’ of June 6th) being a little ambiguous, while it appears to indi-
cate that the real end point of the meteor was actually far north of
Hawick, and perhaps even, according to Mr. Stewart’s description, a little
north of Edinburgh. A letter received by Mr. Clark from Mr. D. R.
Stewart, soon afterwards, confirms the latter supposition, and describes
again the apparent place in the sky of the meteor’s point of disappear-
ance near Edinburgh, almost exactly as it was before noted in ‘ Nature,’
but more clearly and distinctly. From his point of view at Kirknewton,
Edinburgh, the meteor began at an altitude of about 50° above the
8.S.E. horizon, some 30° east of the moon [then 5° west of the meridian,
alt. 31°, at Edinburgh], and passing somewhat west of the zenith reached
a position, when it burst and disappeared, about 30° or 40° N.W. by N.
from the zenith point of his position. Another observer in Edinburgh,
who saw the meteor’s flight from a window facing south, was so im-
pressed with its apparent descent at last towards the direction of Fettes

ld

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 307

College and Corstorphine hill (a little north of west from Edinburgh)
that he ran to an opposite window to see it fall there, but it did not
reappear. At Bathgate, 18 miles west of Edinburgh, ‘‘it came in sight
about 20° above the horizon, 8.S.E., and went up N.N.W., nearly right
overhead.’’—(‘ Observer,’ the ‘ Scotsman,’ May 16th.) The above pro-
jection of the meteor’s path, derived from the York account, passes mid-
way between Edinburgh and Bathgate; and as the note of its course at
Bathgate contains no statement if the meteor’s point of disappearance, .
when nearly overhead, was on the east or west side of the zenith point,
the end point cannot be assigned more exactly from these descriptions
than at a height of about 20 miles above the Firth of Forth near Linlith-
gow, to which point, lying W.N.W. from Edinburgh and N.N.H. from
Bathgate, the track would pass about 20° west and east respectively of
the zenith points of those two places.

To determine the inclination of the meteor’s descending path to the
earth’s surface, no sufficiently exact observations were recorded ; but it
may nevertheless be inferred, with considerable probability, from the com-
bined descriptions. When first seen in the S.S.K., at Edinburgh, its
altitude was not much greater than that of the moon (31°), and it began
at an altitude of 20° only, according to the account at Bathgate. Recol-
lecting that apparent altitudes are always much over-estimated by the
unassisted eye, and that the initial point as seen at Hdinburgh must have
been above the meteor’s radiant point at least some few degrees, it seems
scarcely possible to assign a much higher altitude than about 20° for the
radiant point, or a much steeper slope of the meteor’s path than this
towards the earth’s surface. This is also the slope of a line of flight
from 50 miles above the Tyne valley to 20 miles above Linlithgow, where
two points of the real path were found to lie approximately; and it
passes 36 miles from Galashiels, a distance which requires 3 minutes
(instead of two minutes, which is said to have elapsed) for sound to
traverse it. If a lower height of about 15 miles near Linlithgow is
adopted for the end point (which seems very probable), the slope of the
resulting real path is then 22°; in the first case the height which the real
path prolonged backwards had at Northallerton was 72 miles, and in the
last case 78 miles, and the distance of the meteor’s track from Galashiels
is 834 miles in the latter case, instead of 36, as in the former one. The
heights of 72 and 78 miles over Northallerton agree very well with the
height of 75 or 80 miles over the same place at which Mr. Clark esti-
mated, from a collective projection of all the English observations, that
the meteor began its flight ; but by the removal of the end point from a
place near Hawick to one at about the same vertical height near Hdin-
burgh, the slope of path is diminished from 38°, as deduced from the
English observations, to 20° or 22° when the views of the fireball ob-
tained about Edinburgh and in some other parts of Scotland are included.
The observers’ positions at Stonykirk (near Stranraer) in Wigtonshire,
and at Prestov, were, of all the places where it was ooserved, the most
favourable, by the flank views which its descending path there presented
for determining the radiant-point ; but the apparent slope at those places
was not noted, and at Stonykirk only one datum of the meteor’s appa-
rent position was recorded, that the splendid sight of its passage in the
heavens was in the direction of New Galloway, which, when prolonged far
enough from Stonykirk; coincides with the position of the meteor over
Galashiels.

x2

308 REPORT—1878.

With a downward inclination of path from 22° above the horizon, 36°
E. from §S., the radiant point of this detonating fireball (as there is good
ground to suppose it to have been, from the Galashiels account) was in
R.A, 214°, S. decl. 7°. In April and May, 1877, Mr. Denning and Mr.
Corder noted a rich and well-defined shower of bright meteors (some
conspicuous ones of which were seen on May 15th) from an apparently
new radiant point, the various indications of which, traced also by Mr.
Denning’s reductions from other sources, are presented in the following
list by Mr. Denning, who regards them as all pertaining to a single
shower :—

April 1-12, 1872, 7 {s in the Italian a i)
@aitalop tie tere aeaees cone ee seeetete serene. pos. of rad. 204°— 8°)
May 3-15, 1872, 9 |s in the Italian Average position
Catalogue.......csssccocoessecereseseneese » 209°— 8° | 207°—8°. Radiant
April-May, 1872-77, 23 |s from various point of the fire-
Wa fHlOP TES Wr ascontea.ssaeteneenasetr ees S 203°— 8°| ball of May 12th,
April-May, 1877; observed by H. Corder ‘ 208°— 6°} 1878, 214°—7°.
May, 1877,3 /s » W.F. Denning $ 210°—10° J

As far as exact conclusions drawn from rough and imperfectly re-
corded, but at the same time fairly corroborative, observations, like those
of the present fireball, can be depended upon, it seems a not improbable
assumption that the great fireball here described was a large and
brilliant member of this recently-detected, and apparently very conspi-
cuous and abundant meteor shower; but the agreement is yet not so
exact, nor quite so directly and positively established by the observations,
as to make the possible connection of a detonating fireball with a shower
of ordinary shooting-stars, which it seems to indicate, a conclusion which
it will be unnecessary to confirm and verify hereafter (in fnture reappear-
ances of this meteor-stream, and of fireballs apparently conformable to it)
by further observations. It seems very probable that the meteor-shower
here newly recognised may be identical with one observed by Prof.
Forshey, in the United States, on April 18th, 1841, the chief features of «
whose somewhat remarkable display, as described by E. C. Herrick in
the ‘ American Journal of Science,’ vol. xlii. p. 395 (April-October, 1842)
were as follows:—The frequency of the meteors on the night of April
18th, 1841, first struck Prof. Forshey at about 8 o’clock p.m. During a
watch of about 2+ hours between 8" 80™ and 11 30™ p.m. he recorded
60 meteors, the tracks of all but five of which proceeded from a radiant
point between a and @ Virginis, a little nearer to the former star, at
198° — 8°, with a deviation of the backward prolongations of their
courses from this point, which seldom amounted to so much as 10°. The
radiant point is almost exactly on the ecliptic in longitude 196°. The
meteors seen in these unusual numbers differed entirely in appearance
from the August Perseids, being chiefly without trains, and of a reddish
colour. Few of them were of the first magnitude, the majority being of
the brightness of stars of the third and inferior magnitudes; their velo-
cities were remarkably equal and gentle, their paths short, and their
light gradually increasing and then waning in its brightness. As the
radiant point of the shower is just opposite to the sun’s place, and trans-
verse to the direction of the earth’s motion, at the date of its appearance,
it would be of special interest to ascertain, if possible by observations,
the exact real velocity of the meteors of this shower, and thus to deter-

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 309

mine with an amount of probable error, which would only be very small
and insignificant, the real eccentricity of its orbit round tne sun.

The whole length of the meteor’s path from over Northallerton to the
Firth of Forth was 155 miles, but only the last 100 miles of this track
(from about over Alston at the junction of the counties of Durham,
Northumberland, and Westmoreland) was visible at York. The duration
of this part of its flight was six seconds, measured independently by
several observers’ recollections of it; and its light was first noticed about
three seconds before the meteor itself was seen, which agrees with the
first third part of the length of its path in which the meteor was un-
‘observed. Most of the observers give five or six seconds as the time of
flight in the part of the meteor’s path to which their view of it extended ;
and a duration of nine or ten seconds for the whole path of 155 miles is
thus probably not far from the real time of passage of the meteor along
this length of course. The velocity of the fireball’s motion on this com-
putation was about 16} miles per second, while the velocity of a body from
the same radiant point, moving in a parabolic orbit, is 15 miles per
second. This result conducts us, therefore, to a fairly probable conclusion
that the meteor’s real orbit was not far from being one of a parabolic
form.

The head of the meteor was round, ending in a tail of moderate length,
consisting of sparks, which at a distance seemed red, but among which
some bright fragments of other colours were also visible to observers
nearest to its track: one of whom described its nucleus as double, and
another as ending behind in a long tail as brilliant as itself. Just before
its disappearance a fragment, or body of red sparks of considerable size,
seems to have detached itself from the head, and it is not impossible that
the explosion heard at Galashiels may have been caused by this dis-
ruption, of which no sounds are nevertheless recorded to have reached
Edinburgh or other places closer to the point of the meteor’s final dis-
appearance. Though flashes of distant or ‘‘ sheet lightning ”’ were seen at
Galashiels, and continued for some time (unaccompanied it would seem by
thunder), about a quarter of an hour after the occurrence of the fireball,
yet the sky seems to have been pretty clear at Galashiels at the time of
the meteor’s passage, and the later occurrence of flashes of distant
lightning there appears to offer no sufficient explanation of the “ one
deep peal of thunder ”’ which the observer of its transit there relates that
he heard two minutes after the fireball’s disappearance. If the illuminating
power of the nucleus was very great, the strength of the light which it
cast is not expressly noticed by any of the writers who described it, but
it may be presumed that near Edinburgh, where its apparent diameter was
about one-sixth of that of the moon, its light must have been sufficient to
cast observers’ shadows on the ground. At York its apparent brilliancy
was described as almost equal to that of the planet Venus. The nucleus
emitted no sparks, but split into two at the end, one part about }° in
advance of the other when they both disappeared, apparently, behind a
thin cloud that stretched above some trees near the N.W. horizon.

1878, June 7th, 88 30™, and 95 53™ p.m. large fireballs, Devonshire,
and the south of England.—Two fireballs, of which the second was much
the largest, passed across the south-west part of England, both remarkable
for their long courses and slow flight, on the evening of this date.
Mr. Lighton’s observation of the first (see the catalogue for the full
descriptions of the courses and appearances) gives the point of the horizon

310 REPORT—1878.

about 45° or 50° E. of S. (R. A. about 250° or 255°) from which it was
directed. Its very slow and long protracted flight, and the form and
colour of its nucleus, resembled those of the later meteor, and its
observed course, presumably horizontal, appears pretty certainly to have
been directed from the same radiant-point. It did not emit sparks nor
oscillate in its progress as the later and larger meteor seemed to do.
Captain Cunninghame, at Bathwick, also saw both meteors, the second
larger than the first, but resembling it otherwise in the characters of its
appearance. Mr. G. H. Holmes describes the first as singularly splendid
even in the nearly full daylight which prevailed. It was pale green, like
a globe of liquid fire sailing through the sky (Bristol newspaper accounts, °
communicated by Mr. Denning).

The next fireball, at 98 53™ p.m. was very widely noted in the south
of England. Mr. Denning’s view of it at Bristol, however, supplies the
only precise data upon which calculations of its real path can be founded.
Observers at four places in Kent, and in the neighbourhood of London,
assign various heights at which it passed almost horizontally below, while
at Bristol it passed 6° above, the moon. At Silverton, near Exeter, it shot
towards Ursa Major (a little west of the zenith), and disappeared a little
beyond that constellation, and in Jersey.it was seen to commence about
30° from the zenith, in the north, and fall towards the horizon. A common
plane perspective projection of all these apparent paths on a single map of
the sky at the time of the meteor’s appearance shows that its path was
very little inclined to the earth’s surface, and suffices to fix its real place
and altitude with fairly satisfactory exactness.

The fireball began its course at a height of about 65 miles over a point
in the English Channel, near the Channel Islands, about 20 miles W.N.W.
from Guernsey, passed nearly over Start Point and the main land to
Bideford Bay, descending gradually to a height of about 37 miles over a
point in the Bristol Channel, 12 or 15 miles E.N.E. of Lundy Island,
where it disappeared. The length of this course is about 160 miles, de-
scending with a slope or inclination to the earth’s surface of about 9° or
10° from the direction of about 23° E. of 8. The radiant point was at
R.A. 247° decl.—25°, within three or four degrees. From a description
of the duration of the flight at Hawkhurst, where it was well observed,
it may be reckoned not to have exceeded eight or nine seconds, although
durations varying from three or four to twenty or thirty seconds are else-
where assigned to the time occupied in its long course, with its slow
majestic speed. The real velocity of its motion given by this estimation
is about 19 miles per second; while that of a meteoric body revolving
round the sun in a parabolic orbit, and having the same radiant point,
would be 20 miles per second. The meteor did not burst, but threw off
some sparks, and had a short waving tail, with a slightly oscillating
motion, or flickering changes of brightness as it sailed along. It disappeared
suddenly, without leaving any streak, or producing an audible explosion.
Its radiant point closely resembles in position that of the great detonating
or aérolitic meteor of June 17th, 1873 (see these Reports, Vol. for 1878,
p. 145), seen in Austria and Bohemia, which was found, by Dr. Galle and
Prof. von Niessl, to be at R.A. 248°, decl.—20°; and it is, like that of
several large meteors which have occasionally been noted in June and
July, in the neighbourhood of the ecliptic, and of the bright star Antares
(a Scorpii, at 245°-5—26°-0

The adopted radiant point of this fireball, at 247°— 25°, is on the back-

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. aii

ward prolongation of the apparent track observed by Mr. Denning, about
nine or ten degrees above the horizon, due 8.S.E. The linear: pro-
longation of the Bristol track is directed from due S.H. to due N.W. with
a slope of 28°. The apparent paths in Kent, and near London, noted as
passing ‘‘ horizontally ” underneath the moon (then due W.S.W., alt. 22°)
at variously recorded altitudes from 12° to 20°, since they present a point
of convergence above the horizon with the Bristol track, are thus far
inadmissible. But, assuming, as is probable, that the apparent path observed
by Mr. Denning is exceedingly trustworthy, the least possible correction
which the Kentish tracks require is a slight inclination earthwards, near
the moon, sufficient to depress their point of convergence with the Bristol
path to the horizon, and to the same apparent earth-point, due N.W.
for all those apparent paths, as that of the meteor’s course at Bristol.
With this slight emendation of those which were observed in the south-
eastern part of England, the real course of the fireball would be parallel
to the earth’s surface, 40 or 50 miles above it, from S.E. to N.W. But
the observation at Prees, about 15 miles north of Shrewsbury, where the
meteor must have travelled at an altitude of about 15° from S. to
S.W., that there it “appeared first in the south, moving horizontally
westwards,” is less easy to reconcile than the Kentish observations with a
truly horizontal flight of the fireball from a radiant point at the S.H. to a
point of convergence at the N.W. point of the horizon, and shows very
clearly that the real position of the radiant point on the apparent line of
flight observed at Bristol was not at or close to its intersection prolonged
backwards with the horizon, due S.E, but at some point upon it at an
appreciable altitude above the horizon, more nearly south. The above
adopted real path has at its commencement, as seen from Prees, near
Shrewsbury, a slight upward slope of barely 10° at starting in the south,
beginning there at an altitude of 14°, and just reaching its greatest
altitude of 17°, 35° westwards from this point in the S.W. by S. At
Hawkhurst, Greenwich, and other neighbouring places in the S.E. of
England, it began at alt. 17°, also the highest possible altitude of its
course there, and passed 7° below the moon (at an altitude of 15° W.S.W.),
descending there with a slope of about 7° from horizontal towards an
earth-point 40° N. from W. and disappearing at an altitude of 8° or 9°,
just one point N. of west. While this course almost exactly represents
the observed altitudes in Kent, with the exception of that of commencement
(which measured by memory in the open sky was uncertain) at Hawk-
hurst, it begins, just as the Shrewsbury apparent path ends, horizontally,
and at the points where the apparent course was described as “ horizontal ”
in Kent and near Shrewsbury the real direction was descending with a
slope of 7° at the first, and ascending with a slope of 10° from horizontal
at the last of those points of view. No fairer distribution of the scarcely
sensible errors of description which present themselves in the two accounts
can probably be made, and the very good adjustment to each other, of
which they actually admit, shows that the radiant point above adopted
must be very nearly the true one, and that the track of the fireball as
above derived from those descriptions, represents, in all probability, very
closely the height, direction ‘and position of the fireball’s real flight above
the earth.

Even in Kent amidst the rays of the moon and of twilight, the meteor’s
light was stronger than, and cast a distinct shadow like that of the moon.
The longer diameter of its nucleus, at Twickenham, near London, appeared

312 REPORT—1878.

about one-third of the moon’s diameter; at Silverton, near Exeter, its head
had an apparent width of about one-half, and at Versailles, and in Aisne,
France, where the fireball was also seen, its apparent width was about
one-sixth of the diameter of the full moon.

1878, July 29th, 9h 95™ (or? 94 31™) p.m.—tLarge fireball, near
Manchester and Lancaster. Good observations of this meteor’s course
were fortunately obtained by Mr. R. P. Greg at Styall, 11 or 12 miles
south of Manchester, and by Mt. Thomas Kay at Middleton, about 5
miles nearly due north from Manchester. At the latter place the momen-
tary track of fire which the meteor left on its whole course enabled
Mr. Kay to fix its line of flight very accurately from an initial point in
Lyra to a terminal one in Canes Venatici, just grazing the star n Urse
Majoris in its path. At Styall, 16 or 17 miles south from Middleton, the
meteor’s course was directed from the head of Draco, and Lyra, and its
terminal part passed through the middle of the square (a, /3, y, 6) of
Ursa Major, and ended immediately beyond it. These two observations
fix the end-point of the meteor’s course very exactly, at about 20 miles
high above a point near the mouth of the river Ribble, between Preston
and Blackpool. Its apparent descent to this point, northwestwards, was
alinost exactly vertical to both of the Manchester observers. The remaining
descriptions of its apparent course concur to show that the real direction
of its descent was, in fact, almost truly vertical, but at the same with an
inclination, from the south-east, of somewhere about 20° from per-
pendicular. Thus at Whitehaven and at Lancaster, both nearly north
from its end-point, its nearly vertical descent in the S.S.E. and 8.S.W.
was from the north-east, and from about 15° east of the zenith, re-
spectively, at those places. At Bristol, 150 miles south from its end-
point, it fellin the haze of the north horizon almost vertically from the
region of Cassiopeia, which is (if the meteor really shot from the direction
of Cassiopeia) from about 35° east of the zenith, The point of commence-
ment of the Middleton track is itself almost exactly in the zenith of that
place, and with the meteor’s long apparent course there of over 50°, a
less distance than 10° or 20° at starting, from its radiant point, can scarcely
be regarded as admissible. A radiant point on the apparent path at Middie-
ton retraced 20° south-eastwards from the zenith, is at 300°, + 35°,
(R.A. and Decl.), near » Cygni, and to which of the numerously recorded
radiant points in Cygnus at the end of July this brilliant fireball’s rapidly
descending path was really to be ascribed it is scarcely possible now to
determine more exactly from the rather scanty observations. The back-
ward prolongation of the observed path at Middleton passes, in fact, on
each side of this point, nearly parallel to the stars 6, e Cygni (in the
swan’s right and left wings); and it appears uncertain nearer to which
of these two wing-stars of the constellation the fireball’s apparent radiant
point may not impossibly be supposed to have been situated a little more
correctly than near the middle point between them. The nearest point of
the line to 6 Cygni is at 290°+42°; and a little nearer to the zenith, it
passes near z Lyre, at 285°+45°; while among a large number of
shooting-stars seen by Mr. Denning on the last two or three nights of
July, 1878, a radiant of bright slow moving meteors was observed at
284°+44°. But these two places are only 10° and 6°, respectively, 8.S.E.
and §. by E. from the zenith, and this agrees imperfectly with some of
the descriptions of the meteor’s obliquely descending course. Never-
theless, it may very fairly be conjectured that this exceedingly brilliant

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 313

fireball was in reality one of a very closely adjacent group or system
of ordinary shooting-stars to that observed by Mr. Denning.

With this observed radiant point the beginning of the meteor’s course
at Middleton was 82 miles above a point about 8 miles west from Man-
chester; its length, to the point of disappearance is 70 miles, and its
duration as estimated by the length of time occupied by the flashes and
illumination until the meteor disappeared, was a second and a half, or
between two and three seconds, as noted independently by Mr. Greg and
Mr. Kay. Some luminous portion of its path was, however, probably
traversed by the meteor before the first flash which drew their attention
to its descent; and for the whole length of the course upon which the
light-track was traceable which marked its path, a time of flight of about
three seconds may fairly be assumed from these descriptions to be rather
a somewhat -insufficient, than in any degree an over-estimated or
exaggerated duration.» The real velocity of the fireball which it gives,
is 25 miles per second; while that of a meteoric body moving with the
same radiant point in a cometary or parabolic orbit, would be 21 miles per
second—a little less ; implying apparently a small under-estimation of the
whole time of flight by about half a second.

A nearer approach to the theoretical meteor speed could scarcely be
expected when the unforeseen and momentary character of the observa-
tions is considered, from which by the united evidence of all the
particulars of the descriptions the meteor-speed is obliged to be finally
determined.*

The meteor was a very large and vivid one, its light making the
smallest objects visible, at Manchester, and its luminous disc having an
apparent diameter there of quite one-half that of the moon. It presented
two flashes, one previous expansion occurring, before that of its last
outburst, which Mr. Greg regarded as much more brilliant, and as haying
shone from the meteor somewhat before it can have reached the middle
point of the above vivid portion of its flight, ata height accordingly of not

* From Mr. T. Ellison at Colwyn Bay, and Mr. J. E. Walker at Loweswater,
Cockermouth, Mr. Greg and Mr. Clark (vide ‘ Natural History Journal ’ for September,
1878) received descriptions of the meteor which show that its end point may have
been as far west as 5 or 10 miles off the coast, between Blackpool and Fleetwood, at
a height of some 30 miles over the mouth of Morecambe Bay, instead of 20 miles
over the Ribble mouth near Preston. The meteor then ended its course at an
apparent altitude of 30° or 32°, as seen at both Conway and Loweswater, a little
east of their north and south meridians. The descriptions at those places answer
very well to this position, although the recorded altitude (55° or 60°) at Loweswater
perhaps refers to the first and brightest portion of the flight, or may have been
overrated, as is usual in eye-estimations.—While the direction at Conway is drawn
as descending a little obliquely from east towards north, which agrees with the
general impression furnished by the other observations, the statement that its course
at Loweswater was descending from §8. towards §8.E., with a slope of 40° from
horizontal, or from considerably west of the zenith there, cannot be reconciled with
the remaining descriptions, nor even, apparently, with one of the recorded state-
ments of its apparent motion at Whitehaven, that “the position of the meteor
as seen from that town was about due south, and its course about [? from] north-
east.” Mr. Walker only saw the end of the meteor’s flight askance ; but its light-
streak of 10° remaining visible for a minute would not allow the discrepancy of his
description to be thus explained. From such conflicting data it can only be pro-
visionally concluded that the meteor’s radiant-point was near the zenith, and that
along the line given by the observers’ notes of it near Manchester by the stars (Mr.
Greg’s and Mr. Kay’s), it was probably less rather than more than 20° eastward
from the zenith.

314 REPORT—1878.

less than 50 or 60 miles above the earth’s surface, and ata distance from Man-
chester of not less than 60 miles. The end point of its flight was about
30 miles distant from Manchester. An observer there (‘ V. R.’ ‘Man-
chester Courier,’ August 5th, 1878), describes its light during this last
most effulgent part of its course as ‘“ equal to the electric light at Belle
Vue when you stand 30 or 40 yards from it, on the far side of the plat-
form; quite as much I should say.” At 45 miles instead of 35 yards the
fireball must have shone with the brilliancy of (2,263?) or 5,121,169, such
electric lights! We may, perhaps, assume that for three seconds it illu-
minated Manchester with a glare equivalent to the mechanical strength of
something less than half this number of horse-powers, expending therefore
33000 J (2263?)
20 2
in its brief career! Moving with a velocity of 25 miles per second, a
single pound-weight of matter possesses 270°555 millions of foot-pounds
' of energy of motion, so that to account for the fireball’s expenditure of
4,225 millions of foot-pounds of energy, it suffices to suppose that
4,225+2703, or 15°616 lbs. weight of matter composing its substance was
brought suddenly to rest by the enormous force of resistance of its
collision with the air! The average pressure of this resistance in a flight
of 70 miles must be 4,225 millions+(70 x 5280), or 11,481]bs., and this
pressure of nearly five tons against its front surface would instantly com-
minute and disperse any liquid or pulverulent substance, making it
obvious that the masses of shooting-stars, and of very luminous fireballs
like the present one, are really hard and compact stone, exactly as we find
those of aérolites to be.

The intensity of the fireball’s incandescence or ignition seems to have
been rather remarkable, as the light which it cast was bluish, and was
everywhere compared (about Manchester, at Conway, in Wales, &c.) to
sheet lightning, to the electric and limelights, and to daylight. It is,
therefore, not at all improbable that its powerful glare may have been
generated from a much less expenditure of mechanical energy than that
here represented, aud that not only the mechanical action but also the
weight of meteoric substance, and the pressure on its surface here
supposed may be somewhat overrated. The nucleus nevertheless under-
went progressive disintegration all along its track, leaving a long string
or stream of countless red sparks, stars, or beads of fire in its wake, which
remained visible for a short time after the meteor’s disappearance. It
did not burst and fly to pieces at last, but collapsed and disappeared
rather suddenly, and at places near which it descended to no great
distance from the earth no sound of any audible report following its
extremely brilliant flashes seems to have been perceived.

foot-pounds, or 4,224,964,425 foot-pounds of energy

III. Mrtroric Suowrrs.

Somewuat plentiful displays of meteor showers, both occasional and on
the well-known annual dates, have been recorded during the past year, a
list of which is here appended where the date and the frequency of the
meteors and the position and accuracy of their radiant point were sufii-
ciently remarkable to make the observations of special interest, or of any
particularly new and significant importance. With the exception of a
few contemporaneous and foreign observations, they are almost all

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 315

extracted from an original list of 162 meteor showers seen in the year
1877; which was published in March, 1878, by Mr. Denning, in the
‘Monthly Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical Society (vol. xxxviii.,
p. 305). The present list includes also some notes of the same, and of
later showers in the year 1878, which Mr. Denning obligingly communi-
cated to the committee. Of the August Perseids, in 1877, some other
descriptions having been received, a short account of the additional
observations since collected is here presented to complete the brief notice
of that shower which was given in last year’s Report.

Meteor shower of August, 1877.—Observations at York, by Mr.
J. E. Clark. The sky was often cloudy on the 9th, and watch was only
kept for twenty minutes, in which ten meteors were seen, six of which
were Perseids. On the night of the 10th, the sky, while watched, was
little more than half clear. A lull of fifteen minutes occurred, commencing
at 11 o’clock, in which there were seen only two Perseids and three un-
conformable meteors. In the hour between 11" 30™ and 12" 30™, thirty
Perseids and two unconformable meteors were seen, and twenty of their
tracks were mapped. The principal radiant was not very well defined, a
good many meteors coming from the Andromeda side of Perseus. Several
of the streaks left were very fine and long enduring.

Observations at Writtle, Chelmsford, by Mr. H. Corder. The sky was
watched for four hours on the night of the 10th, and was partly clear.
104 Perseids and eighteen unconformable meteors were seen, the Perseids
appearing at the rate of about twenty-six (equal to forty or fifty ina clear
sky), and unconformable meteors at the rate of about four (equal to seven
or eight in a clear sky), per hour. Forty-eight of the Perseids seen left
streaks, three bright flashing meteors leaving fine reddish trains visible
for about twenty seconds. The radiant point of the shower was rather
diffuse, with a mean place at 47°+ 62°.

On the night of the 11th the sky was watched, partially clear, for
three hours, seventy-six Perseids and eleven other meteors being noted.
Thirty-eight of the Perseids left streaks, their average horary number
was twenty-five, and that of the unconformable shooting-stars four per
hour ; but during the clearest half hour the average horary number of the
Perseids reached forty-eight per hour. None were so brilliant as the
flashes seen on the previous night ; but some were quite equal to Sirius,
and one of the largest of these left a forked streak divided into two
branches thus, ‘

a HERC.
*

a OPH.

in the last few degrees of its course, which ended at a point about one-
third way from a Ophiuchi to a Herculis. The radiant, better defined
than on the previous night, was at 58°+56°. From the two determina-
tions of its place, Mr. Corder suspected a gradual progression of the
radiant-point on the two successive nights.

The Perseids in this shower were swift. Thirty of them were as

316

REPORT—1878. —

A LIST OF REMARKABLE METEOR SHOWERS

Date, and (Horary or). Total Numbers

Maximum
Date

1877,.Jans 457 hes

aeeeee

Feb. 20......
March 14 ...

April 16-19
April 16-19

April 19

July 7-11...

July 12-17

Bo: Total Duration
Js
Two; |Jan. 4-20 .....:.0....
large
Many |Jan. 4-20 ............
II Cawsey sana Saniosdao soaeces
CNG) aera tutes sleeid-tcaee> > eels
shy |B 5: BEE Be sce acon gndaee
DI iiekaaetavapGieenscssescsks at
DUM liens, coecroees PoncacHnben:
Viti lal aten- Pakseacapree esac se
1B al aeseaaascceodesadh es: auton
3 |April—May .........
BLY GT yoo. 2 bones
and Aug. 3-16 ......
Duly GW! tees. cesses
and Aug. 3-16 ......
eR TLLV aI 200 taro Peters os
sel eC Sreceapacrce
and Aug. 3-16 ......
CRY | Roseosodonenunccaosactonn a
18 |(and July 6-17)

Aug. 3-16. .....+0....
(and Sept. 4-16).

Position of Radiant Point

No;.of a ty By the Stars
Js
° °
i 57 —12 |Near y Eridani..... ...
20 295 +53 |Neariw Cygni .........
236 +11 |Near a Serpentis ......
263 +36 \Near p Herculis.........
181 +34 |Canes Venatici.........
263 +48 |: Herculis ...............
228 — 2 |Near 6 Libre............
269 +37 |Near @ Herculis.........
275 +35 |Near « Lyre ............
? 210 —10 |Near « Virginis.........
203 — 8 |Near a Virginis.
21 4 +35 jw Andromede .........
16 10 +38 |y Andromede.
11 6 +53 |a Cassiopeie ............
9 8 +53
13 317 —11 |Near w Aquarii.........
8 290 +43 |Near 6 Cygni............
7 292 +48
342 —12 |Near @ Aquarii .........
6 335 +45 Lacertaiiaersss:sos<s2ss9
tf 22 +46 |y Andromede .........

a!

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 317

OBSERVED DURING THE YEARS 1877-78.

Comparisons with earlier observations,
Observer, or Reference and with Comet Showers ; and
Remarks

Appearance of the
Meteors

Fine slow meteors; two|D. (77) 2, (¢ Nature,’ xv.|Parabolic velocity 12, bolide of Jan. 7
bolides, Jan. 4 and 7. 346). at least 19 m. per sec. (?). (These

Reports, 1877, pp. 135, 142.)

Strong shower of bright/D. (77) 1, (‘English/Meteors tailed, but left no streaks.

slow |s. Mechanic,’ March 2,| Only seen between Jan. 4 and 20; a
1877). few of these tracks are from other
observers’ lists. Radiant new for
January.
Breeeenaeca a's sscas socecesccescceeee[Ds (77) 13 .sccesseeeeeeeeees{Radiant exact ; a strong morning
z bot ® shower.
Rapid bright meteors ...... 1D (i) es Gecoodaneenpeccccr Radiant exact; a rich morning shower.
2 : (Corder, Jan. 27, 263° + 36°.)
PPPS EO MT eatSeccese <ocSasueseseeiewce CTs) lige orentar ee erenese Ditto; ditto.
Beds tsincs¢ecs. acer RecOeR EE: DHOPHCe DE CEI 22i covssbesdeeter=s> Ditto ; confirms SZ. 46, April 1,
261° + 47°.
EES eee circ foie secs oe sanscanls D. (77) 89 ..........2-+e-{Ditto ; a rich shower. GH. 53,
227° — 5°, March 20—May 29.
faeewss Mivsessesarccceneesceceees=+|De (77) 40. .2-.0sseneees0e0<| grids at 274° + 37° in 1873-and_ 1874:

= Comet I, 1861. Only five Lyrids
seen in five hours on the morning of
April 20th.

ob GocchenURnEES doohebe bbe soasact H. Corder (Writtle, |Lyrids not numerous ; thirteen in about
Chelmsford). two hours, with this radiant on the

morning of April 20th.
SERS. jevseceseceescsseeseceeeee|De (77) 46 .....200ee00eee2-|A rich and probably newshower. Cor-

der, April—May, 208° — 6°. [(?) =
Forshey, April 18, 1841, 198° — 7°;
a fine shower; and bolide May 12,
1878, 214°— 7°.]
Pe ee ohas sce sncecessevecerees D. (77) 49 ......isse0-...+.-[Andromedes I; G 103; very active;
diffuse; recurs Aug. 3-16; distinct
from a*Andromedes of the same
dates (Denza," Aug. 8-13, 2° + 29°);
: : = 4 1780 IL. Aug. 14, 3° + 38° (?).
Swift white meteors, with|D. (77) 53 .............60. es Cassiopeiads; a fine shower, radiant
streaks. exact ; (SZ. 130,138). Distinct from
D. 78, Aug. 3-16, fifteen |s, at 18°
+ 63°. Continues in Sept. and Oct.

PII eo. iaiieSe ees wkeee Oe, ct DE OTT OARS cece cailendiecsvod Strong max. July 20; T. 37, 44, July
: 21, 22, 313° — 6°.
AEE etre dessesesceererssseesecees|De (77) 55 seceseeseeseeseees/A well-marked radiant. GH. Aug. 10,

1871, 293° + 42°. (A strong radiant
on same dates at 315° + 50°, near a
Cygni; ? = Coggia’s @, 1874, III.)

Be iss ss sc ccesiitzeenceecsieas D. (77) 59 ...cccceeee0e-|A distinct shower in Aquarius; (at
F ; 336° — 7°, five {s, July 6-17 ’).
Very swift meteors ......... MTGE G2) Bieccics ives eset ees Lacertids ; a very active August shower.
The real centre is at 334° + 48°.
BT, cisscgassicecceavencesecs D. (77) 75 .......0000.eee..,A new shower, with max. on Aug. 4.

Another active shower of short swift
meteors, Aug. 3-16, with exact ra-
diant at 30° + 36° (near 6 Trianguli),
D.91, recurs Oct. 2-18 (max. Oct. 8),
at 31° + 39°, ten |s, D. 124.

318 REPORT—1878.

A LIST OF REMARKABLE METEOR SHOWERS

Date and (Horary or) Total Numbers Position of Radiant-point
sich Big Total Duration es a 6 By the Stars
1877. Aug. 10-12 MOM |pser oes phanocss meres: ne 70 +65 |Camelopardus .........
Aug. 12...... POM Aten” WING Es 11 31| +18 |@Ariebion: 20/e..aled
Aug. 12-16 woe, STANGTt a6) yrs. .tose eke 11 61 +48 |w Persei .,............08 =f
(and Sept. ?) ......... 5 .
Sept. 4-16... 7 |(and July 6-17,...... 5 47 +465 |Near e Persei............
Aug. 3-16) .......00.. 6
Sept. 4-16... 10 |(and Oct. 2-18)...... 8 220 +78 |Near B Urse Minoris
Sept. 7-16...) ... |Sept. 4-16 ........ aa 15 61 +36 |Near é Persei......... na
Sept. 5 and toh SOD ut 16! pe cscvce sass 8 85 +53 |Nearé Aurige .........
Oct. 5-8 ... cate OE Z1O) |. ss. sev east 18 84 +55
Octane ec TOW eamtedemascccacnatsee 160 225 +52 |Head of Bootes...... a
Oct. 3-4 ... 535 OCtH2=20 -\5...ss020505 17 310 +77 |Near « Cephei .........
Oct. 3-4... 13 -|Oct. 2-18 ........ sie |pee aeer 133 +79 |P Camelopardi .........
LOG .shn Saation bad Oct BELO | ncnsveseroe 22 103 +12 |Head of Monoceros ...
and Oct. 28-Nov. 13} 11 107 +11
Oct. 2-19 ... 15 jand Oct. 28-Nov. 13) 21 105 +50 Ig Lyncis..............0.0+
Oct. 15 and Ree HOG ALD=L9 jos ste... : 18 133 +21 |Near 6 Cancri .........
Nov. 12))ee Ase Oct. 28-Nov. 13...... 12 127 +17 A ee es och Seep
Oct. 15, 16 ds OCEAN ssiccccecves ll 130 +47 |: Urse Majoris .........
'
Oct. 16, 17 (14) |About Oct. 15-20 ... 53 89 +18 |Near y, & Orionis ......
95 +17

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

319

OBSERVED DURING THE YEARS 1877-78 —continued.

Appearance of the
Meteors

feeeee

Tete eee eee eees

Slow bright meteors

Rather slow meteors

Very rapid, with streaks...

Very rapid meteors

Short and very rapid

Exceedingly swift meteors
Not often with streaks.

Observer or Reference

D

D

D

'D

D

D

D

Comparison with earlier observations,
and with Comet Showers; and
Remarks

(17) 77
. (77) 82

. (17) 83
. (77) 63

. (77) 109

. (77) 115
. (77) 86

. (17) 118

. (77) 99

(77) 97

. (77) 118

. (76) 110

23 of the 53 left streaks ;H. Corder

swift white meteors;
none = Ist mag.

Ane eee eee eewee

Ae ee meee eee tawene

tere eeeeeseesenes

se eee eee eee e ween

atte eee eeweresees

Peer ererserececce

Se erry

eee ere

Camelopardids. A new well-marked
August shower.

A strong max. on Aug. 12; a new A. M.
shower. (The same radiant 30° + 16°,
eleven |s, seen Oct. 28—Nov. 13;
D. 138).

A well-marked shower and max.; ra-
diant exact.

Apparently a long-continued shower,
quite distinct from the 7 Perseids of
Aug. 10.

A well-defined active shower, less
marked in October than in Sep-
tember.

A rich shower; radiant exact. Two
radiants also of rapid |s with streaks
(D. 123, 126), with max. on Oct. 8
and Nov. 4, at 61° + 48°; and on
Oct. 8 and Nov. 7, at 77° + 31°;
near p Persei, and 6 Tauri.

Aurigids; the radiant not very exact
in September, and (?) double in
October. A shower of swift |s with
streaks, max. Sep. 16, 87° + 34°,
near @ Aurigz, ten |s, Sep. 7-16,
D. 95.

A fine rich shower ;

exact.

An active shower in October; and near
the same place less strongly in July,
August and September.

Radiant exact ; extremely well-marked;
certain shower, ¢Y 1825 I. ge,
133° + 77°, Oct. 7.

A very rich shower. = T. 82, Oct. 8,
14, and Nov. 7, 107° + 12° to 101° + 7°;
and Schm., October, 108° + 12°,
November, 113° + 14°. Distinct from
Gemellids of October and November,
with decl. + 25° to 30°, D. 106, 145.

Seen also in September (4-16, ten |s);
very exact in October; an active
‘shower in November.

Exact ; very active shower Oct. 16th,

35 40™—44 40™a.m. Horary meteor-

frequency in that hour, 40 or 45;

on the morning of Oct. 17, 25; Oct.

18, a.m., 35 !

An active shower; seen by several
other observers. Four |sfrom same
radiant and five from a neighbouring
one at w Urs (D. 90, 1878); seen
also on Sept. 15-16, 1877.

Max. Oct. 18, 12435 30™ a.m. Horary
meteor frequency on the 17th and

new; radiant

18th a.m. About 20.

320

REPORT—1878.

A LIST OF REMARKABLE METEOR SHOWERS

Date, and (Horary or) Total Numbers

Nov.

Nov.

Dec.
Dec. 8

Dec.

Maximum No. of
Date {s
LST7Oct. UT weave (22)
Oct. 8 and 8
Oct. 31- 13
Nov. 1
IM(OK% 183) one Many
Nov. 25
Oct. 31-
Nov. 4.
Noy. 10-13 5
Noyeulisn sere (20 0r30)
NOVAS tance 7

9
40

(About
20)

No. of

Position or Radiant-point

Total Duration Is a t) By the Stars
Mehl =20 ise .sccseees 57 OD Flom ei OTIONIS ea s.cessncemeeeece
noton seaeetactoanceee us 47 +28 |Musca..............ccsceses
Oct. 28—Nov. 13...... 31 43 +.22. Je Arietis’...c..cccscsse0e
Oct. 28-Nov. 13...... 14 102 +73 |Near pq Camelopardi
ANGENOV. 20 Seevensss 9 24 +45 |Near y Andromede ...
Oct. 28-Nov. 13...... 9 40 +77 |Taraudus) =a.c.s-ccceeses
SiMe sitbestseacsasdecsveas 148 +24 |a Leonis......:..ccc.c.c0e
toa tceaesaessesotucecese| Meaarshth Milimeuebieenet’s Leo cites Jantar te Woceees
RAN Ro Thessavcesecege 146 +26 |Near w Leonis .........
and Nov. 25 ......... +2 28 +46 |Near + Andromed beg
Nov. 25-Dee. 13 9 | 285 +71 [Near « Cépiei .........
e?

Bee Leia ncebivsssesaenes 109 +33 |Near a Geminorum .

1072.05 (=) 0 eee 8 145 + 7 |Near w Leonis .........
IDCCHOaN2 ostsesvsces 107 +35 |Between aand 6 Gem-

inorum; rather dit-
fuse. |

Appearance of the

r or Reference
Wateoss Observe Re

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

OBSERVED DURING THE YEARS 1877-78—continued.

321

Comparison with earlier observations,
and with Comet Showers ; and
Remarks

{8 = 4%; 3 = Ist mag. ; the|D. (77) 89 wccsscccnsseccaes

rest, 3rd-4th mag.

|

DE CHM) 2 aeecccee sas ae
Rather slow meteors ...... ii
Very swift meteors ......... TOE CO WILY (oeeerccoocncoocce
eteors very slow ......... DG) taeacesdaseonese sone
Rather slow meteors ...... IDES GFA) Le B eeseacpeecoc serene
Very rapid meteors, with|D. (77) 149..........c.600. “A

bright white streaks.

JA few = Ist mag. stars,|/B. Vail, C. P. Carr ; ‘Am.
with streaks lasting| Jour. of Sci.’ Jan. 1878.
several seconds.

1 = #, streak 3 secs., the/T. W. Backhouse
rest small,

i 2nd, 1 3rd mag.; the rest/T. W. Backhouse .........
very small, slow short-
pathed meteors.

wewew el de Cbd) LO cecccecneveceneees

Swift, white meteors

Rapid, short meteors ......|D. (77) 151.......0605 acco
Very swift meteors, with
streaks,

D. (77) 153

Reet e meee eeeeens

i Gorden cce. cess

ort and small (one or two
_ only = Ist mag. *), and
seldom leaving streaks,

1878.

Max. Oct. 18, 3" 377-44 44™ a.m. (four
bright ones together at 4" 28™ a.m.).
Seen also Sept. 15, 16 (eight |s);
radiant very exact; sub-radiant of
seven |s at 86° +8°, = T. 79, Oct. 8.

Seen only on Oct. 8, at 46° + 26°, Oct.
15,1876; active, twenty-six |s Sept.
20-Oct. 25; D. 24, 1877.

Radiant exact; a very rich shower.
* Muscids.’

Also Oct. 2-19 (nine |s); arich shower;
radiant exact. (= 8S. Z. 163, and
Gruber, xvi.)

The Andromedes ; strongest shower on
the 25th; feeble on the 27th. An
exact radiant of four swift |s, D.159,
at 54° + 48° on the 27th. = Weiss,
52° + 49°, Nov. 27, 1872.

Radiant exact; a new shower; sus-
pected also in December.

A feeble return of the Zeonids, their
short tracks near Leo’s “sickle”
(two in two hours on each morning
of the 10th and 14th, and one on the
14th seen by Mr. Greg) pointed out
the radiant most exactly.

Fifty-four |s in 15 50", between 1* 55™
and 3"45™a.m., Nov. 14; nearly all
Leonids. Seen at Bloomington, Ind.
Sky after 2 am. quite clear. D.
Kirkwood.

Radiant pretty exact; seven Leonids
and eight other meteors in 1 20™ of
clear watch, between 25 30™ and
65 15™ a.m., Nov. 14.

Twelve meteors (of which six Andro-
medes) in about one hour, Nov. 27,

....{areatest horary number (20 or 25) on

pm. Only two {s (both Andro-

medes) seen in a short watch on the

25th, p.m. ; radiant not very exact.

An active shower, Nov. 29, p.m. (seen
also, D. 121, Oct. 2-18). No Andro-
medes in three hours on this date. |

Geminids ; a few seen on Dec. 6, 8, 10,
and 12; none in 1"15™on Dec. 14, a.m.

Radiant exact; a strong max. on
Dec. 8. At 148° + 2° in Nov.-Dec.,
1876, = # 1813 I. & (2).

Dec. 10, 10" 30™ to 11" 30™ p.m. : less
marked on Dec. 9 than a contempo-
raneous shower of long bright Js)
with streaks, from + Geminorum,
108° + 28°, scarcelyseen on Dec. 10;
overcast on the 11th ; a few Geminids

on the 12th. |

322

REPORT—1878.

A LIST OF REMARKABLE METEOR SHOWERS

Date, and (Horary or) Total Numbers

Position of Radiant-point

Cre, a a Total Duration
Lotpabedwtid fre. (About |Nov. 27—Dec. 13
35)
LS Speatien Leh eceee CARDONE. f.0.ceetad Seco ne see cees
30)
April 20-22 NDE) I ovseveemee teeter seta nee,
July 25-26 Ps RunttvsscttereOncsterescess
[US Tbs Aue AI sc Miamiy: o|SSerck. ctccssteeat cavewenics
July 27-29 22) ‘July 26=31-...,........
July 31...... 21 {July 26-Aug. 1 ......
Aug. 10...... Bt “Wovkee slduiais spines siepuian vee
Atos 1O. Fe (About | [103" p.m.—3* a.m. ]
50?)
(252-32 a.m, 13d) 26 'Ollssacedescssvccdscossesceess
them
Perseids
Ae, LON. ce. 97‘ |[In 4 hours] ......
[22%-32" a.m.]} (44) /[Max. in 1 hour]
AVeTage 02,2... e605 (28)

No. of

Js 5 By the Stars
Oo oO 3
5: 104 +39 |Near @ Geminorum .
17 222 +55 |Near @ Bootis ...... tee
272 +32 \Near 99 Herculis ......
2 +37 |Near a Lacerte.........
.. [344 + 41-5 lo Andromedz........ site
+28 341 —13 [Near 6 Aquarii .........
+38 32 +53 |Near 65 (P. Bode) An-
dromedz.
6 +37 |Near 7 Andromede ...
130 Pers.| 42°54 54 |% Persei ....t...00.0....
+uncont and
44 +59 |B Camelopardi ......
+16 43 +56 |% Perseiigescmcsvecssesps
uncon-
form.

* In the above quo'ed place of these Reports describing the July—August
‘Lacertid’ showers an:l the showers observed by Mr. Hind at o Andromedz,
August 2, 1875, the place of Schiaparelli’s shower, 123, July 30, with which it

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

OBSERVED DURING THE

323

YEARS 1877-—78—continued.

Appearance of the
Meteors

Comparison with earlier observations,
and with Comet Showers ; and
Remarks

Observer or Reference

Meteors short, white,
chiefly Ist and 2nd mag.,
slightly trained.

Bright meteors, without|A. 8. Herschel

streaks ; rather short and
quick.

Hist GERM sapesss ea scence Radiant of thirty tracks mapped on
Dec. 9 and 11; shower increased in
brightness and precision of radiant
to Dec. 11, p.m. (appearing some-
times one per min.); no sub-radiant
seen,

A bright shower, 4*4* 30™ a.m. Jan. 2;
none seen in half-an-hour a.m.,
Jan. 1 and 3; radiant diffuse, not
very exact.

Pewee eee eeee

Short paths, leaving streaks W. F'. Denning,‘ Monthly|Very exactly defined radiant of several

Bright slow meteors; long
paths.

One bright = a Lyre ...

Slow ; long paths, 15°-20°;
no streaks.

Quick ; short paths, about
7°, with streaks; 3 |s
= 2, several Ist mag.,
among the 59 observed.

Many very bright, with
streaks; 4 = %, others
= ¢, and Sirius,

..|J. R. Hind (these Re-

foreshortened paths (¥ 1861 I. at
270° + 32°). In two-hour watches,
six Lyrids on April 21, and three
Lyrids each on April 20 and 22, p.m.

A rich shower, with very exact radiant-
point; confirms 8. Z. 98, July 18,
332° + 35°. [See the next shower].

Many |s, between 9* 30™ and 11* p.m.,
with most distinct radiant-point.
Confirms §8.Z. 123, July 30, 345° + 40°.

omdengt <a dag A fine bright shower, July 28, p.m.
(= T. 43, July 27, 28, 1870, 340°—14°
to — 19°).

A short rich shower with precise ra-
diant-point; max. July 31, p.m.
(= Schm., Aug. 3-12, 31° + 55°),
Only five or six true Perseids seen
on July 31 and Aug. 1.

Confirms G. 103; also observed 1877,
Aug. 3-16; = g 1780 IL, Aug, 14,
3° + 38° (2).

W. F. Denning, ‘The|The Perseids; watched all night till
Observatory,’ vol. ii| after moonset; less plentiful than
p. 165. on Aug. 10, 1877. The radiant, from

numbers of foreshortened paths

near it, distinctly double. On the
7th, six Perseids among sixteen |s;
radiant, 42° + 57°, inexact.

Notices’ R.A.S., vol.

XXXV1il. p. 396.

W. F. Denning

ports, vol. for 1875, pp.
215, 216).
W. F. Denning

W. F, Denning

errr rrr

W. F. Denning

seat eeeeeeee

Of the Js mapped,1= 9 ,|H. Corder, Chelmsford.|Radiant of 40 or 50 remarkably accor-

1 = Sirius, 9 = 1st mag.
stars, all leaving streaks,

dant tracks; short |s near the ra-
diant gave 45° + 57°; and one was
stationary at 47° + 58°. (Sky over-
cast on the 9th and 11th; sixty-one
Js in three hours and a quarter,
on Aug. 7, many Perseids, radiant
43° + 55°).

‘The Observatory,’
vol, ii. p. 160.

agrees exactly, is wrongly given as 335° + 40°.

Denning on July 25-26

The shower observed by Mr.
confirms a new member of Schiaparelli’s ‘ Lacertid ’ group

§.Z. 98, 103, 106, 123, July 18-30 (average position 337° + 41°).

324 REPORT—1878.

bright as 1st mag. stars. The largest were greenish, the larger 1st mag.
ones orange, and the lesser yellow, the remainder being white. After the
night of the 11th no further view of the shower was obtained, the sky
being continually overcast.

Observations at Bristol, by Mr. W. F. Denning.—The sky was overcast
on the nights of the 9th and 11th. The appearance of the shower on the
10th (as described in last year’s Report) was somewhat notable, but not
above an average intensity of the Perseid shower. On the 12th the
abundance of the meteors was much less than on the 10th, and did not
greatly exceed the rate of their appearance on the 7th. In long watches
on several of the nights of the shower’s continuance, which, excepting
August 5th, were fairly favourable for observations, the following average
horary numbers of shooting-stars were seen, the average rate of appear-
ance of the unconformable meteors being, with little variation, during the
time, about fifteen per hour :—

Date, 1877, August 3 4 5 7 10 12
Average horary frequency
OL meteors! fe. .ccsesecee 16 18 (11) Al 71 29

Thirty-two Perseids and 15$ unconformable meteors were seen on the
nights of August 3rd to 7th, showing the comparative scarcity (1:5)
of the meteors of the periodic shower, until very near the principal date
of itsoccurrence. Mr. Denning’s observations during the last few annual
August showers have, in fact, established (as the results obtained in this
year’s shower, to be described below, will presently disclose most
clearly) that reputed appearances of the Perseids before the 1st of August
are pretty certainly to be ascribed to some neighbouring showers in
Perseus, one at least of which is a very rich one, with a centre at
32°+53° near 6, only 7° or 8° distant from that of the true Perseids near
» Persei. A star-shower of considerable intensity and restricted to a few
nights only in its total duration proceeded, in 1878, from this radiant-
point on the night of July 3lst. Two other Perseus showers in July,
1877 (as was recorded last year in these Reports, for 1877, p. 159), were
also seen by Mr. Denning at 36°+47°, and 47°+445°, with apparent re-
semblances in the positions of their radiant-points to the orbits of the
comets 770, 8, and 1764, ¢. Further observations of the last of these
July showers near « Persei, were obtained in August and September,
1877; and during the long time of its visibility, apparently, in these
three months, its meteors, like those of the other cireum-Perseid showers
just mentioned, were certainly distinguishable by Mr. Denning from the
true Perseids of August 10th. Of these latter he noted 385, together
with 569 meteors unconformable to the true Perseus radiant-point, during
the interval from July 6th to August 23rd.

Continuing his observations in September, Mr. Denning recorded in
July, August, and September, 1877, the paths of 1205 meteors, and
deduced from them eighty-nine radiant-point positions. Of these about
twenty (chiefly in July and August, between the 3rd or 6th and the 16th
or 17th days of those months) were duplicate determinations belonging,
apparently, to repetitions of a single shower. A radiant-point near a
Cassiopeiz, two in Andromeda, two in Cygnus, and two others in“Lacerta
and Aquarius (see the accompanying list), were of this description. One
of these, near a Cygni, at 315°+50° presents some resemblance in its posi-
tion to the orbit of Coggia’s comet, 1874 III (radiant-point, July 21st,

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 325

313° +48°), but the comet’s passage through its descending node was at
such a distance (0°285 of the sun’s distance from the earth) within the
earth’s orbit that the possibility of this meteor shower and the comet
having any real connection with each other is extremely doubtful. Marked
showers east of Perseus were noticed in Camelopardus, Perseus, and
Aries during the morning watches of the Perseids on August 10th and
12th (11th and 13th, a.m.), 1877, of which Mr. Denning has since obtained
by observations, and by extensive reductions of other observers’ meteor-
catalogues, very excellent and abundant corroborative indications. Among
the showers noted inthesecond week of September, were two active radiants
—one near Persei, and one in Ursa Minor,—accompanying the former
of which, some traces, apparently of the October Aurigids, neard Aurigz,
were visible, with a maximum on September 5th. On the mornings of
September 15th and 16th, shooting-stars were very numerous, and
Mr. Denning noted several meteor showers with apparently new radiant-
point positions * from the paths of 117 meteors recorded in nine hours.
A somewhat extraordinary apparition of a meteor shower in September
last, described as related to him by an observer at Bloomington, Inda.,
by Professor D. Kirkwood in the ‘ Scientific American,’ (transcribed in
the ‘London Iron Trade Exchange’ of October 6th, 1877), was as
follows: ‘‘ A few minutes after 10 o’clock on Friday evening, September
7th, 1877, Mr. John Graham, of Bloomington, Inda., had his attention
arrested by a sudden light in the heavens, and on looking up he saw a
stationary meteor between Aquila and Anser et Vulpecula, about R.A. 295°,
decl. 15° N. It increased in brightness for a second or more, and dis-
appeared within less than $° east of the point at which it was first seen.
Immediately after the extinction of the first, three others, separated by
intervals of three or four seconds, appeared and vanished in the same
place, with the exception that one disappeared about as much west of
the radiant as the first did east of it. Mr. Graham’s curiosity was
excited, and he continued to watch until after an interval of a few min-
utes a fifth meteor corresponding in appearance to the preceding was seen
in the same place. The meteors were about equal to stars of the first
magnitude. The fact indicates that a stream of meteoric matter was
moving at the time almost exactly towards the observer. Two or three
isolated cases of stationary meteors have been recorded; the phenomena
of the 7th inst. are, however, quite extraordinary. I have stated the
observations as given me by Mr. Graham, who pointed out the position
in which the meteors were seen.” On the disappearance of streak-leav-
ing meteors, when seen perfectly stationary, it not unfrequently happens
that the rekindling of the streak, which is a singular property of the
luminous vapours left on a meteor’s track (see the last vol. of these
Reports, p. 169, for similar examples), presents the appearance of a second
meteor shining forth, asecond ortwo later than the first oneat the same place.
In the case of extremely large meteors, whirls and contortions of the
vapours on its track may perhaps concentrate their light into several
such rekindling centres, since the observer’s line of sight is at the same
time directed along scores of miles of their very feebly phosphorescent

* A list of these new a.m. showers given by Mr. Denning in ‘ The Observatory,’
vol. ii. p. 164 (Sept., 1878), is as follows: At 156° + 41°, 130° + 46°, 101° + 11°,
88° + 17°, 87° + 34°, and 73° + 14°. They are nearly all showers (D. 90, 110, 99,
89, 95, 102) seen also in October.

326 REPORT—1878.

substance. Perhaps the extraordinary succession of stationary meteors
seen by Mr. Graham may admit of some such intelligible explanation.

During evening watches on October 2-4 many fine meteors were again
observed, Mr. Denning counting 127, and noting numbers of their paths,
in intervals extending together over 132 hours.* Two of the brightest
were small bolides, about as brilliant as Venus and Jupiter, which, together
with several others diverged on the night of October 22nd, from a radiant-
point in the head of Bootes, at 225° + 52°. The brightest one of the
shower left a nebulous light streak at its place of explosion and disappear-
ance visible for 34 minutes, and drifting some 5° from its first position
before it disappeared. On the following night another Venus-like meteor
leaving a light streak for 15 seconds shot from the direction of a radiant-
point of less marked activity (D. 92, 1878, at 167° + 75°) midway
between the ‘ Pointers’ and Polaris. The next conspicuous radiant-
point observed was that of many pretty bright meteors on those two
nights, and on October 4th, from the direction of an exceedingly well-
defined centre in the head of Camelopardus, at 133° + 79°. The shower
remained visible on some following nights, and was an extremely dis-
tinct and certain shower on the first nights of its maximum display. It
agrees in date and position so very closely with the radiant-point of a
stream moving in the same orbit with the comet 1825 IL, 8 (at
183° + 77°, October 7th), that although this orbit passed just transversely
to the plane of the ecliptic, about ten millions of miles inside the earth’s
orbit, at the shower date, yet the certainty and exactness of the meteor
shower leave scarcely a reasonable doubt of the meteor-shower’s connec-
tion with the comet. The agreement is supported by meteor-showers of
Heis (Nj,-;,) close to the cometary radiant-point in September and
October; and if the apparent identity can be re-established and con-
firmed by new precise determinations, it will afford a very convincing
argument that the materials of comet’s tails may give rise to meteor-
showers, or that at least the orbit of a meteor-shower, shown to agree in
every other element with a non-periodic comet’s orbit, may yet differ
very largely from the comet’s orbit in its perihelion distance. Another
radiant-point near Polaris was active on the same nights, but lying on the
opposite of the north pole, in Cepheus ; and in this position a nearly con-
tinuous shower appeared to be situated from July to October.

A long watch for shooting-stars was kept by Mr. Denning on the
night of October 8th, 105 meteors being seen, and 95 of their tracks re-
corded in ten hours, the sky throughout being brilliantly clear. The
numbers seen in the four hours preceding 11 o’clock were three, six, nine,
seventeen ; the numbers seen between 105 and 11" being the greatest num-
ber recorded in one hour during the night. A note received soon after-
wards from Mr. T. W. Webb informed Mr. Denning of a reported
appearance at Hay, 8. Wales, of many falling stars between 10 15™
and 105 45™ p.m. on the night of October 8th, as an occurrence which
had attracted some attention. The meteor frequency was quite con-
firmed by Mr. Denning’s observations; but it is yet remarkable that it
did not proceed from an outburst of any individual or special meteor-
shower, as the meteors came from many radiant-points, none of which,
during the time indicated, showed an exceptionally great activity.

* For particulars of these nights’ observations the Committee is indebted to
long and full description in a Bristol newspaper, communicated by Mr. Denning.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 327

Simultaneous showers from Monoceros, Musca, Triangulum, (6 Tauri,
p Persei, and 6 Aurige furnished, in fact, during the night, scarcely
more than ordinary numbers of about six or ten meteors each. At
11 56™ a bolide, about twice as bright as Venus, shot obliquely down-
wards from the direction of one of these radiant-points near ( Tauri,
close to the east horizon, and it appears not improbable that it was iden-
tical with one of two bright fire-balls seen on about the date of this ex-
ceptionally clear October night in France.* Six meteors as bright as
Jupiter, and two as bright as Venus, besides this brilliant bolide, had
been recorded by Mr. Denning among the many shooting-stars which he
observed on the nights of September 15 to October 8. A meteor-
shower in Lynx (witha radiant-point at g Lyncis, also very active in
November), was seen about the middle of October, which was very well
defined, and, appearing to be new, may only have become visible last
year, or since the date of Mr. Greg’s last general catalogue in 1875-6.

The Orionids of October, 1877,—A very successful series of observa-
tions of this meteor-shower was obtained between October 16 and 20
(a.m.) by Mr. Denning; and at Writtle on October 17 and 18 (a.m.)
by Mr. Corder. Between 38 40™ and 4" 40™ a.m. on October 16th meteors
were falling at the rate of forty or forty-five per hour; but not from
Orion, nor from any solitary radiant-point, although one in Cancer, at
133° + 20°,fwas extremely active. On the mornings of October 17th
and 18th the horary numbers were also exceptionally large, twenty-five
and thirty-five ; and on these dates, as well as on the 19th and 20th (a.m.)
the Orionids had become much the most considerable and conspicuous
shower. At their greatest rate of frequency on the 18th (and also
on the morning of the 19th) their numbers were nearly equal to those of
the sporadic or unconformable meteors of other simultaneously prevailing
showers, as the following summary of his observations on the above morn-
ings by Mr. Denning will show briefly in a tabular arrangement :—

“* Numbers of the Orionids, October 17-20 (a.m.) 1877, for one observer
looking towards Orion (only the times of watch for the Orionids are
stated) :—

Calculated

Duration Number seen

1877 |of Watch ;| “mst a i Staecat tbe
Oct. a.m. | Sk
Watch All All H
From To ioni ioni
Weatlnts Orionids Waieges Orionids

ie |) 12 3h rs 41 18 27 9 Very clear.

18 |2 5 3 70 33 35 16 | Slight fog.

19 | 4} 53 1 19 9 25 12 Fog; stars dim.

20) 65 54 4 14 2 37 D Very clear.
17-20] 1 52 63 144 57 31 103

“ Maximum, October 18th, 35 37™ to 4" 44™, a.m.; calculated number
of Orionids, twenty-five; calculated horary number, twenty-two. At
4h 28m four bright ones appeared almost simultaneously in Ursa Major.

__* A notice of two such fireballs appeared in the‘ Bulletin de 1’Association Scien-
tifique de France,’ vol. xxi. p. 224 (Jan. 6th, 1878).

328 REPORT— 1878.

‘*Radiant-point, very accurate, at 92° + 15° (fifty-seven meteors).

“ A subradiant-point, strongly suspected at 86° + 8° (seven meteors).

“Of fifty-seven Orionids, forty-seven left streaks. Magnitudes,
3 = 4%, 3 = Ist mag. stars; the rest generally 3rd—4th mag. stars.
Observer, W. F’. Denning.”

Besides the shower in Cancer, contemporaneous showers in Lynx,
and Ursa Major, with the Orionids, were found to be very active.

With a small number seen on other days, Mr. Corder noted fifty-three
Orionids on the mornings of October 17th and 18th. On the latter morn-
ing their horary rate was fourteen for one observer. Few were observed
before midnight, and the shower seemed to slacken after 3 30™ a.m. ;
while, on the other hand, a shower of slow-moving meteors from 0 Piscium,
which continued all night, was especially active towards morning, when
its radiant was in 8.W. The horary number of meteors of all kinds
on the two mornings was about thirty for one observer. The radiant was
at 89° + 18° on the 17th, and at 95° + 17° on the 18th, showing appa-
rently a movement or displacement of some degrees. No meteors equal
to the lst mag. stars were seen, but twenty-three Orionids left streaks ;
they were white, their speed was great, and the streaks were rather per-
sistent. After the maximum of the Orionids had passed, one of the
Ursids occurred, but with a radiant so diffuse as not to admit of being
well determined.

The following table briefly represents the number of hours of observa-
tion, a.m. and p.m., and the numbers of meteors seen, and of meteor-
showers recorded by Mr. Denning during the months of July—October
(until October 20th), 1877. The meteor-showers are extracted from 1113
registered meteor-tracks, and 385 Perseids, counted in August, are not
included among the total numbers seen :—

Meteor Recurring

Month Hours, Meteors Hours, Meteors Total Meteors Meteor
a.m. seen p.m. seen Hours Showers Showers
igs aca ceases IDE a bAD Gl» Wes 72 233, 197 22 L au
August ...... 11} 185 163 200 27% 385 31 1
September... 12 146 ” 10 92 22 238 36 Seta
Oct. (to 20th) 221 538 213 184 434 522 47 i 20
July—Oct.20. 58 794 59 548 117 1342 135 40

During the last few nights of October, and on November Ist, a bright
and abundant shower of ‘“ Muscids,” with an exact radiant-point near
« Arietis nearly agreeing in radiant-position with the “ Muscids” of Sep-
tember 20th—November 17th, 1876, and with the maximum appearances of
that shower on October 15th, 1876, and October 8th, 1877, was observed,
furnishing many bright meteors; and besides these notes of its marked
display by Mr. Denning, two small bolides, about as bright as Venus,
belonging apparently to the same shower, were seen at Birmingham, and
at Sunderland, on the evening of November 4th, 1877, by Mr. Wood and
Mr. Backhouse.

Of the various Taurid showers in October and November, 1877, very
few and imperfect indications were observed, although the weather was
not always very favourable for their detection. At Writtle, the state of
the sky only permitted shooting-stars to be recorded on three nights in
the first half of November, when Mr. Corder saw twenty-four, forty,
and forty-three meteors, ‘‘ mostly Taurids and Ursids, the latter (as also

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. : 329

in October) an inextricable mixture of radiants and subradiants.” Mr.
Denning wrote, at Bristol: “ The Taurids I, this year, seem to have been
an utter failure; of 508 meteors registered between October 14th and
November 14th, only about fifteen can be referred to that shower; yet I
have been looking a good deal towards Taurus!” No well-marked dates,
nor even radiant-points of the ‘Taurid’ shooting-stars, in 1877, were
accordingly observed.

The Leonids, and Andromedes in 1877.—Of the Leonids distinct but
yet feeble traces were recorded by Mr. Denning on the mornings of
November 11th and 14th.* Mr. Backhouse, at Sunderland, registered
seven of their paths, with those of eight other shooting-stars, in 1" 20™
of clear watch, ending at 64 15™ a.m. on the morning of November 14th,
one as bright as Jupiter, leaving a bright bluish-green train for three
seconds, where it shone out brightly near the end of its course ; the num-
ber and well-marked radiant-point of these meteors clearly denoting a
slight but yet very distinct return of the November Leonids. It was also
seen in America, as the following notice, extracted from, the ‘American
Journal of Science’ (3rd ser., vol. xv., p. 76), in ‘The Observatory’ (vol.
u., p. 64, June, 1878), describes :—

“« The November meteors.— Professor Kirkwood writes in the ‘American
Journal of Science,’ of January, 1878, that fifty-four meteors were counted
by two observers (B. Vail and C. P. Carr) at Bloomington, Inda., on the
morning of November 14th, 1877, between 15 55™ and 3 45™a.m., being
at therate of thirty per hour. Nearly all were Leonids, a few being as large as
first magnitude stars, with trains which lasted for several seconds. The
appearance of so large a number, ten or eleven years after the maximum dis-
plays of 1866-67, is quite unexpected. The early part of the night was
cloudy, but before 2" a.m. the sky became quite clear.” The interval of
Mr. Backhouse’s watch ending soon after 6 o'clock, terminated about an
hour before that of the American observers’ watch began. A pretty
bright commencement of the rather stronger Leonid display recorded in
America, as this paragraph describes, must accordingly, during Mr.
Backhouse’s observations at Sunderland at a slightly earlier hour, have
been the general character and appearance of this meteor-shower during
the early portion of its time of apparition, in which it appears that a
somewhat notable return cf the Leonids in November, 1877, was visible
in America.

Two apparitions of the November Andromedes, about equal in intensity
to that of the Leonids, were seen on the nights of November 25th and
27th, 1877, by Mr. Denning and Mr. Backhouse. At Bristol Mr.
Denning relates that, ‘‘ Observations of the Andromedes were commenced
on the evening of November 25th. Between about 5" 40™ and 7 10™
(13 hour) sixteen meteors were seen, of which seven, or nearly one-half, were
Andromedes, with a radiant-point sharply defined at 24° + 45 (near x,
Andromedz). They were very slow orange-coloured meteors with short
paths. Onthe evening of November 27th, between about 9° and 10» 30™,
the sky was watched for 14 hour, and ten meteors were seen, of which

* 1877, Nov. 11, between 120" am. and 2" 35™ a.m,; in 24 hrs., 2 Leonids and
30 unconform. |s seen; sky very clear.

1877, Nov. 13, between 12" 14™ a.m. and 1°57™a.m.; in 1+ hrs., no Leonids, 21
unconform. |s seen.

1877, Nov. 14, between 1" 19™ a.m. and 3» 22™ a.m., in 2 hrs., only 2 Leonids and
24 unconform. |s seen; slight fog; no clouds.—W. F. Denning.

330 REPORT—1878.

two only conformed to the radiant-point of the Andromedes. Thus, so
far as my brief observations allowed me to determine, the shower was
more actively in progress on November 25th than on the 27th, in the
proportion of about three to one.

‘On the evening of the 29th a watch was maintained for three hours, and
twenty-seven meteors were seen, of which none were from Andromeda. There
was, however, an active display of swift white meteors with streaks from
a radiant point at « Cephei, at 185° + 71°. On December Ist and 2nd
observations extended over four hours (twenty-eight meteors), but no more
Andromedes were observed. So faras I can judge the shower was at its
best on November 25th. Cloudy weather prevented work on November
26th,”

In a watch of little more than 20™ (at 72 24™ and at 75 42™ p.m.) on
the evening of November 25th, Mr. Backhouse registered two shooting-
stars at Sunderland, both apparently Andromedes. On the night of
November 27th, in a watch of 50™, equivalent to about three-quarters
of an hour in acloudless sky (about one-tenth part of the sky being on an
average overcast, and slight moonlight prevailing towards the close) ending
at 115 20™, Mr. Backhouse observed eight meteors, corresponding to an
horary rate of frequency of about eleven. ‘Twelve shooting-stars were
registered before midnight. Of these six (one rather doubtful from its
swiftness) were Andromedes, with short courses, not far from the radiant-
point, which was sharply marked (by all but one of their paths) at 28°
+ 46°. Only two were as bright as second or third magnitude stars, of
yellow colour; their motion was slow, and the nucleus of the brightest
had a short tapering tail.

From these descriptions it appears that on both the nights of Novem-
ber 25th and 27th, 1877, the horary frequency of the Andromedes was
occasionally as great as that of the contemporaneously occurring sporadic
or unsystematic shooting-stars, and that their radiation on each of those
nights was sufficiently exact to denote a distinct although a very feeble
reappearance of the Bielan shower.

The Geminids of December 10th—11th, 1877.—A good view of this
annual shower’s appearance on the nights of its greatest intensity was
obtained by Mr. Greg, who watched the progressive increase of its bright-
ness from November 27th. The meteors increased in numbers and in
accuracy of radiation until the display reached its maximum on the night
of December 11th, when at one time they certainly succeeded each other,
for one observer, at the rate of one a minute ; andtheir average horary rate
for one observer on that evening wasabout thirty-five. Theirapparentpaths,
even at a distance from the radiant-point were extremely short (not more
than 5°), and but little marked with streaks, rendering it difficult to fix
their radiant-point exactly. This centre of nearly thirty tracks, mapped
on the 9thand 11th, in a somewhat restricted region of the sky near Ursa
Major, was at 104° + 38°, four or five degrees north of the line joining
a, 0 Geminorum, and in rather higher declination than has hitherto been
usually observed, confirming the supposition which Mr. Greg has been
led to entertain from former observations of this shower, of an elongation
of its radiant-point in declination between about + 30° and + 40° N.
decl. The meteors did not vary much in colour or in brightness, presenting
in general the appearance of first or second magnitude stars, bright white,
and moving with considerable velocity. Although Mr. Greg’s attention
was specially directed to determining the positions of any co-existing

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 331

radiant-points which might at the same time be observable in the con-
stellation Gemini, none such could be detected.

Mr. Corder’s and Mr. Denning’s observations of the Geminids near
Chelmsford, and at Bristol, relate principally to the shower’s appearance
on the nights of December 9th, 10th, and 12th. It was on the former date
that its meteors first appeared to Mr. Corder to be growing numerous,
only occasional Geminid-meteors having been visible earlier in Decem-
ber, when the sky was favourable for observations. ‘‘On the 9th,
however, nearly twenty were seen in about three hours, the first hour
(from 8" to 9" p.m.) producing very few meteors of any kind. One
Geminid, as bright as Sirius, of a beautiful pale emerald-green colour, left
a streak at disappearance. Simultaneously with the true Geminids a
meteor system was active, diverging from ¢Geminorum, supplying finer
and longer meteors. One of these was seen at 8 13™ in the north-west,
as bright as Jupiter, of a bluish mauve tint, leaving a long but narrow
streak. At 11> 58™ a similar one shot upwards to Polaris, as bright as
Sirius, and of the same mauve colour as the former one.

“The characteristic of these meteors seemed to be their length and
the brightness of the streaks mostly left upon their tracks, while the
true Germinids were short, and seldom streak-leaving. Their radiant
was at 108° + 28°, and this meteor-stream had ceased almost entirely on
the following night.

“On the next evening (December 10th), between 7 and 11» 30”,
sixty-five meteors were seen, forty of which were Geminids. The hour
from 10" 30™ to 115 30™ produced twenty-five meteors, almost all from
the principal radiant, Only one was equal to a first magnitude star, and
itwas pale green, Very few of the Geminids left streaks, and they were
mostly very short and small.

The radiant was diffuse, perhaps owing to the difficulty of mapping
them in the barren part of the sky between Gemini and Polaris where
they frequently appeared. Many radiated from near Castor, and others
from nearer to @ Geminorum ; the mean position [nearly midway between
those stars] being at 107° + 35°.

“A few Geminids were seen on the 12th; the 11th being quite over-
cast.”

Some further account of the shower’s prevalence on the latter date, and
on some earlier days in December, are supplied by Mr. Denning’s notes,
who wrote from Bristol :—‘ On the night of December 6th, I found meteors
wonderfully scarce ; only thirteen in three hours (!); and only two of
them were Geminids. Of twenty-three meteors seen in two hours and a
half on the evening: of the 8th and morning of the 9th, four were Gemi-
nids. Onthe morning of the 11th, between 5 10™ and 6" 10™ a.m. (1)
eleven meteors were seen, including two Geminids. On the morning of
the 13th (between storms and clouds), I looked out for about three-quar-
ters of an hour between 4" 45™ and 52 45™ a.m. Meteors were falling
very fast, and I saw twenty-eight altogether, of which six were Gemi-

-nids.* In one anda quarter hour, between 54 15™ and 65 30™ a.m. on
the morning of December 14th, twenty-one meteors were seen, but no Gemi-

* Among these meteors a few fine shooting stars with streaks and very swift
long paths, diverged from a point on the equator in R.A. 166°. This agrees with
4 position (T. 2) given by Captain Tupman, although for a rather later date, at
160° + 3°, Dec. 23-31st and 165°+ 4°, Jan. 8-10th.

332 REPORT—1878

nids. The watch on all these mornings was directed towards the eastern
sky, not so much to observe the Geminids as to discover some new showers
in Virgo, Corona, Bootes, &c., which are just visible before daylight in
December ; and of four of these which I observed I believe the following
positions to be accurate, at 199° +19°, 221° + 48°, 230° + 38°, and
195° — 3° (December 11-14th, a.m., 1877).

“The radiant point of the Geminids was at 107° + 33°, with suspected
neighbouring centres at 102° + 45°, 87° + 37°, and 111° + 23°. The me-
teors were slow near the radiant, but rapid when far from it. Their
courses are not often marked with streaks, and are almost invariably
short; in this and other particulars of the general appearance of the Ge-
minids, I can clearly confirm Mr. Greg’s remarks from my own observa-
tions of them both this year and last.”

Star-showers of January and April, 1878.—Watches kept at several
places in England for the meteors of January Ist-3rd were almost
whoily unsuccessful, a cloudy and overcast state of the sky having
prevailed everywhere on the dates of their expected appearance. Occa-
sional glimpses of clear sky occurred in Kent, however, on the first
three nights of the year, and the January shower was seen, at Hawk-
hurst, with some intensity on the morning of January 2nd, by Profes-
sor Herschel. Seventeen Quadrantids and three unconformable meteors
were registered during the half hour beginning at four o'clock, a.m.,
at the end of which clouds formed and overspread the sky. The meteors
were bright, two being equal to Jupiter or Sirius, and five or six equal to
each of the first and second magnitudes of the fixed stars; the rest being
as bright as third or fourth magnitude stars ; occasional thin clouds, and
a slight haze which dimmed the stars, perhaps concealed some meteors of
the smallest magnitudes, and caused the radiant obtained from their
recorded tracks to be a little diffuse. Its centre occupied a point at about
222° + 55° in quadrans, near 6 Bodtis. This point being nearly in the
zenith, the meteors’ courses were short and quick, and that of the brightest
one appeared to be a little curved. They were yellowish-white in colour.
and left no streaks or sparks. During a watch of half an hour on each
of the mornings of January 1st and 3rd, when the sky was clear, no me-
teors of the Quadrantid shower were seen, the maximum of its display
being accordingly confined to the morning of the 2nd.

The nights of April 19th—21st, 1878, were also very unfavourable for
observations, but a slight return of the “ Lyrids ” was observed at Bristol
on the nights of April 20th—-22nd, by Mr. Denning. Three Lyrids and
three meteors from a radiant near « Herculis were seen in two hours, amid
much cloud, on the 20th; and in the same time, with very clear sky,
twenty-five meteors (six Lyrids) and twenty-two meteors (three Lyrids)
were seen towards midnight on the 21st and 22nd, An abundance of me-
teors, and a continuance of the Lyrid shower on these latter nights is rare ;
and it seems to have been an exceptional feature of the shower in the present
year. The meteors left streaks, and the paths recorded were nearly all
foreshortened near the radiant-point, which was very exactly defined at
272° + 32°. This position, near 6 and the star 99 (A, Bode) Herculis,
is in 5° less right ascension than the Lyrid-centre (QH,, 1874) found
by Greg and Herschel, and agrees more exactly with the radiant of the
Lyrid-comet 1861 I (at 271° + 33°), and with the position found in April,
1869, by Professor Schiaparelli from Dr. Karlinski’s observations (at 267°
+ 35°), than other previous determinations ; a feature also of the April

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 333

Lyrids of the present year in which their feebly pronounced display seems
to have been somewhat peculiar.*

The next remarkable meteor-shower observations of the present year
were those of the July and August shooting-stars, 1878. A distinct
shower of Cassiopeiads of those months, coinciding with one already re-
corded by Greg, Heis, and Schiaparelli, at about 12° + 70°, was observed
in July by Mr. Denning at 15° + 70° (thirty-five meteors). Towards the
end of July, having, from foreign catalogues and other sources, obtained
abundant indications of circum-Perseus and other contemporary showers
of the great August epoch, Mr. Denning employed the finest nights
after the moon’s last quarter to verify them by his own observations. A
meteor was thus observed on July 21st, of a shower near 0 Persei
(at 32° + 53°), of which Mr. Denning had anticipated the date and posi-
tion from the following indications :—

July 6-17 (1877) ... 36°+ 47°, 6 Js; observed by W. F. |
Denning Ae.
RR EOllllissieecsnseees 32°+ 51°, 25 {s; in various foreign Average position
Catalogues ...... July 6-Aug. 13,
SDAP. 2 vasasass 30°+ 47°, 10 |s; inthe Italian Cata- 33° + 49°.
logue, 1872...... r (= Schmidt,
and Aug. 6-12...... 34°+ 50°, 3 )s; in the Italian Cata- Aug. 3-12,
logue, 1872...... 31°+ 55°.)
-* WIR ERA eee 33°+ 51°, 10 Js; in various foreign
Catalogues ...... J

A strong maximum of this shower, quite confirming the correctness of
Mr. Denning’s anticipations of its reappearance, set in on the nights of
July 26th—August Ist, exhibiting a perfectly defined radiant-point 3° or 4°
south of the star-cluster x Persei, at 33° + 52°. Forty-four meteors from
this radiant-point were traced on the nights of July 30th, 31st, and An-
gust Ist, alone ; and the whole number of meteor tracks recorded from it
until August 1st was fifty-nine. The maximum took place on the night
of July 31st, when twenty-one of its meteors were observed. They are
short, swift, white shooting-stars, leaving streaks, and by their resemblance
to the true Perseids, or Perseids I, fromwhose principal centre their radiant
is only distant about six or seven degrees, these mock-Perseids, or
Perseids II, have no doubt been mistaken, when abundant in July, for the
earliest meteor-representatives of the true Perseid display. The shower
was of brief duration, and as short-lived in its departure as in approach-
ing its maximum, for among forty-four meteors seen on the nights of Au-
gust 7th and 8th, when the sky was again clear enough for observation,
- not a single meteor of this new Perseid system was observed. Of the
true Perseids the first indications seen were five or six meteors, on the
nights of July 31st and August 1st ; and six meteors among sixteen, regis-
tered on August 7th, were Perseids I.

* «The April Lyrids and Contemporary Meteor-Showers,’ by W. F. Denning:
“Monthly Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxviii. p. 396, May,
1878. A number of cireum-Lyra showers for the great April-epoch, deduced from
foreign observers’ catalogues, together with some active shower-centres in April,
observed by himself, are presented in this Paper by Mr. Denning. Among the latter
is one suspected near 6 Cassiopeiz, which is perhaps identical with the centre of
divergence of two detonating fireballs seen in Austria on April 10th, 1874, and April
9th, 1876, which Professor von Niessl found to be near ¢ Cassiopeiz. (See the last
volume of these Reports, p. 147.)

334 REPORT—1878.

Another rich and important meteor-shower of bright shooting-stars
with long slow courses, with a radiant point near 6 Aquarii at 341°—13°,
was seen by Mr. Denning on the night of July 27th, and many more were
recorded from it on the two next nights, while on the last clear night of
observations, on August Ist, its brief but notable and very active display
had entirely disappeared. With the shower of Perseids II, this fine and
conspicuous star-shower of ¢ Aquariads (already recorded, T. 43, on the
same date and with the same radiant position, by Captain Tupman, in the
year 1870,* and seen in August, 1877, at the same place by Mr. Denning),
deserves to be ranked with the Orionids, Geminids, May Aquariads, and a
few other distinct, but not yet much studied, meteor systems, among the
major, or special star-showers of the year ; and to have its date and radiant-
point more frequently examined to discover if its appearance is annual, or
subject to regular or irregular fluctuations.

The Perseid shower of August 10th, 1878.—The brightness of the moon
until after midnight, followed immediately by that of approaching day-
break, detracted from the apparent abundance of the shower. The sky
was quite overcast on the nights of August 9th and 11th; but cloudless
on the 10th. At Bristol Mr. Denning counted about 130 meteors in a
watch of four hours anda half, between 10> 30™ p.m. and 3” a.m. ; thirty-
three meteors being counted in the last half-hour, of which twenty-six were
Perseids. This rate of appearance was less than the half-hourly number
(forty-two or thirty-three Perseids and nine unconformable meteors), be-
tween 12" 30™ and 25 30™, a.m., on the night of August 10th-11th, 1877,
although fog, haze, and clouds then slightly dimmed the stars. The
shower’s appearance this year was accordingly less active than at the
corresponding time in August, 1877. The paths of seven Perseids, as bright
as the planets Mars and Jupiter, and of five equal to first magnitude stars,
were mapped, and several other bright Perseids were seen, all of which
left persistent streaks. Attention was especially given by Mr. Denning
to mapping the tracks of Perseids near the radiant point, and of these
the foreshortened, paths traced backwards were found to diverge from two
centres.

Radiant Tat 44° + 59°, 21° preceding B Camelopardi;
» ILat 42:5°+ 54°, nearly midway between y and 7 Persei.

The former point agrees with Mr. Denning’s observationsf at 44° + 58°°5,
43° + 59°, and 43° + 58°) of the position of the Perseid radiant-point in
August 1874-6-7 ; and it is in close proximity (3° N. of & Perseiat 54° +
56°) with the radiant-point of the Perseid shower in August, 1863, recog-

* The same shower has also been variously recorded, between the dates of
July 20th and August 13th, by Heis and Neumayer, Schmidt, and Weiss (six
positions), and is G. 109 in Mr. Greg’s General List of Meteor Showers, 1875-6.
The shower of meteors with long courses, diverging from a radiant near Fomathaut,
seen by Professor A. 8. Herschel on the 28th of July, 1865 (see these Reports, vol.
for 1865, pp. 104, 123), appears, on reprojecting their recorded paths, to have been,
without doubt, one of the regular appearances of this shower, four of whose meteor |
paths, traced backwards, intersecting each other accidentally with exactness near
that southern star, gave a false impression of the radiant’s position (at 338°— 28°),
15° south of the true one in declination.

t See these Reports, vols. for 1876, page 151, and 1877, p. 158 (foot-notes), and
vol. for 1877, p. 173. The same places are also given (Nos. 18, 16, and 65) in
Mr. Denning’s three shower-lists, in the ‘ Monthly Notices ’ of the Royal Astronomical

Society (vol, xxxvi., p, 284; xxxvii., p. 108; and xxxviii,, p, 305) of 1871-75, 1876,
and 1877,

~

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 335

nised by Schiaparelli as agreeing almost exactly with the radiant-point of
the Perseid comet, 1862 III, at about 438° + 57°°5. The second radiant-

oint agrees with Heis’ position, A, of the centre of the Perseids
at 45° + 52°, and also with the radiant-point of a more recent comet,
1870 I, on August 12th, at 43°°5 + 53°. It may perhaps be that these
two comets represent two meteor streams which are in simultaneous
activity im the Perseus shower, and in his remarks on this accordance
(here quoted from his description of the Perseids of the present year in
‘The Observatory,’ vol. i. p. 165) Mr. Denning notices an equally
remarkable coincidence, which he regards as offering even more conclusive
evidence of the latter comet’s connection with the Perseus shower, that the
rich and long-enduring shower of the Perseids, seen with prolonged inten-
sity on the nights of the 10th—11th* (and with many fine meteors on the
12th and 13th) of August, 1871, happened a year after that comet’s appear-
ance, in the same manner that the extraordinary Perseid shower of Au-
eust 10th, 1863, occurred in the year following that in which the comet
1862 III made its appearance. The two instances of near concurrence
between a comet and a meteor-shower resemble each other very closely,
and there appears, indeed, to be no reasonable possibility of rejecting the
conclusion that the conspicuous return of the August Perseids in the year
1871 was not a simple maximum of their ordinary stream, but the result
of a passing contribution to its swarm of shooting-stars by the passage
very near the earth’s path of a second meteor-comet, attended by a second
zone or multitude of Perseids of August 10th-12th, moving in a slightly
different companion orbit from that of the first or annually-recurring
shower, and of the meteor-comet corresponding to the Perseids of August
10th. A strict examination of the August radiant-point, hereafter, will be
most desirable to decide the question if, like the major stream of Perseids
between & Persei and B Camelopardi (at 44° + 58°), the fellow-stream at
y Persei (43° + 53°) is an annually recurring one, and forms, like the
ordinary Perseids of August 10th, a closed belt or ring of meteors circu-
lating in a continuous stream, or travels in a single, or in detached
clusters, round the sun.

Mr. Corder’s view of the Perseids, at Writtle (‘The Observatory,’
vol. ii. p. 160), was, in point of numbers and in the position of the radiant-
point, very similar to Mr, Denning’s. In four hours, between 11 30™ and
36 30", 115 meteors (of which ninety-seven were Perseids) were seen.
The mean horary number (twenty-eight of all meteors, and twenty-four
of Perseids) was much exceeded during the hour between 24 15™ and
3 15™ a.m., when forty-four meteors were observed. Of the ninety-seven
Perseids seen, sixty left streaks, and twenty were coloured. One which
appeared at 25 28™ a.m. must have been much brighter than Venus, in its
flash at bursting, as it cast a sensible glare upon a lamplit page. Its
streak remained visible in the sky, from 352° + 48° to 341° + 40°, long

* In the map of the meteor-tracks of this shower, seen near the radiant-point on

August 10th and 11th, which is figured at p. 91 of the volume for 1872 of these
Reports, 36 of the 135 meteor-paths there drawn (or 27 per cent.) diverge, as Mr.

_ Denning has found, pretty exactly from a radiant-point at 42°+ 54°. The remainder

of the tracks proceed principally from a radiant region in rather higher declination,
belonging perhaps properly to the true Perseid comet, while the former point denotes
the fellow-comet, 1870 I. Of the meteor-paths on the nights of August 12th and
13th few were recorded, but of such tracks of them as were noted it would certainly
be a very important utilisation to endeavour to define the exact radiant-point in
Perseus which they exhibit by a similar projection.

336 REPORT—1878.

enough to record its track exactly. The recorded paths of forty or fifty
Perseids laid down in a map gave the radiant-point of the shower most
accordantly at 43° + 56°. Another means of ascertaining it was alse
adopted by prolonging the short tracks of several meteors seenland mapped
near the radiant-point at about 12 a.m. backwards, with the resulting
position, 45° + 57°; and a perfectly stationary meteor was seen at 47°
+ 58°. The precision of the meteors’ radiation from the general radiant-
point was surprising, much more so than on August 10th, 1877, when the
radiant region was diffuse with a general centre at 47° + 62°. The appa-
rent shifting of the radiant-point, then observed, to a more accurate one
at 58° + 56° on August 11th, could not be verified in the present year, as
on that date the sky was quite overcast. Both at Writtle and at Bristol
many meteors were seen on the nights of August 7th and 8th, including
several Perseids and some Cassiopeiads. From the Perseids seen on the
7th Mr. Denning found a position of the radiant-point at 42° + 57°, and
Mr. Corder one at 43° + 55°.

Although not remarkably intense, the radiation of the August Perseids,
in the year 1878, yet seems from all these descriptions to have been
unusually exact.

Catalogues of meteor-showers, and Directions to Observers of Luminous
Meteors.—The example first set by Heis of observing the general centres
of radiation of shooting-stars on ordinary nights of the year has borne
abundant fruit during a long period of more than thirty years; but at the
same time never more rapidly, perhaps, than during the last two or three.

Towards the end of last year was published, as the conclusion of his
own labours in this field of observation and reduction, a full and perfect
compilation, recently projected and finally completed by the late Professor
Heis, of the results of his original or otherwise recorded observations,
and of the calculations and determinations founded upon them, accom-
panied by comparisons with the work of other professional observers
with whom he continued to be in constant communication on this and
other subjects of his long-continued investigations until the last days of
his life. The work was issued, a few months after his decease, to the
astronomical public, as one of the ordinary publications * of the Royal
Observatory of Minster, under the joint editorship of his daughters and
the supervision of one of the great astronomer’s thoroughly accomplished
pupils. Of this work the Committee received, in pursuance of a previous
arrangement with Professor Heis, a communication of fifty copies from
the Miinster University librarians, by the directions of the late Professor
Heis’ daughters; and with the assistance of their recommendations the
greater part of these copies were distributed, towards the close of last
year, to a number of British and foreign observers and leading observa-
tories, selected as having been his most active co-operators in the observa-
tion of meteors, and in the collection and discussion of phenomena
relating to the astronomical theory of shooting-stars.

The work comprises, in 180 quarto pages, here and there illustrated
with woodcuts, the apparent paths and brief descriptions of about 13,000
shooting-stars observed under Professor Heis’ own directions at Aix-la-
Chapelle and Miinster, and of about 3000 meteors seen elsewhere in Ger-
many, and in other countries. Of this latter number the author’s wide cor-

* Vol. ii., 1877 :---(as was noticed in the last volume of these Reports, for 1877,
p- 101.)

¥ ,

a 45° s

PENS Kg

a Ne v3
a ae Oe

Co

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 337
respondence enabled him to receive and to publish many accounts in
the well-known astronomical journal begun and conducted by himself
for a long course of years, the ‘Wochenschrift fiir Astronomie,’ and fre-
quent references to this weekly journal occur in the meteor catalogue of
the work. The narrative portion, forming the remainder of the volume,
contains the results of calculations and reductions from the catalogue,
lists of stationary meteors, of meteors with serpentine paths, and of dates
of unusual frequency and scarcity of shooting-stars. The introduction
of this part also discusses and explains the practical mode of observing
and the methods of calculation used, by which, with very little change
since their first adoption in the year 1833, the whole of the important
results of the author’s forty-three years’ observations of meteors presented
in the volume were obtained. Among the many meteors simultaneously
recorded at two or more stations, the heights at first appearance of 246,
and at disappearance of 273, are calculated; and the following table,
translated into British statute miles from the corresponding table of the
work, exhibits the numbers of these heights respectively which fall in
the successive nine-mile intervals (nearly) of height above the earth’s
surface extending to

Height above
the earth 18 27 37 46 55 G4 74 83 92 101 110 119 129 138 147 156
(niles).

Number of
initial QoS 12 TSE 2 8b 8 HAS DE TOO TG, 907) Re Geen eee
heights.

ices 3 1) 44.56 64, 31 23) 16 ke ks eg

The most frequent height of commencement is between sixty-five
and seventy miles, and the most frequent height of disappearance of
the meteors appears by this table to be about forty-five miles above the
earth’s surface.

A useful table might be constructed from the nights of the year on
which shooting-stars were noted as unusually abundant, to guide ob-
servers in watching for their extraordinary displays, but the extent and
fulness of this record in the original work forbids a partial summary
to be presented here of its contents, until they can be more thoroughly
examined and arranged to serve conveniently and usefully for such a
purpose. At the end of this appendix a careful analysis is given by Mr.
Greg of the new and greatly enlarged list of Heis’ radiant-points, ob-
tained by the author’s special method of reduction from the meteor-paths
described in the catalogue, with which the work concludes. A very large
increase of their number above that of the last earlier list (of eighty-
four showers; see the volume of these reports for 1873, p. 403) pub-
lished by the late Professor Heis, has principally been made in the last
half of the year; and the co-ordinates of position of a few of the old
showers (which retain their appellations, while numerals and special
symbols denote the new ones) have at the same time been changed and
rectified by the discussions of the newer observations. The Committee
avails itself of this opportunity to present, with the analysis of the
new radiant-list of Heis, that published in 1871, in the German trans-
lation of his work on shooting-stars, by Professor Schiaparelli, the meteor-
showers of which are frequently quoted, and identified with certain meteor-

tracks, in Heis’ final reductions, Of this list (with the exception of an

1878. 4

">. ¥ : oN Sine NT A - ia | a ee ey 'c-)."_” “NOVAS bee
; oe : Chale. G aon > ae ee

338 | --peporT—1878.

‘

abridgment for the whole year, and of a preliminary list for the first
half-year in full, see the volumes of these reports for 1870, p. 98, and
1871, p. 46) no entire abstract for useful reference has hitherto appeared
in these reports. A series of instructions to observers for recording me-
teors and meteorites, drawn up at the request of the Committee by Dr.
W. Flight and Professor Herschel, to furnish both regular and occasional
observers of meteors of every kind with suitable directions as to the pro-
per means and methods of recording them, and for preserving useful
particulars of their various phenomena, is added to these lists with a
view of facilitating their consultation and perusal by those who may
fortunately be observers of star-showers, or who may be desirous of trac-
ing the directions of large meteors from some of the many active radiant-
points with which the sky is found to be more or Jess thickly strewn at all
the ordinary hours and seasons of the year.

Important lists, both of his own observations of such showers through-
out the year 1877, and of similar showers for the whole year found by
searches and projections of the meteor-tracks in the Italian Meteor Asso-
ciation catalogue of shooting-stars for the year 1872, were published during
the past year by Mr. Denning.* The first of these is a continuation of
his two earlier lists of twenty-seven, and of fifty-two meteor-showers for
the four years ending in March, 1876, and for April-December, 1876,
published in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,’
yol. xxxvi. pp. 283-285, and vol. xxxvii. pp. 105-115¢ ; and it includes new
positions and notes of the appearances of 162 meteor-showers deduced
from the paths of 1,929 shooting-stars registered by himself, chiefly in
the last half of the year 1877. Descriptions of the majority of the most
conspicuous of these showers, showing especially the dates of their
maximum abundance, are given in the accompanying list of ‘ Remarkable
meteor-showers in the years 1877-78.’ The second list contains the posi-
tions of 315 radiant-points deduced by systematic projections of about
4,000 of the 7,500 meteor-paths (omitting about 3,500 tracks observed on
August 3rd-14th) recorded by the Italian Meteor Association in the year
1872. This first catalogue of the Italian Association’s observations
falls naturally into thirteen periods separated by void intervals owing to
the brightness of full moonlight; and grouping two of these into one
(February-March, and November—December) in two cases where the
showers were little distinguishable from each other, Mr. Denning de-

* ‘Monthly Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxviii. p. 303 (for
the declinations of the last three showers on the page, + 1, 1, 2, read + 15, 19, 22);
and Jbid., p. 315 ; March, 1878.

} The Table of fifty-two radiant-points observed and engrossed together ina list by
Mr. Denning, at p. 176 of the volume of these Reports for 1877, is a partial com-
bination of the two above lists extending as far as October, 1876. It was com-
municated (in the form in which it is there presented) to the ‘ Astronomische
Nachrichten,’ towards the end of the year 1876, as was noted at p. 162 of the last
volume of these Reports. But in the above English publications of Mr. Denning’s
earlier lists, the first (of April 1876, twenty-seven radiants) extends to March, 1876 ;
and the second (of fifty-two radiants, January, 1877), from April to December, 1876.
They are referred to in the accompanying ‘ List of Remarkable Star-showers, as D.,
or D. (71-6), and D. (76), while the combined list of last year’s Report will be desig-
nated (if again referred to) DN, or DN (76) ; and that of 162 showers, observed in
the year 1877 (published, as above notified, by Mr. Denning in the present year,) is
denoted by D (77) ; Mr. Denning’s Table of Reductions of the Italian Catalogue of
1872 (published at the same time) by D8.

aioe

~

\ ee OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 339
duced for each of the resulting eleven periods a series of showers or
radiant-points, of which the following were the various numbers :—

_
,

Number of

Number of Duration of Group epee pf Shower-

Group np Wels meteors
I SANUAL YU enaenases Wadeceecaenunddsas dt atersss 30 313
II Webruaty'1—Mareb V2. i..ci....ectdsl ene 24 381
II Marehr3i=Aprill 12g, «sai. ecesnceeds a4). ies 37 542
IV i ERT SP pa a a Sana 22 269
Vv May. 26—JUnG US 0... ke sasacdisasecduich das a= 31 356
VI PUNE ZO DULG HM evacicsnvasicuceteusteuncas ere’ 36 459
Vil Ul yr T5S-AUSUSE: Dives secescuvestessedeacereescns 27 264
VII Aug usti6=1 2s (am) iis te le eR ek 25 413
IX August 24-September 14 ..... se. se seeeee 36 455
x October 29-November 13 .....0....0.0000 24 255
XI November 25-December 31 ............++: 23 436
Totals, January-December ...... | 315 | 4,143

The showers are frequently recurrent in two, or even more successive
periods’; and of the whole number nearly 200 are probably distinct
meteor-systems, with well determined radiant-points, most of the dates
and positions of their centres agreeing well with those of formerly-known
showers, occurring in earlier catalogues; but many of them also are
new, and a few are apparently rich systems, agreeing in some cases with
cometary dates and radiant-points.

Of these two shower-catalogues, showing where they corroborate
each other and confirm older well-established positions of general radiant-
points of shooting-stars, Mr. Greg has prepared a Table (Table V. p. 358)
continuing and completing thé analysis (Tables I.—IV., in the last volume
of these Reports, pp. 180-187) for the first half of the year, which he
made last year of Mr. Denning’s observations, and Italian meteor-shower
reductions. The limits of that analysis are now extended, by this
additional table, so as to afford a complete comparative list of the newly
found radiant-positions traced by Mr. Denning, for all the different
months of the year.

As a result of his arrangement at O’Gyalla for collecting observations
of shooting-stars in Hungary (some MS. lists of which at its commence-
ment, see the note in these Reports, vol. for 1877, p. 165, the Committee
received formerly), Herr N. von Konkoly presented to the Com-
mittee, at the end of last year, two volumes of meteor observations,

_ containing observed paths and notes of the appearances of 1191 and
1367 meteors respectively, recorded during the years 1871-73, and
_ 1874-76. To assist and promote accurate registration of meteor-tracks,
_ and the collection of such accounts among astronomers of his own and
_ other countries, Herr von Konkoly has had drawn and lithographed
_ (by Carl Schrader, of his observatory at O’Gyalla) two planispheres, or
_ central projections of the sphere on two planes touching it, one at the
pole, and the other at the equator of the heavens. No stars are entered
_ on the plates, which contain the meridians and parallel circles only, for
each degree, but a catalogue of them from the north pole to the 30tk
_ degree of south declination, and full directions for their insertion on the
: “2

H

PAMPER Lai ee
; ¢ Res capt Por. Me py,
- +e ee Le can het

340 _-REport—1878. he age

blank plates, and a long and valuable explanation of the various means y

of mapping, and recording and reducing to their radiant-points (and
even to their real paths and distances) the tracks of shooting-stars, and

of noting the special appearances of fireballs, when any such are seen, |

accompanies the plates in a lithographed pamphlet, also drawn up by
Carl Schrider. The spherical radius of the maps is 25 cm. or 9°85 in.,
- a little less than the radius, 12 in., to which the six similarly ruled
plates of the Useful Knowledge Society’s Atlas, (drawn by the late Sir
John Lubbock) are constructed. But instead of being only 50 cm. square,
so as simply to enclose the sphere in a circumscribing cube (like the
maps just mentioned), the plates are 59 cm. square, and reach at the
sides to 50°, instead of to 45°, and at the corners to 59°, instead of to 55°
from the centre of the map. The cubical projection of the O’Gyalla
maps extends accordingly upon each face, to about 5° beyond the edges
of the cube; and meteor-tracks prolonged to the edge of either of its
six maps, admit, therefore, of being easily transcribed in part (and these
prolonged with a straight ruler) upon the next adjoining map. This
kind of projection of the sphere lends itself, therefore, very conveniently
to determining radiant-points of shooting-stars, at whatever hour and
day of the year, and in whatever geographical latitude of the globe, a
sufficient number of their apparent paths may have been observed.
Besides the large Minster catalogue of Professor Heis, and Herr von
Konkoly’s Hungarian catalogue of meteor-tracks, two long lists of
shooting-stars, by Professor Dorna, of Turin, recorded at the Royal
Italian Observatory of that city, in November, 1867, and August, 1869,
(presented to the Committee some years ago by the author) have,
in addition, furnished Mr. Denning with some new materials, of which
he has availed himself, to deduce additional lists of meteor-showers,
partly forthe special dates of the major annual star-showers of April,
August, and November, and partly in general for the last half of the year.
This last list, containing ninety-two radiant-points will, it is hoped,
shortly be published. Of the former lists, one at least, that of circum-
Lyra radiant-points of April 19th-23rd, was recently described in a brief
paper, on ‘the April Lyrids [in 1878] and contemporary Meteor-showers,’
in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,’ by Mr.
Denning.* Among many thousands of paths (chiefly found for this
date in Dr. Weiss’s Austrian Meteor-catalogue, 1867-74) Mr. Denning
selected about 300, as radiating from centres in Cygnus, Draco, Lyra,
Vulpecula, etc., and deduced eighteen radiant-positions from them, three
or four, at least, of which may be regarded as exact and well determined,
although (from want of proximity, doubtless, to their maximum dates)
they are yet very inconsiderable showers. Accompanying the principal
shower in Lyra are two very slender ones, near 7 and (3 Lyre; but in the
adjoining constellations the principal contemporaneous showers are,
first, a well-known shower at o Draconis (the Draconids, G. 64,

22)s); secondly, a new, exact and certain shower between 6 and 7» Cygni .

(25s), with several other showers in Cygnus, near w, z, v, A, €, and ¢ ©

Cygni, to which one, pretty well confirmed from other sources, may be
added near s Vulpecule. Thirdly, systems near a and (£ Cephei (of
fifteen or sixteen meteors each) and a weak shower in the southern part
of Lacerta. And lastly, a well-defined shower in Anser (20s) with two

* Vol. xxxvili. p. 396; May, 1878.

4
f

‘

rf

va. PS 5 iy beh ¥ k Wave « SN ighdld «ie a toa’ ¢ " |
ria F } ‘ - 4 * '
341°

iP \

- - Y
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METLORS.

_ weak showers near it, in Sagitta, and one in Taurus Ponies. Both the
_ Anser-Sagitta showers and the one near Taurus Poniatovii, seem to have
been noticed previously by Mr. Denning, (Nos. 30, 34, 1877 ) on April
16th-19th, 1877, and by Captain Tupman (T. 35, 34) on May 2nd, 1870,
and they present some resemblances to the hypothetical shower-radiants of
the comets 1853 II, and 1844 II, which passed at the nodal dates, May
Ast, and April 21st, slightly within the earth’s orbit at their descending

nodes.

Some other accordances of the same kind presented by these new

April showers are pointed out in the accompanying Table.‘

Comet-Node

1844 IT 3,
(8 ee — 0:08)

J857 II 3s,

(4 distance — 0:07)

1790 III 3,
(4 distance — 0:06)

[And 1763 ¢, Mar. 18,

+ 0-02, 312°5 + 21:5]

1784 II 2,

Date and Position of Radiant-
point, and No of Meteors

Va April 21... Ph ee ad peor
J |May 2, 1870 ..--. 283 412 oc...
April 16 19, 1877 286 + 5 (12 Js)

April 19-28 ...... 275 +11( 7 Js)|\DW Ke.
Mine We setsencss='s 29G54+135 ......
May 2, TS TOV ee 298 + Be celseess
April 16-19, 1877 303 +13 ( 8 Js)
287 +22 (20 Js)
April 19-23 ape go te Ci tay
302 +18( 6 Js)
ADEM Zt oeteracane tO lO tel Ontencas sana
May and June ... 310 +24 .........
April 19-23 ...... 312 +22 (13 {s)|<

1

Description of Radiant-
point.

Near 5 Aquila.

T 34. Near G18 Aquile.
D (77), 34. Near 6
Aquile.

Taurus Ponia-
tovli.
Near y Aquile, 8 Sagittee.

T 35. Near B Aquile.
D (77), 30. Near p-
Aquilee.

DW &c. Near a (Bode)
and 5 Vulpecule.

DW ke. Near Bf Sagitte,
y Aquile.

\DW &c. Near y Sagitte,
p Aquile.

Near ¢ (Bode) Pegasi.
G (76), 74. Near
(Bode) Vulpecule.

JS DW &c. Near s (Bode)

L Vulpecule.

?

Near m Pegasi.

DW &e. Near #, ¢ Cygni.

DW &c. Near m (Bode)
Lacert.

Rpril 26 gy sac CEUs eebetap

ti : 321 +31( 8 Js
April 19-23 832 +42 ¢ 5 13

_ \(B distance + 0-06)

The rough approximations of a few of the slenderest ciream-Lyrid
radiants to some hypothetical comet-showers, which this Table shows, ar e
much too loose to allow any certain inferences of connection to be drawn
from them, but the resemblances in the cases of the second and third of
these accordances are perhaps sufficiently well marked to merit attention,
and to give occasions for renewed investigation.

A list of sixty-seven cases (omitting the four indubitable comet-
showers of the Lyrids, Perseids, Leonids and Andromedes) of similar loose
agreements between observed meteor-showers, and hypothetical comet ones, —

by Professor Herschel, appeared during the past year in the pages (p.

369-395) of the ‘Monthly Notices,’ immediately preceding those of the
paper by Mr.Denning which has just been quoted. Of these accordances”
it is enough to say, that while single instances occur where the corre-
spondence is tolerably close, they are in all such cases unsupported, at
_ present, by corroborative determinations, and that they have among
_ the numberless similar questionable instances of comet-likeness, and even

See Oe. PF Ae Pe ~ ant av Nee re oe oe “aw
5 : ‘ \ 4 ey NO NS Ape 4

342 : a _ Ruront—1878. Patan

of questionable determinations of the meteor-showers themselves, rather

the appearance of being accidental coincidences than clear proofs of
real resemblance or of positive identity. The cases of the accordances
(noticed above, pp. 326 and 335) between the comet of 1870 I 8, and
the August Perseid shower in 1871, and of the comet, 1825 II, 8
(— 0:115, Oct. 7th, 134° + 77°) with a briefly enduring meteor-shower,
noted by Mr. Denning on the nights of October 3rd and 4th, 1877, at
130° + 79°, are perhaps exceptions. Mr. Denning wrote that he never
noted a shower better than this rich one during the two nights that
its activity was at its maximum, and that in place and date of its
appearance, its agreement with those of the hypothetical comet-shower
was quite unexpected, and is practically perfect. This shower is un-
noticed in the accordance (No. 49), where the observation properly
belongs ; but when duly inserted and added there to the previous tokens
of resemblance to the comet which showers observed by Heis and

- Denning are shown to present, it would be the best marked, and most

certainly verified accordance of any of the nearly positive and deter-
minate ordinary cometic correspondences which are recorded in the list.
Mr. Denning also communicates the following meteor-shower positions as
haying escaped notice in some of the other accordances of the list
which are here briefly denoted by their reference Nos., the comet’s node,
and the omitted meteor-showers.

° fe}
Aug, d—12......... 54 + 28 Schm.
39, 1864 IL 9 ype. Sn. 52 + 20 (11 | s) DS, viii. 13.
Aug.—Sept....... 50 + 20 Corder, 1877.
44,961 2&0... Sept.—Oct. ... 59— 9 (20 Js) DZ.
Sept.15—Oct. ... 154 + 41 (9s) D (77), 90.
54, 1739 9 Sept. 8—Oct. ... 155 + 41 (13 |s) DZ.
Oct. 29—Nov. 13 160 + 40 (8 Js) DS, x., 18.
BOs UOT PO) acecas Oct. 12-13 ...... 23 +13 (7 Js)DZ.

The following accordances are new :—

42017901 @... Sept. 16 ....... 108 + 37°5 (W.) + 0:05.
J Sept. 16-20...... 108 + 38 (10 |s) Heis (77), M,,.
Sept.—Oct....... 111 + 37 (20 Js) D &e.
Oct 2=19.s2.25%2 108 + 38 (19 Js) D (77) 108; suspected also in
September.
i "(2
56a. 1849 1g... Oct 29... tide eps
Wets2=1/8%, 0 Js 167 + 75 (5 Js), (78). 92; a feeble shower.
Boys Thy. Sew 164 + 74 (5 Js) DZ).
Noy. 4—Dec. 19 160 + 71 GH (74), KG) _ aprpy ae
Motte 180 + 65 Schm. if oe

The lists of cometary radiant-points (‘N’ in the northern, and ‘S’
in the southern hemispheres) at pp. 232, 234 of the volume for 1875 of
these Reports, it may also be noticed here contain a few important
errors, which require the following corrections :—N. 59; for Sept. 2,
57°+2° read Aug. 22, 57°4+21°,—N. 45; add and Q; for (13 to) 27 read
(26 to) 27.—N. 43a (end of the list) ; for June 28, 42°+14° read March
17, 34°4+15°.—S. 7 (Clausen’s) ; for 14°-5—0°-5 read 353°—8°.—S. lla
(end of the list) ; for March 6 read Dec. 9.

Much stress was laid by Mr. Denning and Mr. Greg in two papers

= ere.’ rey! ee
Sk eet coe

yim

at ORS, ee | wih ‘ : pr i
‘aad eas Sa , '

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 343

4 read to the Royal Astronomical Society* in January and April last, on
the long-observed duration of some meteor-showers, with stationary
radiant-points. That the centres of divergence of ordinary shooting- -
stars in general occupy almost fixed positions in the heavens for several
days, or even weeks, together, is deed conceded by nearly all the observers
who haye recorded and discussed their radiant-points. But a much
more strange and extraordinary peculiarity of these showers was believed
to have been noticed by Mr. Denning, that after a first appearance, or
period of prevalence of an ordinary meteor-shower, followed by a Inll,
or interval of entire cessation of its action, a radiant-point will again
make its appearance with renewed activity, forming apparently, a repeti-
tion of the original fMeteor-shower in everything except its date, at an
interval of about three months after its first display. Examples of such
recurrences were traced by Mr. Denning, between August-September and
October-December, between October-December and February—April, and
between April-May and July-August meteor-showers. The end arrived at
hitherto, by continued observations, has been to multiply ceaselessly the
number of new radiant-points, and to discover sub-showers, as tributary
streams in systems which had formerly been held to be thoroughly well
isolated and defined. The multiplicity of radiant-poimts which thus accn-.
mulate from year to year, are chiefly congregated near the meteor-epochs.
of August, November, and April, when it is not unreasonable to expect,.
from the numbers which have been recorded, and from the attention.
naturally concentrated upon well-known regions of the sky, that fre-
quent repetitions of radiant-points, at intervals of about three months.
should, in general, be traceable in different seasons of the year. The-
slenderly supported evidences of connection between cometary and
meteor-shower radiant-pvoints, in a multitude of cases where they very
nearly approach each other, is an indication how much chance may have
to do with frequent occurrences of such an apparent resemblance, even
between contemporaneous radiant-points, and in a list of cometary
radiant-points, not unfrequent instances may be selected of recurrences
of identical positions, with periods of one or two, and sometimes of
three or more, months intervening between them. The theoretical
grounds on which the hypothesis of trimestral meteor-showers is shown
to be untenable, were clearly urged, in some apposite remarks appended
to Mr. Denning’s paper, by Captain Tupman; and, indeed, no deep
acquaintance with Physical Astronomy is required, to show that, even if
it should be indubitably established by further observations and re.
searches, no such hypothesis could be derived directly, in the present
state of the science of astronomical perturbations, from any supposed
primitive relation of the orbits or assumed remote or recent origin of
scattered and diffuse, or of still compact and undisintegrated meteor-
showers.

Of the circum-Perseid showers of August 6th-12th, Mr. Denning also
prepared a list, by projecting numerous meteors of the periodic dates in.
the catalogues of the Italian observers (1872), Heis (1852-72), and von
Konkoly (1871-76). The positions and numbers of meteors belonging to
each radiant, as collectively determined by one or more of those three

} , eee athly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxviii., pp. 111-116,
and 351.

4
4

PR gee LRU kes, ME FC Rasa Sater an) he Shetek) Ae ae
, iitre ; y eth tt
Baa yn . REPORT—1878.

\

-meteor-records (denoted by the letters S, H, K, in the list) are repre- ;

sented in the following table.
Circum-Perseid Meteor-showers (W. F. Denning), August 6th—12th.

snl
aye n| O\-
4H > .
Seva 2 S 3 % | Approximate place of the Coroborations from other
Radiant 5 o| 2 Radiant by the stars sources ; and Remarks
a| oO 5
a 35 a R

D (77) 77; rich (10 |s) Aug. 10-
°o Oo I 9 tr . ao 5O.
68464 | 55 |S H K.'Near c (Bode) Camelopardil oak in Geode Ke LTE he
logue.

62+38 | 46 ISH. |Neare/ Persei ...............

97+71 | 62 |SH. » pq Camelopardi......

52+75|}51{|SHK.) ,, mo (Bode) Custodis |4 |s onlyin Hungarian Catalogue.
COA PAO AS Howes|) a A DOTSCL. «css ssccecedtaes

[ey { July 20, 1878, at
78+ 56 | 42 |ISH K.|5° p. SAurigz ..........csee. 76° + 54°); Weiss, Aug. 11,
1869, 77° + 54°.

74446 | 26 ISH K.|Near a Auriga ...............

AS Ade at NS FL Kil 55, 8 ECYLSClsensc.ccensccuees

WATEreaE aM. Sen |Kiesgatateties Sater cctstcscsectcese uses
92+56 | 18 |S Sako Arise l eche..te cee:
135+76 | 16 |H. 8° n. of o Urs Majoris ...
52+20 | 11 |S. ASSP. @hAUll).onsaswodsceenss
44433 | 16 |S K. |Between Medusa and Tri-
angulum.
87 +34 8 |S Weare mre ec. osccss<s
141+71} 81S 4° nf. o Urs Majoris ......

Fine meteors from some of these showers often accompany the Perseid
display, and will probably be recognised as diverging from certain of
these centres in future observations of the shower.

Mr. Denning has also completed some reductions of various observers’
records of circum-Leonid and circum-Geminid showers, of which the
following table gives the principal results. All the available meteor-cata-
logues were employed in the reductions,

Mr. Denning draws attention to the long durations shown in this
table, not only of radiant-points in Leo and Leo Minor, quite distinct
‘(though less apparently so by Schmidt’s determination in October) from
the November Leonids; but also of three showers in Cancer, near ¢, 6-2,
and especially near 6 ’ Caneri, with very fixed radiant-points, as illus-
trating a very commonly occurring peculiarity in such general radiant-
points of shooting-stars, when deduced independently from a variety of
sources. Such a “long-continued shower Mr. Denning and Mr. Corder
noted in great activity from July to September, near « Persei(at 47°+ 45°)
distinct from, though very liable to be confused with the Perseids.
Close to this shower itself, a series of radiants indeed appears to continue
in prolonged activity from J uly to December.

With regard to the Taurids of November and December, Mr. Denning
notices that a radiant deduced for December, from the Italian observa
tions, (D 8. XI, 13, at 64° + 15°, 7/s), principally marked on December
6th, ‘confirms a subradiant of the showers of Taurids I (60° + 20°), at
70°+15° (5)s), which he noticed (D’77, 158) between November 25th and

aS ae

133

——S =

of November may

‘
ie

Ai Ley bie. so b
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

‘ >. aoe

345 |

‘ aw / ;

ber 13th, 1877, and considers that closer investigation at the end
succeed in distinguishing this new shower from those
_ of Taurids I and Taurids II (at 80° + 23°). x

Circum-Leonid (and Geminid) Metcor-showers of November Ist—15th,

(and December 9th-13th). W. I’. Denning.

|

Radiants’ Corroborative Meteor-showers ; and Remarks.
No. of | approx. | [The number of mapped meteors of a shower is noted in
Meteors | place by parentheses, thus (9), immediately after the position
r) the stars of its radiant-point. }
+29 31 |Neare Leo-| { Oct. 15-18, 140° + 28° (9) D (77) 120} A long continued
nis October, 140 +23 Schm. shower; meteors
+28) (Dec. a re Dec. 12, 136 +30 Masters. with streaks like
9-12) Jan. 1-15, 140 +30 (6) DS. I, 19 the Leonids.
+48 26 |Near«Ursz|Oct. 2-19, 130 +47 (11) D (77) 110; active, max. Oct.
Majoris 15-16 ; seen also in September.
+38) 23 Hn Leo Mi-|) Oct, 9-18, 153°+42° (4) D (77) 90.7) Exact radiant
+43] (Dec ae pes Dec. 9, 1868, 150 +43 DZ. ‘i close tou Ursee
9-12) Majoris Jan. 1-15, 150 +43(7) D8. I, 20 Majoris.
Radiant en-
Y : Oct. 28—Nov. 13, 133 +8F a0)
+31 for Caner -T.14 5° cs D(77)139< dures a
Nov. 25—Dec. 13,131 +32 (6) long time.
Distinct from 127°
+14 13 |At} (8, ¢) < m +17° in Nov., No.
Garant \ Oct. 15-18, 120 +15 (9) D(77)119 118; long-enduring
+15} (Dec. Fr » Jan, 1-15, 120 +15 (6) DS. I, 25] shower of short
9-12) swift meteors.
(A long-
Oct. 11, 128 +20 T. 88, suspected. | Snduring
+20 17‘ |Nearé Can-} J Oct. 15-19, 133 +21 (18) D(77) 118 | anboots
cri Oct. 28—Nov. 13,127 +17 (12) , | with]
Oct. 29—Nov. 13,135 +21(12) DS X17. j MA One
Dec. 21—Jan. 5,130 +20 D W. \ Sse
Jan. 1-15 130 +24 (7) DS. 1,7 : :
2 ee
AgDec. 9-12' 5 » |} Feb-—March 12 129 +22 (19) DS. 11,7 eu:
Feb. 13-16 132 +23 DZ. tee
L vember.

|
|

An elaborate paper of reductions of the observed paths of 2,450

shooting-stars, of the first 20 days of November, by Herr Louis Gruber,
of the Imperial Observatory of Vienna, was communicated last year to
the Academy of Sciences of Buda-Pesth, and it also forms an appendix
_ inthe January number of the ‘Memorie degli Spettroscopisti Italiani.’
| From the miscellaneous collection of these meteor-tracks, Herr Gruber
extracts the following places and durations of twelve November radiant-
_ points, of which he also indicates in some measure the characters of
~ importance.

As the paper is of some length, and the conclusions drawn

from it are of considerable interest, the Committee is obliged in the present

| notice to confine itself to this indication of its value, and to an acknow-
_ ledgment for its obliging communication to the author.

“i

¥

Of discussions of the

proportions of meteor-magnitudes, by Mr. E, F.

| Sawyer of Boston, and by other observers ; of papers of great interest

r eT RE SY Le NM iedal se eee Pio ACI hy ied th) Red ee
346 ‘ ¢ HRERORT HBT Sx iris pile. eS

’ i ee” alle) ae)

on the history and distribution of meteoric matter in planetary and ~
terrestrial rocks, and in the sea and atmosphere, for which it has been —
indebted during the past year to the authors, Dr. von Tschermak, Mons.
Daubrée, Messrs. S. Meunier and G. Tissandier, and Mr. John Murray,

of Edinburgh, the Committee is also obliged by the length of this Re-
port, while recording the value of their contributions to the subjects of
which they treat, to omit a short review until a more favourable oppor-
tunity ‘permits it to give full and appropriate descriptions of them in
another year.*

Positions and Durations of meteor-showers in the early part of November,
by L. Gruber, 1877.

Date of A ‘
IC (Ohi re pees * a Per cent. No. of meteors, or importance of
Shower /|Duration] Max. i se the shower
Nov. | Nov. P
I. 1-18 | 13-0 | 148 = 19 Leonids, 26 p. ¢. of all.
(1) 12 y 140°5+21 |Nov. 12, 1871. A double radiant-point
; “|| 149'°5+12 | of the Leonids observed by L. Gruber.
14°5 57+ 30°5 |Taurids, 22 p.c._,,
oe 1-18 { 6 55+19 Do. 52 |s, Tupman.
Il. 414 13°5 | 111+59:5 |About 10 p. ec. of all.
IV. 1-18 |135 | 62453 |. ,, ae
WA 9-12 | 11 70 +19:5 |Remaining radiants about 33 p. c. of all.
VI. 2-14 10 103 +3 |
VII. 1-18 18 135 + 52
VIL. 9-13 | 13 | 100441 )
in.@ 3-12 | 6 | 12545
X. (aly 8 10+39 s oi 4: gaa ae |
‘ ” No radiant, Tachini 356° + 87°-5, foun
nile jada bas Bi6 aagl { near the North Pole.
2511 PR ee aa | 3 { ner ha position included on this line.

II. Account or Arrouitrs. By Dr. Fiicur.

Found 1858-9.—Staunton, Augusta Co., Virginia.t

In 1871 Mallet described three masses of meteoric iron which had
been found near Staunton; another has now been brought to light, and
examined, It was found by a negro in 1858 or 1859, who brought it to

* With the exception of the notes on meteor-magnitudes and colours (‘The
Observatory,’ vol. i., p. 399, and ii., pp. 20, 23, 97), and of the discovery of spherules
of magnetic oxide of iron in various ancient sandstones, and in different specimens
of sea mud, by Messrs. 8. Meunier and G. ‘Tissandier, in vol. lxxx. of the ‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ a short account of all the above recent papers on meteoritic subjects is
given (in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,’ vol. ¥xxviil., p.
219-221) in asketch of the ‘progress of meteoric astronomy during the year 1877,’
communicated in the Council’s Annual Report for the past year, in February last,
1878, to the Royal Astronomical Society. A Paper by Professor D. Kirkwood, read
before the American Philosophical Society, on March Ist, 1878, should also be
noticed here (see ‘The Observatory,’ vol. ii., p. 118), showing the probable inde-
pendence of the stonefall occurrences of the 13-14th of November, and the system
of Leonid meteor-showers of the same well-known meteoric date.

t J. W. Mallet. Amer. Jour. Science, 1878, xv. 337.

JOU IK a Ca OSE a nal aha '
i ans ies Aa Oh ei AN tds ney ; ‘
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. , 347

Staunton, and endeavoured to sell it. He failed to do so, and threw it
_ away behind a blacksmith’s shop, where it lay several years until it was
_ used with other loose material to build a stone fence. By reason of its
__ irregular shape and great weight it soon fell out of the fence, and was
next used by a dentist as an anvil, on which to hammer metal plates,
_ and for such base purposes as the cracking of nuts; then it was
again built into a wall round the curbing of a cistern. In 1877 it was
_ removed to Rochester, N.Y., and a fragment of it came into Mallet’s
_ possession. It weighs 152 pounds, is 45°7 em. in length, and 29-2 em.
in breadth, and in shape somewhakresembles that of a shoulder of mutton.
A sketch of the mass is given in Mallet’s paper. The specific gravity of
the iron is 7°688, and the metal when etched, exhibits the Wiedmannstiittian

figures ‘clearly and beautifully.” The composition of the iron was
_ found to be:
, ea tg ee OS es Oe i ea OT 91-439
UNICO ceectioh «tt oe¥nchsobeys cep cch .cutessceasbcous 7559
Wopallts, Wiece ehc-k.cuwcBecbudte st agdhecaescare st ound 0.608
WGPPEDS a ocdocaccdecdsaf.cessgoad-setee tes 0-021
SELEY Se van ostede caheaeeotechectscgcaseat trace

Phosphorus ...... -. 0°068
DSULOhUE S. Atians ais. .ied.thedsoagieedteotiecch catered 0-018
CHIP nIne 5. Asche cdeesecks eee Gelde saotlon Itech css trace
CAEH ONY | re oswow sce Meise ote lebas ee dete cacaels ceed 07142
Silicium (reckoned as silicic acid) ......... 0.108

99-963

There can be no doubt that the four specimens found in the same
neighbourhood represent different portions of the same meteoric fall.

1861, June 28th (June 16th,O.8.) 7 a.m. Grosnaja (Grosnja), Banks of
the Terek, Caucasus. Russia.*

Sixteen years ago Abich, who was at the time in Tiflis, sent to Gustav
Rose, in Berlin, a short description of a large fall of meteorites at Grosnaja
on the morning of the above day. The greater number appear to have
fallen into the river Terek; one fell in the great square in the interior of

' the (? Staniza) barrack, entered the ground to the depth of 13 feet; it
pursued an oblique course through the air, and was distinctly warm when
dug out. The meteorite had the form of a huge hailstone, and was
covered with a black crust.

Abich, who has taken up his residence in Vienna, placed the stone in
the hands of Professors Tschermak and Ludwig for examination, and the
results of their investigations, together with a detailed report of the

_ circumstances attending its descent, have been incorporated in the paper

_ by Professor Tschermak, referred to in the note.

Tt is stated in the report drawn up by General-Major Kundukof,
military commandant of the Tschetschensk district, that on the night of
_ the 15th-16th June (0.S.), a barely dark one, there (was neither thunder,
wind, nor rain. On Friday, the 16th, the morning was clear and bright ;
_ light rain-clouds, which however brought no rain, hung on the western
_ horizon over the station Mekenskoi, the inhabitants of which were startled
at about seven o’clock by a deafening sound, which continued a long
Space of time. A non-commissioned officer of the Mosdok regiment, who
was walking from the Navursky to the Mikenskoi barracks (? Staniza),

i

*@ Tschermak, ‘ Mineralogische und Petrographische Mittheilungen,’ 1878, 153.

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1S

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 353

A List of Radiant-points of Shooting Stars, from the observations of J.
Zezioli, at Bergamo, during the years 1867, 1868, 1869. By J. V.
Schiaparelli. (Extracted from Prof. Schiaparelli’s Work, translated
into German by Dr. G. von Boguslawski, ‘ Entwurf Beiner Astro-
nomischen Theorie der Sternschnuppen,’ Stettin, 1871, p. 84-101).
The Remarks condensed from Notes in an Appendix of the original

Catalogue :—

Ref. A
NO. Date of Shower

I Jan. 6
2 “- 6
3 ae PLO
4 aa
Dee 1clL8o9)'= ss 11-12

7 ee Ne

11869). =, 18

9 ca tig
10 Beg
11 aa
12 aig
13 tb COE
14 5 ot
15 07 '5%
16 ai 1S
17 ae ashy
18 eer iaay

19 |(1868) ,, 28

20° |(1868) ,, 28

21 » 29
22 Ae Sigg
23 sity ot
24 erst
25 Feb. 1
26 Some
27 ee
28 ‘DG
29 —G
30 Ie Ng
31 Pi A
32 AO
33 or es
34 is ode
35 a
36 ao Oe
37 = aie
38 jie
39 ale
1878.

Position of

Remarks

Radiant

a ry

o fo}
199 +58
175 «+48
10 +57
47 +40
183 +28
120 +57
232 +36
198 +28
218 +437
244 +64
200 +59
205 +49
218 +29
210 +20
195 +56
132 +67
205 +47
67 +25
236 +25
198 +54
225 +34
134 +40
221 +28
215 +30
153 +21
212. +22
130 +49
240 +62
187 +31
183 +56
133 +26
232 +30
105 +62
205 +651
263 +68
133 +55
214 +53
74 +48

Observed on both days 184° + 28°,
182°+ 29°; 2? = MG (G.& H.);and =
& 1792 II (Weiss) ; accordance doubt-
ful.

Radiant accurate, from 21 meteor-tracks;

AG (G. & H.) 68° + 20°, December 20—
February 6.—Scattered radiation, the
radiant being 151° from apex of earth’s
way. 4

January 29, a.m.; 134 meteors counted,
61 mapped, in 1" 45™; two observers.
Radiant diffuse, but no other trace-
able; 24 tracks with this place.

= M, . (GG. & H.), 128° + 40°, Max.
January 25-31. (? = g 1680, Weiss.)}.

= M, (Heis), 171°+ 56°, February 1-14.

= A,;, , (G. & H.), 73° + 40°, Februar
9-17; and = A , (Heis), 76° + 40°,
February 15-28.

AA

354 REPORT—1878.
A LIST OF RADIANT-POINTS OF SHOOTING-STARS, &C.—continued.
Ref Position of
No! Date of Shower Radiant Remarks
a 5
ie) fe}
40 (1868) Feb. 17 237 «+46
41 a 9 240 +56
42 Mar. 17 186 +56
43 ee) 144 +48 | = M, (Heis), 150° + 47°, March 16-31.
Radiant region elongated ; its centre
. being 131° from apex of earth’s way.
44 Pte 238 +24
45 0) TSO) Watts Sesoe
46 April 1 261 +47
47 s 2 212 +51
48 Ce ee 130 4226
49. |(1868-9) ,, 248 259 +38 | Observed both days, 258°+36°, 260°+
40°. Apparently distinct from QH,
(G. & H.), 268° + 25°, March—April ;
max, April 13, 1864.
50 enh) | \(O55= er 36
51 ath sera 246.) G46
52 Salo 163 +47 | = M, (Heis), 160° + 49°, April 20 period.
and 56 ss, id 168 +47 Not visible between April 10 and 14
(No. 56); ? if connected.
53 BS ae LLL 193 +20 | Radiant region diffuse ; may perhaps be
grouped with §,,8, (Heis).
54 Be ls 231 +27 | Agrees with ¥ 1847 I, except in perihe-
lion distance : (compare No. 143).
BB Pa epee 66
56 (52) een te! 168 +47 |131° from apex of earth’s way.
57 > dd 263. 4-50
58 wo 14 | 240. 55
59 peal wedeiae On.
60 1323.) 250 + 40
61 sy) 2D 142 +53 |Radiant well defined. Observed in
zenith ; 143° from apex of earth’s
way.
62 a) 256 +75
63 ir 20 260 +24 | = 4 1748 II (?; observations of comet
and meteor-shower not very exact.)
64 Be eg 182 +27 | 131° from apex of earth’s way.
65(70) \(1867-8) ,, 30 237 +35 |And 1868, May 1, at same place-= Q,
(G. & H.), 235° + 30°, April 23—June
4; and Q, (Heis), 232° + 27°, May}
1-31?
66 May 2 | 204 +35
67 SP) = | 2a8c a 36
68 aes i263) +38
69 3 = 22 300 +44 :
70(65) seas 232 +25 | Forms perhaps with 65 and Q, (Heis))
acommoneroup. Agrees better than
65 with Q, (Heis).
71 » 24 240 +44
72 » 24 207 +47
73 » 24 302 +30
74 3 ab (W280 4 54
75 , OB) Heer, +89 |
76 <6 WORT 69
17 June 2 227 +30
78 as 9 207 +37

——

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 355

A List or RADIANT-POINTS OF SHOOTING-STARS, &C.—continued.

ee

osition of
a Date of Shower nee temarks
a 5
79 (1867-8) June 14 28 +35 |Compares well with W (G. & H.),
280° + 29°, May 6—June 20; and
Schmidt, June, 284° + 38°,
80 lt 300 +41
81 5 28 | 269 +44
82 wise 2S al AOD 4927
83 Sul mel) 240 +19|Good agreements with Q, (Heis),
242° + 12°, June 1-30; Schmidt,
255° + 23°, June; and Q, (G. & H.),
245° + 21°, April 283—June 30.
S4 July 4 3 +68
85 » 56 | 222 +60
86 = 5 304 +45
87 ah iB 247 +29
88 + 6 289 +3
89 3 8 288 +64
20 - 9 280 +40
91 aur Ol O47. 60
92 SHELL 300 +49
oO: fel 8 +44
| 94 rls iP B88" Eb
95 3 14 270 +51
96 » 17-18 | 244 +59
97 LS 272 +44
98 oo. 18 _.| 382.435
99 i) 18. ? | 317, +47
100 5 18 | 342 +23 | Schmidt, 345° + 25°, July 5-25.
101 » 18 | 324 -+69 |B, (Heis) July 15-31, 320° + 70°.
102 337 lS 315 +61
103 sutik, 1398 ot A3
104 » 19 | 332. 423
105 fy als) 355 +60 |Plane of orbit perpendicular to the
; ecliptic.
106 ete) 334 +45
107 oe fed 330 +64
108 33 rece 240 +76
109 pyrite 313 +40 |[‘Cygnids ’ BG(G. & H.), July 4—August
bent! 22 Qmax. July 30), 315° + 31°;
Schmidt, July 5-30, 317° + 32°; B4
(G. & H.), and Nos. 99, 112, 116, 120,
and 126 in this list are perhaps con-
nected with it.
110 or ye All Il +38
LL S te. QO +55
112 $crt 2B 308 +42 |
113 wow 23 336. . +30
114 » b2h 309 +61
115 on. Mig 330 +88
116 a) PA; 303 +41
117 oe 298 +36
118 soe 174 +55 |Schmidt, end of July, 165° + 62°; V
! ‘ (G. & H.), July 29—September 6,
| 172°+ 60°. Good agreement of orbit
ae p with comet 1737 II (Weiss, Schmidt,
Schiaparelli).
119 ore 28 336 +30
120 Sy ZS 305 +35

AA2

356

REPORT—: 1878.

A List OF RADIANT-POINTS OF SHOOTING-STARS, &C.—continued.

140

141
142
143

144°

145
146

147

148
149
150
151
152

153

154

Date of Shower

(1867-8) July 29
» 29
» 30
(1867-69) ,, 30-31

» 30

» 31

ye eal

» 3

” 31
Aug, 1
” 3

” 3

” 4
” 4

” 5
” 6

” Lf

” 7
(1868-9) ,, 10
(1869) ,, 10
» Il
» Il

» ll
» 12

» 28
Sept. 5
” 6

” 7
5B) 12

» 18

” 20

» 23

» 28
Oct. 5

Position of
Radiant

a

oo
266
278
345
275

24
47

47
340
321

5

°
+52
+36

+40
+37

+35

+18

Remarks

Schmidt, end of July, 277° + 40°; and
2B, (G. & H.), August 2—September
25, 285° + 44°; observed three times
by Zezioli.

Schmidt, August 1-15, 338° + 30°.
Agreement with T, (G. & H.), June 29;
—August 24, 338 + 13, ‘ Pegasids’
doubtful. Perihel. in §. lat. 90°.

(Perscids) ; agreement of orbit with that
of comet 1862 III almost precise.
Many allied radiant-points contiguous
to it; see Nos. 132, 137, 142, 144.

Accurate ; 9 meteors in 12 15™, 2° dis-
tant from earth’s apex. Radiant of
comet 1862 II (August 19), 47° + 13°}
(Weiss).

N,, (G. & H., and Heis), August, nea
N. Pole. But for its small perihelion
distance, tail fragments of the great
comet 1853 III may have produced
this shower, or No. 135, (very doubt-
ful; Weiss and Schiaparelli.)

ca

Schmidt, September, 309 + 67; B
(Heis), September 16--30, 311° + 65° ;
and ? E (G. & H.), August and Sep-
tember, 335° + 52°.

Slightly observed. R, (Heis), Sep-
tember 1-15, 53° + 35°.

R, (Heis), September 16-30, 46° + 37°.

A. S. Herschel, September 27, 1864, 85°
+ 50°; F,,.(G. & H.), September 17
—November 24, 83° + 50°.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 357

A List OF RADIANT-POINTS OF SHOOTING-STARS, &C.—continued.

Ref. Position of

<a Date of Shower Radiant Remarks
a $
ie} ° .

155 (1868) Oct. 12 53 +27 | Position very accurate, to 1°.or 2°.
Fine shower of 22 meteors, 6 per
hour. Motion in orbit nearly to-
wards the sun. R, (Heis), Oct. 1-15,
45° + 32°, and R, (G. & H.), are near.

156 sles 80 +19 | Schmidt, October 10-27, 79° + 13°.

157 (1868) eat 75 +25 |So also Tacchini, 1867, October 21. And
Schmidt, October 10-27, 71°+31°.

158 Se wa! 81 +26

159 5 21 130 +48 |Compare LG (G. & H.), October 3-20,
143° + 42°.?

160 |(1868) , 21 96 +13 |‘ Orionids. O (G. & H.), October 17
November 13 ?, 90° + 15°. Radiant
frequently observed; Schmidt, A.

Herschel, 1863-68 ; and [or ? the next
shower] by Herrick, October 20-27,
1839.

161 (1868) oe A 111 +29 | Very accurate on October 21, 22, 24, 25;
max. October 23,a.m. A fine, endur-
ing shower; 13° from earth’s ‘apex.’

162 a ioe 77 +45 |A,, (Heis), October 16-31, 72° + 44°.
163 s 2 110 +70

164 Novi 9 61 +42

165 ne 10 70 +20/RG (G. & H.), October 25—November

21, 64° + 18°. R, (Heis), November
period, 55° + 16° (??).

166 a LO 87 +47 |=F, (G. & H.)? Schmidt, November
10-14, 82° + 45°.

167 cee) 138 +37

168 of ale 6 +34

169 sere Oe Wliar e sa7

170 ea) } Bee weal

171 i) OLS. 40 +60

172 ee LT, 120 +40

173 3) dove ee 230
Perhaps connected with G (G. & H.),

os ” ze tae . f November 26—December 30, 100° +

” yr 33°. max. December 11-13.

176 (1867) , 30 17 +48 | Andromedes. Radiant of 7 meteors out
of 9 in 2"; certainly derived from
Biela’s comet. A,, (Heis) December
1-15, 21° + 54°.

177 eit) 145 +29

178 Dec.— 9 149 +45

179 + 9 100 +59

180 a 9 109 +60

181 35 9 135 +37 |Schmidt, December, 130° + 30°; and

Stillman Masters, 1866, December
12, 136 + 29°5.

182 ” 9 154 +26
183 » 12 180 +453
184 Fee ca 117 + 67
185 9 «oa 182 +40
186 » 23 V7 +31
187 » 20 157 +64
188 » oF 207 +47

189 » 20 137) +45

1878.

REPORT

358

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361

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

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362 REPORT—1878.

noticed that the sound appeared to come from the west, where the rain-
clouds were, and describes it as resembling that produced when many
cannon are fired simultaneously, followed by a deafening noise like that
caused by battalion-firing. He observed the fall of one of the stones,
which descended at a low angle, and it was accompanied by lateral bands
of a bluish colour (welcher von Nebenstreifen von blaiilicher Farbe
begleitetwar). It fell in the court-yard of a house about two paces distant
from a summer-house, and thirty paces from the bank of the Terek. A
soldier’s wife, standing on the threshold of the house, drew back in the
greatest alarm as the meteorite struck the ground two paces from her
with all the violence of a bomb-shell, scattering the earth over the wall
of the house. A soldier soon probed the hole with a ramrod, and
found at a depth of rather more than a foot fragments of the stone
weighing in all ten pounds. Many heard a second sound, as though the
meteorite burst twice in its descent through the atmosphere, and the
noise attending the fall was observed by persons eight versts distant on
the other side of the Terek. A woman who was occupied in washing
clothes, at a spot about 1050 feet distant from the point where the
meteorite struck the ground, heard fragments, which had been detached
by the explosion, fall into the river Terek. The water fizzed just as it
would when brought in contact with a large quantity of heated iron.

The meteorite has a longish rounded form, and has lost the greater
portion of its crust; in fact, the crust, together with a thin layer of the
enclosed silicate, is very easily removed, and probably dropped off at the
time of the fall. Its actual thickness is much greater than in the case of
the stones which fell at Knyahinya, and about as thick as that of the
Pultusk aérolites.

Professor T'schermak goes on to describe the Vandal treatment to
which the stone was subjected before it reached his house for investigation.
A cast of it had been taken for the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg,
and it had subsequently been sawn in two. It appears, in the first place,
to have been rubbed down with fat, not oil even, and, after the mould was
taken, to have been soaked with potash lye to remove the unctuous layer ;
the carbonate of potash, which penetrated the porous stone with scarcely
any crust to protect it, next began to eflloresce, and the new danger to
which it was exposed had to be compassed by drenching it with water.
It was now ready to pass from the clumsy hands of the modeller to expe-
rience the yet more tender mercies of the lapidary, who, not to be outdone

_by his fellow-workman, it is to be conjectured, proceeded to close all the
fissures and lines upon its surface with a black varnish. Long treatment
with alcohol and protracted drying in a steam bath were the next opera-
tions which were made with a view to cleanse it.

A system of cracks and fissures, arranged like the branches of a tree,
traverses the whole stone, and gives us the impression that they are the
result of the blow which the meteorite received on its fall. The mass of
the stone is brittle, the colour blackish grey with bright points. There
are many enclosed mineral particles, some almost invisible, others 1 cm.
across, the greater part having a diameter of less than 2 mm. The
matrix is black and opaque even when viewed in a microscopic section,
and many of the enclosed particles are opaque or only translucent in
points. Most of them, however, are transparent, and the majority have
a circular or rounded outline. A plate is appended to Tschermak’s paper
showing figures of the enclosed minerals. Five distinct ingredients

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 363

‘ could be distinguished. The first is a clear greenish mineral, with in-
complete cleavage along two directions perpendicular to each other, and
. identified as olivine. A second in round tough spherules, brownish in
- hue and not numerous, with a finely foliated or finely fibrous structure,
was found to be bronzite. Enclosed particles are sometimes made up of
these two minerals, sometimes, but not very frequently, of them together
with a third silicate in long greenish prisms which have the appearance
and angles of augite. The meteorite also contains some magnetic pyrites
(troilite ?), a very little nickel-iron and perhaps a little carbon, to which
the dark hue of the matrix is due.

Tschermak directs attention to two peculiarities observed in several
chondritic meteorites, and noticeable in this one. The first isthe occur-
rence of a crust over the surface of the bronzite spherules, possessing
fibrous structure. This crust is thin, and is distinguished from the
~ enclosed material by its paler colour; it has the same fibrous structure,
doubly refractive power, and, in fact, is optically orientated like the en-
closed silicate. It appears to be produced by some agent acting from
without, perhaps heat in conjunction with a reducing gas. The agent
has not caused fusion, but a slight modification of the texture of the sur-
face. The second point which he has observed is the distribution in zones
of the magnetic pyrites in many of the granular enclosed masses. When
a microscopic section is examined by reflected light, it is found that many
are apparently surrounded by a crust of the metallic sulphide, in others
it occupies the centre of the mass in all cases apparently filling up inter-
stices. It seems as if the sulphide had impregnated the rocky mass, and
the absence of all magnetic pyrites in the very compact enclosed particles
and the tough fibrous bronzite chondra, confirms this view. This im-
pregnation Tschermak believes took place after the enclosed mineral
particles attained their present form, and the only explanation which can
be suggested is that this must have happened while the whole tufacious
mass was strongly heated. According to this theory, the enclosed granules
coming in contact with fused magnetic pyrites must have drawn it into
the fine fissures and interstices, in some instances into the cavities of
the granules themselves.

This argues the existence of two definite stages in the formation of
these and similar chondritic structures. First, the production of the
olivinous tuff by the splitting and attrition of the rock when the tougher
particles are rolled and rubbed together till they have a roundish or
spherular form ; and secondly, a subsequent application of heat to the
tuff, accompanied not unfrequently by the reducing action of gases
and vapours.

The Grosnaja meteorite appears to consist of—

SUL CIC ACI wictsWosaccnads sac csesdepesssstenscas 33°78
PAU PAULA eae eee. ae Scaaspidciesen'escuscenses acess 3-44
VEOH PROHORIOG yen csasaecsusseraccesessveceespes rosa 28°86
ROTI eee eae eee sce ccees stonstsecccotcteddoasiawedacd 3°22
MMaOTIGNIere Ree s3ER Soil osccs Meet aes edeadlass 23°55
PO taser cntebpst ater ocbsy s <aspbecedesewvesagna’ 0°30
RIGICL Aly. pase ps ee rele coasdendnagaiser scan’ 0°63
CAT DD Migeesssedveescaeidticds secs dss saovecueaningocteses 0°68
EUV ONO meri eater ee neers sae caicocesscemnecvoccecunns 0-17
AVEC GEL Cy UTES Malas os secs speared smemaccenes 5°37

364 REPORT—1878.

Olivine appears to be the prevailing silicate in the meteorite; in
addition to bronzite there appears to be a little augite and felspar,
although their presence could not be recognised. We find, moreover,
a small amount of a carbonaceous ingredient, to which, as well as to the
magnetic pyrites, the blackish grey colour of the matrix is probably due.

A plate showing six sections of the mineral constituents of this
meteorite accompanies Tschermak’s paper.

Found 1872.—Neuntmannsdorf, near Pirna, Saxony.*

This mass of meteoric iron was found in 1872, and a superficial ex-
amination of it by Lichtenberger was made in the following year
(‘ Sitzungsber. der Isis,’ Dresden, 1873, p. 4). It is a rounded block of
malleable iron, weighing 25 pounds, and covered with a blackish-brown
crust of oxide. Like the meteoric irons of Ovifak, Disko Island, Green-
land, and many others, it contains chlorine, and in damp warm air rapidly
oxidises and exfoliates. The metal has the grey colour of iron, does not
exhibit the Wiedmann-stittian figures, and has a specific gravity of 6:21.
Geinitz finds the composition of this iron to be—

YONG ee snessetnpesisantiatel mectacanerestiar cseapeeerataes 93-04
DNTCKG ll ieecmensucteskin seeennarescpeitnetsarsonsensnras 6:16
HOS PHOMUS ase saceaupasscncatsastesavsecessoecscencse 0-22

99°42

In the iron are many rounded, sometimes elongated, hollows filled
with a yellowish-brown mineral having the specific gravity = 3°98. This
on analysis was found to consist of—

TOR Me seacavsber vars csleveccsossiassassacbarantecs service 63°82
PHU DHUE es cssep sate passk secures te smesrenecetue scp aree 37°36
101718

which showed it to be troilite (iron monosulphide), and to accord in
composition with the sulphide found in the meteoric iron of Seelisgen.
One cavity was filled with what appeared to be the same mineral in a
crystalline form. This is the first occasion where troilite has been met
with otherwise than massive.

1875, March 31st.—Zsaddny, Temesvar Comitat, Banat.

We directed attention to the fall of this meteorite in the Report for
the year 1875. Dr. Cohen, of Heidelberg, received some fragments of
the stone from Dr. Babesin, and he has recently published a paper on the
results of the physical and chemical examination of them.

The crust of the stone has a brownish black colour, and is } to } mm.
in thickness ; it has the appearance as though it had not been subjected
to so intense a heat as that usually developed during the fall of a meteorite.
The finely grained light grey matrix encloses granules of magnetic pyrites
(troilite ?), granules and plates of nickel-iron, and numerous dark grey
crystalline spherules, averaging $ mm. in diameter ; one little sphere had
a breadth of 35mm. They have an excentric-radiate or contorted-radiate

* F. E. Geinitz, ‘ Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie,’ 1876, 608.
+ E. Cohen, ‘ Verhandl. Naturhis. Med. Vereins zu Heidelberg,’ 1878, II. Heft 2.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 365

structure. A freshly broken surface of the stone is studded with these
chondra, and they are easily removed from the matrix. As regards their ~
mineralogical aspects, the spherules are found to be of two kinds. One
consists of small prisms of a rhombic mineral which has all the appearance
of a variety of enstatite ; others are found to possess all the properties of
olivine. These two minerals also constitute the greater portion of the
matrix. The augitic mineral occasionally contains opaque granules and
colourless microlites, the olivine pores or cavities, some of which, the
author states, appear to contain fluid. Metallic particles are rarely, if
ever, found in the spherules themselves. An accessory mineral, trans-
parent, pure, and with well-defined edges, is also to be found in the
meteorite. It differs from the rhombic augite in exhibiting no cleavage
fissures, from olivine by the smoothness of its polished exterior, and from
both of them by exhibiting distinct pleochroism with absorption ; one tone
being colourless, the other pale red with a faint tinge of brown. It
appears to be rhombic, and shows a close resemblance to a variety of
hypersthene found by Cohenina gabbro from South Africa. The Zsadany
stone resembles those which fell on several different occasions at Lancé,
Gopalpur, and Pultusk.

By treatment with acid a considerable quantity of the silicate was
decomposed. The analysis of the portions thus separated gave the follow-
ing numbers :—

Soluble Portion. Insoluble Portion.

STMEIC ACIC va cccsccacseces vwaccancecse 44°56 ...... saccade ete

PAW TETINASE el oxwesmccscacds cacaeancssesn EAGE accvecdsersacuseees 2°32

FOMUORIC OM cern atcccs ccacecamtets casa NG DE ccassenencecedacee 13°21

WAM CY seca as dacsecccssssccsedtensweseseoa TEAGCC. oc cscacstea'eteeces ay (7

Magnesia...........+. Seaisaerie ses BTM Wcnwsccscen ees 25:99
100:00 100-00

The stone, therefore, appears to consist to the extent of three-fourths
of a bronzite, the remaining fourth being an olivine, in which the equiva-
lents of MgO : FeO are as 3°89 : 1, or approximately that which is often
met occurs in meteoric olivines.

1876, June 28th, 11.50 a.m.—Stiilldalen, near Kopparberg, Orebrolin,
Sweden.*

Attention has already been directed to this remarkable fall of aérolites
(see Report for 1876). The total number of stones found is eleven, and
they weigh collectively 34 kilog. Lindstrém finds the total composition
of a portion of one of these stones to be—

.

Alumina........ REE eetacmiancedeacscarsosscccsscceudntteckessres.
Chromium oxide ...............

APOMNPTOLORIGE Tire sacanteeet ese tae ccseascassuheatevvedsds tes
Manganese protoxide
Nickell protoxtde, 2a) avast ccdateveds 05s saachustewssiseeohvedes
DUI Gy epiesere cde mapeaca tse aae ta ccciie's ds «is Sa'scatlvonssike asda cave

* A. E. Nordenskjold, ‘ Foredrag i Mineralogi vid Akademiens irshégtid den 3
April, 1877. (‘Aftonbladets Aktiebolags Tryckeri,’ Stockholm, 1877.) [See also,
‘Nature,’ July 19th, 1877.]—G, Lindstrém, ‘ Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps Akad.
Forbandl.,’ No. 4, 1877, p. 35.

366 rnEPport—1878.

Mp ONESI Ay. sem duvaeneeh daaegeoddte -fosceeeassh . Seneaedenise <ares poeta G
SOGai Bec cdcceteearna ater eaucchs Siopcivetecewes met bmonensactiie 0°62
PO bAS Ia as mencneelinab ee conai-ed vain sia + a ahguneacne eee teehin tek 0°15
DPOD vc cat hes cers hetero sae bie ia siesapare tebe vaasneektpeterae 21°10
INTC cel! Herre ePPRER UE Stace cach scecees seeetae tases Gan ommetinnss 1°61
Goballivh see aa dade el ET, MD. i eee O17
PHOSpORUS phys. (sed: stb bo s.ccemeaicaQemacd. ob sdles ep sehen 0-01
SMP pee eseisereadaaiba oe ap stains valet lene inr'a's San eles be gsr rae 2°27
COMOTIMG ) Biaee wonatestanecasen ss sisaiegn'dsian duje8 felesian atta come 0:04

100-00

Of these ingredients, 4°51 per cent. constitute magnetic pyrites, and
14°65 per cent. nickel-iron, the composition of which appears to be—

Tord PEs EGS SSa ah. Seeks oh oh eeedemen erence uuss athe adsense 90°78
Nachelicneh se afte tS. £a3 2 iis tie Mois ob ehcloe snd Ube -EREEE 8:29
COBAI te ssisntds . dortape tein slgac sbiddast ac fpsrdsassogrewsesinnecuys > sual 0:88
PHOS WHOLIS EP Bemanesasasncsacdogesc se .Nee tier beater sao betas 0:05

100-00

The portions (I.) gelatinisable with and (II.) unacted upon by acid
have the following composition :—

UNCLE TACION (seanecsseeaants DOUG Mewecepeeawerts YER
Phosphoric acid ......... OS Siteceem epee 0:07
PAUKTTYE UCLA ceils cial als ois bisigpinsiei5 (AUST shoongecocan. sc 5:07
Tron protoxide ...........- AOD: cts acon aeeeercts 8:03
Nickel oxide ............ UGLY Saesetsanaoooce —
Manganese oxide......... ch testeacianaestern’ 0°63
TRING Re eumeshiclss's opetrcats sea O;G22eeeeeredoncane 3-41
IM ENESIA s.cccessesccdsescns AOA T iii iilaseses 2o'D4
Odd) Seren sete dabseepeo se OAS Brecteteaerssacr 1:38
JROIB NY. ose Gaocacsocsao UBIO os sonbaadsc cane 0:23
(Oyniloyrhal Maa S oeccag sony O51 8 teecaciyesetiece re —

100°25 99°73

In the soluble portion the oxygen ratio of acids to bases is 20:08 :
21:16, and in the insoluble part 30°64: 15-08. In addition to olivine
and bronzite, this meteorite appears to contain an insoluble felspar and a
little apatite.

1877, May 17th, 7 a.m.—Hungen, between Steinheim and Borsdorf
Provinz, Oberhessen.*

An eye-witness of the fall of one of these meteorites states that, as
he was passing through a wood, on his way from Steinheim to Borsdorf,
he heard a noise as of thunder, although the sky was cloudless, followed
by a humming, hissing, whistling sound, such as would be caused by a
number of stones rapidly rushing among the trees. One stone struck a
pine tree close by him, severed a branch about the thickness of the finger,
and fell at his feet. It wassome time before he could convince himself
that the object before him was not alive, but when he at last ventured to
raise it from the ground he found it was cold.

Buchner visited the locality five months later and found a second stone,
weighing 26 grammes. The first must have weighed more than 86

* O, Buchner and G, Tschermak, ‘ Mineralogische Mittheilungen,’ 1877, 313.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. , 367

grammes, and a portion of it weighing 73:26 grammes has been deposited
in the mineralogical collection of the University of Giessen. It has an
irregularly triangular and flattened form, and less than one quarter of
the stone has apparently been removed. It should be stated here that
Buchner learned from several who were able to bear witness to the occur-
rence, that the sound attending the descent of the meteorites proceeded
in a direction from N.W. to S.H. The freshly fallen leaves of mid-
October rendered hopeless further search for the other stones which must
have fallen.

The crust of the meteorite is dull black and thin, and exhibits here
and there granules of nickel-iron. The fractured surface displays a grey,
occasionally brownish, matrix, which is traversed by a very thin but very
conspicuous brilliant black band of material; it runs obliquely to the
flattened side of this stone, and is also found in the smaller mass, picked up
five months later, which evidently never formed part of a larger meteorite.
On another part of the fractured surface of the larger stone, a second
black line, parallel to the first, but less brilliant, is to be seen. Abundant
particles of nickel-iron and troilite are met with; and the crust appears to
consist, to the extent of one-half, of the metallic alloy. Examination under
the microscope shows the ground mass to be colourless and transparent
and to be fissured in every direction. It appears to consist of olivine. Some
olivine spherules are quite conspicuons, surrounded either by the black
material or nickel-iron; other chondra have a banded or radiate structure,
like those observed by Tschermak in the aérolites of Shergotty or Gopalpur,
and appear to be bronzite ; and lastly, there are spherules of a homogeneous
grey translucent substance, devoid of or rarely traversed by tissures.
Buchner states that the meteorite of Hungen, while a member of the
most common class of meteorites, can easily be distinguished from those
which fell at Agen, Girgenti, New Concord, Kuyahinya, Kriikenberg,
Pultusk, and many others which he mentions.

» The smaller stone was presented to the Vienna Collection, and forms
the subject of afew notes by Tschermak in an appendix to Buchner’s paper.
He describes its characters, which nearly approach those of the Pultusk
meteorites. The black crust has the unusual thickness of 1:5 mm., and
encloses particles of nickel-iron, granules of magnetic pyrites (troilite ?),
and even lustreless chondra, which may consist of chromite or picotite.
The transparent minerals constituting the chief mass of the stone are of
three kinds : 1. Olivine, recognised by its rectangular cleavage and few
included minerals, and by its contributing but little to the chondritic
character of the stone; 2. Bronzite, in granules and aggregated crystals,
showing a prismatic cleavage, the latter being either barred or radiate, or
contorted and forming the greater number of the chondra; and 3. Diallage,
for such Tschermak believes to be a brown mineral, forming angular
fragments, which are found not to be rhombic and to resemble an augite.
The chromite occurs in granules and in larger crystals than are met
with in other meteorites.

This interesting stone has not yet been analysed.

1877, June.—Cronstadt, Orange River Free State, South Africa.
_, All that I have yet been able to gather respecting this occurrence is,
that a shower of stones fell near Cronstadt in June last, in a wooded

district, so that few of them could be collected. One of them is preserved
in the British Museum.

368 ; - REPORT—1878.

1877, October 13th, about 2 p.m.—Soko-Banja, N.E. of Alexinatz, Servia.*
[Long. 20° 53’ E. of Greenwich; Lat. 43° 38’ N.]

Déll’s paper, which appears in the ‘Transactions of the Austrian
Geological Societiy,’ contains two descriptions of the fall of meteorites at
Soko-Banja, drawn from two different sources. The first, taken from the
Servian weekly literary journal, ‘Javor,’ published at Neusatz, is written
by an eye-witness of the occurrence, who states that the 13th October
was fine, and the sky clear, and that about two in the afternoon a noise as
of thunder was heard resembling batteries of cannon firing briskly. The
sound was followed by a violent concussion of the air, and then a number
of aérolites were strewn over the adjacent region. One, weighing 10
okas (224 Austrian pounds), fell in front of a house in Soko-Banja, and
was driven deep into the earth; a second, which touched the ground at
Scherbanowaz, near the Rtanj Berg, weighed 30 okas (673 Austrian
pounds), and is the largest mass which was collected. The peasants at
Rtanj state that one which fell in that locality was of the size of a sack
of flour, and that by striking against the rocky surface it was dashed te
fragments. From the second and later report, provided by Ritter von
Stefanowitsch, of an inquiry instituted by some scientific men from
Belgrade, it appears that two explosions, like salvoes of artillery, were
heard, accompanied by a brilliant display of light such as attends the
bursting of shells. A dense black smoke was observed at a considerable
altitude, which broke up into three columns, and gradually changed to a
white smoke. The noise lasted for some time, and then the sound re-
sembled the firing of musketry. The air appeared to be shaken. Soon
after the explosion commenced a number of meteorites fell to the ground
over an area a mile and a half in length and half a mile in breadth.
The following masses have been collected :—

1. One, weighing 23 okas, fell in the village Scherbanowaz, and
penetrated the soil to the depth of four feet. (This is the one mentioned
in ‘ Javor.’)

2. One, weighing 15 okas, fell near the vineyard at Soko-Banja, and
reached a depth of three feet. ‘This appears not to be the mass referred
to in ‘ Javor.’

3. Two stones found at Blandija.

4, A fragment, weighing 2 okas, was found at Prevalac.

5. A meteorite of small size fell at Gradi¢ (Prevalac and Gradié are
hamlets, west of and close to Soko-Banja).

6. A number of pieces of various sizes fell at Dugopolje, and several
very small stones are reported to have fallen on the Djeviza Planina.

One fragment, 2 okas in weight, fell on a pear tree, and then de-
scended to the ground; a man who was under the tree took it in his
hands, and received the impression that the mass was still warm.

The meteorites were sent to the Natural History Museum at Belgrade.
D6ll’s paper contains two little maps indicating the area over which the
stones were strewn. He describes a small specimen which came into his
possession: the matrix is bluish grey and compact, enclosing spherules
which vary in size from that of a millet-seed to that of a hare-shot, and
which project from the fractured surface. But little nickel-iron or

* B, Déll, ‘Verhandl. der K.K. Geolog. Reichsanstalt,’ 1877, No. 16, 283.
S. M. Losanitch, ‘ Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft,’ 1878, xi, 96.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 369

magnetic pyrites (troilite?) could be seen. He noticed patches of a
brown colour, which he considers characteristic of this meteorite.

Losanitch, in his communication to the Berlin Chemical Society,
which appeared subsequently, states an interval of 25 seconds elapsed
between the appearance of the meteor and the first explosion, which was
followed by two others. The explosion occurred at an altitude of 7000
metres. The path of the meteor made an angle of 220° 50’ with the
magnetic meridian, and followed a course from N.E. to S.W., with a
very rapid descent. The track of the meteor has been calculated by
Kleritj, and the details are to be found in ‘Glasnik,’ the journal of a
Servian learned society. He makes the entire weight of the stones,
whole and in fragments, to weigh 80 kilog.

All the meteorites are coated with a black rough vitreous crust,
0°5 mm. in thickness, exhibiting numerous depressions. The interior
consists of spherules of various sizes, some brown, some yellow, cemented
together by an ash-grey material, and presents the appearance of a
trachytic lava. In polished sections, prepared for microscopic examina-
tion, nickel-iron in granules, hackly fragments and filiform particles are
to be recognised. The specific gravity of the meteorite is 3°502. The
meteorite consists of—

I. II.

Nickel-iron .........sesceeees SS yeesnceseccceods 37
DULICATESD, csecacctusscaces sence SOPs ete 96°3
100-0 100°0

and a little iron sulphide. A fragment of the nickel-iron, which was
separated from all adhering silicate, possessed the composition—
= 7813
= 21-70
= 017

100-00

This is a high percentage of nickel; the ratio of the metals is—
Fe: Nias 4:1. The iron sulphide was found to be the mono-sulphide,
_ and to contain 63°84 per cent. of iron; theory requires iron = 63°64 per
_ cent. Analyses of the complete meteoric rock, containing the metallic
alloy and iron sulphide, but freed from all trace of crust, were made—(1)
by treating it with hydrochloric acid and caustic potash, which removed
constituents amounting in three cases to 60°50 per cent., 61°44 per cent.,
and 61:79 per cent.; and (2) by determining the ingredients of the
portions (I.) acted upon by, and (II.) withstanding these reagents. They
are as follow :—

I. Il.

BUlLCIciacidyy ss. ssh. vebeecsescsiss cies Sawn hee teon: acces 56°66
Tmorbproboxidery, arate gcesteesscstees ASA iechdsciateh eo'gs cs 23°55
Manganese oxide .............ss0ceees WALD) eons pearepnogoc 0:003
MG OTIESIA) br. avccevecesssuavectresuccs esse GUE) Sopeaoreere 20°84
HOGA ee cessaccnsee settesccen yg pean ee ie (055) rdnupeaenodteee —
PO DASARI ee seen tc gher re nested te 0:09
TROT] <¥ 30k tetas ace sens aCe 0:70
Nickel, ssesccose meta snolnavereecaanoes aces 0-17

: nwa tHe = 4:31
Iron monosulphide = 6:78 1S = 247
Chromite

Phosphorus

1878.

370 REPORT—1878.

Neither alumina nor lime appears to be present in this meteorite, and
augitic and felspathic constituents are consequently absent. The oxygen
present in the two silicates amounts to—

1 aE
Gil TCLCHACIG Ee eeayseearrcsecee~cctcesseses IF PLL essa Basasconccc:-cabaoodece 306 30°22
Iron protoxide......... 631 a § 45) [5°23 ” :
Magnesia ....eesseeese0s Dey tS GDS ote

The soluble portion, therefore, is an olivine, having approximately the
composition represented by the formula 2(3 MgO, 3 FeO), SiO, ; and the
insoluble part a bronzite of the form (3 MgO, 4 FeO), SiO; the ratio of
iron oxide to magnesia being the same in both silicates. ;

1877, December 26th, 8 a.m.—Between Hohr and Ballendar, near
Coblentz.*

A correspondent of the ‘Coblenzer Zeitung,’ dating from “ Hohr,
27th December,” writes that on the preceding day two meteorites fell
near the road leading to the former frontier, in the direction of Bal-
lendar, and that the fall was attended by a very characteristic explo-
sion. The editor of the above journal has been unable to gather any
further particulars of the occurrence beyond the fact that the stones fell
in a wood, and could not be discovered.

General Directions, and Instructions to Observers, for Recording Meteors
and Aérolites.

Much industrious labour and attention has of late years been bestowed
by experienced and eminent astronomers on collecting and discussing
meteor observations, and on deducing from them a great variety of very
important astronomical conclusions. Materials of constantly increasing
interest have in consequence accumulated somewhat rapidly in recent
years towards the extension and development of the astronomical theory
of these bodies, a clear and exact exposition of which, dealing only with
the most positively ascertained and clearly established features of their
history, would here be too wide and extensive a subject to be properly
discussed at length. The astronomical problem of their origin, which is
set before us by the appearances of meteors of the most dissimilar
descriptions, is naturally too extensive and too diversified a question to be
included in a single theory, or to admit. of only a single explanation ; and
it is not at present so much to the causes and to the origin of their
occurrence that it is desired to direct particular attention, as to the best
means of observing and describing accurately the various notable appear-
ances which they present, and to the most convenient and effective
methods to be followed for preserving useful records of their ordinary
and extraordinary exhibitions.

The phenomena of luminous meteors may be comprehended, in the
first instance, under the leading titles or descriptions of a few general and
appropriate designations (long since introduced, and still very con-
venient to rate and record them by distinctly, although not completely
and sufficiently), for the immediate practical purposes of their registra-

* ¢Coblenzer Zeitung,’ December 29th, 1877.

| OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 371
_ tion. In their orders of magnitudes meteors may thus be distinguished
as either—

I. Telescopic meteors, only rendered visible to the eye by the aid of

telescopes ;

II. Shooting-stars, visible to the naked eye, and comparable to the

: different apparent magnitudes of the fixed stars in bright-
Ness ;

III. Bolides and Fireballs, or very luminous meteors, comparable in.
brilliancy to the planets Jupiter and Venus, and to the dif-
ferent phases of the moon, and sometimes even rivalling the
sun by appearing with much splendour in broad daylight;
the term Bolides being usually applied to the smaller, and
Fireballs to the larger kinds ; '

IV. Detonating, or “Aérolitic”’ meteors, fireballs which produce a
audible explosion, like a distant cannon’s, a peal of thunder,
or an earthquake’s shock, by their concussion with the air;
and which differ accordingly from the last (as “forked ” light-
ning often does from distant or “sheet” lightning) only by the
thunderclap that not unfrequently reverberates from fireballs
of the largest and brightest class ; or finally as—

V. Stonefalls and Ironfalls (the latter very rare occurrences), or the
falls of meteorites, either singly or in a shower, it may be, of
many thousands of fragments from a fireball, which, especially
if seen in the daytime when these occurrences are usually
observed, is almost always a large meteor of the last-named
description. . ct

For each of these different kinds of apparitions it is necessary to

furnish separate and somewhat independent directions and instructions
_ to enable good and useful accounts of their phenomena to be pre-
served.
I. Telescopic meteors are not unfrequently noticed during astronomical
observations ; and some singular records of the occurrence of such bodies
by day and by night in dense showers have been placed on record. The
point to which a telescope is directed (in R.A. and Decl.), with the hour
_ when such an object presents itself, and its brightness compared with
that of fixed stars seen with the same telescope, is to be stated; and the
position-angle of a diameter, or radius of the field of view drawn parallel

_ to the direction towards which the meteor shot should be determined in
the degrees or quadrants usually adopted by astronomers (making the
allowance for inversion of the image which the telescope requires) with
as much precision as can been ensured. The length of path, if not pro-
longed beyond the view of the telescope, can be stated by comparison
with the known width of its field in minutes or parts of a degree of arc;
and deviations of straightness, change of brightness and appearance, of
the head, during its passage, as well as the persistence on its track of a
streak or of sparks, if visibly remaining, should be noted, with the
duration in seconds, as nearly as it can be estimated, of the meteor’s
flight while the nucleus was in sight. A streak will often mark the line
of passage of a meteor which crosses the field of view too swiftly to be
followed with the eye, and the breadth of this light-streak in minutes or
Seconds of arc should then be noted, with its brightness and duration,
appearance and changes of appearance, and with the magnifying power
of the telescope employed. A star spectroscope should also be used
BB2

372 REPORT —1878.

if possible to observe its spectrum, if it is of sufficient brightness and
duration.

As it has been contended that telescopic meteors are rendered visible
by optical power at vastly greater distances from observers than ordinary
shooting-stars can be seen, and that their apparent speeds and lengths of
path are, under these circumstances, greatly reduced by distance and
rendered inferior to those of the majority of meteors, observations of
small telescopic meteors with short slow courses, if they occur, should be
carefully recorded, in order to determine if they are principally seen at
low apparent altitudes, and moderate real heights only, or with equal
frequency at all angular altitudes above the horizon, and therefore at all
possible heights above the earth’s surface to which the use of astronomi-
eal telescopes of the highest powers and apertures enables us to extend
our sight.

IIL. Shooting-stars are observable with a certain frequency on all cloud-
less nights. The result of an attentive watch on such occasions to note
their frequency by a few hours’ observation, especially if in the absence of
the moon, is of great value; but the fitful activities of many meteor
showers often combine together to render a rate of frequency concluded
from a single hour’s observations deceptive and misleading; and atten-
tion must be paid to noting the middle-time of the watch to the nearest
quarter of an hour, as upon its lateness in the night, as well as on the
season of the year, depends the average horary number which a single
observer may expect to see.

In comparison with that of an evening hour at six o’clock, the
number visible in the same morning hour is about double, and nearly as
notably greater for a midnight hour in August or September, than for one
in February or March. For an average midnight hour in the whole year,
Quetelet estimated the horary number visible to one observer in a
KHuropean station as about six meteors; and a greater number than
twelve or fifteen meteors seen in an hour at an average time of night
and season of the year, may be regarded (though not certainly) as indi-
cating an active exhibition of some special meteor shower. It is to the

‘prominency which such exceptional phenomena sometimes reach as
meteoric spectacles, that the distinction which has arisen between shower
meteors and sporadic shooting-stars is entirely owing; and from the
partial extent of our present acquaintance with the directions, intensities,
and durations of multitudes of weaker descriptions of such showers, in-
numerable shooting-stars must still be regarded as “ sporadic ’’ until well-
determined centres from which they appear to diverge accurately can
be definitely assigned to them.

To note and reduce shower meteors to their radiant-points is a task of
little difficulty to an observer already conversant with the positions of the
principal fixed stars, and of the constellations. But the use of star charts

‘properly adapted for projecting meteor- paths soon familiarises unpractised
observers with this preliminary preparation ; and facility is soon acquired
in drawing upon a map the initial and end-points of a meteor’s track, and
in prolonging through these points a straight line backwards on the
map, or tracing, to show by a simple inspection of a number of these
lines their common crossing point, or the focus of emanation of the meteor
shower that they belong to, in the sky. The natural impressions of
direction are of slender use in endeavouring to fix this point correctly by
the eye alone, retracing the meteor’s track among the stars themselves; a

ee
7 i

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 373

‘straight wand held up to direct it, soon assuring an observer that the eye

without an assistance of this kind is a very fallacious guide. But by
using for the picture of the stars the same principles of plane perspective
representation which are used habitually for pictures of ordinary objects,
the straight wand and the straight path of the meteor in the sky when
drawn upon the map are also straight lines, and may be prolonged, not
only with greater ease to other parts of the map than in the sky, but also
by a pencil they may be marked indelibly upon the page or sheet, so that
comparison with many successive lines thereupon becomes not a doubtful
and uncertain, but an easy and perfectly unerring operation. In accord-
ance with the most recent practice of Herr von Konkoly, of Komorn, in
Hungary, as well as of the late Professor Heis, the Committee has pre-
pared celestial charts in plane perspective, with whose assistance the posi-
tions of the centres of departure of different meteor showers can be easily
verified and investigated by observers, and further particulars regarding
their intensities and durations may be ascertained.

As a guide for the selection of meteor showers for special study, the
Committee refers observers to the Key Map and General Catalogue of all
such known meteor systems published by the British Association in the
volume of its Annual Reports for the year 1876, by Mr. Greg ; where the
relative importance, as resulting from the richness and constancy of meteor-
showers, in returning at the annual epochs of their visibility is stated
and represented. ‘The principal characteristics of the meteors, including
their colour and brightness, the apparent lengths, speeds, and durations of
their flights, and the presence of sparks or streaks in their tracks, have
hitherto been very little noted, and such peculiarities belonging to the
showers, as well as their dates of principal abundance, and the exact
positions of their radiaut points, form very important and interesting
subjects of inquiry.

The observation of sporadic shooting-stars is necessarily less attractive:
and suitable to ordinary observers than mapping the apparent paths of
meteors belonging either to the well-known major and “special” or to
some minor annual meteor showers. But as regards the observations,.
the method of procedure is the same, with the exception that long-con-
tinued watches maintained fora whole night are, in general, indispensable~
to a successful collection of their tracks by a single observer. Shonld
no indications of a new shower accidentally occur by unusual frequency
of meteors from a new radiant-point in evening watches of a single
night, yet the detection of such a shower is no uncommon recompense of
an observer’s vigilance in a morning watch, or among the meteor-tracks
recorded on a few successive nights. As the same remark applies to the
accidental vision of bolides and fireballs, the same instructions will
suffice, and the same course may be pursued most advantageously by
observers in recording sporadic shooting-stars as in describing large -
meteors that may be occasionally observed; and these in the next para-.-
graph will be more fully indicated and described.

II. Bolides and Fireballs have the singularity among meteors, and the~
pre-eminence over shooting-stars of attracting the attention of a great
number of observers. This is also the case with meteor showers when
they are sufficiently abundant to lead to general observations and to con-
clusive determinations of their radiant-points, although poor and scanty
showers escape this identification for lack of a sufficient number of
observations. As, however, by the displacement of his point of view, a

374 REPORT --1878.

fireball seen by every new observer appears to him in a different part of
the sky, or virtually as another meteor, it follows that both for fireballs
and for very scanty meteor showers the multiplication of observers of
the phenomenon by increasing the number of meteor tracks belonging to
the same radiant-point, suffices, when they are sufficiently exact and
numerous, to fix its place exactly, and to determine the direction from
which the meteor shower or the fireball took its flight. Hxactness in
describing a fireball’s apparent path by the stars or otherwise is the more
desirable and important, because no doubt exists that any two such re-
corded appearances of its path must belong to the same meteor ; and that,
therefore, when prolonged backwards to their intersection, if they are
fairly accurate they will be sufficient by themselves to point out its
radiant-point or the direction and distant origin of its real course with
satisfactory precision. But even a dozen meteors of a poor and scanty
star-shower only afford presumptive evidence of their having a common
direction and radiant-point at the centre of divergence of their tracks,
as scarcely any other evidence but this divergence, in general, exists of
their belonging to a common system; and to increase its probability a
fresh number of meteors of the same shower must be noted, and must be
traced back to the same centre of divergence. Observations of sporadic
shooting-stars must, therefore, be greatly multiplied (however accurate
they may be), while two accurate observations only of a fireball are
absolutely necessary to determine the exact direction, together with the
height and distance, and the other particulars of its flight. This fortunate
concurrence of two or more simultaneous observations is sometimes
recorded of a shooting-star ; and then the real direction of this meteor
is as certainly determined as that of a fireball, and the orbit of either
(which is the sole clue that we can gain to its astronomical history) is
known as certainly as the orbit of a meteor stream. But such accuracy
of observation as would allow us to depend upon two observations only
is seldom, if ever, reached by observers, either of shooting-stars or fire-
balls, and of the latter class of meteors especially, many scores of accounts
are annually indited by unpractised observers, containing no material
data (or only conflicting ones) of the meteors’ courses, while the
accordant notes occasionally furnished of shooting-stars by well-skilled
observers show the difficulty, if not the hopelessness, of arriving by two
observations at anything approaching to the accuracy of instrumental
determinations. With rare exceptions, therefore, a large and abundant
collection of observations is needful for exact comparisons, which it is the
object of the Luminous Meteor Committee appointed for this purpose by
the British Association to obtain, by providing observers with suitable
forms of registry, maps, and instructions for recording the appearances
of fireballs and ordinary shooting-stars. The Committee distributes to
observers who apply for them printed Forms of Registry and Directions,
as the most convenient and efficient means of assisting them in systematic
observation. For the best means of noting and describing exactly the
appearances of large meteors the Committee also directs attention to a
letter in the ‘ Scotsman’ (daily newspaper) of May Ist, 1878, by Professor
Herschel, from the full paragraphs of which, pointing out the features
of position and appearance to be recorded, it is not necessary to repro-
duce here:a long series of appropriate suggestions, as instructions for
recording large meteors and ordinary shooting-stars will be found
sufficiently illustrated in the Committee’s printed Forms of Registry and

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 375

in the remarks on the process of mapping and projecting them eraphically
on star charts which have been offered in the last section regarding them.
The following recommendations to observers on occasions of the occur-
rence of aérolitic meteors, and of the falls of meteorites, describing the
points of information most desirable to be recorded regarding their
characters and appearance, have been drawn up at the request of the
Committee, to conclude these practical directions, by Dr. Flight.

IV. Detonating, or Aérolitic Fireballs.—In recording observations on
the passage of a meteor across the sky, the points which it is most desir-
able to arrive at are: such data as will allow of our definitely noting the
direction of its path and its point of extinction, the duration of the
luminous phenomenon, and of individual phases of it, the apparent mag-
nitude of the meteor, the Imminosity as compared with other brilliant
objects, and the changes which it may itself exhibit in this respect
during the transit, the duration of the train (or “ streak’’), and the changes
it may undergo before extinction (whether it fade away simultaneously
along the entire length, or break up into a chain of luminous fragments) ;
also, in cases where the streak is one of great persistence, the manner of
its final disappearance ; again, when the meteor has been observed near
the time of sunrise, or sunset, what change it wrought in the appearance
of the visible train by the increasing, or waning, light of the sky. The
sound attending its passage, if any, and the character of the sound, as
regards intensity and duration, whether single and well defined, or a series
of minor explosions closely following one another. And finally, the time
of appearance, and that of the interval before the explosion is heard.

While it is barely possible for one observer to record all the data
referred to, he should not fail to note such of them as may have come
clearly within his observation. Other spectators may have remarked
what he may have missed, and their joint observations may enable us to
arrive at a complete physical history of the meteor in question.

It is desirable to determine twa points of the track of the meteor, as
far asunder as possible—the points of appearance and extinction are to
be preferred—and to indicate the former by reference to some star or
constellation which it overlies, and the latter by some object on the
horizon against which it is projected. In cases where the meteor is seen
in daytime, the data to be arrived at are the point of appearance and its
angular altitude. The former may be estimated by noticing what con-
spicuous object lies vertically below it on the horizon: a village or a
mountain peak. The more distant the object is from the spectator, the
more accurate will be the determination of this element of the observation.
If objects to which reference can be made should be wanting, the
direction may be temporarily noted, and subsequently determined by the
aid of a compass-needle. To learn an angular altitude we dare not
trust general conclusions, however carefully arrived at; even experienced.
observers may be misled in such cases. If a vertical object, say the roof
of a house, or the top of a tree, happen to lie in the direction under
consideration, the observer should approach it till the line of sight of the
origin of the course of the meteor skirts the summit of the terrestrial
object. The observer has now to determine how far he is removed from
the object selected, its vertical height above the plain on which both are
situated, and the distance above the ground of his own eye, in order to
be in a position to determine the angular elevation of the point of
appearance of the meteor, the position of which he desires to ascertain.

376 , REPORT—1878.

The apparent path of the meteor is often represented by a line like a
bow: in other words, the meteor apparently ascends, culminates, and
then takes a downward course. This motion is, however, for the most
part, as has been stated, apparent only; and is a consequence of the
varying inclination which a straight line appears to form with the
horizon at different points along its course. The observer should endea-
vour to determine as accurately as possible the apparent inclination at
those points of the meteor’s arc, or line of flight, which can be most
readily identified, such as the beginning and the end of the track, or
those where a break in the luminous train occurs, as well as that portion
which lies parallel to the horizon. The point of extinction should
especially be noted, and this is the more readily accomplished from the
fact that the attention has been steadily directed to observing the
luminous phenomena preceding it. In regard to the point of appearance,
it is of importance to determine whether the impression made on the
observer was that he had witnessed the blazing forth of the meteor in the
sky, or whether the meteor had entered his field of vision, and a portion
of its luminous track had not been seen by him.

It is, moreover, of importance to arrive at a knowledge of the length
of time occupied by the meteor in traversing the sky; this may some-
times be learned by counting the ticks of a watch, or by advancing in
the direction of the object at a uniform rate, and counting the paces
taken during the observation. It should also be noted whether the
meteor moves onward with an accelerating or diminishing velocity.

The brilliancy of a meteor larger than the fixed stars of different mag-
nitudes can most conveniently be compared with the light of Venus
or Jupiter; and in the case of the largest meteors, with the apparent
brilliancy and magnitude of the moon in her several phases. The
colour exhibited by the meteor should also be carefully observed, and
any change of hue along any part of the path should be recorded. The
luminous train left after the disappearance of the meteor is sometimes
very persistent, and often terminates in a cloud, faintly visible. Any
peculiar structure exhibited by the train, or cloud, should be sketched on
paper.

The sound attending the flight of a meteor usually consists either of
several distinct explosions, or a crackling rolling detonation. The
closest attention should be given, after the extinction of the meteor, for
the arrival of the sound and the length of the interval, carefully noted
with the watch.

Of the many points which, as has been shown, it is desirable that a
record should be made, an individual observer can obviously determine
but a few ; all those of them, however, to the accuracy of which he can
certify, are of vale, since other observers may supply the missing data,
and the whole may be collected.

V. Sionefalls and Ironfalls.—If a meteorite have fallen, visit the spot
where it struck the ground, and examine the hole which it has formed.
Determine the depth, and especially notice the direction of the cavity in
respect to the points of the compass. Ascertain whether the meteorite
was removed from the ground soon after its descent, and whether any
observation had been made at the time respecting its temperature. .
Make a note of the material forming the surface layer, and state whether
it was moist or dry. Further inquiries in the neighbourhood may lead
to the discovery of other meteorites which had fallen at the same time,

Oe

ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 377

and at points not unfrequently miles distant. They may vary greatly in
size; and stones as small as a pea or bean may be sought for. The
meteoric masses with which we are at present acquainted are—l, heavy
metallic bodies, covered with a dull, often black, crust, sometimes having
a pitted surface (meteoric iron); 2, heavy metallic masses with a more
erackly exterior, and hollows in which the presence of rocky matter can
be recognised (siderolite) ; 3, and rock-like fragments, often grey, some-
times white, and occasionally, although rarely, black in the interior
(sometimes little brilliant particles of metal are observed, disseminated
through the matrix), and always coated on the exterior with a black
fused crust, sometimes dull, sometimes lustrous (meteoric stone). _Me-
teoric stones are sometimes broken by the fall and the interior revealed ;
by the disruption of a stone during its descent, the freshly fractured
surfaces are exposed to intense heat, and become of a darker hue, but
have not a glaze like the actual crust. When fragments of the same
shower of stones have fallen some miles asunder, such partially altered
surfaces should be fitted’ together, in order to see whether they form
portion of a larger mass. The fall of a light chocolate-brown substance,
resembling amadou, enclosing little brilliant particles of meteoric iron,
may accompany the fall of metecric stones.

Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Luspocx,
Bart., Professor Prustwicu, Professor Busk, Professor T. McK.
Hugues, Professor W. B. Dawkins, Professor Mirai, Rev. H. W.
Crosskny, Mr. H. C. Sorsy, and Mr. R. H. Trpprman, appointed
for the purpose of assisting in the Exploration of the Settle
Caves (Victoria Cave). Drawn up by Mr. R. H. Tropeman
(Reporter).

Your Committee have to report that the Settle Local Committee, with
whom they have the pleasure of co-operating, have spent in the course of
the year, from September 3rd, 1877, down to the end of June of this year
(1878), 1697. 19s. 10d., of which sum 100/. was granted by the Association
at the Plymouth Meeting. The remainder of the money has been raised
by private subscriptions. At the request of the Settle Committee Sir John

‘Lubbock has kindly consented to be Chairman of the Local Committee in

succession to the late Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth.

The work has gone on nearly all the year from September 3rd,
1877, with few and very short intermissions. On the 22nd of June of
this year owing to the failure of our funds we found it necessary to dis-
continue for a time. Fortunately as it was haytime the workmen could
leave without detriment to themselves. Later on, as the result of an
appeal made, a little money came in and we were able to take the men
back again near the end of July.

The Committee have to make this year an important announcement,
the correction of a considerable but unavoidable error. It is contained
in the following communication from Professor Busk to the Secretary.

378 REPORT—1878.

32, Harley Street, August 8th, 1878.

My pear Tippeman,—lI received from Toulouse two ursine Fibule, of
abnormal size, which in the part corresponding to the ‘‘ fragment of con-
tention ’’ so closely resemble it, as to leave little room for doubt that the
latter is, or may be, in reality ursine and not human.

I am disposed, therefore, to acknowledge that my diagnosis of the
Victoria Cave bone was in all probability erroneous, and that, so far as
such an imperfect witness can testify, the preglacial existence of man must
_ rest upon other evidence.

I am unable to leave town for the Dublin Meeting, but shall be glad if
you will make my change of opinion in this matter known. In returning
the Victoria specimen I will also send one of the Toulouse bones, which
are very remarkable, and as regards size widely different from any I have
before seen; and with relation to their size it is to be remembered that
in your Collection* is one of the largest ursine crania (of the ferox type)
with which I am acquainted. :

: With kind regards, —
Yours very truly,
Gerorce Busk.

It will be remembered that this bone was found by Professor Busk and
Mr. James Flower to bear the strongest possible resemblance to a rather
abnormal recent human fibula in the Museum of the College of Surgeons,
and was also considered not unlike the fibula in the famous Mentone
Skeleton. It was, therefore, considered an undeniable proof of the exis-
tence of man with the extinct mammals in Yorkshire. Professor Dawkins
supported Professor Busk and Mr. James Flower in this determination,f
but we must also add that he was the first to express doubts about it, and
further inquiries and examination instituted by him and Professor Busk
lead your Committee to the conclusion that any arguments based upon its
supposed human character must unreservedly be given up. If it bear an
equally good resemblance to abnormal ursine and human fibule, it is
clearly not a sufficient foundation upon which to build any views as to
the existence, or non-existence, of man at a remote period.

In stating this we desire to call especial attention to the fact that this
bone is not the only one found in the Victoria Cave which can be supposed
to have a bearing on the antiquity of man, and his existence in Britain
before the last great cold period had passed away in the North of England.
Many bones found in the Cave cracked and split, as savages split them,
for the extraction of marrow, have been very properly passed by as at best
very doubtful evidence, such fractures possibly owing their existence to
falls of rock upon bones lying on the floor beneath. But we cannot so
easily explain away the evidently artificial marks upon the two small bones
found in the Hyena-bed, and already referred to at length in the postscript
to last year’s Report (pp. 218-220).

Nor even were this evidence to be got over, can we rightly lay aside
the arguments founded on Physical Geology which result from the facts
partly obtained in the Victoria Cave Exploration. They are these—l. The
existence of certain areas in the North of England where there is abun-
dant evidence of land glaciation of a comparatively late age. In the river-
deposits of these areas the earlier pleistocene mammals are never found

* At Giggleswick Museum, + ‘Cave-Hunting ’ (1874), p. 120,

ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 379

in the open country, and they are equally remarkable for the absence of
palolithic implements, although we know that the same mammals, if not
paleolithic men, have overrun that ground. 2. The existence of other
areas in the South and Hast where there are not distinct traces of so late
a land-glaciation, but where the remaips of the same animals and of
palxolithic implements are abundant in the river-gravels in the open, as
well as in the caves. We can hardly suppose that this contrast in the
two areas can be due to the same destructive powers of nature working
with greater intensity in one than in the other, and we are brought to the
conclusion that an agent was at work in the one area which did not
extend to the other. We might cast about for an explanation for a long
time, did it not happen that the areas bereft of the remains are precisely
those which show the freshest and most extensive traces of land-
glaciation.
This may be best expressed in tabular form, thus :—

Southern and

Characteristics Northern Ar
ee ; €a| astern Area

Earlier Pleistocene Animals in Caves ............++ Present Present

Abundant traces of later Land-glaciation .......... Present Absent
Earlier Pleistocene Animals in River Gravels ..... Absent Present
Paleolithic Implements in River Gravels ........... Absent Present

The progress of the work has been carefully noted by Mr. Jackson,
our indefatigable Superintendent, and by your Reporter. During the year
it has been almost barren in any evidence of animal life in the beds lying
below the Hyena-layer. We began working on the left side of the Cave
under the old entrance, and thence in the direction of Chamber B. The
material consisted almost entirely of large fallen blocks of limestone in
yellow sandy clay with, in some places, ochre. A few bone splinters were
found here, but they are unimportant, and had probably worked their way
down along the rock-wall from the formerly overlying Hyena-bed.

On October 3rd the Settle Committee determined to open ground in a
small cave at the foot of the talus of the Victoria Cave, on the left as you
face it. It was found to contain brown laminated clay with sand at the
sides and interbedded with it. Nothing of interest was found, and work
was almost immediately resumed at the Victoria Cave as before.

Beneath the yellow sandy clay, on the left already mentioned, we found
several large bosses of stalagmite from about two to five feet in height.
These evidently indicate an old floor; they rest partly on fallen blocks
and partly on others, which may not have fallen and from their form may
be part of the solid rock floor worn by a stream. For the present we
have left them undisturbed.

The remainder of our work has been for the most part along the right
side of the great central Hall, made up of what used to be called Chambers
Aand D. A row of fallen blocks which had to be blasted lay all along
this right wall, but they have not yet been altogether removed. One of
the most curious facts noticed in the course of this excavation, is the
position of a thick bed of laminated clay which is seen to lie at various
angles. Near parallel 5 it was dipping only at a gentle slope towards
the right wall, but as the section progressed it inclined more and more,
and at parallel 20 dipped at so high an angle as 42°. This is the more

380 REPORT—1878.

remarkable as it consists of exceedingly fine and beautifully laminated
clay, and this high dip is most regular through a considerable distance,
and not only close to the fallen blocks, where it might be thought to have
been produced by their fall. Some of this clay is exceedingly black,
and may possibly be, therefore, derived from the dark Yoredale Shales
overlying the Mountain Limestone, which at the period when the clay was
formed probably covered a much greater area, and nearer to the Cave, than
that which they occupy at present.

Your Committee is of opinion that, though the labours of the year
have brought us but a small interest for our money, as compared with the
results of former years, the undertaking may be an improving one, and
eventually, if persevered in, lead to greater results than any lately obtained
by us, and therefore your Committee beg to be reappointed.

One member of the Committee, Professor W. B. Dawkins, requests
that bis dissent from this Report be distinctly recorded.

Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. Gopwrx-AustEN, Professor
Prestwicu, Mr. Davipson, Mr. Ernerrper, Mr. Winierr, and
Mr. Torey, appointed for the purpose of ussisting the Kentish
Boring Exploration. Drawn up by Mr. Gopwiy-Avsten.

I reGret to have to report that during the past year nothing whatever
has been done to warrant an application for any portion of the grant
placed at the disposal of the ‘“ Kentish Boring Exploration,” the more so
as results have been arrived at by private enterprise which certainly
give the information sought for—namely, whether Palzozoic rocks, and
what might next underlie the chalk formation of some part of the 8.H.
of England, as is the case in Belgium and the North of France.

So soon as it was ascertained that at the corner of Tottenham Court
Road and Oxford Street there occurred characteristic upper Devonian
strata at about 1000 feet from the surface, the whole question, and all
that it involves, seemed to be answered, and the supposition of the report
of the Coal. Commission, which as far back as 1871 had indicated the line
of the Thames Valley as that of the course of the said Paleozoic band,
was proved to be correct.* One single point remained in doubt,
namely—in which direction from the end of Tottenham Court Road
may the mountain-limestone and coal-measure formations be looked for ?
It may be asked, why is it to be certainly inferred that any such sequence
obtains at Tottenham. A satisfactory answer, from our acquaintance
with the physical and geological history of the European area, in early
times, can be given to this.

The so-called “Devonian” is not in any sense a distinct formation,
except in respect of priority of deposition ; it is simply an early stage of
a series which in progress of time, and over a corresponding area, passed
on to what is known as the “ Mountain-limestone series.’”’ Across the
whole of Central Europe the order of succession of this upper Paleozoic
series is the same—namely, Ist, lower carboniferous or Devonian ; 2ndly,

* P, 432, qu. 267. (Mr. Prestwich): You would be disposed then to carry the
line of probable coal-measures under the valley of the Thames. Answer: Yes,” &e.

ON THE KENTISH BORING EXPLORATION. 381

earboniferous limestone proper; 3rdly, coal-measures. Whenever one of
these occurs the others follow, excepting where, as in places, the coal-
measures may have been denuded off, or where this may have happened
to the mountain-limestone also,

The angle which the Devonian strata at Tottenham make with the
vertical bore-hole being 30°, it is to be inferred that their general direc-
tion there is east and west.

The highly inclined position of these Devonian beds was important.
Had it been otherwise—had the beds there been found to be lying
horizontally—the prospect would not have been encouraging; the two
members of the series above the Devonian might be supposed to have
been denuded off, or to follow in sequence only at some distance
horizontally.

The upper Paleeozoic group was not disturbed as we now find it till
after the completion of the coal-measures. This holds good from West-
phalia, across Belgium, and the North of France, and again in the west
of our British area. The preservation of available coal-measures along
this line is dependent on their having been enclosed in deep troughs, the
results of that east and west linear system of foldings and crumplings to
which the whole of this group was subjected. Hence it is that a Devonian
limestone reached in the course of such east and west line, and at a high
angle (30°), implies, first, that the said band of disturbed strata passes
along at that spot, and next that the order of sequence is pretty sure to
be regular and complete there. In other words, the Devonian beds come
down upon at the Tottenham boring may be safely taken as a continu-
ation of the band which crosses Belgium and the North of France, and are
followed as the band is there by the mountain-limestone and coal-measure
series in a deep east and west fold or trough.

One more point remains to be ascertained—What is the direction
of the dip of the Devonian beds of Tottenham boring? and then any
one of the numerous sections which the Belgian and French geologists
have given of their coal-measure band may be taken as a guide as to what
has happened here; of these, that of the Boulonnais is the best, because
nearest. Supposing that it could have been ascertained with perfect
certainty that the inclined beds at Tottenham were dipping north, the in-
ference would be that there they had come down on the southern side
of a Paleozoic trough, and that the mountain-limestone series would follow
next. The thickness of this series in the Boulonnais may be taken at about
400 feet ; and the coal-measure-band would come in at about a quarter of
a mile or less from the corner of Oxford Street.

On the contrary, had the dip been southerly, then the productive coal-
band would occur between Oxford Street and the Thames.

It has been already stated that a single point remains to be ascertained,
and the object of the present communication is to show how and where
that is to be sought for. First, there must be another boring, and next it
must be so near to that at Messrs. Meux’s that one may illustrate the
other, and so show the dimensions and positions of the Paleozoic bands
beneath London; for this purpose the distance from Oxford Street ought
not to be more than a quarter of a mile to the north or south. :

The Tottenham boring properly considered suggests that the Franco-
Belgian Paleozoic band with which coal is associated is continued under
London, and is within the narrow limits assigned above. Should such
be really the case, it is not supposed that in any such position it could be

382 REPORT—1878.

made available ; the object of completing the results arrived at by Messrs. -
Meux is to add to our knowledge of the structure of the whole of the
band at that place. This would lead us to the direction in which it should
be followed both east and west.

Considering the vast importance of the discovery of productive coal-
measures from the 8.E. of England westwards, both with reference to the
present high price of that article in the metropolis and to the many in-
dustries to which it would give rise along its whole course, of which
the line of country from Liége to Douai may serve as an illustration,
the time has come when the results so nearly arrived at at Tottenham
should be completed.

Half the money spent upon the Sub- Wealden researches at Netherfield
would long since have settled the theoretical speculation—that the coal-
measures might be found along the line of the Thames Valley. No blame
is imputed to the promoters of the boring. During the inquiry of the
“Coal Commission,” 1871, much discredit was thrown upon the supposition
of an extension of the Franco-Belgian coal band into our §.E. region by
the chairman, Sir R. Murchison (see p. 429, and reply of Mr. Dickinson *
as to the quality of the Boulonnais coal ; also the evidence of Sir R. Mur-
chison, p. 434, and following).

As bearing on Sir R. Murchison’s objection, which may be succinctly
stated to be, that the formations with which the coal-measures are asso-
ciated do not cross the Channel, and that, if they do, the coal that they
would contain would be worthless, no better than that of the Boulonuais,
T would quote from a recent work of the Abbé N. Boulay,t who refers
the Boulonnais coal to his upper category or bituminous coal.

Fourth Report of the Committee for Investigating the Circulation
of the Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone,
and Permian Formations of England, and the Quantity and
Character of the Waters supplied to various Towns and Districts
from these Formations, with Appendix, by Mr. Rosurts, on the
Filtration of Water through Triassic Sandstone; the Committee
consisting of Professor Hutt, Rev. H. W. Crosskny, Captain D.
Gatton, Mr. Guaisoer, Mr. H. H. Howrxzt, Mr. G. A. Luzour,
Mr. W. Morynevux, Mr. Morton, Mr. Peneutiry, Professor Prestr-
wicnu, Mr. Jamus Puant, Mr. Mrtrarp Ruapr, Mr. W. Wuarraxer,
and Mr. Dr Rance (Reporter).

Your Committee, during the past year, has continued its inquiries into
the water-bearing capabilities of the Permian and Triassic strata, and, in
accordance with the instructions they received from you at the Plymouth
Meeting, have added the Jurassic rocks to the list of those under inves-

* P, 429., 234. “In point of fact it is so bad that, though used by a few black-
smiths, it has never been extensively worked. (Mr. Dickinson): If the coal is used
by blacksmiths it shows that it is good coal.” ’

+ P. 11. ‘Les houilles se répartissent en trois catégories universellement
adoptées dans le bassin du Nord: les charbons maigres, les charbons demi-gras et
les charbons gras.” The Boulonnais coal is referred to this last,

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 383

tigation, which now include the whole of the strata lying between the
Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks.

Your Committee have a large amount of information promised them
of works and sinkings now in operation by various engineers, and
especially by officers of the Government Geological Survey, who are
now working over the Yorkshire and Lincolnshire Oolitic districts; and
they endorse the opinion expressed by Mr. Edwin Chadwick, C.B., at the
Congress on Water Supply held by the Society of Arts, as to the great
value of the map of the Survey as a basis for investigation in questions of
water supply.

Your Reporter laid before the Congress a table showing the area of
each of the geological formations in each river basin, from which it
appears that of formations yielding—

Subterranean waters.
Square miles.

IB GNI ANG MUVIAS: sce tees csecdscoccssscceascccsecssscade 8,645
QO Fr satan deo sas sacs costes th a desdeaa tecacacuostgetesdesoces 6,671
Hastings sands, Greensand and chalk ............... 11,571

26,687

Moorland waters.
Square miles.
Granite, Metamorphic rocks, Cambrian, Silurian,

AMMO ESTONIAN ges adeseerisccecsiscaceredceecaacecsiaas 11,455

Carboniferous rocks (without the Carboniferous
RHE SHOU Meee tam accscenesaads ads Svioenesasesccdces ,080
21,535

Probably four-fifths of the area of permeable rocks in the first list would
yield unpolluted water, and would receive into their mass not less than ten
to fifteen inches annually, or a quantity, if six inches only were yielded up
in wells, of no less than 240,000 gallons per day for each square mile of
surface, and in many districts double this quantity, giving a total for
England and Wales far in excess of that required for drinking and mant-
facturing purposes.

Of the Moorland area it is hardly the province of your Committee to
speak, but they cannot but call attention to the costly legislation that all
extensive gravitation schemes incur, whether taken from natural lakes,
as the proposed Thirlmere scheme for Manchester, or from artificial reser-
yoirs, as the proposed supply for Liverpool from the sources of the Severn ;
and they would call attention to the fact that the Select Committee on
the Manchester Corporation Water Bill recognised the importance of the
opinion expressed by the Duke of Richmond’s Commission in 1868-69,
“ That it appears to us that the Legislature should always jealously watch
any proposal for a town taking water from a gathering ground at a
distance from it, lest by so doing it may deprive other places nearer to
such gathering ground of their more natural source of supply.”

Cases doubtless exist, to meet which it will be necessary to go to these
sources, especially where the populations have been accustomed to soft
water, and it would be dangerous to suddenly change the character of the
supply. But in the Midland districts, lying on the Secondary rocks, the
inhabitants are accustomed to hard water, the quality of which the labours

384 - REPORT—1878.

of your Committee prove might be made, by an efficient system of well- -
boring, all that could be desired.

Professor Hull has described from time to time the marked south-
easterly attenuation of the Triassic and other lower secondary strata, and
has given measurements, from which it appears the beds between Liverpool
and Warwick, 100 miles, thin out the following rates per mile :-—

IRCUMBCIAULS Merc ee nstesaoa cates s>reesnescersearscren 25 ft. per mile.
Lower Keuper sandstone .........sseseeeeeees Ss) a
Upper Mottled sandstone ...............00000- 5 +
GH DIGMDEOS tec). a. veennekedeesessceeuadeeseronces 64 y
Lower mottled sandstone ...........sssseeeeee 5

The gradient is less between Staffordshire and Warwick, half the
distance—

Tae] Seen) SS qagsc acs ongaus qo qpann aqconmodonOb 2 ft. per mile.
Lower Keuper sandstone ..........sseseeeeeee “
Burtentbods tethachvesevescacdessstvessens ses sotiere 9

”

With these figures it is interesting to calculate the thickness of the
Red beds under the Oolite of Burford, 40 miles south of Warwick; and com-
paring them with the results actually obtained in the boring made by the
diamond process for Mr. Fox, the rate of thinning is found to again
largely increase, reaching eight feet per mile :—

Caleulated. Actual thickness.

MVGCUITTATES he Mee see icte ct chatted cocaenners e's 6209) 55 + :
Lower Keuper sandstone ...........000 Ai 710 Vf 428 ft.
IBUNLER BETIOS' Hesecoesceccesnecr scenes Sosa NGI:

The details are as follows :—
Pump-house, Burford, Witney :—

Total depth.
Ft, in.
Surface—blue clay and pebbles}
38 0 Lost water, at 38 ft.
White lias, 1 ft.
Blue lias, 1 ft.
Lias, 9 ft. \ Oolites,
Freestone .
Black limestone |
Limestone
Clay J
148 7 Blue clay, with fossils.
5 with fossils.
Light lias.
174 8 Hard lias.
186 8 Dark green lias, with fossils.
Clay.
Clay, with pebble.
with stone binds.
,, with shells,
349 0 Harder clay.
Clay, with metal.
; » with stones.
420 0 ,» With pebbles and fossils.
479 10 Clay. .
496 4 ,, with minute fossils.

3
(=)
bo

i
/ s)
i

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 385

Total depth.

Ft. in.

Blue lias stone.
Blue clay.
Very soft clay.

572 0 Stone, one-inch.
616 3 Blue clay (greenish at 610 feet).
* - Hard lias clay.
702. 0 Clay and stone binds.
Hard limestone.
717 O Limestone and shale.
723 7 Soft shale.
746 10 Soft blue clay.
749 10 Black shale, | ft.
750 0 Green marl, 6 ft. Rhetic.
756 O Gritty sandstone.
Green marl 71
821-3 04 Variegated marl
Conglomerate
Variegated marl
a8 { Red and blue marl, gypsum | pying
1047 0 Red marl and gypsum ring
Red marl
Conglomerate
1172 7 Marl and sandstone
1174 O Red sandstone
Dark shale, at 1180 ft. 7}
1205 0 Pale sandstone, with plants
1218 O Coal measure, duns
1244 0 Coal measures j
1284 0 Red sandstone and clay
1308 0 Red sandstone Coal
1850 0 Argillaceous shale oe
Higa saan. measures.
1368 0 Alternation of Devonian and Calcareous from sandstones
1380 © Red and green mottled sandstone, with fine-grained bed
1391 0 Red marls, and sandy beds
1402 0 Fine-grained sandstone
1409 0 Red marls, &e. J

With this section it is interesting to compare the red beds, probably

Triassic, in the following section :—
Crossness Junction Out-fall Works. New well:—

1878.

River drift, gravel .....s:csccsscsscceseeerses
aWoalwich! heds) Jes. eecesc.ac.cccvis oncecs soee
Manet sands! . 5 22krecckeecoccsceececees sees
Chalk

Wpper Greeticand: .....iccssciececeteateces
Gault ; phosphate at bottom...............
Sandstone, very hard ..........ssceeeeeees
Grey BBE peed tees Zags dose Adesivatess cas
TRer Mann Dy cuadteduannerdetanccs cde coda. soe sas
Groy Sandi rocks ccrccsvertcecicsteccs <seseens
Red): Marly 2252. cevnctagembamyeats ads a nesses

Red rocks.

ce

ss:

a

V

386 REPORT—1878.

These red beds are absent at Meux’s brewery, where beneath 160
feet of gault occurs the well-known Ammonite interruptus zone, six
inches; limestone, 4 feet 6 inches; lower Greensand, 66 feet, under-
laid by mottled red and green argillaceous and micaceous shales of
Devonian age, extending from 1070 to 1144 feet from the surface, or
74 feet where the boring was discontinued.

Boring at Messrs. Meux’s, Tottenham Court Road :— :
Feet.
(Gray el eae pear ess «cwosisuscansexocrcnessiceernesncse teeresteedtenee 21
WRONG ON(CIAY. \o-csssienciiems-cecslovsees ans eeabe ene eiceeaseeoee 634
NWioolwach beds)... cecerc-csececessacasecs+cecnterecsectenete 51
Mhametysan diy asesteentene sears sce scemessenns osop earner er 21
Ohalk, with dlimts. Jo... sc.seccssercsncboescscetsetea eect 3474
Challe -withoutsilints <..tessecwes. avo... oovbeees <teteabee 305
Upper’ Greensand ~-..-. 2-5... 0sscsechcssscctcsbenseaeceect 28
LOTT 3 adc Scdonsoduee De acu Bee aneeacneeanccoparboosucau ic 160
Mowrerieteensand) -inc.scsscetessoncarasnssnetaeeas cemeeees 67
Mottled bed, and purple, green, argillaceous and
micaceous shales, Devonian fossils............... 80
1144

In Leicestershire Mr. Plant reports :—

1. That the Lower Lias beds of the Midland districts do not give any
constant supply of water. The small quantity found at some places is
very hard, and is generally contaminated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
arising from the decomposition of the iron pyrites that occur so fre-
quently in these Lower Lias*shales.

2. The Rhetic beds and Upper Keuper marls (where the Upper
Gypsum bed has been penetrated) yield a good supply of hard water, con-
taining, besides carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime to the extent of
100 grains to the imperial gallon. The water is very transparent and very
palatable, and is admirably adapted for brewing the fine kinds of beer,
when diluted so as to reduce the proportion of sulphate of lime to about
forty to fifty grains per gallon.

3. When the Upper Keuper sandstone is penetrated helow the Gypsum
beds—from which it is separated by a considerable thickness of marl
(chocolate colour) impervious to water—from these sandstones a great
supply of water is found, in some places free of lime altogether, either
carbonate or sulphate, but in others it is still too hard for the. profitable
generation of steam, The water in this sandstone depends upon the
“outcrop” at various places of the bed, where they have a dip of about 5°
to 8° south-east.

4, When the thick beds of red and gray marls lying between the
Upper and Lower Keuper sandstone (Waterstones) are bored through,
they are generally found quite dry, and free from water; but as soon as
the Lower Keuper sandstone is penetrated to any depth, water is always
found in great abundance and. purity. The extraordinary supply in this
Sandstone is well shown in the Report on the Ellistown Shaft, the beds
there delivering (at 300 ft. deep) 60,000 gallons per hour for weeks
together, while the shaft was being sunk, and before the tubbing could
be put in. °

In another instance, these Waterstones yielded a.column of pure limpid
water from a depth of 670 ft., the column rising 20 ft. above the surface,
a total of 690 ft.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 387

Name and Member of Committee asking for information, James
Plant. |
- Name of Individual or Company applied to :—

Ellistown Colliery, Bagworth, Leicestershire.

1. Shafts at colliery. 2. 500 ft. 3. 760 ft.; 15 ft. diameter. 5. 60,000 gallons
per hour.

Feet.

Os -Redl marlss, 05.2. << ;eesedaeneee Pee eer eno: 200
Waterstones and Bunter conglomerate... 120
Coal measures «......0ceecseeee Pree ors ee 440
760

12. Large east and west fault. 18. None. 14. None. 15. None.

Rey. P. Hutton, Ratcliffe College, Leicestershire,

1. Quadrangle of Ratcliffe College. 2. 312 ft. 3. 156 ft.; diameter 6 ft. ;
no bore-hole. 4. Before 8 ft.; after 4 ft.; 6 hours. 5. 240 gallons per hour;
5 hours’ continuous pumping will not exhaust it. 6. Not known to vary, to both
questions. 7. Not known to vary; above the bed of the river Wreake 8 ft.; bed
of ditto, 170 ft. above sea. 8. Carbonate of lime, with free carbonic acid gas; de-
posits carbonate of lime on standing; hard. 9. Lower Lias and Upper Keuper
marls and sandstone. 10. No springs; rain-water only. 11. Entirely kept out.
12. None known. 13. No; well wall quite dry. 14. None known. 15. None
Imown. Well is lined throughout with brickwork; no chamber at bottom; the
supply is constant through the year.

Major Campbell, R.E., New Barracks, Glen Parva, Leicestershire.

1. Barrack yard. 2. About 300 ft. 3. Shaft 100 ft. deep; 6 ft. diameter,
lined bricks, but not cemented. 4. Bore-hole at bottom of well, 150 ft.; 6 in.
diameter. 5. Very little water, and that is thought to be surface drainage. 8.
Hard, what there is.

Feet
Os DD rtit. 25s A RAGS eters teeds tian sents 10
Lower lias with thin limestone............ 40
MUN SOL essai cesas ds ceevadvinadlewcscseccdesaees 20
Chocolate manrlsy ....ccc-ctseeasescicsecsecesdeos 30
Red marls, chocolate colour ............05. 150
Ne] ARR ene BEE REECE RP DOEe eRe tnd 260

Shaft and boring.
11. Into well through want of cemented brickwork.

F. Bates & Sons, Brewers, New Brewery, Humberstone Road, Leicester.

1. Yard of brewery... 2. 220 ft... 3. 62 ft.; 6 ft. diameter; lined with bricks,
but not cemented. 4. 30 ft.; falls to 8 ft. by continuous pumping. 5. Fills up
quickly after pumping. 6. Not known to vary during the seasons; no variation.
7. No. 8.-Carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime (100 grains to gallon), chloride of
sodium, sulphate of magnesia. 9. Drift 8 ft.; Upper Keuper marls 52 ft. 10.
Yes, 11. No. 12. None. 13. None. 14. None. 15. None.

Gimson & Co., Engineers “New Works,” Humberstone Road, Leicester.

1. Yard of works. 2. 212 ft. 3. Well 64 ft.; 6 ft. diameter, lined bricks, but
no cement. 4. 30 ft.; reduced to 8 ft. by continuous pumping. 6. Not known,
7. No. 8. Hard; carbonate of lime and sulphate of lime. 9. Drift 6 ft.; Upper
Keuper marls 58 ft. 10. Yes. 11. No. 12. None kmown. 13. No. 14. No.
15. No.
cc2

388 REPORT—1878.

W. Gimson & Sons, Timber Merchants, Church Gate, Leicester.

1. At works. 2. 183 ft. 3. 70 ft. deep; 83} ft. diameter. 4. 55 ft. before ;
lowered to 35 ft. ; 8 hours, with three 6 in. pumps. 6. Notobserved. 7. Not known.
8. Not analysed.

Feet.
9. Drift, gravel, sand and clay ...........0++ 10
Upper Keuper marls .........ssseeseseeesees 25
Upper Keuper sandstone .........seeeeeeee 35

10. Yes. 11. No. 12. None. 18. None. 14. None. 15. None.

Evington Coal Company, Lodge Farm, Evington, Leicestershire.
1. Shaft for plaster works. 2. 210 ft. 3. 90 ft.; 7 ft.* diameter, cemented all
through with double lining of bricks. 4. Abundant water but not wanted. 9.
Drift 4 ft.

Feet
Use tty te csseeasanene seeetecioces vsckcesncnnees 20
Upper Keuper marls and gypsum......... 66

10. Yes. 12. No. 18. No. 14. No. 15. No.

Mr. G. P. Browne, Boring at Newtown Unthank, Leicestershire.

1. Boring at Newtown Unthank, near Desford. 2. 320 ft. 3. 615 ft.; 7 in.
bore. 4. Runs over the top, and was first struck at 220 ft. deep.

Feet.
SD ED he Pe tecesus a cet caes sateen cette ecteaets oa ismbiccs 6
Upper Keuper sand and marls ............ 56
Red marls with sandstone ............0e000s 80
IV GLOTSLONCS Weeercadesccccsbensceteucteccoceean 120
CQ ORMATIE RSTO sce eseatibes versene aceeansesee 353
615

10. Yes. 12. Yes.
Warwickshire.
Name of Member of Committee asking for information, W. Whitaker.
Name of Individual or Company applied to :—
Leamington Local Board of Health. Trial Boring—Doewra.

Feet. Feet.

Made ground ..............+006 5 | Red sandstone .........sseeeceee 3h
HSIUS RANG cass locweechotesece cscs 5 jp suMLANI| Wescectececssetne scenes 14
Sandy red clay................0. 5 », marl and rock ............ 13
Red marl and water ......... 6 9) PBBTIGSEONC ere. ccacces sane 2

SOMATA ovine siaeeica'e dene Sawa ccene 101 Pies std ese ane Sepembsceeco0 2000 2
Light blue marl .............+. 6 5) ABMASTONC) 2! ..c- senses seein 3
Teel send. a Seoncsoobnngensassenc 24 99 UIBIL ecsaae nesses ease anne 1}

jy SALLGSbONE «..6c..cenescosece A | ,,| Sandstone: .:0vsdecee overt 11
Light blue marl ............... 13 93) OTL. che nn eco esacnetee teens 2
Red sandstone ........s.seseese0s 12 »» marl and rock ..........+. (e
Grey sandstone ...........06+ 26 3), SANdStONe .<. <scooes-wecmee 4
edimprleccpsseseess-seeeseeosr 5 gy) PAMAT] jos entes acsiowscnsee reas 15

jp: SAM OSLONE, 4 sceoees seeses ees. $) 5), SADGSONE .........0ceccnece i
Grey sandstone .......sses00+ 3 5y PLDI) ss onieseole== seninerinaeaite 47
Rockics sauce oscaseseeserseenese 12 | ,, sandstone ..........cerecees 9
Red rock and gypsum......... 4d | 4, marl ......cccerereceseecvene 853?
Ledibley rested Vaasa aanaadse 450 dapaoass 4 ==
Ted smart sieccecniesaia tins se 03 346

* Water so abundant from gypsum beds that, although lined with double row
of brick laid in best cement, it forces its way through and stops the working of the
mine.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 389

Section of boring for water on the premises of Mr. Knowles in the
centre of Nuneaton, 200 or 300 yards’N.E. of the boundary fault. Given
from recollection by R. E. Sinclair, of Hartshill, Engineer :—

Yards.
Drift, Say ......cccsescsseceesecenscensseescceecececeseceens 9
Soft red sandstone ......scsececeeecscececesseeceeeeenees 20
Alternate light and red sandstone.............++s+0e+ 7
Hartshill stone P OF trap P...cseccececeseenereeeeeeeeees 5

_ The water was struck under this rock in a few inches of a hard slaty
white bed at about 90 yards deep, and rose nearly to the surface.

Mr. Sinclair states that the core brought up from this bed was so
much broken up that he is unable to say that it was limestone ; but from
the hardness of the few inches penetrated he is inclined to believe that
this was the case.

Docwra & Sons.

1. Horne’s Dyeworks, Coventry. 3. Shaft 9; bored to 41 ft. from surface.

A. Water level 4 ft. down.

Feet
Ge Soil ten caceeecn ce rcccetensessugauecwescacctociecs 1
IBY ios incecncscerncennasseseccsnosensoneesbesens 3
SVG HISATION coaccneraacacacascacetactteceansels cues 37
43

Coventry Works, per Mr.
1. Third well, 25 ft.; shaft —, total 300.

Feet. Feet.
MIVA onc0. = ccccccdccstwesssccescscces B35 | Soluditackemesusseacceleecsccssences a
SEC OO Cie s.cvcnetece steer ssce cee ON Misi lisy) Sancesee ce rataesescenas cece cs 32
WM eeertan eves sc concn ceecesesses: 7 | Rock and pebble ..............+ 20
CUEOGK: cl ecctuvccvecsescecdsaes DOr Marlee. eek areca cet eastttedaes 1
Wigner no ccacscetacesecuecsteeess MOU Solidhrock: -cosccesteesecereasecsees 9
SHUMURTOCIG (ccoceckccccesacvacvecnee See Marler ecoscteecececades saaes artes 3
AVipyn leat t 45.4 ccrcswecncsecacmecees 2 | Solid rock and water............ 7
PI IVORTOC IC sce ccccscatescathitenss 13° | Yellow challk <.....2....ccseccccees 23

iba Reeaa ss 4s sasssecaseccascsmmmaels AEC Miar yo aera se cen waewenceetee ce 9?
BAH Oo cots co asccsaececnanccessace MM eSolid tock @tceccteccaeceesseecas 1
nid A Ea era AVA Warlesiccscasercesccescestacsicceceass 1
Bolid LOCK... ccccccccsecne scenes FF. OIG) TOCK es athe wseceeaeeenslecses 7
NU gitles cn aste's cs sesso dsecevevdcrosee 1 | Rock and pebble................4 1
BSGIGETOGKD oe. sencenscesedescescnas 2 | Marl and pebble.................. 5
VishRI MEE r een ices co cccrsscscsss<tecsee 2 | Rock and water.........scesseees 28
BIITCUTUCKL SN. .scce sec eccesseseees 1 | Marl and water ...........ccse0ee 4
WP Pan o. ectc hs sbe c6,ccnnecanscasecmes Neal. SOMGOC aise. docceccees esos secses 18

Doewra & Sons.

1. London and Colonial Brewery, Burton-on-Trent. 3. Shaft 30 ft., not bored.
4. 7 ft. down.

Feet
9. Red gravel and sand resting irregularly on red marl ......... 40
Shale ...ccosssccsecscccccsscoccsccrsssccsccsccscescsscsccsccccscoecoscs 40
Red sandstone.....sccosscecesccscecceeceeceececes sonseeanersesseesenes 17
Reed marl 2... ..ccasecccscvscsdeonessseveccccsscessssaerccccccssccsecnse 14
Shale......cseccccscccscsccsvcecccceccssccsceccssccees saWasiisasewenans 3
Brown marl ...sccssccsecssesesseccecseceeceaesaeecessueeseeceeseeeeanes 2

Hard shale, with layers of stomes........cscsssscreceecereesevees . 101

390 REPORT—1 878.

\

Messrs. Docwra & Sons.

1. Brereton Colliery, for Earl of Shrewsbury. -3. Above 100 shaft; total
980 ft. 9. Upper part New Red sandstone ; lower portion of coal measure.

Name of Member of Committee asking for information, C. E. De
Rance.
Name of Individual or Company applied to :—

Mr. Strahan.

1. Eaton Hall, near Chester. 2. About 14 ft. above highest spring-tide mark
(27 ? ft.above Ordnance datum.) 3. To bottom of rock, 40 ft.; to bottom of bore-
hole, 347 ft. 4. Before pumping sands at 8 ft. from surface. Maximum yield of
water =225 gallons per minute. '7. Water in well stands at about 6 or 7 ft. above
level in the Dee, which is less than 20 yds. distant. 8. One gallon contains solid
residue 63:20 grains.

Grains
IVOIAENGIINGTLOL: woccecteseeecestastecen cers 2:00
BLOTINOM SS. se o2. nate vadestecs sence abade eset 15:20
ASW yleeseeccrstatess:ieiiesscaecnscscsaaress 9°36
MATEY Sxek cee cheeses eatecscases Dee seenenece 11:20
Mae nesiad..\actitaaectectewseissesilciswleweree sweaters 5:98
Oxidevoteiroms ercacesvecetanceeeves svenerocr 60
Siliceous matter......s.sceccsccsscecesvees 38
Alkalies—
OWS Mosccods tz cssetecssnicbases sexossedense 15°84
UINO SY nasqtietagenes sedecenays -peseesrpan 2-64.
63:20 :
Motal (hardMesss.cc..cssasoteetenscesesecsess 20°°5
Permanent hardness .......0 ssecesseeees 15°:0

Free ammonia per gallon, ‘001; albuminoid ammonia, ‘0021. 9. B. C. 20 ft.
Pebble beds, 227 {t. (Bed of pebbles 5 ft. thick occurred at about ,200 ft.) 10.
Probably not. :

N.B.—The water was useless for washing or for boilers.

Two breweries in Chester get their water from the Red Sandstone—Seller’s
(1) and Huxley’s (2).
1. In Steller Street.

Feet
Boulder| Olay, WS s@ ie haces ee ate, «+ ceseasemecacensteasee 18
RR, woandstone ike (ee seetesshecs ee asphtciainussumine themes. 30

A good spring was struck in soft white rock at this depth; water not very
hard ; no further particulars to be got.

2. Huxley’s Brewery, King Street.

Old well all in pebble beds, 70 to 80 ft.; is pumped dry in 4 to 5 hours. No
analysis ever made ; water not very hard.

Queen’s Park, from Dr. Slotterforth. About 50 feet above O. D.; 36 ft. deep;
water stands at 80; deposits iron if left to stand in a vessel.

Rey. A. Grenfell, Neston Local Board.

1. Little Neston Waterworks. 2. About 140 ft. 3. Shaft 50 yds.;9 ft. dia-
meter; 60 yds. 4. Does not vary. 5. 105,800 gallons in a day ofnine hours. 6.
After a long dry season itlowers about 3 ft. 7. No. 8. Chlorine, 2°1 grains per
gallon; carbonate of lime, 123 grains per gallon; free ammonia = ‘002 parts per mil-
lion gallons; albuminoid, ‘046 parts per million gallons. 9. Red sandstone and
shale cover. 10. No. 12. No. 18. No. 14. No. 15. No.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 391

Name of Member of Committee asking for information, W. Whitaker.
Name of Individual or Company applied to :—

Birkenhead.

1. Old Engine, Spring Hill. 6. 92 ft. from surface when not at work ; when
level decreased to 130 ft. from surface, yield is 3,614,922 gallons per 48 hours;
when 4 ft. lower, two millions in 24 hours; or 285 ft., water in great quantity.

9. New Engine.

Feet
Qhaths. «ccna cuatandiccduat ree aasaee Deaerbhans 105
ANG ROVE) bite Fearns centaka cca sega anche sacess 405 from surface.

Messrs. Doewra & Sons.

1. Cook’s Brewery, Birkenhead. 3. Cell and shaft 58 ft. ; not bored.

Made pround ....00..2..cccceceeceecesrnscesee 12°
COTE daccdocddr dobucntuabcsaaanosdnpanddorbaccede5 20
SWelllowa tOCkd..te.ccelcs.ceestecateseccctestess 67
Wl aypperadetiecte ocdeade ats okcthis de devars damidacdaenine 8
LeU TOC Kee sercecdsore see edcsecodecleceass sass om 13

120

Aspinall’s, Birkenhead.

Feet.
Shaft and cylinder ...........seceeeeeeeeeeeee 58; not bored.
Surface Sle i eaccnscccnecstecutauososeteacseess 7
Sand with water ............cscececseseseceves 78
Sand and pebbles ............cssceeeeeeneeenees 15
Flard clay ......cscseccecseccerseetecwensecees 10

Red sandstone ..........ssccccsesseeaeees B4
144

Messrs. Docwra & Sons.

1. Canada Works, Birkenhead. 38. Shaft, 45 ft., half filled with concrete; not
bored. 6. Water level, overflows.

Oy) Surface earth he isecst-<ccccedeeccectecserss 45
Sand) and bursts ss vtec cestidatas soaks balele scat 8
(Blue clary,-cespenpea-bacss os seeieesiece dost etic 3
Sand and water .........s.sccssecscesesersees 4h
Btovy, Clay) scerctatectescecassscuensasherassier- 6
Dead sanders tdar. ash sce c2asescsiscascs css 74
Gileny Soonchdr Shbc Aodeonepasabeeee seeeeean gece 13
GON yiGlBy: ceccureecceresseccnccecst- ste cress 4
IPGHDISU Sanaa tsesteccascscedcvecetasess 2
Rd BANASTONE Mees cece acese.sscnschocoseece 20

1013

Lancashire-—A boring of great interest has just been carried to the

depth of 1000 ft. at Bootle, near Liverpool, by Messrs. Mather & Platt,
for the Corporation of that town.

392 REPORT—1878.

It was sunk as an experiment to test the water-bearing capabilities of
the New Red sandstone ; it is perfectly straight from top to bottom, and
has the same diameter, 26 in., the whole distance. Cores have been re-
tained at regular intervals, and at every slight change of strata, and
have all been examined by your Reporter; a large number of them have
also been examined by Mr. Morton.

From the section accompanying the Report it will be seen that more
than 900 ft. passed through the Pebble Beds, a thickness at least one-third
more than they have been known to attain before ; a fact of considerable
importance regarding the well-known water-bearing capabilities of this
stratum. It will be noticed that thick beds of shaley marl which gene-
rally occur at intervals in the Lancashire and Cheshire wells do not occur
in this boring ; some thin seams are present, but the more marked feature ©
is the boring in the presence of bands of various thicknesses of exceedingly
fine-grained and compact sandstone or rag, which alternate with open
porous hackly sandstones, holding much water, the rag seams acting as
planes of division between the various water horizons. The first of these
planes occurs at 268 feet from the surface, from which point down to
368 feet the beds are interstratified with a number of these hard bands,
and the character of the rock between is very compact, and probably only
moderately porous.

From 368 to 590, part of the series is very porous, where one of
the compact belts comes in from 590 to 636 feet, below which a good
water-bearing rock comes in, down to 806, where a compact bed of marl
comes in, below which to 830 occur many bands of marl and compact
rock. From this point downwards, the beds are rather softer in grain, and
of an open porous character.

Pebbles first appeared at the depth-of 415 feet, and were seen for the
last time at a depth of 975 feet, when a decided change in the character
of the sandstone occurred, the grain being exceedingly fine ; but whether
this sandstone is referable to the lower mottled sandstone, or is merely a
fine-grained band in the pebble beds, which in that case are more than
1000 feet thick, cannot be determined without sinking the boring to a
great depth.

It is a matter of regret that the arbitrary depth of 1000 feet was
fixed in the contract, and was now placed at 1000 feet. Had the pebble
beds not reached the unprecedented thickness now proved, this smaller
depth would have been ample to solve several questions of the greatest
scientific interest and practical value, not merely to the district around
Liverpool but of national importance—First, as to the water-bearing capa-
bilities of rock at great depth ; second, the nature and thickness of the New
Red sandstone, and possibly Permian beds, that underlie the pebble beds in
that area; third, as to the character and depth of the coal measures under
Liverpool. Thatthey exist there, there is little doubt, but to what part of the
series they belong can only be determined by boring, and your Committee
look forward with much interest to hear that the Water Committee of the
Liverpool Town Council have determined to go on with the work dis-
continued a few days ago on reaching the contract depth of 1000 feet.
For should the boring be left at its present depth, it will add to the list
of deep borings in the country that have been discontinued at the precise
point where the largest amount of information can be obtained.

The level of the water in the new boring is 51 feet from the surface,

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 393

and maintains its level notwithstanding the continuous pumping carried
in the adjoining old well, the water level of which is 50 feet lower.

1. Dallam’ Lane Forge, Warrington. 2. About 45 ft. aboveO. D. 3. Total
depth of well and bore-hole, 887 ft. 5. Yields 100 gallons per minute with 20-in.
vacuum,

8. At 237 ft. from surface 40 grains of salts per gallon.

845° Uz",
300° Sat. 300,
465 OV 750,
BOO =e 1246,
600) FPR 1676.4!
BBO kites BIOOsbe,
Toe" Ws 4000 ;,
slg 4500,

These figures represent number of grains per gallon produced by nitrate of silver,
t.e., chlorides alone. Water has a ‘strong briny taste.

Feet
9. Drift, chiefly B.C., about ...:00....ccccscsosescescenses 30
Red and pale yellow rock, soft .. FF actessiteesseOOU
Red and white ditto, with thicker sides ............ 2
Micaceous sandstone ........c.cccsecseccscescssoscseees 3
Pale red and yellow ditto, with a bed of weak red
PAL Waleccnceetenncatescceasrhencinscasenssieesaet/dcnec sss 57
Red sandstone, with white bands and 2 ft. of marl 190
602

Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Professor
Hull.
Name of Individual or Company applied to—

Messrs. Worrall.
1. Dyework, Old Garrat. 3. 109 yards. 5. 384,480. 9. New Red sandstone.

Mr. Boddington. .
1. Brewery, Strangways. 5. 55,840. 9. New Red sandstone.

Messrs. Bury’s Dyeworks.

1. Salford. 3. Wells and bore-hole 100 yards. 5. 353,240 gallons, and
66,240 at Messrs. Moseley’s Dyeworks, a quarter of a mile off; an engine pumps
1 ,500, 000 gallons per day.

Mr. Charlton.

1. Charlton’s Work, Salford; 150 yards from Boddington’s Brewery. 3. 70 ft.
with bore-holes. 5. 348, 000 in 16 hours.

1. Mr. Smith’s (late Joule’ 3) Brewery, Salford. 3. 206 yards, with chamber in
New Red sandstone. 5. Two pumps can be kept at work for forty-eight hours,
yielding 137,000 gallons. 7. Water-levelis that of river Irwell.

Yards
9. New Red sandstone, about..........sssceeeesesees 156
Marls with limestone ...........ccceceeeseeeeeecees 40

Rock and clay alternating with hard sandstone
NULL WADGE Ms ace ce teas cists oss ccs ssavasuieees 10

394 REPORT—1878.

Mr. John Wood.

1. Works, Medlock Vale. 3. Bore-hole, 761 ft. '7. Water was met with in
the Lower Permian sandstone, and flowed over the surface.

Pian:
9. Alluvial gravel .........0ec..eweeeee 26 0
New Red sandstone ........ Re 23 0
Permian marls, with bands of
gypsum and limestone ......... 246 3
Lower Permian sandstone ...... 3875 11
Goal tov.ec2s cacverenedaeseeeencne site 90 O
761 2

1. Collyhurst Sand Delf. 5. Exhausted after 12 hours’ pumping. 8. Water
hard, but transparent. 9. Lower Permian sandstone,

Mr. John Knowles.
1. Broughton Road Paperworks. 5. 100 gallons per minute.

9. 1. Stiff, close hard stuff, probably drift and New
mee BANASHONA 55 sucerenioonpocebliceliaccceenseeeteeers 240

. Red loam, with mixture of clay and shale (pro-
ably Permianjsand stone) 2.20. .scshien svecencessses 150
3. Hard bands (probably coal measures) .........+4. 120

720
Messrs. Worrall’s Works.
1. Ordsal. 3. Well, and bore 460 ft. Pumped for 12 months, yielding
717,120 per day. 8. Water brackish, probably due to this well being on the dip

of all the others, and the ponding up of water causing impregnation of the water
with salt.

Name of Member of Committee asking for information, Mr. De Rance.
Name of Individual or Company applied to—

Mr. Binney, F.R.8.

1. Messrs. ‘Hoyle’ s Works, Mayfield. Ft. in,
9. New Red sandstone ..........ccccecsecscescees 148 4

Permian marls with bands of limestone... 153 9

Lower Permian sandstone .............00008 59 4

Particulars of Whiston Pumping Station, given by Mr. Stooke.

Works occupy one statute acre ; 50 in. cylinder single power expansion engine ;
9 ft. stroke ; capable of delivering 1 ,000,000 gallons,

1870.—Two wells, 9 ft., diameter, 45 yds. ; then carried on as one well; at 59
yards, yields 200,000 gallons per 24 hours ; at 75 yards (= 26 ft. O.D.), yields
400,000 gallons per hour ; bore-hole, 18 ft. to 104 yards; fault, 2 + to 1; average
yield, 320,000 gallons.

1872.—Tunnel Eastwood, 240 yards in length to boundary of township ;
fissures laid open; water, 430,000 gallons; at 87 yards strong spring forced back
the rock and endangered the men’s lives; 500,000 gallons pumped out daily, and
the water rose 43 yards during the 24 hours.

7 do. supplies 640,000 gallons per day; auxiliary well at end of tunnel at 53
yards yields 380,000 in 24 hours; at 75 yards yields 470,000 in 24 hours; combined
wells yield 970 000 gallons in 24 hours.

Sept. 1875. "Average daily yield, 1,000,000 gallons ; connection of two wells by
tunnel ; borehole for auxiliary well less than 240 ft.

1876,—Mean daily supply, 868,000 gallons; latter half of the year, mean daily
delivery was 938,000 gallons.

.
_ ee

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 395

The Secretary of your Committee has to thank Messrs. Mather and
Platt for permission to examine the cores brought up in the deep boring
they are now executing for the Liverpool Corporation, near Bootle, the
whole of which is carried out in Red sandstone of Pebble-Bed age down
to a depth of 1042 ft., where the Lower Mottled Sandstone makes its
appearance. The following gives adescription of any special character of
bed passed through, intermediate spaces being occupied by ordinary
grained and coloured sandstone :—

Ft. in.
29 0 Very fine-grained sandstone.
31 6 Lighter fawn coloured, partially porous.
69 0 Mar! pockets, in red sandstone.
79 O Very fine-grained red sandstone.
97 O Dark shaley sandstone, patches of mica,
113 0 Hackly sandstone, small marl pockets.
144 0 Very fine-grained micaceous sandstone, 6 in. thick.
224 0 Very hard fine-grained sandstone, small pockets of marl, 16 ft. 11 in.
237 O Hackly sandstone.
268 0 Grey marly parting, resembling those in the water stone.
279 O Pocket of wee marl.
283 0 Red marl, 2 in. ; marl pebble, 2 in. long.
290 0 Very fine-grained red sandstone, evenly bedded, 12 ft.
303 0 Very compact g grey sandstone,
303 6 Fine-grained sandstone.
319 0 Compact white sandstone.
327 9 Compact grey sandstone.
330 0 Hackly, red marl pockets.
335 0 Hard compact grey micaceous sandstone; dip 4 in.
3389 0 Dull red finely-grained red sandstone.
351 0 Grey rag, black mica, green marl, 6 in.
561-4 0 Very fine-grained red sandstone, bedding horizontal.
3866 0 Shaley and sandy marl, 6 in.
371 O Very fine-grained dull red sandstone, white mica.
415 0 Hard compact grey sandstone, 2 in.
415-2 0 Compact red sandstone, white quartz pebbles.
437-6 0 Grey sandy marl.
453 0 Many pebbles of quartz and grit.
455 0 White micaceous rag, 2 in.
468 0 Hard, coarse, hackly-grained sandstone ith pebbles.
470 O Grey ‘sandy parting, 3 in.
470 3 Compact fine-grained sandstone.
497 0 Hackly red sandstone, 27 ft. thick.
500 0 Hackly red sandstone, dark sandstone pebbles.
512 O Red sandstone, dark grit pebbles.
514 0 Compact grey micaceous rag.
514-35 O Hard fine-grained sandstone, no pebbles.
535-73 0 Hard, rather fine-grained, with pebbles.
573 6 Compact grey, fine-grained rag, 12 in.
587 0 Very fine-grained sandstone, no pebbles.
590 O Hard sandstone, many pebbles.
594 0 Compact band, 2 in.
599 0 Compact band, 2 in.
611 O Hard strings.
621 0 Grey micaceous parting, 3 in.
624 0 6 ft. 9 in. of pebbly sandstone.
634 0 Very compact marly sandstone, 2 ft.
694 0 Compact grey sandstone, 4 in,
0

Grey, very compact rag, 4 in,

SOoSCCSCSCSCOCCCOWMNNWOOCONWOSDORMROSOSCSCOOCCSO

SASCOBSOSCOSOSOSCOYSSOSHSOSSSORSSSCSCOSS’

REPORT-— 1878.

Compact grey rag, 3 in.

Ditto, 43 in.

Open hackly rock.

Open hackly sandstone pebbles.

Vary backly sandstone pebbles, 21 ft.
Marly bed, 2 ft. 6 in., fine-grained hard shalzy sandstone.
Rough hackly sandstone.

Rag parting, 6 in.

Sandy marl, 2 in.

Conglomerate.

Grey rag, 14 in.

Finely bedded rag, 6 in.

Parting, 6 in.

Parting, 3 in.

Compact sandstone, pebble.

4 in. purple shale.

Grey rock, 3 in.

Purple marl, 1 in.

Rather open sandstone pebbles.
Fine-grained red sandstone, full of water.
Many pebbles.

Red sandstone, pebble (sample).
Open pebbly sandstone, 10 ft. 6 in.
Rather open rock, few pebbles.
Rather hard white band, 1 ft. 6 in.

Hackly pebbly sandstone, small flakes of white mica, 5 ft. 6 in.

Fine-grained red, thin beds, one pebble, little mica.
Hard rag and grey marl, 2 in.

Softer fine-grained red sandstone, very minute specks of mica.
Soft sandstone.

Soft sandstone, indistinct ripple markings.
Fine sandstone.

Red sandstone (specimen).

Fine sandstone.

Red soft sandstone.

Red sandstone.

White hard sandstone, 6 in.

Red sandstone, mica planes.

Red open sandstone.

1 in. to 3 in. red marl.

Shaley hard marl, 2 in

Rag and clunch, 7 in.

Open sandstone, marl pebble.

Open sandstone, pebbles.

Open sandstone, 8 ft, 3 in.

Open white sandstone.

Hard red sandstone.

White open sandstone.

Open red sandstone.

Open red sandstone, much water.

Open red sandstone, flat bedding, 9 ft. 7 in.
White sandstone, green marl pebble, red micaceous parting.
Open fine-grained red sandstone.

Open red sandstone, round grains.

Open red sandstone, little mica.
Fine-grained red sandstone.

Red sandstone, fine and coarse.
Fine-grained red sandstone.

——— -—

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 397
Ft. in.
1057 O Fine-grained soft red sandstone, 31 ft.
1060 0 Round-grained soft red sandstone. |
1063 0 Red sandstone.
1066 © Rather hard red sandstone.
1069 0 Soft red sandstone.
1072 0 Coarse sandstone.
1075 0 Red sandstone, very soft.

Appendix to Triassic Report.—Hxperiments on the Filtration of Sea Water
through Triassic Sandstone. By Mr. Isaac Roperts.

In the town of Liverpool several million gallons of water are pumped
daily out of wells sunk in the Pebble Beds of the Bunter sandstones.

The whole area from which this quantity is withdrawn is covered by
pavements, buildings, and a thick bed of boulder clay, so that it is not
possible for much, if any, of this large daily supply of water, to percolate
from the surface into the sandstone. Nor are there within the sandstone
rocks of this neighbourhood open fissures or channels through which the
water could freely pass from distant sources into the wells; nor are there
subterranean reservoirs of water (leakages from pipes and sewers excepted)
from which the supply could be drawn. Where, then, does the water
come from ?

In a paper which I read before the Geological Society of Liverpool in
1869, I suggested that most of it must flow from the Liverpool Docks
and the River Mersey by passing through the mass of the rock; and that
the sandstone rock must filter, or chemically neutralize the salts held in
solution in sea water. In the paper referred to, I gave analyses of the
water drawn from several wells in Liverpool and the neighbourhood, to
show that there is a gradual constant accumulation of salts in the water
obtained from all the wells respectively. I will here give one example,
which shall be typical of the rest. The well is situated in Rainford
Square, distant 500 yards from the. nearest dock, and 800 yards from

the River Mersey. The analyses are given in tabular form, to facilitate

comparisons :—

WATER FROM THE WELL, RAINFORD SQUARE.

Grains per Gallon In the

Salts in Solution ap eR aL a ea eer
In 1867 In 1871 In 1878 Mersey

Chloride of sodium ...........0000085 13844 208°64

Do. magnesium ............. — 49°01 63°49
Do. CRLCIUTY ceccsse vee ccrcests — 51:45 69°26
Total chlorides ............... _ 238-90 341°39 1334°9
Sulphate: of lime) ‘icc.sssesenrescveee — 26°55 37°38
Carbonate of magnesia ............06. —_ 2°22 1:16
DO. TIMO| iewedeceeressasnesessne _ 8°68 6°58
Nitrate of SOda .........ccessseeeee ae — = 2°15

Total SOAS) ie. -ditec.ossesseess 231-00 276°35 388°66 1505-0

398 REPORT—1878.

Between the years 1867 and 1871 the salts had increased 19°63 per
cent., and between 1871 and 1878 they had further increased 40°64 per
cent. The rate of increase between 1867 and 1871 was 4°91 per cent. per
annum, and the rate between 1871 and 1878 was 5°81 per cent. per
annum. The difference is to be accounted for by the larger quantity of
water per day that has been pumped out of the well. Since the year
1871, 295,200 gallons daily have been taken out of the well, which is
equal to 884 million gallons per annum.

The well had been in use for many years prior to 1867, but in that
year it was deepened, and a bore-hcle made to increase the supply of
water.

The inference drawn from this, and like results obtained elsewhere,
was that the Bunter sandstone rock filtered salts out of sea water.

In the months of March, April, and May this year, I submitted the
inference to the test of the experiment now to be described.

I selected four cubes of Bunter sandstone from the pebble beds in a
quarry in Everton. Hach cube measured accurately 12 in. by 12 in., by
13 in. high. The top surface of each cube was dished out 9 in. by 9 in.,
by 1 in. in depth, to form a receptacle into which water could be
poured.

Three of the cubes were thoroughly dried in air, and placed one above
the other in a frame, so that the water poured on the dished part of the
upper one would, after passing through it, drop into the dished top of
the second cube, and after passing through the second would drop on to
the third, and after passing through the third cube, would drop into a
bottle placed underneath to receive the final filtrate.

The first trial showed the water followed the planes of stratification
before passing through the whole thickness of the cube. That cube was
therefore rejected in the experiment. ‘The second trial showed that the
dished part of the cube was cut on the edge of the planes of stratification,
and there was also some evaporation from the sides. The water passed
through this cube in eighteen hours. This cube was also rejected on
account of the defects which I have stated.

In order to prevent leakage through the sides and evaporation, I coated
four of the sides of the two remaining cubes with black varnish, and
closely covered them and the frame holding them with oil-cloth; by
these means the water passed through their mass under conditions favour-
able to give accurate results. I-also cut three cubes measuring 1} in.
on each side from the same stones (exhibited at the Dublin meeting) to
ascertain the capacity of the sandstone for storing water, the storage
space being the aggregate of the microscopic interstices which exist
between the grains of quartz, of which the sandstone is composed, and
also of the faults and fractures.

The mean result obtained from the three cubes was that each cubic
foot of sandstone would store 0°733 gallon of water.

Let us now consider the experiment on filtration.

I took from the River Mersey off the Rockferry slip, at half tide ebb,
fifteen gallons of water, and allowed the muddiness to subside before
filtering through the stone. A portion of the water was then carefully
run in small quantities into the dished part of the first cube, until it
began to drop from the bottom ; and when two fluid ounces had passed
through, I carefully analysed the quantity of the chlorides left im the
filtrate, and found that 80°8 per cent. had been removed by the filtration.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 399

The water was then allowed to filter through and drop into the second
cube until it passed without any change from the condition of sea water.
‘The second cube, it will be observed, was partially saturated with the
filtrate from the first cube, and sea water was added continuously, till it
began to drop from the bottom of the second cube, when it was received
into bottles and carefully analysed with the results given in the following
table, namely :—

Quantity in |Percentage of Chlo-
fluid ounces rides removed
Ist filtrate: s.iisesecsseusere 34 80°8
z 2NDic (Oa Mlostesetetces cosme's + 76°6
SIGs Ostet seawicwaundeseseses 4 71°27
Atlin Or on coweccedese saclay 4 64:89
Bile elo Pi, SENS A. a: 4 5744
Sthinide: ro3.6 AA. it 4 53-19
Tt) dOsmads is telssesay ae t 46:8
Sth Goes otoceanwed Selon 8 44-68
ULE Ome’) tess acsavensieet eee 8 31:9
MOGHMMGO:® hetcccitesscctecect 8 25°53
MEO OS 4. scenes cssecsesecaa 8 21:27
LEG Go. Se Fes 283.04 8 10°63
StH HOO pias cache epeprente das 8 10°63
ie Sela s Lorem ato ee Remon 18 8°51
| 932

These filtrates are obtained from two cubic feet of sandstone.

The last drops of the fourteenth filtrate were of the same composition
as the sea water, and therefore the filtering power of the stones was ex-
hausted.

In the analyses here given, I dealt only with the chlorides, these being
‘by far the larger and most characteristic constituents. of sea water, as
will be seen by the following analysis of the sea water used in the ex-
periments, namely :—Total solids in one gallon=1505 grains, of which
1334-9 grains are chlorides of sodium, magnesium, and calcium.

Mr. A. Norman Tate, F.C.S., analysed the first, fifth, and thirteenth
filtrates, and his analyses agreed to within less than one per cent. with my
own as given in the table above, thus proving their substantial accuracy.
It follows then that 934 fluid ounces of sea water passed through two cubic
feet of sandstone before they became inoperative as filters, and nearly the
whole of the salts were removed from the water that first passed through.

» Applying this knowledge to account for the water withdrawn from the
wells in Liverpool, we should proceed as follows :—The rain water which
was stored in the cavities of the rock would be tapped by the wells and
bore holes, and pumping would cause a current under great frictional
resistance to flow towards the well as a centre from all directions in the
surrounding rock. The flowing water, owing to the frictional resistance
and capillary attraction of the rock, would assume the form of an irregular
inverted cone, the apex of which would be the bottom of the suction pipe
of the pump, and the base would be the stationary water level towards
the surface of the rock. If the area which forms the base of the water
cone is pervious all over to rain water, and remains uncovered, the rain-
fall would be partly absorbed by the rock, and so keep an equilibrium

400 REPORT—1 878.

with the quantity pumped. If this quantity should be large, the bottom
of the suction pipe, or, in other words, the apex of the water cone, would
have to be carried down until the base of the water cone is enlarged to an
area sufficient to supply the requirements of the pump. If that area is
parily covered with anything which is impervious, the base of the water
cone would extend wider and wider till it reached some source of water,
and then, like blotting paper, the exhausted rock would absorb it and
pass any excess to the flowing stream which leads to the pump.

In Liverpool there are several wells within one mile of the docks and
river Mersey, yielding daily several million gallons of water. The yield _
has been continuous for many years. The water has become more
brackish each year, some of the wells yield water half as brackish as sea
water, but it has always been a mystery where water less salt than sea
water percolates so largely into them.

The expriments just described will, I think, dispel the mystery and
give data for calculating the quantity of water freed from salts any given
area and depth of similar sandstone rock would filter.

The next question I wished to decide was—Is the filtration through
the sandstone a mechanical or a chemical process? I will give the answer
as follows :—

One of the cubes of stone which I had used as a filter in the first
experiment was allowed to dry in air fora month, and then I poured spring
water into the dished part, as I had done with the sea water. Following
are the results obtained, and given here in tabular form :-—

Quantity of filtrate Percentage of the Chlorides
in fluid ounces washed out

1st filtrate 24 157°77

2nd_ do. 45 122-22 $101 fluid ounces.
3rd_— do. 32 102:22 }

4th do. 40 55°55

5th do 40 4-44

6th do 12 2°22

92

Taking sea water at 100 as the standard for comparison, we see that
in the first filtrate of 24 fluid ounces there was an increase of 57°77 of
the chlorides, and the third filtrate shows that it required 101 fluid ounces
of water to reduce the salts which had accumulated in the pores of the
stone cube during the filtration of the sea water to the standard of the
original sea water. The sixth filtrate shows that 92 fluid ounces ad-
ditional of spring water washed out all the remaining chlorides which the
cube had taken out of the sea water. The last drops of the sixth filtrate
only showed a trace of salts remaining.

It appears, therefore, that the filtering action is purely mechanical or
molecular, and not the result of any chemical action by the rock upon
sea water. '

If I may hazard an opinion in a report intended to be free from
assumptions, I would suggest, as a probable explanation of the results
obtained, that the capillary attraction of the grains of sand of which the
rock mass is composed is more powerful for the sodium, calcium, and
magnesium chlorides, than it is for the water of solution. These are, there-

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 401

fore, retained in the stone, whilst the water of solution filtersout. But if
excess of pure water be allowed to run through the stone, the salts are
again taken in solution and carried away by the water. I simply offer
this as an hypothesis which may explain the results obtained in the ex-
periments.

Report on the Jurassic Rocks.

The geology of the oolitic districts has determined, as pointed out many
years ago by your chairman, “ the sites of most of the villages. Thus
along the valley of the Evenlode villages are planted wherever there are
copious springs combined with adry situation, circumstances generally to
be found in the small lateral valleys which are excavated in the oolite
and lias, and in these most of the villages are grouped. In other parts of
the district similar advantages have determined the sites of Enstone,
Kiddington, Glympton, Wotton, Woodstock, Bladon, Steeple Barton, &c.
Some of these villages are perhaps as old as the Norman Conquest, and
have not altered much in size through several centuries.” *

At Trowbridge, a well was sunk to a depth of 160 ft., and an 18 in.
bore-hole a further 40 ft.; a salt water spring was met with in the shaft,
but the water is still brackish, yielding no less than 6 lbs. of common salt
from 1,000 gallons of water, 3 oz. being the usual average, the hardness
being 57:1 parts per 100,000.

This quantity of salt is of course exceptional; there are no records
of a good and plentiful supply being obtained from the Lias. In those
which yield a large quantity, the water is invariably derived from over-
lying porous gravel.

At the base of the Inferior Oolites powerful springs are thrown out,
and flow in streams and rivulets over the Lias plain at their base. The
commissioner gives several examples of clay-land parishes of this
character in the valley of the Severn, which at present do not receive
their water supply until it has been hopelessly contaminated, with one
marked exception, that of Coaley, near Frocester.

The common lands of this parish were enclosed under the superin-
tendence of a Deputy Commissioner of the Enclosure Office. The frontages
to the highways were fenced in, and the footpaths to the brooks closed ;
the several landowners who benefited by the enclosure in return laid a
two inch iron pipe from the spring through every hamlet in the parish,
and built a small reservoir at the spring head.

That landowners should be able to charge their property as a land
improvement with the cost of such proceedings as may be necessary for
the provision of pure water to villages and hamlets, is a matter of
great importance, recommended as it is by Her Majesty’s Enclosure
Commission, and supported by the Rivers Pollution Commission.

The well at Witney is at Messrs. Clinch and Co’s. Brewery, and is
65 ft. deep. The water, which through the depth of the well has been
tolerably filtered, is derived from the upper part of the Great Oolites.
None of the wells of this district, however, supply water as pure as that
flowing past the town in the Windrush. In this district a good supply
a er might be obtained by carefully constructed wells of sufficient

epth. 4
* Professor Hull, F.R.S., Mem. Geol. Surv. Exp., Sheet 45 S.W.
1878. DD

402 REPORT 1878.

At Bicester, an artesian boring is described by the Geological Survey
as reaching a good spring at the base jof the Great Oolite, 244 ft. from
the surface.

It is an interesting fact, that three years before Sir Hugh Myddleton
bought the Hertfordshire chalk springs by the New River to London,
one Otho Nicholson, of Christ Church, Oxford, brought the water of a
small spring to Carfax Cross in that city, issuing from the base of the
Coralline Oolite, on the hills above North Hincksey, a distance of two
miles across the valley of the Isis. The spring still yields 10,000
gallons daily but the supply was cut off and the cross removed in 1787.

The following are some of the more important springs in the Oolite
district, about Oxford, given by Messrs. Pole and Bravender in their
evidence before the Royal Rivers and Pollution Commissions.

Gallons.

ENDING DOL nesan esse cngaisesecsececneseese tees 2,000,000
Ampney, near Cirencester ............446 12,000,000
ISibityaieetecesesec sarees ct ores seeernsasers: 10,000,000
Bourton, Eyeford, and Donnington,

near Stow-on-the- Wold .............+. 25,000,000
Boxwell, near Cricklade................0+ 1,200,000
SEL WIT ioe chia sing omics eves ace beorh « obemee seins som 1,000,000
Seven Springs, near Northleach ...... 500,000
SPVEM sVWSlIB ver tkiccec csceSssesstuvasesspse 2,000,000
Syreford, near Cheltenham ............ 4,000,000

Professor Prestwich gives the following abstract of the beds passed
through, and compares them with the thicknesses of the oolitie stratafof
the neighbourhood, estimated by Professors Phillips, Hull, and Green.

Thicknesses of Strata at Wytham boring.

Beds. Oxford Clay :— Ft. int
IN> 2155,’ bo ah mo sasseconeyactn igoanodggocenasdbornda: 9 6
yp OAD) BREA RULE cde eae. ssloeoaetecas 38 «(0
4 ss} selon iauisiel, cat, sere at, Lite 131 6
9) OLE-DO.i)) Meabaetsaitachsshacbeplca tens heveao as tees 14. 6
Wanting :—
Ap sR Pe eae ee 170 =6(+)
At Charbury, Woodstock, and Enslow Bridge.
Feet.
NOxtor cue lav gges sees: tasers ns secs ceesce taste tenses
Mormbrashi Pens eccestess seekbsiecucpeeosaarsete noes 9)
onesie blamiss. tees mess. sas. .cecett a steoesa needs 25) | vot. 90 an
GreptiG@olite, TUpperis: aaieccsats ties coach oaedae 60 179 6G
+ SM LOWEN sts = cbtsts selsnicigs dade s/oep tapes - 70 f
TOTIOLMOMELE Bas. nooks on 2> odiqs> gol «> Senen<smyase epee 15 J
TIPPETT AS ys veceesepemindss sear pensien andes ones: descinoy 8

Marlstone and Lower Lias

The boring was followed by another a few years later, in the hope of
obtaining water, at St. Clement’s, but unfortunately a salt spring was
reached at 420 ft., which is still flowing. The beds passed through,
according to Professor Prestwich, were probably the Oxford Clay and
Great Oolite, and the analysis. of the water from the artesian well at
St. Clement’s, Oxford, by Mr. W. F. Donkin, February, 1876, was pub-
lished by Professor Prestwich.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 403

Soditmm Chloride... .ssccccenesneercccdbee ce 10690
Sodium sulphate........ceccscceeresseesees 510:0
Calcium sulphate ...........ssseeeeeeeees 193:1
Calcium carbonate .........cceseseseeeeees 10°9
Maenesium chloride ..........-..seee0es 389
Silica’ Pes. Fe Seb see anette sbecvecss ecccto de 1:8
Aim oni. Mel selacseetadee decalan ds sesieeess 01

1824°7 in 100,000 parts.
With traces of potash, iron and alumina.

Weight of total solids, dried at 170° C., 1831-5.
Specific gravity of the water at 9° C., 1:01462.

Section of Wytham Boring.

Presented by the Earl of Abingdon to the Oxford Museum in 1849,
and published in Phillips’ ‘ Geology of Oxford,’ p. 296.

Ft. in. Ft. in.
1. Loamy ground ............... 12 0} 80. Clunch and clunch
2. Quicksand and water ...... 3 0 DITCH seat escseavattes see 6 0
SPP ERIE CLUNCHIY sho scecseecaceeses 68 6 | 31. Grey rock ............... 18 0
4, Light clunch .................. 1 6 | 32. Dark parting clunch... O 6
5. Blue clunch .................. 28 6 | 33. Light rock............... 30. 3
6. Clunch bimes ................25 4 6 | 384, Light parting clunch
ar blue eltinehy ics.) 43.5 cpe8 «st 29 0 bines th nsseys bones. ay egy 9
8. Clunch bines ........:......64 OO Pata, aLbvred eh rea fore le Srey ceencc can 5 0
Genie CLINCH) ....- 2000604405: 28 0 | 386. Very dark parting...... 2 0 |
10. Brown clunch ............... Sin 0) Weare Grey LOCKepe we ccncsastsae 1 4
11. Mingled ground............... 11 6} 388. Dark parting ............ 0 8 | 2
12. Strong grey rock ............ 1 0 | 89. Clunch bines............ Cidade d=
Men streey Clivich: . 0.25 /i262208... 2 0 | 40. Grey rock ............... 3 0 | =
14, Brown clunch .............., 1 6 | 41. Dark parting............ 1 640
15. Mingled ground............... 17 1504) (42. vGreyirocls -ciste-snna2.- 2 6,
16. Blue clunch bines ............ 6 O | 48. Blue bines............... 2 0O| &
17. Mingled ground............... 4 © | 44, Mingled ground......... 3° 0
18. Blue clunch ..............5... 17 6 | 45. Blue rock .............0- 9 0
19. Mingled ground............... 9 6 | 46. Dark ground ............ TG
20, Blue clunch ................4. 5 0 | 47. Mineled ground......... flee
21. Dark blue rock ............... 1G) | ae. Dap ib TOChKiscntesesqadeee 16 6
22. Dark parting clunch......... 0 6 | 49. Black bat. ...........006 2 0
23. Dark blue rock ............... Die Ga | OUMEROC Katesccesecenecereredas 35 6)
24. Dark clunch ................+. 11 6 | 51. Mingled ground (In-
25, Strong blue rock (Corn- ferior Oolite) ......... ds
[:igG1a)) Sietcene Sonepeerer wacce 10 6 | 52-5. Mingled ground (In-
26. Dark parting clunch......... 1) ferior Oolite) ......... 0
27. Strong blue rock ............ 5 6 | 56. Ironstone (marlstone) O 4
28. Strong parting clunch ...... 0 6 | 57-58. Clunchin ironstone
29, Blue rock .....sseeasseceeeeees 16 (marlstone) .........++. 132 0
59. Dark clunch(marlstone) 2 0

‘The boring was carried to the depth of 633 ft., the strata the same
as that at 596 ft.”—C. Webb.
The boring was made in 1829.
To exclude sources of contamination, the water is remarkably free
_ from organic impurity, the amount in some cases being as low as ‘047
part in 100,000, and ‘033 grain per gallon, at Scarborough well, and
: — DD2

404 REPORT—1878.

‘012 part in 100,000, or ‘008 grain per gallon, in Garner’s spring, North- |
ampton. In fact, “ unpolluted spring water from the Oolites is unsur-
passed in its comparative freedom from all kinds of organic impurity.”

The oolitic rocks are very porous, absorbing and holding enormous
volumes of water, which are again delivered as springs usually of great
size. As water-bearing rocks are equal, if not superior, for the purifica-
tion and storage of water, the oolitic rocks are equal, if not superior, to
the chalk itself. But this vast store of magnificent water is rarely used
by communities until it is hopelessly polluted. The analyses show that
great care should be exercised to cut off surface contamination in deep
wells, and that shallow wells are absolutely unsafe.

An area of no less than 6671 square miles is occupied by the oolitic
rocks of England, with an annual average absorption of not less than
10 in. of rainfall, a figure probably much below the real average.

Professor Hull describes the two chief sources of springs among the
Cotteswolds, at the base of the Great Oolite, or Stonefield slate, at its
junction with the Fuller’s Earth, and at the junction of the Upper Lias
clay with the overlying sands. To the latter horizon belong the seven
springs forming the source of the Thames. Smaller springs issue in the
district at the base of the Lias marlstones and the upper surfaces of
forest marble clays.

Gloucester is partially supplied by springs in the flanks of Robin’s
Wood Hill, thrown out by the Lias, which, with the surface drainage of
1,500 acres, are collected in a reservoir holding 62,000,000 gallons. The
water is nineteen and a half degrees of hardness, which could be reduced
to three and a half by Clark’s process.

Three springs at Cheltenham are collected along the flanks of the hills
in bricked wells, and conveyed to the reservoirs at Hewlett’s Hill and
Leckhampton, together holding 35,000,000 gallons. Above 300,000
gallons are daily delivered. The water is much softer than most oolitic
springs, the hardness being only 15:0, of which 6-0 is permanent’; that of
Haydon, near Cheltenham, is no less than 45°7, of which 134 is per-
manent.

The saline springs of Cheltenham rise, according to Professor Hull,
like the water in artesian borings, along planes or fissures in the Lower
Lias, and are probably from water percolating through salt-bearing Keuper, -
which outcrops at high elevations, as first explained by Sir Roderick
Murchison.

H = g is & ss: Hardness
o | 3 | 8] & anoles |as
HASH P| — | # B18 | -a 8
aU] 4 @ | a Als bs eS eee
Description |8 5) 3 4 fs 3 3/8 op 44 itl eat 8
Hem| ro SS es A A a | a =
B | 2 |e) 8 / So Pe eles| 2) 21/4) 2) ag
fp eee a eis (28| 2a] siees
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fe)
Bath, Het-| 44°4) 240°52| 161} -036] -029) -439) -499) 43-10) 26-50| 22-0) 82°8| 104-8)Clear
ling Ther-
mal Spring
Bath, King’s] 42*2) 245-40) -190} -019) 039) -447) 491! 44-00) 26:67] 22-0) 82-8) 104-8) Clear
Bath, Ther-
mal Spring

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 405

Bath is supplied with water by no less than eighteen private compa--
nies; the chief quantity of water is derived from springs off the Upper
Lias. The water derived from the Beacon springs is described as the best
by the Royal Commissioners ; but even this is not quite satisfactory, and it
is a remarkable fact, pointed out by them, that the thermal springs of Bath,
like the cold water, contain a large amount of organic impurity (see table,
p- 404). :

These waters have been tapped in a well at Kingsmead Street, at the
junction of the Keuper and Penarth beds. They were believed by William
Smith, and later by Sir Charles Lyell, to rise from subjacent carboniferous
rocks at a great depth. They give off, according to Dr. Daubeny, a
daily quantity of 250 cubic ft. of nitrogen gas as well as carbonic acid gas.
Lithium, strontium, and copper have been determined in their waters by
Dr. Roscoe, and the following salts were found by Messrs. G. Merck and
Galloway in an imperial gallon :—

Carbonate of lime..............cseceeeeee 8'820
ay MAPTIOSIA. ..<sc0ccssesceese 0329

rs LOWE Sccaecsceccereentccess 1:071
Sulphate of lime ..............csecceecee 80-052
rf (POLASSAN eT cc cesseeescesesss 4641

oH BOGIUIM ss coceetesscsees ses 19-229
Chloride of sodium ...............0c0008 12'642
se magnesium ....... ednoonoe 14'581
DUICIC ACIG cc s<cecdeensecosts tees sts sess le 2982

The following well sections, collected by Mr. Bristow, F.R.S., in the
Bath district will be found useful for thicknesses :—

1. America Buildings, near Lansdown.

Feet.
iellen'sreanthics: senses ee teecsanctenceorc aes 20
Inferior OOolite scaccavecrscewecsseccncstecence 30
IMidford!sarid’ or v ce taseccscccecsetecsecssaes 100
Bluey clay? (uias)) secs ccocuscnectwesscecss cence 24
174
Water obtained.
2. Beckford’s Tower.
Feet
GreatlOalitesiscsessacecesaestecetatetdes scseess 30
Bhiller's\ecarthumstmesces crt te eee 70°
SANG. dic heia sea emeee cee oad cece tate ke teoe —
100
3. Claverton Down.
Feet
(Great Oolite). Bastard freestone ......... 80
(Puller'segrth)s, Clay... cccsivctovcdees sce 20
100

Water obtained.
4, Holloway Brewery, above the Old Bridge.
Feet,
Midford sands. Rotten sands ............ 30
Lias. Blue clay with whinstone bands 200
230
Well abandoned, no water.

406 REPORT—1878.

Feet.
Inferior Oolite. Loose rock ...........2066 3
MG dfoxdisand sy o& ooeideeccsseecet one oc aenmeseee 50
80
Water in great abundance. Clay not reached.
6. Bear Inn, Holloway. e
Feet.
Moan and brash? ss.6o..sbcce bbes os veetcleae ne ors 10
Mitton SSA see. woest cctctaeks ceetesas ocinestetss 3
Wissen Sle: @ lays eesttccesecesessoce-e coats —
40
7. Prior Park.
Feet
Trace of fuller’s earth ?
WOO8G, TOK: Lcesene comme see 20
Great Oolite 4 Oolite ..........csecssceoceess 20
Hard freestone ............ 20
Ballewsiearthyy | \Clay.o...scosmddenses- <n =e 40
100 ry

Water obtained.

8. Macaulay Buildings, above Widcomb Church.

Feet.
LET ONZOGIILE ss ocacenscneacdchrapdeonetencsods 40
Mudford\samdl <2s..s¢:scetevsscseviece eseneeeee 100
Dips ((bnotelay )s..cesetces ces eetens Bobanoae 34
A spring met with............... 174

A very useful table, giving the thicknesses of Triassic and Jurassic

\.| strata of the Bristol and Bath area, is given by Mr. Bristow in his evi-

_ dence to the Royal Coal Commission, which has been added to by Mr.
H. B. Woodward, and reprinted pp. 408-410.

The Great Oolite, at Bath, consists of the following series :—

TpCoursershelly limestone Seco esses ee eeteccaes Feet.
A. Upper Rags 2 Rather fine grained oolite ............cssseeeseeee 20 to 55
oe lOve) brow! LIMEStONG ...sresesecsceeene <eseeeeee
I ating Hreestone sero tieetcntccstietasssscesnssfnv'ecmscaesspouseeuneestenteean 10 to 30
C. Lower Rags. Course shelly limestone ............scceeceeeeeeeeeees 10 to 40

The good freestone is very soft, when first obtained, containing much
moisture, amounting sometimes, it is said, to one gallon of water per cubic
foot.

The Bradford clay, a local thickening of the clayey beds of the over-
lying Forest marble, reaches its greatest thickness at Farleigh, where it
reaches forty to sixty feet. The Forest marble around Bath is a hundred
feet thick, in the Cotteswolds not more than fifty.

The Cornbrash-ruffly limestones reach a thickness of more than forty
feet, and are overlaid by 300 to 400 feet of Oxford clay.

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 407

The coal rag only appears in the Bristol area, as Longleat Park, it
underlies the Kimmeridge, which reaches a thickness of sixty-five feet at
Maiden Bradley.

In the oolitic outcrop, ranging between Crewkerne, through Bath to
Wotton-under-Hdge, described by Mr. H. B. W. Woodward, the coal rag,
when present in water bearing the Oxford clay, form the impermeable
layer, as does also the Cornbrash and the upper sandy beds of the Forest
marble, which are held up by the clayey beds beneath.

The outcrop of the Cornbrash, between Witham Friary, South Brew-
ham, and Hardway to Wincanton, is marked by a line of villages, due, as
pointed by Professor Buckman, “not only to the fertility of the Corn-
brash, but to the resemblance that this porous rock, resting on the imper-
vious Forest marble, is a collecting ground for water, which is kept up by
the latter rock.”

The labours of Professor Judd, in Lincolnshire, enable the following
classification of the bed at the base of the oolites to be adopted :—,

Equivalents.

Dorn brash. pemnevennwarerodsevrsivnetswieevees Cornbrash.
Gr. Oolite clays and limestones............... Gr. Oolite.
Upper Estuarian series .............csseeeseees Stonestield slate.
Lincolnshire oolite with Collyweston slate

Beri ts} 187 S126 sp ackiasooeapnont coconocorondoracper | tatesion white.
Northampton sands with Lower Estuarian

BCUIOSM Mn cdgactienceonctoossnccauactscdotonee ede J (Lower Freestones).

The Lincolnshire oolites are absent in the eastern and southern por-
tions of the Midland district, and the Upper Extension series which
form the base of the great oolite series rest directly upon an eroded
and denuded surface of the Northampton sands, when the Lincolnshire
oolites are present, however, they, too, are found to be eroded, proving

them, like the Northampton sand, to be of inferior oolite age. Pe

_ The basement beds of the Northampton sands rest in Rutland, and
South Lincoln, on an eroded surface of Upper Lias clay, and generally
consisting of ironstone oolitic rock, forming a bold escarpment, ‘‘ The
Cliff,” stretching away for ninety miles through Lincolnshire to York-
shire, at the base of. which copious springs arise, at the junction of
the lias, the beautiful Eleanor Cross at Geddington is over one. Springs
are thrown out in a similar situation at Pipwell, where there is the |
remains of an old reservoir. of

At Blatherwyche Park Inlier, one well sunk to the Northampton
Sandrock yielded a good supply, but another was strongly impregnated
with sulphurated hydrogen.

At Collyweston, a number of wells have been sunk through the thick
beds of the Lincolnshire oolites, into the ‘red-rock,’ or ironstone, which
itself supplies the large quantities of water used in the working of the
‘Slate pits.’

To this horizon are due the springs of Wolthorpe, collected in a reser-
voir for the supply of Stamford.

Very copious springs are also given off by the base of the ironstone of
Easton, used for the supply of that village.

Near Stamford, a futile attempt to find coal was made by the late

REPORT—1 878.

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ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 411

Marquis of Exeter, and a depth reached of 500 ft., but the Lias was not
penetrated, the.upper clay being above 140 ft. thick.

Water occurs on the same horizon, in the Uppingham owélier, issuing
from a blue calcareous rock, forming the base of the Northampton sands,
at Lyddington ; springs also issue at Bisbrook.

The upper portion of the ironstones are much peroxidized, and readily
pervious to water, and are called “ kale’”’ by the well-sinkers, the com-
pact lower portion (carbonate of iron), is the water-bearing horizon, but
the well-diggers consider it safer to penetrate it, and reach the Lias, “blue
bind,” to prevent failure during droughts.

Professor Judd states, the capacity for the absorption of rain, of the
Northampton sands and over-lying oolite limestone, is “‘ practically un-
limited, for not only do many of the streams flowing over the boulder clay
instantly disappear underground, by means of swallow holes, when they
reach the junction of the clay and limestone or sand,’’ but drains are
carried into them, and artificial swallow-holes produced that never fail
even in the heaviest rainfalls .

This water is given off in copious springs on the top of the lias, and
though containing much temporary hardness, are never chalybeate.

The Northampton sands average twenty to thirty ft. in thickness, and
seldom reach more than forty, the over-lying Lincolnshire oolite at
Stamford is eighty ft., gradually thickening from thence northwards, and
thinning out entirely southwards at Harrington and Maidwell, and east-
wards, near Wansford tunnel.

C. E. De Rance. S. B. J. Skertchley.
Crooked drain near Norney, Ely :—

Ft. in
IA hatedecndas cestecccestecenccecaccotec ence rec stort acceae 11 0
Cla ya enn eccctcrnccccestoretencedeentcesaccnterodatecs 3.0
Mimaneridg@d Clay... 0...s.0c<ccheos<phenonrstadea>sagnes

Ft. in.
REGIE cts onaesveccielenanecs «svetoc eee Mer SI 1 6.
BOOS ORME 2.3.50 12aseeerdatawietce leon eevaxacs ssene 1 6
MPR OTIA ey Clay aestenateeacanacwacsyseisdecdacwsadl se 16 0
Stone floor (septarea)........... Pahncnogaasmaeneaa tse 1 3

20 38

C. EH. De Rance. Geological Survey.
Great Northern Railway boring, north side of River Cam, Ches-
terton :—

¢ Ft. in
MBG reMt dl, sae svete ceric cs ole sockessitavssetecesy, 10
lekker es. - sasnanmamannweincl 2 0
Grave oi ccudages a oeig fasetenk 3}. Leasanalaaead si 10 0
Kimmioridge elay...satetachy.. 0) cesses nctacnqens ke 5 0

412 REPORT—1878.

Railway boring, Earith Wash :—

Ft, in
lay, yell wedictn<pptsscs ces ass se ceeteeercampeenemees 2 6
Peat DlaCKigvercses axccneb ass dssanestateen st secapeaemees 3 6
Clay, yellow and mottled .......... pat eaeeoseeeeean 4 0
Sand, gravel, and loam ...........sccssceseeseeeeeees 5 0
NUE EULY espe teceins cues tbesabancntanatcccers stearate 3.0
18 0
8. B. J. Skertchley.
Near Gas Works, Whittlesey :—

Ft. in
Gravelmand sand ws2it.: aceloepecypiscedls westenesSeamiaes 10 0
Oxford :clay: (Seen) dsivesosisxs osspisess wesicnu van shaeas 5 0
7" LOO

Downham Market, Bennet’s brickyard :—

‘ Ft. in
SOU BATIAY? onsascvu swears onscyscnpisausvestocareretes 2 0
Ferruginous sandy bed ...........ssccsscoeeeseceeees 0 10
Siliceous sand and fine gravel ..........seceeeceeee iis
Kimmeridge { dark blue clay...............0cce0eee 30 0

clay jee floor (septaria)........s00006 ts!
Dark blue clay.............00c00+ Re cuenseeteadear mace —
36 2
C. E. De Rance. Mr. C. B. Rose.
Lynn, Mr. T. Allen’s well :—
Ft. in.
SHVepetaple Soul sts. .ccsescuces coserscuesoeessesesseeee —
i LICE BILE sere ty past ienassicens seers haviatadsoreene iO
ONE OWE cht eWe vu seaduaysnaseeussnacicatgheactskasvencaeas 2 6
OPBINO IC Ayaacsreesconcessests isos cesuete sneecsnee atten 8 0
4 Peat, with alder and hazel...............ceceseees 3 0
3 Blue clay, with marine silt .........ceeeeeeees 30 0
2 Blue clay, with “chalk stones” .............4. 630 0
1 “Oxford clay,” with septaria.............ccssse0 —

Nors.—The greater part of 1 and 2 are probably Kimmeridge Clay,
the upper part of 2 being referable to the Boulder Clay.

Stickney. Geological Survey :—

Ft. in.
OTA ET IE, | somocinnp nate eclonnviessevereoco etek weet 4 0
Peat, with trees .......... avis Saja dsgld'ec celdaaetceie pees 0 6
NVA SILICIOUS SANG A255 oss 30 ssidbes.doaveanccadaiees 2 0
Dark gravel, mixed with clay .............cceseeee 6 0
Dark blue clay’ ............... 32 0
Kimmeridge clay + Large septaria...............00 2 0
Dark blue clay .............+ —
46 6
Horbling Fen Farm :—
Ft. in
DGAtys SOU oameacwenystcasee sees ses sivesstansseusnuec eed 1 6
Clay, blue laminated (Oxford clay) ............ 59 0
Rock bed, septaria course ( do. ) .....c.eeeee 13

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 413

(Account of boring for water.)

Boston, Market Place :—
MS. in Geological Society’s Library :—

Ft. in.
Wient lao: cliy. scccsutueedtetescliassciésavermnes 386 0
Pandiand oravel:'...cucssedtinsascceesscrscvesteecs 1 6
Piet Wu Clay siasugasnaabtnnenpeaesscsnd desactasnee 10 6
Rag stone, with salt springs ..........cscsseseeeeeee 0 6
anki Pluecclay.<. .ssecsensrmeeteat seessieunuws cs 26 6
Might-coloured stone: vacsasusedacssaustvaseqeoree se 0 6
Waric blue’ clay........eeveadidanuneanteseXsdaasvesdesehte 38 6
Bright-coloured stone ..............cseessseessennceese 0 8
Gravel, with salt springs ............csssssce-eseers 0. 6
MRT CUD 23 ascey dais sna vous tener snseteanetensmercaaaeran 59 0
Chalkey clay, with pebbles and flints ............ 0 6
Dark clay, with a bed of shells (? about 35 re
down and about 6 ft. thick) ............... 168 0
aM Clays seve teuce dacs eos coccon sdanissaceasetaraca athe
Ohalleys (2 GN wwecasevonssseccsesecceecescceests
Dark earth, with chalk and flints............... fiss 7
Beds of COMA L, Bid JyibatNcvesssanee ages
IRAE SLONOrcccc cennsesescocneadeccccsrcorcssssiseadedeas fas Teed
Dark silt, with chalk and gravel, no spring...... —
472 4
Surton, Lincolnshire :—
Feet
CUA Mi cassscctecds ccs sine ssecesanaisacacecddvekesevsnadeoedes 16
IMOOTIOMPCtttrs ca cascee esis veeeriaceonkbasiweniecatecccucasee 4
Soft moor, with shells and silt .............ccccececees 20
Wanlysclaivassatscs ss: seacsssaesoswateaesinstetisscsacceotocers 1
Ohalliyproclays22. sccsssvecssnscsaestccsssoshtssechaskeeneeees 2
Oliva iieweresestariesscossescccstnsssJeccsscabenescenxtteeetets 93
Gravel and water (not bottomed)..........:seceeceees —
136

Doncaster boring for water supply. Failed in obtaining water supply.
Letter from W. Sheardown, 1867, to Mr. Hunt, Mining Record Office.

ig fin. Ft. in.

cei doe iaiiasssesees'es AeiOn) lle! Clay ve.sccnseccsseasses 0.3
PPUGICIBY | 3s senccso0s-s00es 14 0 | Limestone ...... SLOREEION OEE 48 0
PEEP oca2 5 casce+ cvece Se Or 1 sahiel claya Sijatserecoveconte 6 7
CLEC G) Set ee - 2 0 | Red clay and sulphate of
eth TECBines dcones 00s <vocusere 90 0 LIMON. Ae easeseees 42 0
IRGQUCIAYS .0.0..:25.-0.secees 36 0 | Hexthorpe limestone...... 210 O
Limestone .3...........00008 0 4 | Blue shot .............s0000 8 0
Bed). GLB Yiss0ecc ses se) caeioete ve Bat Ae Wisely ences cansce seve ce ee 18 0
Timestone .............00008 OFFS iral Coal smut st.cesccsiess ores 18 0
Red. Clays sicccsacces scassiss 1 5 Grit. .....0. Wecatcessecnsciee 0 9

_ Limestone .............0.06- Oboes | Shaly clay> ...:cosscscssesees 84 0
Hed Clay..2.c:scssnessecmes oe 0 6 Grit ens AER ees 4 6
Hamestone j.<vecewvesteedeae QO 43 | Shaly clay, and grit
Red shale .........ssesse--e 2 3 sets inee crete Caper Acasere 244 6
Limestone ..........cssce0e 0 13 —_——
Shale limestone ............ 6 0 845 8

Bore small and rods broke, and could not be raised.

414 REPORT— 1878.

Well section at Somerton at the west end of the town, about a quarter
of a mile to the west of the brewery well. Communicated by Mr.
F. H. Dickinson, F.G.S.

Ft. in.
Depth of well before beginning boring’............s00.006- 62 0
Bluesmanl (Goth) wesc cste-ccveccscescdosesaces«asteeciameaeenes On
Wikio Was ene isa is caiceacdaviddv ccs cctdaseasleesm ee eenene 2 83
Blue marl (parting)..........2-s0e0sc essen Spssp samsdacsee sod O 24
White ias (Cyery tard)-.22:125%.c0n2 secur sce sce se eeepc seeeees 4 3
Greyish lias (soft with a black parting) .......60...se0+- 0 6
T33lete\ otk hyd WR seaaasasaseccs ioenE oo sodoneoaagoAaaBoobAe Shotcabsc 0 6
Bluish lias, hard ; last 20 inches lies very hard ......... 4 5
Greyishwas very Hard? occ2c..c.eccccscscooscensceccaneseseaes 411
Po Oly ay. oapdandeacrdgahbos cdot Aono osoicoda st 2 9
Be, NTR st ap hel estat sanded acadcadadsanddgecso996" 0 2
By Ob. 2S “adhsaanceetnosiooagabycanserdn oc enriocsce: 2 fa
Grit, sanid ysApPeAarANCe eevasce coscncsnuassseocete \oakmernnes 0 8
WVihitoainsninand!)ececenec.esseateecaenescersereacosees saeneene 2 4
Ee STE abousao seas Suchbhaoecnoooeanbsbe soa a oe bb sneadoosca: 1 9
By fhe Gonipasoabosaasone boo ad Ion ssaMndd abo aranaacgonqago Sec A
UA TeVASMMEBEL RULE)” ace heStoretens acatc se odaetespes se teaeere anes 2 10
White lias (very hard, mixed with alabaster)............ 3.4
Tey las {PAUP sects cet arcsn cease nsobeds Saas se saan ane 2 0
OMIA seems ece cscs M ccecctae seacstensacaceeersobeecons 2 1s
IETATH sw te GNULO seve nesses oasis scsine css svoncecss sowctatsorees f pei
NS OLNOMCNAUIDLO vesirscisscerecaleetcs srs ccenoss oedaseceiseccruestees O 43
BMD THAT Sap sibiens veicane sanded ongBasuacapevacwortocp spare apeey 3 2
NEHER TEL TD IY co 2 Posistap tere eadihls antveb woe wsednonveregenoarees 0 9
RSLGIETOY, ate Cnaehoseysprevareracesshccrvpredecesvecsverkreice =o 1 4
ditto Ba Uschi taieserscsccessstercsesyseccesss sce eee hoseoe 0 9
TTR TEMDIA CK SLONG oS ccnsin< -dc suet singh ccbeseis sadanareeeedaes 6 1 33
MUDIGHOT: done tak gaseasbnsasnadgaedanasseqsesdaauseascosseass swemere 0 83
MDUGIRD? ee carey vesaranntne sabi wana Van PuTasaruesdaseeacess RRGEAE TERE ibeil
WDE Oban terete Gus phccueaarasaavadenvaaseaadengsosaccssasteceees 1 9
VIGO p ectanarcbsseaneprnonscase scete sabe ast -Reaons eho wads phen enee 1 0
UD UbCO Rae a cstatse no ween accents Seno wes ewoccn sees as senaneeece 1G
SIUSEHN aS tay fc deote pers cecn sere ectreeettivesceressacbeacaseenees 0 5
ahi rey a (Hetd)) eerowsssestsssstis seaaeennes aah sonsccnarscneee 2 6
ab ewan

14 ft. or so below the river. [This seems to mean bottom of well.—

W.W.]

Farrincpon.—Eagle Brewery, ?1874. Sunkand communicated by Mr.
W. B. Kinsey (with specimen of each bed).

Bore decreasing from 5} to 3 in.

Water rose to within 13 ft. of the surface, but is reduced 25 ft.
by pumping. ;

Supply, 12,700 gallons a day (of 11 hours).

Sand has blown up the pipe to 77 ft. from the surface.

Feet.
Guityandestone grckt.\.:.i}.-sbhss-opppeceeeears 73
Bao or { Dark grey sandy clay with bits of stone... 4

(1) Rock, loose for 1 foot, hard for 2 ft. 3
[? Coral rag] { (2) Oolitic rock. ...).15..2.ssspeseereneons (G3

(1) Water 54°. (2) Bottom of town wells,

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.

Bottom of sinking 10 ft, diameter.

Feet
Grey clayey sand, firm ............06 93
Grey sand, 100S€ .......:seceseseeseeeeee 9
Grey clayey sand, firm ...........0005 11
[? lidwer ealca- Oolitic rock and clayey NOC? seks 05 2k
reous grit] Dark grey clay with a little sand... 2
Grey clayey sand, firm ............... 8
Rock (limestone) ........+-eseeeeseeeeeee 6
ft (8) Light grey sharp sand ...........006 3
Grey BEM Giya Clay messecseeut acca ap eoel's' 13
Grey sand wiih, PYTUMES sense .ce sn. ove 5
[? Oxford clay] (4) oe: BADGY Clay si.csccc cite ssccesoseene F
BI) AVR ioe icenseeetocsioss cts se~
Fah estrieiel. HoGehb Uap ucREEE CORE cc 13
113

(3) Water 53°. (4) Water 52°.

Feet.
Stor A Sdn odipaneodcebods daan doe dog se Laboeeenods 3
BVellowashiclayiits, oscccsscncossncasee®es ens 8
Woody deposit ..........sscsecoscacceseners :
Laminated limestone.............seeeeeeeees 83
Laminated calcareous bed ...........+05. 3
oP TOGK sess cessee ratte ese eencecees 3
Close hard limestone.............cseeeeeeees 24
Laminated calcareous matter ...........- +
Obani Be deere cehdew aus dap sce cade thee. sersc ses 9
Nala 0 Caran eceeeeencndacsaansaescacccicactert) 4
Olay, Whe reeta secon ste ontsnasc tne seoane ssn asatis 65
ROCK eae Rh decate secede osen clade teeoriecdli= snes ma
100

New Well, Spinning Close, Kettering Road, Northampton.

Ft.
Yellow clay and marl .:...........5. SCOBRROAEEEEOCOG indkloccnce 4
lne ditto and bynehs<eacke.c-s.-2-0ivcecanccscoscescehsecarccese 147
Green rock with fossil shells ............cssceeseseneeeeeeeees 4
MBG WICH LOSSHS!. Boat c n> cats cv 28+ 048 <Gainns docorcesvebeceseeeses 1
Green roclocwith: shells .203.0 doi: .53 veces dessceccesmecesoesees 6
Rock binds........ Redipercnied aint. ssccscidertscrescovewccsecceses 2
Hard green rock with fossils ...........ccecesseeeeceeeeeeees 7
Strong rock binds: 358 Bacio IRB sap See cbo- boncnret Hagececanes 2
Hard. rock cidue Stine cbs Sutheos.veces “bum Seedeeac Sabcapoeone 3
Binds WithsfOssyls 5.5 <p. aes ono de dh ope ap ost agen scasedecscenseore 8
Hard rock ........ Ma eUe cece eP a tenee his pin dayedsacecosdvoecscoees 2
TROCKs Rittd Segoe ae tee seamed ens os ow oon .cdacwossees choses concen 3
Light coloured rock or ‘Bastard Stone” «...........ceeeeee 1
Strong binds with ironstone ....5.c...sséeeeceeeeeeecneeenees 20

SARABDOARBOOCOOCOSCHE’

Depth of sinking........... wo 213 0

415

Berprorp.—Close to the River Ouse, about a mile N.W. of the town.
Sunk by Mr. J. Lund, 1867 ; well 30 ft., bore 70 ft.

‘atqej}ered pure rea[O

*prqimy 4LS119

se

REPORT—1878.

‘arquyered pur 1919
L

*prqin} AYYSITS

SYIVULIY

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418 REPORT—1878. ‘
Boring 23 in. diameter. Ft. in.

Strong ibindalshalen fic... .a0:sacsaeeosonses dueunvase 18 0
Tron stone pind eeetas. cs. osscacceteoccsessaeeene 0 6
Bandeshal@sy ch ccervecsscac«sssechoossgce oe terocee omens 0 6
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DSM ea DUG Ste oc cocoa seats escencsssteestevcecmeateaeacee 21 0
ROCK Wate aac a Seaceec tes sucess gesthodestecttateatnres 2 6
SIMON DIN Steg ceiae cee cee dese cs eae ve csee renee ore tes 3.0

157 6

The Northampton Water-works Company.
From Mr. B. Latham’s Paper, ‘Trans. Soc. Eng.,’ for 1864, pp. 244,

247. Shaft 120 ft., the rest bored.
Yield 518,000 gallons a day.

Made ground ...............+
Rubble stone ...............4.

Stone

Stone

Pee ee eee eeenee
PR eee eee weet eee ee ears eee eeseeeeaseee
Peet eee eee eee ee ese eee eeeeeeeee
steer eee eeeenee
Peewee meee eee eeeereeeeeeeeeseese
PPO m wee w meee eee eee esse eee eeeeeeeeeesees
Seem meee meee e reese eeeeeeseseseees
Peer e eww weer eres eeeesees

Pete eee eeeneeene

POeeeeeRe eee eee eee

Kerrerine Waterworks, 1872.—Nearly half a mile 8.S.W. of Weekley
Church. Communicated by Mr. T. Hennell, C.E.

Water level (at rest) in shaft No. 1.

94 ft. down; in shaft N. 2, 8 ft.

down.
Shaft No. 1 at 2 Shaft No. 2,
Engine-House 7 aes about 100
<3 2 of way to =
on slightly Sh ft No. 2 yards § E.
higher ground | |), Ose Onell
Sand, to top of rock ......... 143 4 8
Shale [=soft rock] ......... 4h = =
ROCK —eeceieaeeeataresseatescaar es 9 15 13
Mote Cleiyives acters 28 19 21

No. 1 has three galleries, of a total
‘gallons a minute.

length of 81 ft., and yields 120

No. 2, connected with No. 1 by a syphon, yields 360 gallons a

minute.

<2

THE EFFECT OF PROPELLERS ON THE STEERING OF VESSELS.

419

These analyses show, in the words of the Commission, “ that the oolitic
rocks are not inferior to the New Red Sandstone, in the energy with
which they oxidize and destroy the organic matter present in the waters

percolating through them.”

Though the waters so derived are generally hard, it is chiefly of a
temporary character, capable of being softened by Clark’s process, so as

to average 6°'8 instead of 20°°6.

The oolites yield in springs and deep wells, water which is “bright,
sparkling, and palatable,’ and “ excellent for drinking and all domestic
purposes, except washing,’’ for which latter purpose, the addition of lime

renders it fit.

It is noticeable that the temporary hardness of the deep well waters
is higher than that of the spring water, where care has been taken.

Appendix—Form of Questions.

1.—Position of Well, or Wells with
which you are acquainted.

2.—Approximate height of the same

: above the mean sea.level.

3.—Depth from surface to bottom of
shaft of well, with diameter.
Depth from surface to bottom
of bore-hole, with diameter.

4.—Height at which water stands de-
fore and after pumping. Num-
ber of hours elapsing before or-
dinary level is restored after
pumping.

5.— Quantity capable of being pumped
in gallons per day.

6.—Does the water level vary at dif-
ferent seasons of the year, and
how? Has it diminished during
the last 10 years?

7.—Is the ordinary water level ever
affected by local rains, and if so,
in how short a time? And how
does it stand in regard to the
level of the water in the neigh-
bouring streams, or sea?

8.—Analysis of the water, ifany? Does

the water possess any marked
peculiarity ¢

9.—Nature of the rock passed through,
including cover of drift, with
thicknesses.

10.--Does the cover of drift over the
rock contain surface springs?

11.—TIf so, are they entirely kept out of
the well?

12.—Are any large fwults known to exist
close to the well?

13.—Were any salt springs or brine wells
passed through”in making the
well?

14.—Are there any salt springs in the
neighbourhood ?

15.—Have any wells or borings been
discontinued in your neigh-
bourhood, in consequence of
the water being more or less
brackish? If so, if possible,
please give section in reply to
query No. 9.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Jas. R. Napvier, F.R.S.,
Sir W. Tuomson, F.2.S., W. Froups, F.R.S., J. T. Borromiey,
and OsBorngE Reynoups, F.R.S. (Secretary), appointed to in-

vestigate the effect of Propellers on the Steering of Vessels.

Since the Meeting of the British Association held in Plymouth last year,
the Committee have had the satisfaction of receiving reports of the trials
of various English and foreign steamers, made by the owners and officers
of the steamers, without any further instigation from the Committee than
that contained in their circulars. These reports all show that those by

whom the trials were made have become convinced of the importance of
EE2

420 REPORT—1878.

the facts which they have observed. And, indeed, the mere fact of the
trials having been undertaken shows that the importance of the effect of
the reversed screw on the steering while the ship is stopping herself is
beginning to be recognised. This is further shown by the fact that one
of the trials was undertaken at the instance of the Court of Mr. Stipen-
diary Yorke, in order to ascertain if the captain of the s.s. Tabor had been
justified in starboarding his helm in order to bring his vessel round to
starboard after his screw was reversed.

All these trials, without a single exception, confirm the results
obtained in the previous trials made by the Committee. But this is not
the most important purpose which this year’s trials serve. For, as re-
gards the general effect of the reversed screw on the action of the rudder,
the trials already, reported, particularly those of the Hankow (see last
year’s Report, p. 201), are conclusive, and leave nothing to be desired. But
the previous trials were all made with fast vessels at their full draught, their
screws being well covered, and the conditions of the weather being most
favourable. The trials this year, on the other hand, appear, for the most
part, to have been made with vessels in hight trim; and in two instances
the wind was blowing with considerable force. The result of these cir-
cumstances on the behaviour of the vessels is very decided, and coincides
remarkably with the effects deduced by Professor Reynolds from his
experiments on models (see Report 1875, i, p. 145), viz., that when the
screw is not deeply immersed and froths the water, it exerts, when reversed,
considerable influence to turn the vessel independently of the rudder;
the vessel turning to starboard or port, according as the screw is right or
left handed, which effect (and this seems to be the point most generally
unknown) nearly disappears when the screw is so deeply immersed that
it does not churn air with the water.

Neither the Admiralty, the Board of Trade, nor the Elder Brethren
of Trinity House have taken any further notice of the results communi-
cated to them by the Committee.

The Marine Board of South Shields has, however, taken considerable
interest in the question, has invited captains to make trials, and Mr. J.
Gillie, the Secretary, was present at the trial of the Tabor ordered by
the Court, and reported the results to the Committee.

There have been numerous collisions during the year. In almost all cases
the practice of reversing the screw has been adhered to. In many, if not
in all instances where this has been done, the evidence goes to show that
the vessel in which the screw was reversed did not turn in the direction

. in which those in charge of her were endeavouring to turn her. In two
important cases this fact was fully apparent even to those in charge of
the vessel. And in one instance the owners and captain of the vessel
attributed the failure to steer to its true cause, namely, the reversal of
the screw ; although in both cases those immediately in charge of the
vessels contended that the rudder was not handled according to their
directions.

The first case was that of the Menelaus and the Pilot schooner
on the Mersey. The Menelaus was in charge of a first-class pilot, and
this steamer, in broad daylight, ran into and sank the Pilot schooner,
which was dropping up the river with the tide. The pilot in charge con-
tended that, owing to the wheel chains having got jammed, his orders
were not attended to. The jamming of the chains was denied by the
owners, and the fact that they subpoenaed the Secretary of the Committee

THE EFFECT OF PROPELLERS ON THE STEERING OF VESSELS. 421

to give evidence at the trial may be taken to indicate the cause to which
they attributed the collision. The case, however, was only in part heard,
for after the evidence for the plaintiffs a compromise was effected, and
the pilot withdrew all assertion that the wheel chains had been jammed,
thus admitting that the failure to steer had been brought about by the
reversal of the screw.

The other case is the well-known accident to the Kiirfurst. In this
it is admitted that the order was to starboard the helm and reverse the
screw of the Kénig Wilhelm, and this order was avowedly given with
the view of bringing the vessel round to port. All the experiments of
this Committee, however, go to prove that with a reversed screw and a
starboard helm such a vessel as the Konig Wilhelm would have turned
to starboard rather than port. This was what, according to all the -
evidence, did actually happen, and was the final cause of the catastrophe.
But it appears that those in charge of the Konig Wilhelm arrived at
the conclusion that the men at the wheel (and these would be many),
although they all aver that they heard the order and obeyed it, in reality
turned the wheel the wrong way. Considering, therefore, that it was
not one man but a number of men at the wheel, and that the vessel
behaved exactly as she would have behaved had the order been obeyed,
as the men say it was, the conclusion of the Court seems to be most
improbable, and, for the sake of future steering, most unfortunate.

The Committee are now of opinion that the work for which they were
originally brought together has been fully accomplished. The importance
of the effect of the reversed screw on the action of the rudder has been
fully established, as well as the nature of its effect completely ascertained.
Also for two years the Committee have urged the results of their work
upon the attention of the Admiralty, and the various marine boards, and
although they regret that as yet they have failed to obtain the general
recognition of the facts brought to light which their vital importance
demands, they consider that this will surely follow, and that as a Com-
mittee they can do no more than publish the reports of the trials, and the
conclusions to which they have been led.

Full accounts of the experiments made previously to this year have
been given in the two previous Reports, and those which the Committee
have received this year are given at length at the end of this Report. The
following is a summary of the conclusions which have been established ;
and it is interesting to notice that the conclusions drawn by Professor
Reynolds from experiments on models have been fully confirmed by the
experiments on full-sized ships :—

Summary of the Results of the Triuls of the Effect of the Reversed Screw
on the Steering during the time a vessel is stopping herself.

It appears both from the experiments made by the Committee, and from
other evidence, that the distance required by a screw steamer to bring
herself to rest from full speed by the reversal of her screw is independent,
or nearly so, of the power of the engines, but depends on the size and
build of the ship, and generally lies betsveen four and six times the ship’s
length. It is to be borne in mind that it is to the behaviour of the ship
during this interval that the following remarks apply.

The main point the Committee have had in view has been to ascertain
how far the reversing of the screw in order to stop a ship did or did not

422 REPORT—1878.

interfere with the action of the rudder during the interval of stopping;
and it is as regards this point that the most important light has been thrown
on the question of handling ships. It is found an invariable rule that,
during the interval in which a ship is stopping herself by the reversal of
her screw, the rudder produces none of its usual effect to turn the ship,
but that, under these circumstances, the effect of the rudder, such as it is,
is to turn the ship in the opposite direction from that in which she would
turn if the screw were going ahead. The magnitude of this reverse effect
of the rudder is always feeble, and is different for different ships, and
even for the same ship under different conditions of loading.

It also appears from the trials that, owing to the feeble influence of
the rudder over the ship during the interval in which she is stopping, she

‘is then at the mercy of any other influences that may act upon her. Thus
the wind, which always exerts an influence to turn the stem (or forward
end) of the ship into the wind, but which influence is usually well under
control of the rudder, may, when the screw is reversed, become para-
mount and cause the ship to turn in a direction the very opposite of that
which is desired. Also the reversed screw will exercise an influence,
which increases as the ship’s way is diminished, to turn the ship to star-
board or port according as it is right or left handed; this being particu-
larly the case when the ships are in light draught.

These several influences—the reversed effect of the rudder, the effort
of the wind, and the action of the screw—will determine the course the
ship takes during the interval of stopping. They may balance, in which
case the ship will go straight on, or any one of the three may predominate
and so determine the course of the ship.

The utmost effect of these influences, when they all act in conjunction,
as when the screw is right-handed, the helm starboarded, and the wind
on the starboard side, is small as compared with the influence of the
rudder as it acts when the ship is steaming ahead. In no instance has a
ship tried by the Committee been able to turn with the screw reversed on
a circle of less than double the radius of that on which she would turn
when steaming ahead. So that, even if those in charge could govern the
direction in which the ship will turn while stopping, she turns but slowly ;
whereas in point of fact those in charge have little or no control over
this direction, and unless they are exceptionally well acquainted with the
ship, they will be unable even to predict the direction.

It is easy to see, therefore, that if on approaching danger the screw
be reversed, all idea of turning the ship out of the way of the danger
must be abandoned. She may turn a little, and those in charge may
know in which direction she will turn, or may even by using the rudder
in an inverse manner be able to influence this direction, but the amount
of turning must be small, and the direction very uncertain.

The question, therefore, as to the advisability of reversing the screw
is simply a question as to whether the danger may be better avoided by
stopping or by turning ; a ship cannot do both with any certainty.

Which of these two courses it is better to follow, must depend on the
particular circumstances of each particular case, but the following con-
siderations would appear to show that when the helm is under sufficient
command there can seldom be any doubt.

A screw steam-ship when at full speed requires five lengths, more or
less, in which to stop herself; whereas by using her rudder and steaming
on at full speed ahead, she should be able to turn herself through a quadrant,

THE EFFECT OF PROPELLERS ON THE STEERING OF VESSELS. 423

without having advanced five lengths in her original direction. That is
to say, a ship can turn a circle of not greater radius than four lengths
more or less (see Hankow, Valetta, Barge) ; so that, even if running at full
speed directly on to a straight coast, she should be able to save herself by
steaming on ahead and using her rudder after she is too near to save her-
self by stopping; and any obliquity in the direction of approach, or any
limit to the breadth of the object ahead, is all to the advantage of turn-
ing, but not at all so to stopping.

There is one consideration, however, with regard to the question of
stopping or turning which must, according to the present custom, often
have weight, although there can be but one opinion as to the viciousness
of the custom. This consideration is the utter inability of the officers in
charge to make any rapid use of the rudder so long as their engines are
kept on ahead. It is no uncommon thing for the largest ships to be
steered by as few as two men. And the mere fact of the wheel being so
arranged that two men have command of the rudder, renders so many
turns of the wheel necessary to bring the rudder over that, even where
ready help is at hand, it takes a long time to turn the wheel round and
round so as to put a large angle on the rudder.

The result is that it is often one or two minutes after the order is
heard before there is any large angle on the rudder, and of course under
these circumstances it is absurd to talk of making use of the turning
qualities of a ship in case of emergency. The power available to turn

the rudder should be proportional to the tonnage of the vessel, and there
is no mechanical reason why the rudder of the largest vessel should not
be brought hard over in less than fifteen seconds from the time the order
is given. Had those in charge: of steam-ships sufficient control over the
rudder, it is probable that much less would be heard of the reversing of
the engines in cases of imminent danger.

REPORTS OF THE TRIALS OF THIS YEAR.

s.s. NORTH-WESTERN, February 7, 1878.

Right-handed screw. Speed of ship 15 knots. Signalled to engine-
room ‘‘Stop.”’ ‘Full speed astern’’ 20 seconds after first order. Engines
moying astern. Helm put hard a-starboard. Head commenced moving
to starboard and went from N. 20 HE. to N. 50 E.in 14 minute. The
vessel had by this time stopped going through the water. We then got
up full speed ahead, stopped, put the helm hard a-port, and reversed
full speed. The vessel had stopped going ahead in 14 minute, and the
head had gone to starboard from N. 30 EH. to N. 50 E. At 24 minutes
the head stopped going to starboard, and at 24 minutes the ship’s head
was going to port. The vessel was going astern through the water
before her head stopped going to starboard.

The draught of water was 9 feet 2 inches and 12 feet 10 inches. The
centre of propeller is 7 feet 1 inches above bottom of keel, and the pro-
_ peller is 13 feet in diameter, so that the top of the blade was 9 inches out

. of the water.

W. Borromtsy, Jun.
Remarks by the Committee.

The screw of this vessel being right-handed, its tendency when
reversed would be to bring the vessel’s head to starboard, and, owing to

424 REPORT—1878.
the screw being partially out of water, this tendency would be consider-
able. Accordingly we find that the direct effect of the screw prevailed
over the influence of the rudder, and when the screw was reversed the
vessel turned to starboard for all positions of the helm. The reversed
effect of the rudder was, however, very apparent, for the vessel went to
starboard while stopping much faster with the helm starboarded than
with the helm ported.
The same phenomena exactly will be seen in the trials of the next
four vessels.

Kongl. Gieenska Norsk General Consulatet ¢ Stettin.
STETTIN, May 11, 1878.

Sir,—Being a subscriber to the ‘Navy’ I perused an article in No.
124, vol. v., of that journal (Oct. 7, 1876) regarding experiments on the
turning of screw steamers.

The same inspired me with great interest in the matter it treats of,
and caused me to instruct the captains of my three steamers, Martha,
Marietta, Susanne (of which I subjoin the necessary particulars at foot),
to make the experiments in question. This has been done, and the
results obtained communicated to the Nautical Associations here and at
other German ports. Being indebted to you, as the promoter of these
experiments, for the idea, I consider it my duty to acquaint you with the
results of the experiments made by my captains, and venture to enclose a
translation of the report on same. I need not state that any comments
you might favour me with, or a few lines stating whether the conclusions
arrived at correspond to your own, would be most highly esteemed.

I am, Sir, your most obedient,
T. Ivers.
Professor Reynolds, Manchester.

On the Steering of Steamships with Right-handed Screws, when the vessel is
going ahead, but her engines reversed.

The experiments made by Professor Reynolds, of Manchester, in refer-
ence to the correct steering of screw steamships, when going ahead with
the propeller working astern, and the results of the trials made with the
steamer Melrose, which have been published in the ‘ Glasgow News,’ have
induced us, the undersigned, to try the three chief manceuvres in question
with the steamers which we command. We subjoin a statement of the
results obtained, accompanied by sketch and explanation.

As screw steamers differ from each other in respect of model, construe-
tion, and size of propeller and helm, draught of water, &c., there is
naturally a difference in the degree in which they deviate from a straight
course when making these movements. We would, therefore, recommend
every master to make experiments with his ship, with a view to ascertain-
ing in what way the helm should be handled in all conceivable emer-
gencies.

I. Ship going ahead, propeller working astern, rudder amidships.

Result. The stern turns to the right.

Explanation. The rotation of the screw to the left presses the stern to
the left, and consequently the stem to the right; the helm, which is amid-

THE EFFECT OF PROPELLERS ON THE STEERING OF VESSELS. 425

ships, is thus neutralised, and must be regarded merely as a prolongation
of the ship.

II. Ship going ahead, the screw working backwards and the helm
hard a-starboard.

Result. The stern turns very decidedly to the right.

Explanation. The rotation of the screw to the left presses the stern to
the left, and consequently the stem to the right ; the starboarded helm is
subjected to a pressure of water from behind, so that the after part of the
ship is doubly impelled to the left, the fore part being also with correspond-
ingly greater force pressed to the right.

III. The ship going ahead, propeller working astern, helm hard a-port.

Result. The stern inclines slightly to the left.

Explanation. The rotation of the screw to the left presses the after
part of the ship to the left ; on the other hand, the ported helm is under a

HEL M
AMIDSHIPS

HELM |
ASTARBOARD

pressure of water from behind which impels the stern to the right. The
operation of these two forces being of opposite nature, the vessel only
deviates slightly from the straight course, and then mostly with the stern
to the left.

But as soon as headway is lost the force of the screw asserts itself so
much more that, in spite of the helm being ported, the stern turns to the
left and the bow to the right; they turn in the same directions in a
stronger degree when the helm is amidships, and strongest of all when
the helm is starboarded. From the moment the ship begins to go astern
the screw must be regarded as the fore end or bow of the ship. After the

propeller, on the order “ Full speed astern’’ being given, has made some few
revolutions, there comes a short period during which the helm can be
moved to either side with almost the same facility as when the vessel is
lying stationary, after the expiration of which it almost immediately
becomes necessary to use considerable force to work the helm. This is
due to the circumstance that immediately after the screw has made the

426 REPORT—1 878.

first backward revolutions the pressure of water in front on the helm
ceases, causing so-called deadwater at the helm; whereas an increasing
pressure of water on the helm from behind results as soon as the backward
revolutions of the screw begin to gain in rapidity. The pressure on the:
rudder from behind, in spite of the vessel’s headway, is presumably to be
attributed to the fact that the masses of water thrown forward by the
screw must immediately be replaced, causing a correspondingly powerful
suction, and consequently a current of water acting on the rudder. The
conflict between the contending masses of water is clearly visible also on
the surface on both sides of the ship (particularly on the right side).

We beg to hand these results of our observations to the Nautical
Association of this town for distribution amongst other masters, and trust
that they will likewise communicate the result of their experiments with
their respective ships, in order that the data thus collected may be of ser-
vice to the seafaring community.

(Signed) J. Scuiitz, Master of the s.s. Susanne.
a F. Witkez, = do. s.s. Marietta.
i is C. SrreEcK, do. s.s. Martha.

N.B.—The altered operation of the screw being in the main to be
attributed to the fact that the backward revolutions transmute the
pressure of water on the helm coming from in front to a pressure coming”
from behind, it is, when carrying out this manceuvre, of the greatest im-
portance that the helm should first be turned after the screw has com-
menced to revolve backwards.

From the ‘ Shipping and Mercantile Gazette.’

In connexion with the Board of Trade inquiry recently held at South
Shields, before Mr. Stipendiary Yorke, into the collision between the
Tabor steamer, of Sunderland, and the brig William and Ann, of Seaham,
which happened in the River Thames, on January 25 last, some experi-
ments have been made on board the Tabor, at the mouth of the Tyne,
on the peculiar effects of the rudder and screw when reversed while the
ship has headway, to turn the ship’s head to starboard of her course. As
far as I am aware, the first public intimation of any similar trials
having been made appeared in the Report of the British Association for
the year 1876. The Report gives an account of certain experiments made
on the Clyde by Professor Osborne Reynolds, Sir William Thomson, Mr.
James R. Napier, and others. ‘These experiments were undertaken to
verify certain trials made upon models by Professor Reynolds, which he
had brought under the notice of the Association the previous year at
Bristol. An able article on the subject, from the pen of Sir Travers
Twiss, appeared in the ‘ Nautical Magazine,’ last year; so that nautical
men should now be aware that they cannot always depend upon the action
of the rudder and screw when reversed while the ship has headway.

Almost all experienced officers of the navy and merchant service are
doubtless well acquainted with the manceuvring of screw vessels under
steam, but it is thought that junior officers and others might not have
had opportunities of acquiring information of this kind. There is a
marked difference in the results observed on the Clyde and those noticed
at the mouth of the Tyne, inasmuch as in none of the trials detailed below

THE EFFECT OF PROPELLERS ON THE STEERING OF VESSELS. 427

_ did the ship’s head swing to port of her course, but invariably to star-
board. I would have preferred to wait until these differences had been
either accounted for or explained by further experiments before placing
the facts before your readers; but an imperfect account of the trials having
appeared in the local newspapers, it was thought desirable to publish the
facts just as they were obtained, and to reserve for a future letter further
remarks, and a description of a series of similar experiments made by
direction of the Local Marine Board on board the Cervin steamer, off
the Tyne in August last year.

While the inquiry in reference to the Tabor collision was pending,
Captain Henderson, the Secretary to the British Shipmasters’ and Officers’
Protection Society, suggested to the owner of that ship the importance of
trying some experiments on the effect of the rudder and screw when
reversed. Mr. Westall, the owner, immediately gave instructions to his
manager to place the ship, which was then in the Tyne, at the disposal of
of Mr. Yorke. That gentleman, thinking that it was a point of some
interest to mercantile and nautical men to have the matter settled by
actual trial, requested Messrs. Gillie and Tate, the Examiners to the Tyne,
and Wear Local Marine Boards, to accompany the ship to sea, and have
the experiments carried out under their inspection.

On the 19th inst. the Tabor was unmoored from Shields Harbour,
and at 2 p.m. proceeded to sea in charge of a pilot and Captain Mankin.
There were also on board Rear-Admiral Powell and Captain Nicholas, the
Nautical Assessors; Mr. L. V. Hamel, Solicitor to the Board of Trade;
Captain Henderson, Secretary to the British Shipmasters’ and Officers’
Protection Society, and Mr. Roche, tueir solicitor; Alderman Peckett,
of Sunderland; Captain Mail, manager for Mr. Westall, the owner, and
others.

The ship was run out to sea three or four miles so as to be out of the
way of passing vessels. The Tabor is a screw steamer of 520 tons.
register. Her length between perpendiculars is 208 feet; breadth, 27-8
feet; depth, 14°8 feet. She is propelled by two engines of 90-horse power
combined, and at the time of the trial had in about 200 tons of water
ballast. Her draught of water forward was 6 feet 6 inches, and aft 10
feet 4 inches, she being nearly in the same trim as she was at the time
the collision happened. Her screw is right-handed, and four blades ;.
diameter, 12 feet; pitch, 17 feet. The top of the blade was about 2 feet
out of the water when the blade was parallel with the sternpost. The
direction of the wind was S. by W. 4 W.; force 4 to 5. The sea was
perfectly smooth. The weather being a little hazy, and the marks upon
the land indistinct, a dumb card could not be used to measure the angles.
made by the ship’s head, but the bridge compass, being in excellent con-
dition and not sluggish, was used for this purpose. Mr. Tate and Mr.
Hamel noted the time, the change in the ship’s head was observed by Mr.
_ Gillie, who also took down the notes, and Mr. Roche noted the time it took

to stop and reverse the engines. The ship’s head previous to commenc-
_ing the whole of the trials was steadied at W.S.W., and the engines were
kept going full speed ahead, the ship making 8 knots an hour as shown
_by the patent log. The fore and main trysails were set during trials.
_ land 2; there was no canvas set during trials 3, 4, and 5.

Trial No. 1 (helm hard a-starboard).—At 3.43 p.m., while the ship.
was going full speed ahead, the order was given to stop and reverse the
engines to full speed astern, at the same time the helm was put hard to

428 REPORT—1878.

starboard, both operations being done simultaneously, and completed in 12
seconds from the time of the order being given. In 40 seconds ship’s
head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 10 degrees ; in 1 minute 30 seconds
ship’s head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 34 degrees; in 2 minutes
45 seconds ship’s head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 67 degrees, and
the ship’s way through the water ahead was completely stopped.

Trial No. 2 (with helm hard a-port), the ship’s head being brought to
W.S.W., going full speed, all other conditions as in trial 1.—In 40 seconds
ship’s head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 12 degrees; in 1 minute 30
seconds ship’s head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 23 degrees; in
2 minutes 45 seconds ship’s head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 42
degrees, and the ship’s way through the water ahead completely stopped.

Trial No. 3 (with helm amidships), fore and main trysails taken in,
all other conditions as before.—In 40 seconds ship’s head fell off to star-
board of W.S.W. 15 degrees; in 1 minute 30 seconds ship’s head fell
off to starboard of W.S.W. 50 degrees; in 2 minutes 45 seconds ship’s
head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 79 degrees, and way stopped.

Trial No. 4 (with helm hard a-starboard), being trial No. 1 repeated
with no canvas set, all other conditions as before-—In 40 seconds ship’s
head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 7 degrees; in 1 minute 30 seconds
ship’s head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 45 degrees; in 2 minutes 45
seconds ship’s head fell off to starboard of W.S.W. 78 degrees, and way
stopped.

Trial No. 5 (with helm hard a-port), being trial No. 2 repeated with
mo canvas set.—In 40 seconds ship’s head fell off to starboard of W.S.W.
16 degrees; in 1 minute 30 seconds ship’s head fell off to starboard of
W.S.W. 34 degrees; in 2 minutes 25 seconds ship’s head fell off to star-
board of W.S.W. 45 degrees. At this point the engines were stopped by
mistake, but the ship’s head appeared to be fixed at W.N.W., and she
had very little, if any, way through the water ahead.

The practical result of these trials, as far as the Tabor is concerned,
is to show that when she is going full speed ahead in ballast trim, if her
engines are stopped and reversed, her head will go to starboard of the
course she is steering. The helm seems to have very little effect, the
results obtained with the helm hard a-starboard and when it was amidships
being very much alike. With the helm hard a-port the ship’s head still
went to starboard, but the angle described was much smaller than that
made when the helm was amidships or a-starboard. I will not at present
trespass any further on your space, but perhaps you will allow me to add
that the experiments made with the Cervin steamer, with a draught of
22 feet, go a long way to show that, in ships of her class, similar results
to those detailed above will follow under similar circumstances.

JoHN GILLIE.
Local Marine Board, South Shields, February 22, 1878.

Remarks by the Commuttee.

It will be seen that the results in this case are very similar to
those obtained in the case of the North-Western. The right-handed
screw only partially immersed gave the vessel a strong bias to starboard.
But in this case, in addition to the direct effect of the screw, the effect of
the wind, which was of force 4 or 5, was to bring the vessel round to
windward, which happened in all cases to be to starboard

THE EFFECT OF PROPELLERS ON THE STEERING OF VESSELS. 429

In the next vessel reported, the Cervin, it will be seen that the
screw was well immersed, and hence would probably exert no great in-
fluence when reversed to turn the vessel to starboard. At the commence-
ment of all the trials, however, the wind was blowing with force 5 on the
starboard side of the vessel, and the effect of this would be to cause the
vessel, as long as she had way on, to turn to windward, and this, it will be
seen, is what happened; in every case the vessel’s head turned to wind-
ward. Here also the reverse influence of the rudder was apparent, for
the vessel turned faster to starboard with the helm starboarded than with
it ported.

August 25, 1877.

- §.s. Cervin, of South Shields, length, 287 feet; breadth, 34 feet;
depth, 24 feet; tonnage, 1913. Propelled by two engines of 180 h.p.,
combined; screw right-handed, 4 blades; diameter, 14 feet 9 inches;
pitch, 17 feet; draught of water, forward 21 feet 4 inches, aft 21 feet
9 inches; top of blade of screw immersed in water, about 5 feet; wind,
E.N.E.; force, 5; sea smooth.

Trial No. 1 (helm hard a-port).—Ship’s head N. by W., going fall
speed ahead, 94 knots, the engines were stopped and reversed, and helm
put hard to port; ship’s head came up to N. by H. in 2 minutes, and
remained steady on that point; way through the water ahead stopped in
3 minutes 40 seconds.

Trial No. 2 (helm hard a-starboard).—Ship’s head N. by E., it came
up to N.K. by E., or 45 degrees, in 4 minutes, and way stopped.

Trial No. 3 (going fast astern, screw started to drive her ahead, helm
a-port).—Head N. by W., fell off to N.N.W. in 1 minute 30 seconds.

Trial No. 4 (with helm a-starboard).—Head at N.E., fell off to N.N.E.
in 2 minutes.

Trial No. 5 (full speed ahead, helm amidships)—Head N. by W.,
went slightly towards west, then back to north, in 3 minutes.

J. GILLiz.

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‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS

PREC. TRY A PATTON

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—The Rey. Professor Salmon, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
- F.R.S., M.R.IA.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature.
See Reports, p. 178.

2.. Report of the Committee on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.
See Reports, p. 102.

3. An Account of some Hzperiments on Specific Inductive Capacity.*
By J. EH. H. Gorpon, Assistant Secretary of the British Association.

4. On the Effect of Variation of Pressure on the Length of Disruptive
Discharge in Air. By J. EH. H. Gorvon, Assistant Secretary of the
British Association.t

The author has worked with a 17-inch induction coil, and with sparks varying
from 6 to 10 inches at atmospheric pressure, and up to over 386 inches at low
pressure.

Two “aurora tubes” were used, and the method of working was to allow the
discharge to take its choice of two paths, one short at high pressure, and the other
longer at lower pressure, and thus to compare the resistance to discharge at the
different pressures. In the tables which accompany the paper, experiments at 55
different pressures, ranging from 2°42 inches to 29°7 inches, are given.

The general results deduced are—

(1) From a pressure of about 11 inches to that of the atmosphere, Harris’st
law—namely, that the spark length varies inversely as the pressure—is approxi-
mately true.

(2) No law can be said to be more than approximately true, as when the electric
density has almost reached tlfe discharging limit, any slight accidental circumstance
will cause the discharge to take place.

(3) Below about 11 inches a much greater electromotive force per unit length

* See ‘Proc. Roy. Soc. 1878-79.’ The experiments described in this paper were
_ shown at the Royal Dublin Society’s Soirée the same evening.
t ‘Phil. Mag.’ Sept. 1878. ¢ ‘Phil, Trans,’ 1834,

1878, FF

434 REPORT—1878.

of air is required to produce a spark than at higher pressure. This is not incon-
sistent with Sir William Thomson’s result, namely, that a greater electromotive
force per unit length of air is required to produce a spark at short distances than
at long.*

5. On the Absorption Spectrum of Chlorochromie Anhydride. By G.
Josnstone Sroney, M.A., F.R.S., Secretary to the Queen’s University
in Ireland, and J. Emerson Reynoups, M.D., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Dublin.

The authors described and exhibited the absorption spectrum produced by the
vapour of chlorochromic anhydride (C,0,Cl,). This spectrum is of peculiar
interest from its having supplied information as to the duration and character of a
motion within the molecules of the vapour (see ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for
July, 1871). The spectrum consists of lines very regularly distributed over the
orange yellow and green, bordering a more refrangible region of complete absorp-
tion. The lines are found to be equally spaced when plotted down on a map of
oscillation-frequencies, and the intensities of the successive lines are such as to
form definite patterns. From the positions of the lines, of which 105 had been
examined, it has been ascertained that they are to be referred to one motion in
the molecules of the gas, since they are all either its harmonics or such quasi-
harmonies as, for example, occur when an elastic rod is made to vibrate trans-
versely, most of which cannot be distinguished by observation from true
harmonics, We further learn from the positions of the lines that this motion,
on the more probable supposition that the lines are its true harmonics, is
repeated 810,000,000,000 times every second in each molecule. And from the
succession of intensities we learn that this molecular motion is in some way
related to that of a particular point on a violin-string when vibrating under
the influence of the bow, viz., a point nearly but not quite two-fifths of the
length of the string from one end (see ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ loc. cit., p. 47).

6. On the Flow of Water in uniform régime in Rivers and in Open Channels
generally. By Professor James Tuomson, LL.D., D.Sc., FBS.

The communication of which the following is an abstract was made to the
Mathematical and Physical Section, in order to offer for consideration there a new
theory of some of the phenomena of the flow of water in rivers and in open
channels generally, which formed the subject of a-paper just before sent to the
Royal Society. The author stated that during a great part of the present century
experimental investigations had been accumulating, made on some of the largest
rivers in the world, and on aqueducts and on small artificial channels, which tended
strongly to show that usually the velocity of flow at and near the surface of a
river is less than the velocity at some depth between the surface and the bottom.
They seem to show that for descent from the surface towards the bottom the
velocity first increases till a maximum is attained, and farther down goes on di-
minishing for approach towards the resisting bottom. Now this has appeared very
generally, even to the investigators themselves who have carried out the experi-
ments, to be a very perplexing result, because it has seemed, through various modes
of consideration, that the surface and upper portions of the current, being farther
distant from the resisting bed, should be expected to be less influenced by its
resistance, and should, therefore, flow faster than the parts intervening between
them and the bottom. The principal object of the paper was to offer a new theo-
retical view explaining and accounting for the observed phenomenon which now
appears to be highly probable, if not absolutely ascertained through experiments, and
which these theoretical considerations of the author go to confirm. He says that

* Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, § 328, p. 248.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 435

if we watch the surfaces of flowing rivers, or of tidal currents flowing in narrows
or kyles, we may often have opportunity to observe very prevalent indications of
rushes of water coming up to the surface and spreading out there. He considers
that these proceed from the bottom, being driven upwards in consequence of
impulses arising through the scouring action of the current along the bed. Thus
the water so arriving to the surface and spreading out there is composed largely of
the deadened water from the bottom—deadened as to forward motion by the
intense fluid friction at the bottom. The superficial layer, thus always fresh from
the bottom, becomes in its turn overflowed by new supplies from the bottom, and so
it gradually descends to enter into the middle body of the stream. At the same
time it is perpetually under the accelerating influence of the earth’s attraction, in
virtue of its downhill flow, and so it attains increase of velocity beyond that which
it had at the surface.

7. Note on the Pedetic Action of Soap.*
By Professor W. Sranutey Jevons, /.R.S.

Since the publication, in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Science,’ for April 1878, of
the author’s paper on the so-called Brownian movement of microscopic particles,
which he proposes to term Pedesis, it has been suggested that soap would form a
good critical substance for experiment in relation to this phenomenon. Soap con-
siderably reduces the surface-tension of water, in which it is dissolyed without
much affecting, as is said, its electric conductibility. If, then, pedesis be due to
surface-tension, as some physicists assert, the motion would be killed, or much
lessened, when soap is dissolved in the water. The experiment having been tried
with china-clay, red oxide of iron, chalk, barium carbonate, &c., gave the opposite
result; the pedetic motion appeared to be increased and facilitated. A similar

result was obtained by experiments upon the suspension of china-clay in dilute
solutions of soap; it was found that soap distinctly prevented the precipitation of
the suspended powder, and this result was obtained even in the presence of 1 per
cent. of sodium carbonate,

The author believes that these results are in favour of his own opinion that
pedesis is a phenomenon of electric origin, and can only go on in liquids of high
electric resistance. He also points out that the detergent action of soap is probably
due to the increase of pedetic action, which causes particles to become detached
and suspended in the soapy liquid. Only in this way can we understand the
utility Bh eombining an alkaline salt with stearic or other fatty acid. So far as the
action of soap depends on the alkali, it would be more active in the absence of the
other constituent, which he therefore infers is only needed to maintain the pedetic
and suspensive power of the water. The author believes that this is only one of
many phenomena which may he explained by the study of pedesis; and he pro-
poses to follow up the inquiry with regard to several substances tending to increase
the motion.

8. Motions produced by Dilute Acids on some Amalgam Surfaces.
By Rozsert Sasine.

The author finds, when a drop of very dilute acid is placed upon the clean and
newly-filtered surface of a rather rich amalgam of some metal which is positive to
‘mercury, that the drop does not lie still as it would do upon pure mercury, but sets
itself into an irregular jerky motion. This is the case with copper, zinc, antimony,
tin, and lead amalgams. But if instead of these, amalgams, those of platinum,
gold, and silver are used—these latter metals being negative to mercury—the drop
of acid water lies quite still. The acids tried were: sulphuric, hydrochloric,
oxalic, and acetic, which behayed similarly, but in different degrees, )

When the experiment is made in an atmosphere of oxygen, the movements

: * Printed in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Science ’ for October 1878, vol. viii. N.S.
p- 514; and in ‘ Nature,’ August 22, 1878, vol. xviii. p. 440.
FR2

436 REPORT—1878.

upon the amalgams of the positive metals are increased ; but in hydrogen, carbonic
acid, nitrogen, and coal-gas, the motions are instantly arrested.

The author concludes that the motions result from an alternate play of deoxi-
dation of the mercury underneath the acid by electrolysis, due to the currents of
small floating particles of the positive metal, causing the drop to contract, and of
oxidation of the surface outside the acid-drop, causing it to re-expand.

9. Note on Surface Tension. By Gzorce Francis FirzGErawp.

Assuming that the contact difference of electric potential at the junction of
two dissimilar fluids is due to a tendency towards some chemical combination of
the two, it is easy to see that if y be the electrical charge corresponding to each
electro-chemical equivalent, which is the same for all bodies, and if nm be the
number of such equivalents in presence of one another per unit of surface, and if
« be the difference of potential of contact, then there is a potential energy per
unit of surface =nye and this must be the superficial ten:ion if it be all due to
this cause, as M. Lippman’s recent experiments seem to show. Hence

T= nye.
If e be assumed about ‘1 of a volt, and T'=-08 grammes per. centimeter, as it is
in the case of water, it is possible to calculate the thickness of the superficial layer
which contains molecules which act upon one another, and the result is
6=7°8 x 10-8 of a centimeter,
which approximates towards the quantities obtained by other methods.

10. New Application of Gas for Lighthouses, illustrated by Models, full-sized
Apparatus, §c.* By J. R. Wicuam, M.R.IA.

J. The Quadriform Group Flashing Light at Galley Head Lighthouse.

The following are the chief points insisted on by the author :—

Importance of the position of Galley Head. Desire of the Commissioners of
Trish Lights to obtain the best light there. Principle of Wigham’s patent gas-
burner explained. Result, the greatest possible intensity of light, combined with
large volume. Method of increasing the power of burner by 5 steps, according to
the state of the weather. Effect of lenticular apparatus upon such flames. Effect
upon fogs of such flames. Method of still further increasing their power by doubling,
trebling, and quadrupling the number of burners and lenses in each lighthouse.
Method of arrangement so as to admit of one light being over another, not only
without injury to the upper lights, but so as to give each of them increased illumi-
nating power. Burners, lighthouse lens, and model of Galley Head Lighthouse to
illustrate the above. A first-order quadriform light, by permission of the Commis-
sioners of Irish Lights, exhibited at Howth Bailey Lighthouse, entrance to Dublin
Bay, during the meeting of the British Association. Place of observation—Salt-
hill, Kingstown. Importance of flashing great lights in suddenly illuminating fog,
so as to arrest the eye of the mariner when the light itself is invisible.

II. The Combined Gas and Electric Light for Lighthouses.

In this paper the author diseussed :—

Limit as to size of lighthouse lights attained by the quadriform light referred
to above in Part I. Further intensity desirable. Oore light introduced into focus
of lenticular apparatus. Various kinds, of cores—magnesium, lime light, &c. Im-
provement in the Gramme machine rendered electric light suitable as a core.
Jablachkoff candle available. Effect of the electric core. Cost of same. Power of
sudden flashes of electric light upon fog in arresting the attention of the mariner.
There was an exhibition of this core light at Howth Bailey, by permission of the

* These papers were published in extenso in ‘Engineering,’ August 23, 1878.

eek

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 437

Commissioners of Irish Lights. The light was so powerful as to enable the British
Association programme to be read at a distance of about six miles.

II. A Mode of Lighting Sea Beacons from a Position on Shore.

The author pointed out the convenience of using gas for this purpose, and
noted the arrangement by which this is done. Difficulty of maintaining small
lights at low pressure. A series of beacon or harbour lights may be maintained
by this plan, the initial pressure on shore being about six inches. Thus the lights
would be raised by turning off the gas, and lowered by turning it on. To illustrate
this, lights in various parts of the lecture room controlled in this way from the
lecture table.

11. A Short Description of two kinds of Fog Signals.*
By J. R. Wicuam, MRA.

I. Gas Guns as Fog Signals.

The author mentions the importance to navigation of audible fog signals, and
origin of gas guns. The important peculiarity of this mode of fog signalling, is that
the gun may be placed on an isolated rock at sea, probably inaccessible in most
weathers, and perhaps almost too small to hold an ordinary gun, and charged and
loaded from a position on shore. The gas gun is unaffected by the action of water.
As a practical illustration a small gun was fixed in the College Park, and charged
and fired from the lecture room. The sound of the gas gun was equal to that of
an 18 pounder. The flash of the gas gun is very useful as a fog signal, being more
vivid than that of gunpowder,

Il. The Trish Siren Fog Signal.

The United States Lighthouse Board was the first to introduce the Siren as a
fog signal. The author alluded to the action of Dr. Tyndall and the Trinity
House, Sir William Thomson and Sir Richard Collinson. The Irish Siren is less
complicated and less cumbrous than those heretofore used. An Irish Siren was
exhibited on the lecture table, and -sounded at the conversazione of the Royal
Dublin Society on Thursday, the 15th inst. -

12. A New Atmospheric Gas Machine. By J. R. Wicuau, M.R.LA.

The author exhibited one of these machines, and explained his invention.

* Published in extenso in ‘ Engineering’ of August 23, 1878.

438 REPORT—1878.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Report of Cominittee on the Oscillation-Frequencies of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum. By G. Jounstonr Sronry.—See Reports, p. 37.

2. General Results of some Recent Dxperiments upon the Co-efficient of
Friction between Surfaces Moving at High Velocities. By Dovuctas
Gatton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., §c.

The author of this paper has been recently engaged in making some experiments
upon the co-efficient of friction when the surfaces in contact move at high veloci-
ties, in connection with the action of brakes in use on railways; and the results
which have heen arrived at appear to present some interesting features in respect
of the laws which govern the co-efficient of friction.

The experiments were made to ascertain the friction between the brake blocks
and the wheels of a railway carriage.

The levers which move the brake blocks were fitted with dynamometers to show
first, the pressure which was applied to force the blocks against the wheel; and
secondly, the force or tangential strain exerted between the wheel and the block
when the latter is pressed against the wheel.

The dynamometers used were adaptations of Richards’ indicators, which act by
water pressure, which transfers the pressure to cylinders fitted with pistons to
which a pencil is attached, so as to register the pressure over a travelling sheet of
paper, as is used with steam indicator diagrams. A dynamometer on a similar
principle was attached to the draw bar so as to register the force exerted during
the experiment in drawing the carriage.

The speed was also recorded on the diagram by means of the Westinghouse
speed indicator, which also acts by water pressure, and depends for its action on
the speed of revolution of the axles.

The carriage or van fitted with the apparatus had two pairs of wheels—one
pair of wheels was fitted with brakes, whilst the other pair was free. A speed
indicator was attached to each pair of wheels, so that the speed of the carriage
could be ascertained at any time, independently of the speed of the braked wheels.

To check the Westinghouse speed indicator, two of Stroudley’s speed indicators
were also attached to the van; but these do not register automatically.

The distribution of the weight of the van between the two pairs of wheels
was obtained, as well as the weight of the wheels and axles themselves.

In order to ascertain the weight thrown on the braked wheels during the pro-
gress of the experiment, a dynamometer fitted to the springs of the van showed
the weight at every moment carried on the unbraked wheels, from which informa-
tion it was easy to deduce the weight on the braked wheels.

The apparatus was designed by Mr. Westinghouse, and constructed under his
supervision by the Brighton Railway Company,.through whose assistance these
experiments were carried into effect. .

The effect of applying the brake to the wheels is twofold. So long as the

Sees

EE EEE

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 439

wheels to which brakes are applied continue to revolve at the rate of rotation due
to the forward movement of the train, the effect of the brake is to create retarda-
tion by the friction between the block and the wheel; but when the pressure
applied to the blocks causes the friction to exceed the adhesion between the wheels
and rail, the rotation of the wheels is arrested, and the wheel becomes fixed and
slides on the rail, being held in its fixed position by the brake blocks.
Therefore the experiments give the co-efficient of friction—Ist, between the
brake blocks and the wheel, which is equal to
the tangential force .
the pressure applied ’
2nd, between the wheel and the rail, which is the
friction of the brake blocks
weight upon the wheels
It has been generally stated that there is no difference in the co-efficient of
friction observed in the case of bodies at rest, ¢.e., in a condition of static friction,
and the co-efficient of friction in the case of moving bodies, ¢.e., in a condition of
kinetic friction; but Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, in his paper read before the Royal
Society in April, 1877, upon the friction between surfaces moving at very low
speeds, alludes to the fact that in all cases where a difference in the co-efficient of
friction is observed between static and kinetic friction, the static friction exceeds
the kinetic.
Coulomb also points out in his experiments that in the case of static friction
the co-efficient of friction increased with the time during which the bodies had been
at rest.
The experiments of Coulomb, Rennie, Morin, and Jenkin were made with bodies
moving at comparatively low velocities.
The following table shows the mean results obtained from a large number of
the experiments made with the apparatus above described, upon the action hetween
the cast-iron brake blocks and the wheels fitted with steel tyres : —

/ pentenet Co-efficient of friction between cast-iron brake
pom t a blocks and steel tyres of wheels
Miles Feet |Atcommencement| Atfrom| At |. At f
per per of Experiment, | 5to7 |12 to 16 24 to 25}
hour second | e.g. to 3 seconds | seconds | seconds | seconds
60 88 062 054 048 045
55
50 73 "100 ‘070 056 |
45 65 125
40 58 134 “100 ‘080 |
3 43 184 ‘111 098
20 29 206 175 128 ‘070
10 14 | -320 209
under 5 7 “360
Fleeming Jenkin— 0002 35] mean
Steelon Steel Dry f | to ‘0086 365 maximum
Morin—
Tron on Tron. : ai “44
Rennie— 1
At pressure of 1‘6 cwt. per
sq. inch
Wrought iron on cast iron. 275
Steel on castiron . : “300

440 REPORT—1878.

A limited number of experiments were made with wrought-iron blocks upon
steel tyres, a mean of which gave the following result :—

Average Co-efficient of friction between wrought-iron blocks & steel tyre|
Miles Feet |At commencement At At At
per per | of Experiment to| from 5 to 7 12 to 16 24 to 25
hour | second 3 seconds seconds seconds seconds
48 — 110
31 — "129 UL ‘099
18 — ‘170

The following table shows the result obtained by the sliding of the wheel on the
rail—that is, a steel tyre on a steel rail: —

Average Co-efficient of friction between wheel on rail—steel on steel

Miles Feet |Atcommencement At At At

per per | of Experiment to | from 5 to 7 12 to 16 24 to 25
hour second 3 seconds seconds seconds seconds

50 04

45 ‘051

38 “057 044 044

25 080 ‘07

15 087

10 110

The general results of these tables show that the co-efficient of friction between
moving surfaces varies inversely in a ratio dependent upon the velocity at which
the surfaces are moving past each other; probably the equation would be of the

form of —“_,
b+v

The co-efficient of friction, moreover, at these velocities becomes smaller also
after the bodies have been in contact for a short time. That is to say, the longer
the time the surfaces are in contact, the smaller, apparently, does the co-efficient of
friction become. This result appears more marked in the case of cast-iron blocks,
than of the wheel sliding on the rail. This effect, however, does not appear to be
unnatural; as the friction develops heat, and the consequent expansion tends to
close up the pores, and to make the heated surface a more united surface than the
colder surface. Besides which, it is probable that in the act of rubbing, small par-
ticles may be detached which may act as rollers between the surfaces,

It will also be observed that the co-efficient of friction between the cast-iron
block and the steel tyre is much larger than that between the steel tyre of the
wheel and the rails, which were also generally of steel.

As has been above mentioned, the sliding of the wheel on the rail takes place
when the friction of the brake blocks is greater than the adhesion between the
wheel and the rail, which is due to the weight upon the wheel. This was found

+ to ameunt generally to about 24 to 28 per cent. of the weight.

The influence which these results have upon brakes for railway trains may be
briefly summed up as follows.

In order to produce a given result at different velocities, the pressure applied
a the brake blocks must increase in the proportion shown by the co-efficient of
Tiction.

Thus at 50 miles an hour, the pressure required to make one pair of wheels

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 441

slide on the rail was nearly 27,000 Ibs.; whilst at 20 miles an hour, a pressure of
about 10,300 lbs. was found sufficient to obtain the same result. °

The strain on the drawbar showed that the retarding force or the tangential
strain between the brake-blocks and the wheels followed very nearly the same law
of variation. That is to say, in order to produce a degree of friction on the wheel
at 50 miles an hour, which shall exert a retarding force on the train equal to that
at 20 miles an hour, the pressure applied to the brake blocks at 50 miles an hour
must be nearly two and a half times as great as that required at 20 miles an hour ;
and a still greater pressure is required for higher velocities.

Therefore, whilst a comparatively low pressure would make the wheels slide at
low velocities, it was difficult to obtain any sufficient pressure to make the wheels
slide at velocities over 60 miles an hour.

The figures given in the above tables must at present be accepted as only
provisional, until an accurate mean has been obtained from the diagrams, which
are not yet all worked out. But it may be assumed as an axiom that for high
velocities a brake is of comparatively small value, unless it can bring to bear a
high pressure upon the surface of the tyre almost instantaneously ; and it should
be so constructed that the pressure can be reduced in proportion as the speed of
the train is reduced, so as to avoid the sliding of the wheels on the rails.

I must add that these experiments were made upon the London, Brighton,
and South Coast Railway, who, through their General Manager, Mr. Knight, and
Locomotive Engineer, Mr. Stroudley, gave every assistance in the coustruction of the
van and the running of the train. The apparatus was mainly devised by Thomas
Westinghouse, and constructed under his immediate supervision, and he assisted
mainly in the experiments, &c. The earlier experiments were also made with
the sanction of Mr. Horace Darwin.

3. On a Spectroscope of unusually large Aperture.* By G. J. STONEY.

4. On the Support of Spheroidal Drops and allied Phenomena. By G.
JOHNSTONE Sroney, M.A., F.R.S., Georce F. Firzceratp, M.A.,
F.T.C.D., and Ricwarp J. Moss, Keeper of the Minerals in the Musewm
of Science and Art, Dublin.

The authors gave an account of several investigations and experimentst made by
them during the past year upon the unequal stresses which arise in gas when
polarised, that is, in which the molecular motions are not alike in all directions;
and especially in the case where the polarisation arises from heat traversing the
gas, as within radiometers, and in the gaseous layers which support spheroidal
drops, those which protect the hand from a dangerous burn when dipped into
melted metal, and many others. In such cases the molecular motions are not
alike in all directions, and cause the stress within the gas directed across the layer
to exceed the transverse stresses by an amount which may be called the Crookes’s,
or polarisation stress.

The investigation of this stress by a direct mechanical consideration of the
molecular motions had been much facilitated by employing the conception of a

* The instrument was exhibited in the Chemical Laboratory of Trinity College.

+ See the following memoirs :—‘ On some Remarkable Instances of Compressed
Strata of Polarized Gas at Ordinary Atmospheric Tensions,’ by G. Johnstorie Stoney
(‘Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society,’ vol. i. p. 53, and ‘ Philos.
Mag.’ June, 1878, p. 457); ‘ On the Spheroidal State,’ by Richd. J. Moss (do. vol. i.

* p. 83); ‘On the Mechanical Theory of Polarization Stress in Gases,’ by G. Johnstone

Stoney (‘ Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society,’ vol. i. Memoir 5) ;
“On the Mechanical Theory of Crookes’s Force,’ by George F. Fitzgerald (do. vol. i.
Memoir 6).

442 REPORT—1878.

‘tube placed across the layer, closed at the ends by patches of the heater and cooler,
and with sides that reflect molecules by the same law that a polished surface
reflects light. By employing this conception Mr. Stoney had shown that for small
differences of temperature, and with a heater and cooler that are large, flat, parallel,
and at a fixed distance asunder, the polarisation stress will vary nearly as

G?
Test

where G is the flow of heat, P the tension of the gas, and T its temperature from
absolute zero.

By a wholly different method, first suggested by Mr. Fitzgerald in a letter to

‘ Nature,’ which consists in calculating the transverse stress in the same way as
Clausius has calculated the stress across the layer, Mr. Stoney had obtained the
following symbolical expression for the difference between these stresses, that is,

for the polarisation stress,
+1
a rf IV? (8y?—1) du,
-1

where p is the cosine of the angle made by the path of a molecule with the
normal to the layer, I the proportion of molecules moving at that angle, and V*
the mean of the squares of their velocities.

By applying the same method of investigation to the general case of gas
polarised in any way, Mr. Fitzgerald had obtained the expressions for the most
general stresses that can arise, radial and tangential, and had shown them to be
identical in form with the corresponding equations given by Maxwell in his electro-
magnetic theory of light.

And, finally, by attending to the conditions indicated by the theory, Mr. Moss
had succeeded in keeping spheroidal drops in existence for upwards of an hour and
a half, and had ascertained that spheroidal drops may be supported on air
devoid of vapour. This last very important confirmation of the theory was estab-
lished by experiments on melted paraffin at temperatures at which separate experi-
ments had shown that no evaporation could be detected after a prolonged exposure
of the paraffin in vacuo.

5. On the Cause of Travelling Motion of Spheroidal Drops.
By G. Jounstone Stoney, M.A., F.R.S.

In the course of the experiments referred to in the last communication a
tendency in spheroidal drops to travel about over the surface of the liquid on which
they rest had to be checked. This motion, where it was not simply due to con-
vection currents in the supporting liquid, was traced to differences of surface
tension, and may, by suitable arrangements, be made very swift. Thus, if sphe-
roids of spirit of wine or ether be floated on a surface of warm water, the heavy
yapour pouring down from the floating drops will, as is known, very much diminish
the surface tension of the water wherever it comes in contact with it; and, as it
cannot be made to pour down quite symmetrically all round, the drop finds itself
on one side of the position of minimum tension, and is accordingly hurried along
one radius of the rapid surface current which travels outwards in all directions
from this point. The consequence is a very beautiful spectacle, the drops dashing
about with an appearance of great sprightliness.

' 6. The Stanhope “ Demonstrator,” or Logical Machine.* By Roprrt HaRwey.

* A model was exhibited. See ‘ Mind,’ for April, 1878.

—-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 443

7. Sur une nowvelle Méthode de Photographie Solaire et les Décowvertes
quelle donne touchant lu véritable nature de la Photosphére.* Par Dr.
J. JANSSEN.

M. Janssen expose devant l’auditoire des spécimens des photographies solaires
qui sont obtenues a l’Observatoire de Meudon.

Ces spécimens comprennent:

1° Une contre-épreuve positive sur verre d’un cliché ot l'image solaire a 30
centimétres de diamétre.

2° Des tirages sur papier, de grandissements qui donneraient & l'image solaire
1™ 50° de diamétre.

3° Des tirages sur papier, de grandissements de clichés originaux 4 une échelle
qui donnerait 4 métres et demi de diamétre a l'image solaire.

Ces spécimens démontrent qu’on obtient actuellement & Meudon les détails de
la granulation solaire comme les lunettes astronomiques ne pourraient les donner,
résultat qui justifie ce que M. Janssen avait annoncé il y a une année environ, a
savoir, qu’a l’égard du soleil, la photographie était un moyen tout nouveau de
découvertes.

Les principes sur lesquels repose la méthode qui a permis d’atteindre ce résultat
sont les suivants :

1° Une plus grande perfection des procédés photographiques.—Le collodion est
sensibilisé avec des iodures et des bromures comme 4 l’ordinaire, mais le coton poudre
doit étre préparé & haute température pour donner une couche d’une finesse suftisante.
Le développement se fait au fer, mais lentement, et on termine par un renforcement
& lacide pyrogallique et au nitrate d’argent.

2° L’augmentation des dimensions de Vimage solaire qui a été portée successive-
ment de 10 a 12 centimétres de diamétre qui étaient les dimensions ordinaires, a
15, 20, 30, 49 centimétres et au-dela.

3° L’achromatisme chimique de U Objectif—Cet achromatisme a été caleulé pour
réunir en un faisceau, les rayons d'une région étroite du spectre situé prés de G.
M. Janssen a constaté en effet que dans les trés courtes poses, ces rayons sont
les seuls actifs, Cette condition est trés importante pour la netteté des images
solaires.

4° Enfin la durée de la pose qui a aussi une influence capitale sur le résultat.
C’est en réduisant cette durée de 34,5 @ a5 de seconde, qu’on a pu obtenir les
granulations de la photosphére.

Comme il a déja été annoncé, l’examen des photographies montre que la surface
solaire est couverte d’une granulation générale. Les formes, les dimensions, la
distribution de cette granulation ne sont pas en accord avec les idées qu'on
s’était formées de ces éléments de la photosphére, d’aprés l’examen optique. Les
images photographiques ne confirment nullement Vidée que la photosphére soit
constituée par des éléments dont les formes constantes rappelleraient des feuilles de
saule, des grains de riz, etc.

Ces formes qui peuvent se rencontrer accidentellement en tel ou tel point, ne sont
que des exceptions, et ne peuvent étre considérées comme exprimant une loi générale
de la constitution du milieu photosphérique. Les images photographiques nous
conduisent & des idées beaucoup plus simples et plus rationelles sur la constitution
de la photosphére.

Formes des éléments granulaires.—Si Von étudie la granulation dans les points ot
elle est le mieux formée, on voit que les grains ont des formes trés variées, mais qui
se rapportent plus ou moins 4 la forme sphérique. Cette forme est généralement
d’autant mieux atteinte que les éléments sont plus petits. Dans les grains trés
nombreux, ou les formes sont plus ou moins irréguliéres, on voit que ces grains sont
formés par l’agrégation d’éléments plus petits rappelant la sphére. La méme, ou la
granulation est moins nette et ow les grains paraissent étirés, on sent que la sphére
a 6t6 la forme premiére des éléments, forme plus ou moins modifiée par l’effet des
forces qui agissent sur ce corps. .

La forme normale des éléments granulaires de la photosphére parait donc se

* La communication était illustrée avec quelques grandes Photographies Solaires.

444 REPORT—-1878.

rapporter a la sphére, et les figures irrégulierés paraissent s’y rattacher encore,
soit que l’élément ait 6té6 constitué par des corps plus petits, soit que ce méme élé-
ment se trouve plus ou moins déformé par l’effet de forces étrangéres agissant sur le
milieu ot il est plongé. I] résulte encore de ces considérations une conséquence
trés importante, c’est la preuve découlant du fait méme de la grande variété des
formes des éléments granulaires, que ces éléments sont constitués par une matiére
trés mobile qui céde avec facilité aux actions extérieures. L’état liquide ou gazeux
jouit de ces propriétés; mais en ayant égard 4 d’autres considérations que nous
développerons plus tard, on est conduit a admettre pour les granulations un état
trés analogue a celui de nos nuages atmosphériques, c’est-a-dire & les considérer
comme des corps constitués par une poussiére de matiére solide ou liquide nageant
dans un milieu gazeux.

Origine des granulations.—Si la couche solaire qui forme la photosphére était
dans un état de repos et d’équilibre parfait, il résulte de sa fluidité, qu'elle formerait
une enveloppe continue autour du noyau solaire. Les éléments granulaires se con-
fondraient les uns dans les autres, l’éclat du soleil serait uniforme dans toutes ses
parties. Mais les courants gazeux ascendants ne permettent pas cet état d’équilibre
parfait. Ces courants brisent et divisent cette couche fluide en un grand nombre
de points pour se faire jour; de la la production de ces éléments qui ne sont que des
fractions de Yenyeloppe photosphérique. Ces éléments fractionnaires tendent a
prendre la forme sphérique par la gravité propre de leurs parties constituantes; de
1a la forme globulaire qui, comme on voit, ne correspond pas & un état d’équilibre
absolu, mais seulement relatif, celui ot la matiére photosphérique, ne pouvant se
constituer en une couche continue, est divisée en éléments qui tendent 4 prendre
individuellement leur figure d’équilibre. Mais cet état d’équilibre individuel des
parties est lui-méme assez rarement réalisé; en des points nombreux, les courants
entrainent plus ou moins fortement les éléments granulaires, et leur forme globulaire
d’équilibre est altérée, jusqu’a devenir tout-d-fait méconnaissable quand les mouye-
ments deviennent plus violents.

Ces mouvements, dont la couche gazeuse ou nagent les éléments photosphériques
est incessamment agitée, ont des points d’élection. La surface solaire est ainsi
divisée en régions de calme et d’activité relatives, d’ou résulte la production du
réseau photosphérique. En outre, dans les points mémes de calme relatif, les
mouvements du milieu photdsphérique ne permettent pas aux éléments granulaires
de se disposer en couchede-niveau, dou résulte l’enfoncement plus ou moins grand
des grains au-dessous de la surface, et par suite, en égard au grand pouvoir absor-
bant du milieu ot nagent ces éléments, la grande différence d’éclat des grains sur les
images photographiques.

Ainsi, une premiére étude des nouvelles photographies nous conduit déja a
modifier beaucoup nos idées sur la photosphére, et l'ensemble des données quelles
nous fournissent nous conduit & cette idée si simple sur la constitution des éléments
photosphériques et sur les transformations quwils éprouvent par l’effet des forces
auxquelles ils sont soumis.

Tirons encore cette conséquence du fait de la rareté relative des grains les plus
brillants dans les images photographiques, que le pouvoir lumineux du soleil réside
principalement dans un petit nombre de points de sa surface. En d’autres termes,
si la surface solaire était couverte entiérement par les éléments granulaires les plus
brillants qu’elle nous montre, son pouvoir lumineux serait. d’aprés une premiére
approximation sur laquelle nous aurons 4 revenir, de dix & vingt fois plus con-
sidérable,

Il est encore une grande question sur laquelle les faits précédents jettent un
jour nouveau: c’est la question si souvent débattue de la variation du pouvoir
lumineux du soleil. Il est évident que les taches ne peuvent plus étre considérées
comme formant l'élément principal des variations que l’astre peut éprouver, et
qu'il faudra désormais considérer le nombre et le pouyoir lumineux variable des
éléments granulaires qui peuvent jouer ici un réle prépondérant.

J’ajouterai enfin que l'étude des derniéres photographies montre que la surface
photosphérique est dans un état d’agitation extréme, que les éléments granulaires
subissent les transformations les plus rapides 4 I’6poque actuelle qui est cependant

ie}

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 445

celle d'un minimum de taches, ce qui tend 4 démontrer que l’activité solaire ne
sarréte jamais, mais qu'elle prend sensiblement des formes différentes pendant les
périodes de maximum et de minimum.

M. Janssen se réserve de revenir sur la nature précise de ces mouyements des
éléments de la surface photosphérique qui ont une si grande importance pour la
constitution du soleil. :

8. Sur la Constitution des Spectres Photographiques quand Vaction lwmineuse
est eatrémement courte. Par Dr. J. JANSSEN.

M. Janssen a constaté par des expériences nombreuses dont les premiéres re-
montent & 1874, que l’étendue du spectre photographique peut se réduire & une
bande étroite située prés de la ligne G (du cété du rouge) quand le temps de l’action
lumineuse est trés court.

M. Janssen montre @ l’auditoire des spectres photographiques du soleil qui
démontrent cette propriété. Une plaque notamment porte 7 spectres obtenus avec
le méme appareil et dans les mémes conditions, sauf le temps de pose qui a été suc-
cessivement de 5", 2™, 1™, 308, 15%, 1%. Le spectre correspondant & 5™ est trés
complet et s’étend de lultra violet & b dans le vert; les autres se rétrécissent
successivement et celui de 1 seconde ne consiste qu’en une bande étroite de rayons
un peu moins réfrangibles que G.

Ces expériences ont été faites avec des appareils en quartz et en spath.

On a étudié 4 ce point de vue les collodions sensibilisés avec les iodures et
brémures de Potassium, Ammonium, Cadmium, Lithium, ete., employés isolément
~ ou associés. Les spectres n’ont pas la méme étendue pour ces diverses substances,

mais le principe de la réduction & une bande subsiste toujours pour les poses trés
courtes.

Ainsi le principe dont il s’agit est général. Cette importante propriété a des
conséquences théoriques et pratiques importantes. Relativement 4 ces derniéres, il
en résulte qu’on peut obtenir des images photographiques tolérables avec des lentilles
pourvu que le temps de l’action lumineuse soit trés court, ce qui est le cas pour le
soleil. On voit de plus que l’achromatisme des objectifs photographiques peut étre
obtenu beaucoup plus rigoureusement que celui des objectifs pour la vision,
puisque les rayons qu’on doit superposer n’appartiennent qu’A un point trés limité
de spectre. :

La lunette photographique solaire de ’Observatoire de Meudon a été construite
daprés ces principes.

9. Quelques remarques sur I’ échipse totale et la Couronne.
Par Dr. J. Janssen.

M. Janssen rappelle une idée émise dans son rapport sur l’éclipse de 1871, idée
qwil a développée au Congrés de Glasgow.

D’aprés cette idée la couronne étant formée au moins en grande partie par des gaz
dans lesquels figure l’hydrogéne, les jets protubérantiels qui dépassent la chromo-
sphére, doivent augmenter l'importance de cette atmosphére coronale, et surtout
doivent lui donner, avant qu’ils se soient dissipés, une apparence tourmentée et
irréguliére.

Ces grandes colonnes hydrogénées peuvent expliquer les apparences de trainées
Iumineuses présentées si souvent par la couronne pendant les éclipses totales.
Lorsque ces jets protubérantiels sont trés nombreux et trés puissants, ils doivent
en outre troubler considérablement 1’état statique du fluide coronal, et la couronne
ne peut alors présenter l’aspect d’une atmosphére en équilibre. La constitution et
Paspect de la couromne doivent done varier suivant la fréquence et l’importance des
protubérances. A I’époque du maximum des jets protubérantiels, qui est & peu
prés celle du maximum des taches, latmosphére coronale doit, toutes choses égales
@ailleurs, présenter un aspect moins régulier, et révéler un état plus troublé.

446 REPORT—1878.

Au contraire, 4 ’époque ou les phénoménes extraphotosphériques se calment et
présentent leur minimum d'action, le milieu coronal peut reprendre une figure
relativement plus réculiére et se rapprocher davantage des conditions d’une atmo-
sphére en 6quilibre. :

Si nous possédions des dessins trés exacts de la figure de la couronne pendant
les éclipses totales des derniers siécles, il serait bien intéressant de les étudier a ce
point de vue.

Malheureusement les descriptions et les dessins que nous possédons_ne sont
généralement pas assez fidéles ni assez précis pour servir trés utilement 4 cet objet.

Cependant on peut considérer comme confirmant l’idée émise, les observations
précises de l’éclipse de 1842 analysées par Arago. On voit en effet que la couronne
était alors formée d’anneaux concentriques nettement terminées, ce qui indique un
état relatif d’équilibre. Or, l’année 1842 était une époque de minimum.

En 1871, la couronne présentait au contraire un aspect trés tourmenté que j’ai
décrit dans mon mémoire. Et cette année était une époque de maximum.

Ajoutons maintenant que la couronne pendant la derniére éclipse de Juillet
1878, @aprés les premiéres relations publiées, aurait éte trouvée trés basse et d’un
aspect tout différent de celui de 1870 et 1871. Nous sommes encore dans la
période minimum, puisque les taches solaires sont encore actuellement si rares, cette
observation semble done confirmer encore Vidée que nous avons émise dans le
mémoire de 1871 et développée au Congrés de Glasgow. :

Nous comptons revenir sur ce point, mais nous deyons faire remarquer que si
pour nous, laspect et Ja constitution de la couronne sont en dépendance
avec les phénoménes protubérantiels, il ne faut pas oublier cependant que la
couronne peut encore emprunter une partie de ses aspects & des matiéres cosmiques
circulant autour du soleil dans ces régions, et venant compliquer ainsi les apparences
de l’atmosphére coronale.

10. On a New Form of Receiving Instrument for Microphone. By W. J.
Mizar, O.F., Sec. Inst. Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.

The author, having been engaged in experiments upon the transmission of sound
by wires without the aid of electricity or magnetism, had his attention more
particularly directed to the connection between the strains produced in the bodies
experimented upon and the sounds emitted. These experiments having been
carried out with copper wires, it occurred to the author, after the announcement of
the Microphone of Professor Hughes, that, since a magnetic needle, arranged as a
galvanometer, has certain definite motions due to the flow of the electric current,
then if the needle were fied, instead of moving it would be thrown into a state of
strain, and it would then give out sounds corresponding to the changing condition
of the current. To test this, a few yards of covered copper wire were passed
lengthwise, in galvanometer fashion, along a small bar magnet; sounds were imme-
diately detected on breaking contact, when the magnet was pressed to the ear.
These sounds were much re-inforced by placing the magnet against the shallow lid
of a pasteboard box, or by placing it on a piece of tin.

A horse-shoe magnet with two or three yards of the same wire (about No. 30)
laid lengthwise along one of its limbs, and with the lid of a tin box placed on the
fiat sides of the ends of the magnet, made an excellent receiver—speaking, singing,
&c., being easily rendered audible.

‘A small form of receiver was exhibited by the author at the meeting, consisting
of a bar magnet 3 inches long, # inches broad, and about 5 inches thick, About
6 yards of No. 30 covered copper wire are passed backwards and forwards lengthwise
along the magnet, galyanometer fashion ; the magnet is placed in a shallow paste-
board box, and a couple of pieces of tin are laid above and below the magnet (as
this appeared to still further strengthen the sounds) ; the lid is then placed on, and
the whole is thus rendered an easily portable pocket instrument. With this instru-
ment, speaking, singing, whistling, besides other Microphone phenomena, are readily _
obtained. A single Leclanché cell, weakly charged, was used; a rough form of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 447

microphone being used as transmittor, consisting of two pieces of carbon, touching
slightly ; one of the connecting wires resting over an upright pasteboard box into
which the sounds were directed.

The author also stated that he had found that sounds could be obtained
without a magnet, the receiver being simply a piece of tin around which a few
yards of copper wire is wound. An arrangement of this kind was exhibited with
which various microphone phenomena had been obtained ; the sounds, however,
being much reduced in loudness.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.

The Section did not meet.

448 REPORT-—1878.

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

A Department of Mathematics was constituted.—See p. 457.
The following Papers were read in the General Section :—

1. Report of the Committee on Atmospheric Electricity.
See Reports, p. 103.

2. On Edmunds’ Electrical Phonoscope. By W. Lapp.

An instrument for producing figures of light from vibrations of sound. It
consists essentially of three parts—an induction coil, an interrupter, and a rotary
vacuum tube.

The action of the instrument is as follows :—Sounds from the voice or other
sources produce vibrations.on the diaphragm of the interrupter, which being in
the primary circuit of the induction coil, induce at each interruption a current in
the secondary coil similar to the action of a contact-breaker or rheotome. There-
fore each vibration is made visible as a flash in the vacuum tube. The tube
revolving all the time at a constant speed, the flashes produce a symmetrical figure
as the spokes of a wheel, or as in the Gassiot star. The number of spokes or radii
are according to the number of vibrations in the interrupter during a revolution of
the tube, and the number of vibrations being varied to any extent according to the
sounds produced, the figures in the revolving tube will be varied accordingly. The
same sounds always produce the same figures, providing the revolution be constant.
In case of rhythmical interruptions being produced in a given sound, as in a trill,
most beautiful effects are noticeable, owing to the omission of certain radii in
regular positions in the figure.

The uses of this instrument are the rendering visible of sounds, and showing
the vibrations required in their production, and is a mode of confirming by sight an
appeal to the ear.

3. On Byrne’s Compound Plate Pnewmatic Battery. By W. Lapp.

This battery is the invention of Dr. Byrne, of Brooklyn, U.S.A. The chief features
in this battery are a compound negative plate, and a simple mechanical means for
preventing polarisation. The negative plate consists of the extreme negative
element platinum, backed up by a plate of copper to reduce the resistance; the
copper being protected by a thin sheet of lead, to prevent any local action that
might occur owing to holes in the platinum, which would allow the exciting fluid
to attack the copper, and a thicker sheet of lead on the back of the copper which
is japanned. So a er in section would show as consisting of, first, a sheet of
platinum, then thin lead, then copper, and last, the thick japanned lead, the whole
being soldered together to form a solid plate.

The batteries are built up with a zinc plate and two of the compound plates ;
the exciting fluid being a bichromate of potash and dilute sulphuric acid solution.

This battery would soon become polarised but for the injection of air between
the plates, which action appears simply mechanical and not chemical, various gases
producing no different effects.

When the air is pumped in, the most extraordinary effects may be produced,
the “ quantity” being much more than that of any other battery of the same size.

.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 449

It is much used in the States for surgical operations, its extreme portability
and control rendering it peculiarly useful in this direction.

The platinum loop can be raised to any temperature, and kept at the same
simply by the action of the foot on the bellows, leaving both hands at liberty for
operating, there also being an entire absence of fumes or other disagreeable smells.

A battery of four small cells will heat 9 inches of No. 16 platinum wire to
redness,

4, A Diagonal Eyepiece for certain Optical Experiments.
By Professor G. Fores.

A diagonal eyepiece usually consists of a piece of plane unsilvered glass in the
eyepiece, inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis of a telescope, so that light can be
sent through the object-glass, while the telescope can still be used for direct vision.
In experiments on the velocity of light, the light which has been thus sent out
is itself examined through the telescope after reflection, and it is required to have
this light as intense as possible. The diagonal glass must play two parts, which
are in a certain sense contradictory. It must reflect as much light as possible
through the telescope, and it must let as much as possible of the return light
’ pass through to the eye. But at the time of emission the plane glass really allows
only th of the whole light to pass through, and on its return }3ths are allowed
to pass. Hence, on the whole, only 33., or ‘06, of the light is received. Fizeau
and Cornu used double’ plane mirrors of microscope glass, thus doubling the
reflection, and the latter found that he got ‘16 of the whole light. But this in-
creases the evil caused by defects in the transparency of the glass, the imperfection
of the polish, and the presence of dust, which, however insensible in ordinary cir-
cumstances, produce a luminous field, which is very troublesome when powerful
lights are used. To remedy this the author used a plane silver mirror, with a hole
in the centre of such a size as to permit half of the light falling on the object-
glass to pass through. In this way half of the light is sent out, and half of the
return light illuminates the eye; so that we utilise :26 of the light, and we have
a perfectly dark field in the centre of the hole. This is theoretically four times as
powerful as an unsilvered glass reflector, and practically the darkness of field
makes it ten times as good.

5. A Clock with Detached Train. By Professor G. Forses.

In the course of some experiments still progressing, the author has used a clock
to give electric signals every second. It was made by KE. Dent and Co., and has a
train of only one wheel and one pinion. This clock only goes for one hour, but
seryes the purpose for which it was made. To make it go for a longer time, it was
driven by a weight hung by a pulley on an endless chain in the usual way, and a
common 5s, Swiss alarum clock was attached, which was connected with the chain,
to wind it upcontinuously. This answers so well that a similar construction is sug-
gested as not only the cheapest but also the best form of a clock with escapement.
Jt consists of a pendulum and escapement with no train whatever, with an endless
chain or thread passing over a pulley on the axis of the scape-wheel, and also over
that of a secondary clock, hanging between them in a festoon which supports the
weight by a pulley. The secondary clock gives the hours and minutes, and the
clock without train shows the seconds. We thus have a clock without the errors
introduced by a train. It is a gravity escapement without the locking friction.

6. An Instrument for Indicating and Measuring the Fire-damp in Mines.*
By Professor G. Fores.

The instrument exhibited consists of a resonator of variable dimensions, and a
tuning-fork of definite pitch. The resonator is a metal tube 1 inch in diameter

: * ‘Proceedings’ R.S.E. 1878,
1878. @ a

450 REPORT—1878.

and 15 inches long, in which a piston slides so as to regulate the length of the
tube. This tube is fixed in a block of wood, to which is attached a tuning-
fork, whose points are just above the open end of the tube. The tuning-fork is
sounded in any convenient way, and the piston is moved out and in, until the
proper length is found, which is indicated by the resonator intensifying the
sound of the tuning-fork, With practice the length can thus be determined
with an accuracy of at least 1 in 250. But the length of resonator depends
upon the density of the gas, a light gas requiring a longer resonator; and by
reading off on a scale the. position of the piston we judge of its density. In
this manner | or 2 per cent. of fire-damp mixed with common air can be detected.
Barometric pressure produces no difference. The temperature correction is made
by reading off a thermometer of the proper dimensions in place of reading off a
fixed mark on the piston. The only error is by the presence of dense carbonic
acid gas. But carbonic acid gas tends to destroy the explosive character of fire-
damp, and it appears that if the presence of carbonic acid prevented the instru-
ment from indicating fire-damp it would certainly be sufficient to prevent the
explosive character of the fire-damp.

7. On Certain Phenomena Accompanying Rainbows.*
By Professor Sitrvanus P. THompsoy, D.S8c.,; B.A.

The author narrated several instances of rainbows, seen chiefly in Switzerland,
where radial streaks of light devoid of colour were observed within the primary
and without the secondary bow. The explanation suggested was as follows: The
wedge-shaped radial streaks are beams of sunlight, which become visible by diffuse
reflection from particles of matter in their path, just as the apparently divergent
beams of sunrise or sunset become visible. These “ beams” being practically parallel
to one another, appear to converge in the point exactly opposite the sun by perspec-
tive ; or, in fact, just as the parallel beams of sunset appear divergent. Since the
rainbow has for its centre the point opposite the sun, such beams must have posi-
tions radial with respect to the bow. They resemble, therefore, the Rayons du
Crépuscule occasionally seen in the east at sunset. They had never been observed
crossing the dark space between the primary and secondary bows. A similar
phenomenon of rays might be sometimes seen in sunlight when the shadow of the
observer fell upon a slightly turbid lake or river,

8, New Magnetic Figures. By Suvanus P. Toompson, B.A., D.Sce.,
Professor of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol.

The author desires to draw the attention of the Section to the series of magnetic
figures exhibited, which has recently been completed. The figures are permanently
secured on glass by a process described in recent communications to the Physical
Societies of London and Paris; and they have also been photographed as trans-
parencies for the lantern. :

It is believed that the figures assumed by iron filings in magnetic fields of many
different kinds, in the series now produced, will be found of great use in the study
and teaching of known laws of magnetic and electrodynamic action, and also in
the experimental determination of the action of magneto-dynamic and electro-
dynamic systems and machines. Faraday discovered that the lines of force traced
out thus by iron filings possessed a significance hitherto disregarded, and revealed
indeed the very seat of the attractions and repulsions taking place between
magnetic bodies. The method had indeed been imperfectly employed by Mus-
schenbrock at an earlier date, but it only became really fruitful in the hands of
Faraday. ‘The author has applied Faraday’s reasoning to the figures produced by

* «Philosophical Magazine,’ October 1878.

:

;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 451

electric currents traversing conductors in various circumstances, and finds that
from the figures alone nearly all the recognised electrodynamic, magneto-dynamic
and magneto-electric relations can be deduced or verified.

The series of figures now presented illustrate amongst other matters the
following actions :—

(1.) The attraction (or repulsion) of magnets by magnets.
(2.) The ‘attraction (or repulsion) of currents by currents.
(3.) The attraction (or repulsion) of magnets by currents.
(4.) The rotation of magnets by currents.
(5.) The rotation of currents by magnets.
(6.) The rotation of a magnet round its own axis under the influence of a current.
(7.) The repulsion by a current of its own parts.
(8.) The mutual inductive action of solenoids and magnets, and of magnets and
magnetic matter.
(9.) The flow of currents in conductors and conducting media,
(10.) The action on magnets of magnetic media.
(11.) The action of magnetic instruments, magnetometer, galvanometer, electro-
dynamometer,
(12.) The action of magneto-electro machines.
(13.) The magnetic properties of cobalt and nickel.

The figure illustrative of the lines of force surrounding a current has been
previously given by Faraday, Guthrie, and Barrett. Those illustrative of the
attraction and repulsion of parallel currents by Faraday, but imperfectly. Those
illustrative of flow of currents in conductors by Kirchhoff, Guthrie, and Carey
Foster and Lodge. Those illustrating the action of the galvanometer and the
Gramme machine were suggested to me respectively by Mr. C. W. Cooke and
Mons. A. Niaudet. The photographs have been executed directly from the filing-
figures by Mr. Robert Gillo, of Bridgwater, of the firm of F. York and OCo., of
Ree Hill, the eminent manufacturers of photographic transparencies for the
antern. ;

9. On Dimensional Equations, and on some Verbal Expressions in Numerical
Science. By Professor James Tuomson, LD.D., D.Sc., F.R.S,

In recent years attention has been given, more than before, to relations among
standard quantities of variable things, to be taken as units for use in giving nume-
rical expression to various quantities of those things. The quantity of each dif-
ferent variable thing selected as a unit might be, and often has been, arbitrarily
chosen, independently of the quantities chosen for units of other things. But
great advantages as to convenience and facility are attainable by making a
methodical connection among the quantities to be selected for the units of the

_ yarious things, so that when some of the units are arbitrarily selected, the others

will be derived from them in some good systematic way.

The units thus arbitrarily selected are called fundamental units; and the others
obtainable from them by the systematic method are called derived units.

Teaching on this subject is given in the early pages of Professor Clerk
Maxwell's ‘Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,’ and in Professor Everett's
‘Treatise on the Centimetre-Gramme-Second System of Units.’ The subject is
important; but much of the nomenclature and notation hitherto used is very con-
fusing and unsatisfactory. 4
~ Inow wish to propose some amendments, or new modes of expression, which

appear to be commendable.

Instead of saying, as is done in Professor Everett’s very useful treatise,
_ “The unit of acceleration varies directly as the unit of length, and inversely
as the square of the unit of time ;”
I would propose to say

The change-ratio of the wnit of acceleration is the product of the change-ratio of
the unit of length and the inverse second power of the change-ratio of the unit of
time.

@G2

452 REPORT—1878,

The meaning of the new name, change-ratio, may be given by the following
definition.

DeFrInitTI0nN.—In respect to changes of any variable, the change-ratio is the
ratio of the new value to the old, for any change from one value of that variable to
another.

Further, in Everett’s treatise, the relation already referred to among the units
of length, time, and acceleration, is stated in some other ways, which I will next
cite :—

”
“ The dimensions of acceleration are Tey : ‘
“The dimensions of the unit of acceleration are are
Instead of either of these, I would substitute this—
change-ratio of unit of length
(change-ratio of unit of time)?”
This expression states clearly and correctly all the truth which is meant to be con-
veyed by the previous statements.

In order now to be enabled to speak, in language brief and free from
ambiguity, of any numerical expression whatever, whether whole or fractional,
greater or less than unity, or unity itself, I shall use the word numeric, which I
recommend for general use, to comprise all the meanings which at present are con-
veyed in common use, but with much of troublesome ambiguity, by words or
phrases such as nwmber, fraction, number or fraction, number and fraction, number
or proper fraction or improper fraction. I recommend that, as soon as possible,
the word number should be restricted to its only proper signification, which is often
at present designated in an objectionable way by the two words “ whole number,”
but which is often also expressed, and really properly so, by the single word
number.*

Now we have no right to speak of dividing one quantity by another of a dis-
similar kind, except, merely for brevity, in the case of dividing the numeric
expressing the one quantity by the numeric expressing the other quantity, after we
have fixed upon units of the two things. Thus we have no right to speak of wnit
of length divided by unit of time, nor to employ, unless perhaps for brevity, and
under an implied protest, such a notation as

Unit of length
Unit of time”

Further, we have no right to speak of “ second power of unit of time,” nor of
“ square of wnit of time.” The name power seems admirably well suited (whether
by deliberate design entirely, or partly by good chances) for its uses in reference to
what are called powers, whether integral or fractional, of any numerics, as for
instance ©

Change-ratio of unit of acceleration =

v, «2, xc, x18, &e., &e. §

* Thus, for instance, in the public regulations for Post Office Savings Banks,
issued by authority of the Postmaster-General (‘ British Postal Guide ’), the intima-
tion is made that “ At these banks deposits of one shilling, or any number of shillings,
mill be received,” this being, however, subject to some restrictions, which need not
be mentioned here, merely assigning limits to the amounts that will be accepted
from any one person. Now the words here quoted would convey a false statement
of what the Post Office authorities really mean to announce, if the word “number ”
were allowed to mean a fractional numerical expression. The announcement is
obviously framed on the presumption that the word “number ”’ in it can only mean
legally what in the present paper is referred to as its only proper signification, that,
namely, which is commonly designated as “a whole number” or “an integer.” If
an intending depositor, understanding the word “number” in the extended sense in
which it is very often, and also quite authoritatively used, would offer a deposit of
748., his offer would be refused, as it would amount to 7s. 4d., which is not contem-
plated in the regulations as an amount to be accepted as a deposit.

“ More examples to the same effect might be cited from usages in practical
business affairs; and also from usages of scientific writers in arithmetic and in other
branches of mathematics, but the one here given may suffice.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 453

and also for its uses in cases such as
e-2, o-8, oh, 248, &e.&e.;

in any of which x may denote any numeric whole or fractional.

Such expressions as the square of the unit of time are not to be approved of.
That expression, for instance, is too like such combinations of words as a square
second, or a square minute. It is not really quite so unreasonable, however, because
there is a good meaning sometimes intended though badly expressed, when the
square of the unit of time is spoken of, that unit being then regarded as a variable,
and the true meaning being usually just what may be distinctly stated as the second
power of the change-ratio of the unit of time. A second is essentially a constant
quantity of time; and the square of a second, a second squared, and the second power
of a second of time, are all of them essentially meaningless conjunctions of words.

It is to be observed that any ratio is a numeric, or may be treated as such to
any degree of approximation we please ; and so we can have the second power or
any other power of a change ratio ; and we are entitled properly to write as a frac-
tion any power of any change-ratio divided by any power of the same or of any
other change-ratio. "That fraction will be itself a numeric, and may properly form
one side of an equation having a numeric for its other side. a) eae

It follows, then, under the views already offered, as to legitimate and illegiti-.
mate modes of expression arid notation, that such notations as

yard = il foot
(minute)? 1200 (second)””
which is given in Dr, Everett’s Treatise (page 4), as a very expressive notation now—
becoming common, are not commendable, and are such as it is desirable promptly ~
to reject. We might quite rightly note that :

yard _ 1 =)
foot 1200 \second/ ”

but it would be illegitimate to pass from this, by imitation of a real algebraic pro- -
cess, so as to write

yard 1 (minute)?

foot 1200 (second)”’

and thence further to make a pseudo-multiplication of both sides by foot, and a
pseudo-division of both sides by (minute)*, and so to bring out the seeming equa- -
tion above objected to.

The name dimensions of units is subject to a distressing ambiguity. It might:
mean the greatness or smallness of them; and indeed a dimensional equation is for
the very purpose of telling how the greatness of some units changes in accordance-
with changes made in the greatness of other units. This is not, however, the idea
which is attached to the word dimensions in dimensional equations. It is mentally
associated rather with such notions as the three dimensions in space, length,.
breadth, and thickness (not to say also with the fanciful notions, so often now put.
forward, of a fourth dimension in space, or a 23th, or 43th, or an infinite number of
other alleged dimensions in a dreamland space, not found in our world or conceived
in our brain). It has, in fact, to do with change-ratios, or powers of change-ratios
of quantitative units, whereby the magnitudes of the various units are mutually
connected, and some of them specified by reference to others. There is, I may re-
mark, for instance, in Dr. Everett’s book, one article on Dimensions of Units, and
another on Dimensions of the Earth. Now the word dimensions in these two cases
has totally different meanings,

10. On Lead and Platinised Lead as a Substitute for Carbon and Platinised
Silver, in Leclanché, Bichromate, and Smee’s Batteries. By Hpwarp
T. Harpman, F.C.8., Sc.

The chief objections to carbon as a positive plate are: (1) the difficulty of
preparation ; (2) the limited size of the plates; (8) their brittleness; and (4) the

454 REPORT— 1878.

difficulty of ensuring perfect connection. As to the last, it often occurs that the
exciting solution makes its way upwards through the porous carbon and gradually
destroys the metallic connections, except when the cell has been very carefully
constructed. Inconveniences like this in a Leclanché electric bell battery induced
the author to substitute pieces of gas-pipe for the carbon, and this answered
admirably for months. The addition of a little hydrochloric acid occasionally to
the exciting solution of ammonium chloride being necessary.

Double fluid Bichromate Battery.—Ordinary sheet-lead is an effective sub-
stitute for carbon in this battery. Like all bichromate batteries, it is not constant,
requiring frequent renewal of the bichromate. The lead is practically unaffected.

Platinised Lead, Single Fluid Bichromate, and Smee’s Batteries.—Unprepared
lead is tolerably effective for the ordinary bichromate battery, but its power is
enormously increased when the surfaces are roughened, and thinly coated with
platinum. A single cell with plates about 3 inches by 4 inches will heat 4 inches
of platinum wire of about 20 gauge, and fuses the hair-like platinum wire used
sometimes to explode gunpowder.

It is equally effective as a Smee battery. The results appear to be quite as
powerful. It answers capitally for working medical coils. The platinising is
readily effected by a process described by the author.*

In conclusion, the author points out that large batteries can be thus constructed
very cheaply by any amateur, and that the size of the cell is almost unlimited, as
it is easy to get any sized sheet of lead ; while with carbon cells of large size the
plates require a multiplicity of connections.

It is recommended to withdraw both plates from the exciting solution when
out of use. After being immersed some months, the platinum coating seems to
suffer a little, but can be easily renewed.

Platinised lead has been recommended for Grove’s battery by Callan,t but has,
I believe, never been tried in the forms I have mentioned.

11. On a New Form of Electro-Registering Apparatus. By Drnyy Lane.

In many forms of registering apparatus the friction of the tracing point upon the
aper is so great that it cannot be overcome by the motive force of the index of the
instrument to be registered. It is proposed to move the registering pencil by inde-
pendent mechanism actuating an arm which is always kept parallel with the index.
The index is placed between two small screws on the independent arm, the ends of
which are so placed as to be distant 545 of an inch from the index, while the latter
is exactly parallel with the registering arm. A voltaic current enters the index,
and so long as both arms are exactly parallel no current can pass to either screw.
If, however, the index moves ;4,, of an inch, it touches one or other of the screws,
and the current is completed to one or other of two electro-magnets. This
electro-magnet attracts an armature which releases the detent of a fly train.
The train coming into action shifts the registering arm until it becomes again
parallel with the index, when the current ceases and the detent again holds the
train. By this mode the registering srm is always maintained parallel with the
index, and consequently the pencil which it carries registers the position of the
index ; but the motive power is derived from the springs or weights of the fly train.
The only work which the index has to do is to make contact with one or other of
the two screws.

Instead of wheel trains, hydraulic or pneumatic apparatus may be employed to
raise or lower the registering arm, the operation of each “being controlled by inlet
and outlet valves wrought by the armatures of electro-magnets.

Untike the photographic registrations, these can be seen at once, and the delay

* The lead being cleaned with rough emery paper, and well roughened by a file,
is brushed over with bichloride of platinum. :

+ Ann. Ch. Phys. (8) viii. 28; also Watts’s Chem. Dict. ii. 426.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 455

and trouble incident to the preparation and development of sensitive papers are
avoided.

The system can also be applied to the regulation of clocks driven by revolving
pendulum or other continuous motion. The index hand may be moved by an
oscillating pendulum, and the independent hand moved by a revolving pendulum,
If the revolving pendulum train goes too slow, contact is made and the current can
be made to diminish friction on a revolving disc; end if the train goes too fast,
the friction can be increased by the current until the two movements be¢ome
isochronous,. In fact, any angular or rectilineal movement can be repeated with
any required force without imposing any sensible friction on the originating
apparatus,

12. On an Isochronic Pendulum. By Denny Lane.

Every dynamic effect can be expressed by three factors—weight, space, and
time. If successive events can be made exactly similar, they must occupy the
same time, and time can be measured by counting the number of such events.

The oscillations of a pendulum are the events that are most generally employed
for this purpose, but the successive events are not exactly similar, in consequence of
variations of five kinds :—

1, Variation in temperature causing change in length of pendulum.

2. Variation in density of the air in which pendulum moves.

5. Ditto in viscidity of the air.

4, Change in arc of oscillation.

5. Change in impulse given in order to maintain are.

It has been the habit hitherto to introduce compensations in order to counter-
balance these variations, or some of them. I propose, instead of compensating for
variations after they have arisen, to prevent the variations from occurring, or at
least to confine them within limits so narrow that they shall not affect the time of
the oscillation.

Ist. To prevent variations of temperature the pendulum is enclosed in a case
which is kept at a constant temperature, the case being surrounded by a fluid kept
always at the same heat by a thermostat. This thermostat is a vessel filled with
an expansible liquid, like alcohol, which by variation in yolume raises or depresses
mercury contained ina bent tube. The upper surface of the mercury in one leg
of the bent tube acts as a valve to increase or diminish the supply of coal-
gas to a burner, and maintains at a constant temperature the fluid sur-
rounding the pendulum case, and therefore the pendulum itself. Thus variation in
heat is prevented.

2nd. The pendulum case is hermetically sealed, the sides being rigid, and thus
any change in the pressure of the air contained is prevented.

3rd. The air remaining at the same temperature and pressure, any variation in
its viscidity is prevented. 3

4th. All the retarding forces being equal, the are must be equal if the impulse
given to maintain the arc remains constant.

oth. The impulse is given to the pendulum by the intermittent action of an
electro-magnet, which is active as the pendulum descends, but loses its magnetism
as the pendulum rises. This impulse should remain the same if the current which
produces it remains the same, and this can be effected in three different ways.
Every electric current depending directly on the electro-motive force, and inversely
on the resistance, if the electro-motive force and the resistance remain the same or
retain the same ratio, the current is constant.

(a) It is proposed to maintain the current the same by a vibrating regulator,
consisting of an adjustable armature, attached to a balance, and placed above an
electro-magnet included in the main circuit. As the current passes it attracts the
armature, which, as soon as the current ceases, is again drawn away by the action
of a counterpoise on the other end of balance. The intermittent current, therefore,
keeps the balance in vibration until the current falls below a certain fixed point,
when the vibration ceases. So long as the vibration lasts, a small funnel attached

456 REPORT—1878.

to the vibrator diverts from a regulating cell of the battery a minute stream of
exciting fluid ; but if the vibration ceases this small stream passes on to the battery,
and so increases its power until the vibrator is again set in motion and diverts the
exciting fluid. Thus the current is continually restored to the right point, and the
impulse continues to be the same.

(6) If the electro-motive force varies, the current can be maintained constant
by causing the resistance to vary in the same ratio. This can be effected by a very
light pendulum, having the same period as the main pendulum. Any variation in
the current will change the arc of the light pendulum, before the heavy pendulum
is sensibly affected, and this variation of arc can be made to vary the resistance in
a solid or fluid portion of the current.

Two vibrators may be employed, with counterpoises slightly different. If the
current is in the normal state, the light vibrator acts, but not the heavy one. If
the current be too strong, both vibrators act ; if too weak, neither.- The action of
both may be made to introduce resistance or diminish electro-motive force. The
inaction of both may diminish resistance or increase electro-motive force, so as to
restore the current to its normal condition.

(c) The variations of the arc can be confined within very narrow limits by the
following contrivance. A permanent magnet attached to a pendulum, by its
attraction for two small magnets attached to a balance or unstable equilibrium,
causes the latter to oscillate so as to make contact when the pendulum is at the
extremity, and break contact when at the middle of the arc; the current so opened
passes through an electro-magnet placed below the pendulum, which terminates in
an armature. The current being made’ slightly stronger than is necessary for a
given arc, its oscillation increases until the permanent magnet attached to it brings
into action a balance similar to the former, but placed somewhat further from the
centre of oscillation. The action of the balance opens a second path for the
current, which is thus shunted from the electro-magnet, diminishes the impulse
given by the latter, and so reduces the are again.

It is, therefore, concluded that if by any of the modes above mentioned, or any
other system of rheostal, the current be maintained constant, the impulses will be
equal, and the arc must be constant; or, again, if the variation of the arc be kept
within very narrow limits, the time of oscillation will remain constant, and the
pendulum will remain isochronic.

13. The Temperature of the Earth Within. By Wrtu1am Morris.

The state of this question amounts to this: that we know, nor, by the methods
hitherto pursued, can ascertain absolutely nothing of the heat of the earth within.*

The following is a method to ascertain the temperature of the earth within,
and, furthermore, to establish a permanent system of observation on the tem-
perature and electric state :—

Place one of two suitable uncompensated chronometers (provisionally so-called)
at the bottom of a (special) bore. This chronometer is to be actuated from surface
apparatus electrically, so as in its inaccessible, buried position, to be maintained
permanently in motion, and in turn to control electrically a clock at the surface
which will indicate to an observer the time (that is, revolutions in given time),
kept below ; being susceptible to temperature, the movements of this chronometer
will be inter-dependent with the temperature below. The second of the pair,
placed on the observatory wall, with a standard thermometer hanging by it, will
indicate time (revolutions in given time) inter-dependent with the known tem-
perature of the observatory. Knowing the temperature of the observatory, and
comparing the inter-dependent time registered by the observatory chronometer
with that of the chronometer at the bore-bottom as represented by the clock
electrically controlled therefrom, we can tell readily whether the temperature of
the observatory is higher or lower than that affecting the buried chronometer.

The electric cables can be used to lower the chronometer into the bore.

* See ‘ Nature,’ No. 447, vol. xviii. May 23, 1878.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 457

To render the chronometer at the bottom of the bore susceptible only to the
influence of the temperature within: ram over it suitable material, as over gun-
powder in rock-blasting operations, so as to exclude water and air.

5 a of apparatus may be arranged to investigate the temperatures at various
epths.

Délbssioittion stations.—Bores in the deeper rocks will give results of greater
value respecting the general conditions of the earth within. Bores in the higher
strata will give results interesting chiefly as compared with those from the deeper
rocks, and in connection with the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos. Stations
in insular and continental, below and above sea level, and ‘in different geological
systems, should be chosen.*

14. On Sunspots and Rainfall. By C. Mevprum. Ordered by the Council
to be printed in eatenso among the Reports, see p. 230.

15. On Lightning Conductors. By R. ANDERSON.

The following Papers were read in the Department of Mathematics :—

1. Report of the Committee on Babbage’s Analytical Engine.
See Reports, p. 92.

2. Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables, with an Haplanation
of the Mode of Formation of the Factor Table for the Fourth Million.
See Reports, p. 172.

3. On a New Form of Tangential Equation.t By Joun Casry, LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Catholic University of Ireland.

1, The tangential equation of a curve is a relation among the co-efficients in the
equation of a variable line, which being fulfilled the line must be a tangent to the
curve. Thus, let O be the origin, OX, OY the axes, and let a variable line MN, in
any of its positions, make an angle @ with OX, and an intercept v on it, then the
equation of MN is

u+y cot p—v=o.
From this it follows that if vy and ¢ be given, the position of the line is fixed, and
also that any relation between v and ¢ such as

v=f($);
will be the tangential equation of a curve which is the envelope of the line.

This form is remarkable for the facility with which it can be transformed into
all the known forms of equation, and also for the simplicity of the formulz which
it gives for metric purposes, such as rectification, curvature, &c.

We give here an outline of the transformations, &c., of which it is capable.

2. The tangential equation »y=/(d) of a curve being given to find its Cartesian
equation.

q * The original paper was read in extenso at the sitting of the Academy of
Sciences, Paris, on the 16th September.
+ This paper was published in extenso in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions ’ for the
year 1878, vol. 167, part 2.

458 - REPORT—1878.’

Since the equation of the line is

a+y cot p—f($)=0 (1)
Differentiating with respect to @ we get
y= —f' (p) sin *6; (2)
hence from (1) we get
r= (p) +f’ (Pp) sin cos dy (3)

and eliminating @ between (2) and (3) we have the Cartesian equation required.
Thus, if a line of constant length slide along two rectangular lines, we have

v=acos .*. f (fp) =a cos ¢.

y=asin °p, x=a cos *h
G+ yiaai,
3. If we differentiate the values of x and y in equations (2) and (8) we get by
squaring and adding, &c.,
ds :
dg Ff KP) Cos ep YP (Py "sin",

Which may be written

Hence from (2) and (3)

ds d
ap~ ag) #°0), (4)
sin d
Thus the equation of the evolute of an ellipse is
y=
Va? +6 tan *p.

Hence, from equation (4) we get, putting

A(p) = /1—e sin *
eae (5)
a A>)’
Which is the intrinsic equation of the eyolute of an ellipse.

4, From formula (4) we can find conversely the tangential equation from the
intrinsic.
Thus, let S = F(¢) be the intrinsic equation, and then we have from equation (4)

Al f(p) sin *p) =F) sin $
bp) -f cosec * J F’(p) sin pag dp. (8)

For example, the intrinsic equation of the evolute of the catenary is

8 of tan gdp

.. (ph) =cf tan ddd.
Hence by formula (6) we get the tangential equation of the evolute

y=c¢ {1 —1og (sec + tan o)}- (7)

tan

5. Let the tangential equation of a curve be y=f(p), then, denoting the radius
of curvature by p, we have from equation (4)

p sin $= 5 (f7(#) sin *>), (8)

$=

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 459

and, therefore, the intrinsic equation of the evolute is

ssing= 7a f’(o) sin *o). (9)

6. If the tangential equation of a curve be given, we find the tangential equa-
tion of its evolute by equations (6) and (9). For ifv= f (p) be the tangential
equation, the intrinsic equation of the evolute is

=2f'(p) cos 6 +f""(P) sin > ;
let this be denoted by F(p) and by art (4), the tangential equation is given by
equation (6).
Now from the value of F(@) we get

F’(f) sin 6 =3f’(¢) sin d cos P+ f’”’(P) sin 7—2f’() sin *.
Hence we get
fcosec 2 { f 2G) sin $9 } Ab =F") +f) cot
*. v=f"(b) +f (G) cot d,
or »=74(F() sin 4), (10)

sin p
is the tangential equation of the evolute.
Hence it follows that if V1, YoY, &C., denote for the successive evolutes what v
denotes for the curve itself, that

y, sin p= wa" sin ¢)
yg sin d= aal¥ sin )s

and in general
v, sin 6 =( ay (V sin 4). Cy

7. From the preceding article it is easily seen that we have for the n‘” inyolute

vy sind fff ap mf F(p) sin t), (12)

or if we interpret syitiicis of differentiation with negative indices as denoting inte-
gration, the formula (11) includes both evolutes and involutes, according 2 as 2 is
regarded positive or negative.

8. From the tangential equation of a curve we get the intrinsic equation of the
involute. Thus let v=F (#) be the tangential equation of the involute, then we
have from equation (4)

ds

dp ad

and from equation (12) we have

F(p) =f f(o) sin $ dg
sin d

: o H(F@ sind) +/ (Ae) sin 4 ap)
.s=fto) sin +f f (710) sn 6 aoa,

or, as it may be written,
= {7* (5) SAG) sin (13)

= F’(g) sin*g ),
sin d

460 REPORT—1878.

Hence, if »=f() be the tan rential equation of a curve, the intrinsic equation

of its involute is
e= {(1+(35)7 }M@)sing

or, since s is the length of the involute,
ds
do is the length of the given curve.

Hence, if »v=f() be the tangential equation of a curve, the length of the
curve is
dd

1 ,
dee ae « \ #4) sin g. (14)

SECTION II.
PEDALS.

9. If we make the axis of y the initial line, it is evident that the polar equation

the first positive pedal of the curve
v=f(p)

is p=f(¢) sin d. (15)

Hence the tangential equation of any curve is transformed into the polar equa-
tion of its first positive pedal by changing y into p and multiplying the function on
the right-hand side by sin ¢.

Thus the tangential equation of the parabola is y=a tan ¢.

Hence its first positive pedal is

p=a sin*¢ sec >.
10. The tangential equation of the evolute of v=f(¢) is

v=f(p) cot p+f(p)’.

Hence the polar equation of the first pedal of the evolute is

= PAU sin $): (16)

This also appears from equation (11).
And the polar equation of the first pedal of the nt" evolute is

pax (35) £0) sin > ; (17)

and by supposing m negative we have the first positive pedal of the n m-
volute.
11. By reversing the reasoning in art. 9 we have the following theorem :—
If p=F(¢) be the polar equation of a curve, the tangential equation of its first
negative pedal is
_F@)

sind (18)
Hence the tangential equation of the first negative pedal of a conic section
from any point in its plane is
(a cos * + 2b sin d cos f +b sin *p)r* sin *h
+2(g cos +f sin P)v sin P+ c=0,
12, The equation of the line whose envelope is the negative pedal is
x sin P+y cos 6—F(d) =0. (19)
Hence the negative pedal is the result of eliminating ¢ from the equations
2=($) sin b+ F'(p) cos,
y=E(G) cos p— FG) sin g.

v

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 461
From these equations we get ;
= P(g) + [Pap
13. If we substitute ah for f(p) in art. (5), equation (9), we get
o= {14 (ag) SFO).

Hence, if p=F(q) be the polar equation of a curve, the intrinsic equation of
the evolute of its first negative pedal is

a= {I + (4g) SF).

In like manner, from art. (8) the intrinsic equation of the involute of its nega-
tive*pedal is

o= {1+ (95) } FO.

PARALLEL CURVES.

14, If v = fp be the tangential equation of a curve, we have at once the
tangential equation of a parallel curve at the distance & given by the equation

v=fop+ k cosec . (21)

This equation enables us to write out at once the equation of the reciprocal of
the parallel curve, which is evidently the curve whose polar equation is

“2 =f(@) ain bh,

Where y is the radius of the circle of reciprocation. Thus the equation of the
reciprocal of the parallel to the ellipse

v= /a* + b* cot? op.
rid

is Ve J/ (a sin® p + 6? cos*h + k.
or in Cartesian co-ordinates
4y*h? (x? + y*) = (a2) + —P (a? + y*)Prt. (22)

SECTION III.
Rectification of Bicircular Quartics.

(15.) Being given a conic F (called the focal conic) and a circle J (called the
circle of inversion), it is known that a bicircular quartic is the envelope of a
variable circle whose centre moves on F, and which cuts J orthogonally. It is
proved in my memoir on “ Bicircular Quartics” that there is a fourfold generation
of the curve, viz., there are four focal conics, F, F’, F”, F’”, and these are con-
focal, and the corresponding circles of inversion J, J’, J’, J’”, are mutually ortho-
gonal, The rectification of the quarti¢ depends on the following geometrical
theorem. Ina bicircular quartic there exists a series of inscribed quadrilaterals
ABCD, whereof the sides AB, BC, CD, DA pass through the centres of the four
circles J, J’, J”, J’”, respectively; or, as it may be expressed, the pairs of points
(A, B), (B,C), (C, D), (D, A) belong respectively to the four modes of generation.
Now consider the quadrilateral ABCD, and giving it an infinitesimal variation, we
have four infinitesimal ares, AA’, BB’, CO’, DD’, which we shall denote by ds,
ds’, ds’, ds’’’, respectively ; now let the radii of the four generating circles which
touch the quartic at the four pairs of points (A, B), (B, C), (C, D), (D, A) be p, p’, -
p”, p’”, respectively. - : ; re l=

462 REPORT— 1878,

Again let CV, C’,V’, be two consecutive tangents to the focal conic F of the
bicircular quartic, and let OAB, OA’B’, be two perpendiculars to CV, C’V’ from
the centre of J. Now, if CV, C’V’ intersect the generating circle in RR’, it is
evident from geometrical considerations that

RR’ = 3(BB’— AA’),
but RR’ = pdé (dé being the angle between two consecutive tangents to F),
Hence we haye
ds’ —ds=2pd0,
and from the three other focal conics and circles of inversion we get three other
equations, viz. :—
ds’ —ds’’ = 2p’ d&’
ds” it ds'”’ — 2p” dé’
ds’ —ds =2p'"' do”.
Hence we have four equations for determining any of the four quantities ds, ds’,
ds’’, ds’’’, in terms of the four quantities pd6, p’d0,’ p’d6,” p’’’d6,’” each of which
is separately expressible as the differential of an elliptic integral.

4. On the Eighteen Co-ordinates of a Oonie in Space.
By Wo. Srortiswoope, F'.R.S., §c., §c., President.

The six co-ordinates of a right line may be derived from the equations of the
two planes of which it is the intersection, by eliminating each of the co-ordinates
in succession, We may proceed in like manner with the equations of a conic in
space. Let the equations he—

(a, b,c, d, f, 9, h, 1, m, n) (x, y, 2, t)? =o.
ax + By + yz+ 6t=0.
Then eliminating x, y, 2, ¢,in turn, we should obtain four forms which may be
written thus :—
(CC, BB, FF, BF, CF, BC) (y, z,t)? =0,
(AA, CC, GG, CG, AG, CA) (z, x,t)? =0,
(BB, AA, HH, AH, BH, AB) (2, y, )?=0,
(FF, GG, HH, GH, HF, FG) (2, y, z)? =0.
The 18 quantities AA, BB, --, the values of which are easily calculated, are “ the
18 co-ordinates of a conic in space.”
If we represent the three equations—
AAa+ ABB + ACy=0,
BAa+ BBS + BCy=0,
OAa+CBB8+CCy=0,
by the formula
(A, B,C) (a,8, y) =9.
A,B,C
The 18 co-ordinates will satisfy the 12 equations—
(A, H, G) (6,8, y) =0, (H,B, F) (a, 6, y) =0, (G, F,C) (a,8,8)=0.
,H, G H, B, F G,F,C
Eliminating a, 8, y, 5, from these we obtain the following identical relations
between the 18 co-ordinates, viz. :—

0, o, o, HH,FH, BH, GG, FG,CG, AA, BA, CA=0.
HH,GH,AH, o, o, o, GF,FF,CF, BA, BB, CB.
HG,GG,AG, HF,FF,BF, 0, 0, o, CA,CB,CC.
HA,GA,AA, HB, FB,BB, GC,FC,CC, 0, 0, 0..

These conditions are nine in number ; and, as we are concerned only with the ratios
of the co-ordinates, the total number of independent co-ordinates will be
18—9—1=8, as it should he,

2 —————

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 463

5. On the Modular Curves. By Professor H. J. S. Smirz.

6. On the Principal Screws of Inertia of a free or constrained Rigid Body.
By Professor R. 8. Batt.

bd @

7. On the Applicability of Lagrange’s Equations to certain Problems of
Fluid Motion. By Professor J. Pursrr.

8. On the Occurrence of Equal Roots in Lagrange’s Determinental Equation
of Small Oscillations. By Freprrtck Purser, M.A.

This paper is an endeavour to supply a more elementary proof of the important
result which M. Somoff claims to have been the first to establish*—that the
existence of equal roots in Lagrange’s determinantal equation of small oscillations
does not affect the stability of the system. It is further shown that the same con-
clusion holds for a certain system of differential equations of the first degree haying
also a physical application.

The solution of the equation of small oscillations—

(ta Nose ‘ : ,
Sag eR aes bowel Herre mshi Gil
ax,
aianea ahaa 2 ibn ic deny Pier techhe ud bite
&e., &e

peaieel

(where dy. =d,,, &e.) 99
as obtained by the method of indeterminate multipliers is—

X, =2,£,0 + 7,€,%+ &e. =A, sin (VEO t+e),
X= 2 £,9 + mE P+ he, =A, sin (VE t+e%),
&e., &e. ‘
Where €,%, £,, &e., &,% €, &c., are the systems of values of ,, €,, &c., which
satisfy the equations,
(a1, + AE, + Ay& + Ke. =0,
Gy € + (gq + k)E, + Ke. =0,
c., &e.
‘Corresponding to the roots A”, K®, of the determinant in &.

Now, by suitable transformation of this latter system it is shown that when mm
roots of the determinental equation are equal, the common value being /, the cor-
responding system of s involves m—1 arbitrary parameters. Hence in this case,
on the one hand, m distinct integrals of the oscillation system are merged in one
X=A sin (wv kt+e); on the other, this‘one, in virtue of the: m—1 arbitrary para-
meters implicitly involved in its left-hand member, is equivalent to m distinct
integrals, ‘f
: Stiga sin (Vkt+e,) X,=A,(VWkt+e«,),

' Cc. :

The occurrence of equal roots in the determinantal equation therefore only
diminishes the number of distinct vibration periods, without affecting either the
periodic form of solution or the number of distinct integrals.

A second method is employed by the author; based on the theory of orthogonal

' “* © Sur Pgéuation algébrique 4 l'aide de laquelle on determine les oscillations tras-

petites d’un systéme de points matériels,”— * Mémoires de l’Académie de St. Péters-
bourg,’ vii. série, tome i, No. 14,

464 REPORT —1878.

transformations, by which it is shown that the m distinct periodic integrals of the
symmetric oscillation system, corresponding to m equal roots of the equation for
k, can be made to appear by a series of successive reduction, while the same
reduction applied to an unsymmetric system leads necessarily to terms in which ¢
occurs outside the sine or cosine.

Lastly, the same general conclusions are established for the linear equations.

dx
“at = Ay Uy + Ay, + ew 0 e ANnXny
<a
ax, : :
ae Unie + Op la te owe (2) si AOE
&e., &e
where 1 = Ang = KC. =0 yy + Ay, =0, KC.

9. On Halphen’s New Form of Chasles’s Theorem on Systems of Oonics
satisfying Four Conditions. By Dr. T. AncHER Hirst, F.R.S.

The theorem in question is expressed by the formula
n=ap + By,
where p and »y are the characteristics of the system of conics satisfying four of the
five conditions, and a and 8 are numbers which depend solely upon the fifth con-
dition. Amongst the m conics given by the formula degenerate ones are, of course,
included, provided they satisfy the five conditions.

From Halphen’s new form of the theorem, however, these degenerate conics are
excluded, and the result is the number of proper conics which satisfy the five
conditions in question. Halphen’s paper will be published shortly in the ‘ Proceed-
ings of the London Mathematical Society.’

10. On the Law of Force to any Point when the Orbit ts a Conic.
By J. W. L. Guatsuer, M.A., FBS.

1. Sir W. R. Hamilton, in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Royal Irish Academy for
1846 (vol. iii., p. 308), proved that if a body be attracted to a fixed point, with a
force varying directly as the distance from that point, and inversely as the cube of
the distance from a fixed plane, the body will describe a conic, of which the plane
intersects the fixed plane in a straight line, which is the polar of the fixed point
with respect to the conic. The author showed that if the distance of any point
from the fixed point O be denoted by 7, and if the perpendicular from any
point P upon the fixed plane be denoted by p, so the law of force to O is, ac-

cording to Sir W. R. Hamilton’s law, fo then the periodic time is Je Pot) Where
B

po denotes the perpendicular from the centre of the orbit upon the fixed plane.
For example, if the plane of motion is parallel to the fixed plane, p is constant,

[be Bes er Drie} Se Brg
=o, so that the force to Late p’r, say, and the periodic line = Vat ey"

It follows also that all the orbits having their centres in the same plane parallel to
the fixed plane are described in the same periodic time.

2. Considering only the case of motion in the plane of xy, and combining the
above theorem with formule given by MM. Darboux and Halphen (‘ Comptes
Rendus’, t. 84, pp. 760-762, 936-941), it follows that if the orbit

(ax + by +c)? = Aa* + 2QHay + By?

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 465

be described about the origin under the action either of the force

pr
(ax + by + 0)
or the force
pr

(Aa? + 2H ry + By?)?’
the periodic time will be
Qa c(AB—H?) 3

Va tos (Ab? + Ba? 2a) | ‘

3. In the case of an elliptic orbit described about any point O, the law of force
to O may be put in the form

ni eS

(8 —p,p,)?
where 6 is the semi-axis minor ; r is the distance OP of the body P from O; p,, p,
are the perpendiculars from the foci S, H upon POP’ (the chord through P and 0),
and p,, p, have the same or opposite signs according as S, H are on the same or
opposite sides of PP’. The periodic time is then

2a
Tp Dis
a being the semi-axis major.
4. If a parabola be described about any point O, the force tending to O, at any

point Pin the orbit, is equal to p Oms Where OM is drawn parallel to the axis
meeting the tangent at P in M.

This, and the expression for the force in § 8, may be deduced from the
scholium to Prop. xvii. of Newton’s ‘ Principia.’

The Paper of which the above is an abstract will appear in the ‘Monthly
Notices’ of the Royal Astronomical Society.

11. Note on the Geometrical Treatment of Bicircular Quartics.
By Freperick Purser, M.A.

The author pointed out that some of the leading properties of these curves
might be readily deduced geometrically from the definition of the curve as a locus.
This definition may be thus stated: “The bicircular quartic is the locus of points
P, whose quasi polars to a circle J touch a conic F ”; by quasi polar being under-
stood the parallel to the polar half way between point and polar.

Tntrodueing the circular points-@, «’, the bicircular becomes the binodal quartic,
and the quasi polar the companion chord of intersection of the lines Po, Po’
with the conic J.

In particular, this method yields a geometrical proof of the theorem of
orthogonal section of two confocal quartics, and the same mode of proof is appli-
cable to the corresponding theorem for cyclides.

Poncelet’s porism on the inscription of polygons whose sides pass alternately
through the two nodes of a binodal quartic is shown to be reducible to the porism
of the in-and-circumscribed polygon for conics. Lastly, it is shown that this:
mode of treatment leads to the following theorem, which is, so far as the author is

_ aware, new :—“Tf a conic U touch a line L, a conic V, and have double contact

with a third conic W, the chord of contact envelopes a binodal quartic, of which
the intersections of L and W are the nodes.”

12. On Quadric Transformation. By Professor H. J. 8. Sanrn.

1878. HH

466 REPORT-- 1878.

13. On Certain Linear Differential Equations. By the Rev. Ropurt HaRtey,
ERS.

By an ingenious application of Murphy’s theorem, Mr. Rawson has shown that

if wu, =—Sy”, the summation extending to any number of the roots of the alge-
n

braical equation
ym + ay” +O%=0.... (a),

y being considered as a function of x, then

dtc em dun _ ®
de en ae yO:
Mn tm — br yn J a Up) ee (y)-

dx m—r dx r

Mr. Rawson has also shown how the “ differential resolvent” of (a) may be caleu-
lated by means of the equations (8) and (y), when particular values are assigned
to mand». The object of this paper is to show, first, that Mr. Rawson’s differen-
tial equations may be readily derived from the algebraical equation, without the aid
of Murphy’s theorem, by a process suggested by Professor Cayley ; and, secondly,
that Mr. Rawson’s results may be generalised and presented in a compact symbo-
lical form.
It will be convenient to deal with the equation

ay” + by” +c v=o. (1)

which is unaltered when a, m are interchanged with b,7. Differentiate (1) with
respect to x, and multiply the result into y”, then

(amym*"! + bry" t7—") y! + cy" = 0,
where differentiation is denoted by an accent; but
my"—"(ay™ + by” + ex) y! =0;
whence, eliminating y”*+"-!, we have
b(m—r) yt ly’ + emay"y’ — cy” =o,
which, summing for any number if the roots of y, gives

, c ee n )
U rtn = — TY ioe Uw |e 2
ei b eS ie pa ()
Interchange a, m with 6,7; then
c r n
DY as Stee (7, u,): (3)
a \r—m r—m

These results, viz. (2) and (3), agree with Mr. Rawson’s equations (8) and (y)
They may be otherwise written

Dirna= — £2 (™ pes i
iss b 3 m—r m—r Kn (4)
D ry, co Sail * D- i yun 5
Het a i‘ r—m r—m T (5)
d
here D= xr—-
where a

Adopting the usual factorial notation, viz. : —

6) =6(6—1) (6-2)... (@—-a+1
according to which Uf] : : 4

a+p a. A
[6] =[8] [é-aj,
and effecting reductions by the aid of the theorem
f D)2w= xf (D+ a)u,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 467

or uf (D)u=f (D—-a)a7u,
we may generalise thus :—

Operate with [D-1] on both members of (4), then

t e m n t-1
Mii, — ah D="_)([D A

[D] rtm i (7 m—r [Bie
Write +7 for , then

Lewes (- ; yar Se D - Le | + 1] (Du.

m—r m—r
So generally,

q qa
: c q m t-q
= (=. )2 = D ,
[D] a rtn ( b ) : [oP m—?r +g 1] eb,

By applying the same process to (5), or more simply by writing, in (6), p for g
and interchanging a, m with b, r, we find

p _p a
[D] pman a (- <) “T la aa =p ‘Dy m,

a r—m r—m

iy Pp . , t—p
(=)?'[ bibs 9 iio 1 Up
a LN ip m—r
Therefore, when gr =pm,

g = r oO m : r TJ [Dy "un

= (—)¢ are og-p [ LG abi fee

bac m—?r m—?

+g-1] DI 6)

If we make ¢ =p, and interpret [Dy by 1, this equation becomes
p
r n
Liz p27 AG m =] ua

=(-)a as ao LO OAR ag ls +g -1] py “Wy (7)

m—-?r m~?7
which may be transformed into

qd
Tor n era Cy camer GAT om San 5
[no - J [D] \w,=(-) va pap +q 1] Uny (8)

b7¢P m—r m—?r
an equation which may be obtained directly from (6) by making ¢ = q.

When m and 7 are prime to each other, the lowest values of pand q are r and
m respectively, and either (7) or (8) may be written in the form

od ; m—r
TPA A Se ,@
ine dx a [2 dx. e
Mar om m d n ie ,
=(— Sots uly eee) See -1] m7, = 9
(-) omer L@-2 m—r rie 84 ()

or in the form

In eft Yolm r—m
r., <@ n d
pe teks), al ee ES pe Un
r—m, dx »—m dx

: ‘rBmer Y d n ] = \
BGS) Na eG et gr myn, 10
( ) arc™ be m r é i ( )
‘The general integral is
Un =CyYy” FH CYa™ 29 +O Yn” 9% + CmYrar y
HH2

468 REPORT—-1878.

the final term being ¢,y , or¢c,y ”, according as mor r is the greater. In the
former case (9), and in the latter (10), is the more convenient form.

The substitution (ae peat ‘ ‘) changes the algebraical equation (1) into

ay™ + bry” +c=0, (11)
and the same substitution changes the differential equation (9) into

a m m—r
r ain _d Al m—r her Tm—r dn
sas A pps ee eter re Un =(—) x——-—-]1 Btn.
m dx m dx arc™ Lm dx =m

which, since

te aera ie

may be written

ar Sea [- pe en - ea 2 Re 1 ’
[ze Sakae) mA Bam = Cera 1 2, (12)

This confirms a result obtained by the author some years ago by the aid of La-
erange’s theorem, viz., that the differential equation

rs ai = (ees Las eee i de
e[ et oe i en 1] aie n Peer

is satisfied by the m'" power of any root of the equation.

y” — ry" + a=0.
See Boole’s ‘ Differential Equations, Supplementary Volume, page 199, where the
reader should correct a misprint in the seventh line from the top of the page; the
factor a” should be x”~”.

When m and 7 are not prime to each other, a reduction in the order of the
differential equation may be effected. For, if m=ay, and r=ap, a being the
greatest common measure of m and 7, the condition pm =gr is satisfied by making
p=p and g=p, and we have, corresponding to the equations (9), (10), and (12) the
three following, viz:—

[—. pe T{-2 ae
p—p du a(u—p) da ¢

d m i d he
pie ¢ _ ——— HY td Un
US dx a(p ma [ dx

p
Spore. | sp. te 2 yh a ee 14

(Yom lpn” de alp—p) Ie i
either of which is satisfied by the n® power of any root of the algebraic equa-
tion (1), And

Rear LO Tp da, n *"ru—p..d es ee 15
Be wee ) eat a de® ap yl be "de. ap ] “ee
which is satisfied by the n‘” power of any root of the algebraic equation (11).

The “ differential resolvents” of (1) and (11) are formed by making n=1, in
which case each of the differential equations reduces to an order lower by unity
than itself, in accordance with the theory of differential resolyents. The author
noticed other cases in which, for particular values of n, the differential equations
admit of reduction. i

The passage from the symbolical to the ordinary form of linear differential
equations was shown to involve no practical difficulty.

EE ae eee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 469

14. On the Solution of a Differential Equation allied to Riccati’s.
‘ By J. W. L. Guaisuer, M.A., F.R.S.
The equation referred to was the well-known differential equation
fu, esl) AMieiee 7 kal SURGE

de in a

which is transformable into Riccati’s equation

by the substitutions

where q= +1
The author stated that he had found that the differential equation (1) was
satisfied by the coefficient of /*+! in the expansion in ascending powers of x of the
expression
ea (a*-+ah),
so that the complete integral of (1) was
u=A. coefficient of ht! in etx)
+B. coefficient of h'+! in e~ev+2)),
To prove this, consider the partial differential equation
dv h? dv
de? = de . . . . . . (2)
A particular integral of this is
y= eW ur + zh),

for from this value of v we obtain at once by differentiation

Pv, («+ hh)? ih?
det 9" x2 42h 9” (a? + 2h)

22
ay i2? qu

2
pleat =
dhe? each 9" (attach)

whence we see that (2) is satisfied.
Let the above value of v be expanded in ascending powers of h, so that

ewieteD —P +Ph...+Pai +P hitt+ &e.,
0 1 +

then
d? @P; ;
ca 0 = T neliart ( a = aP 544 ase + &e.,
h? dy (¢+1)2

ze dit weer eter PD Pht} + &e.,

and therefore, P;;, satisfies the differential equation
a u(e+1
mde —s

dz? Uh
’ In this solution it has been assumed that i=a positive integer; but if z be nega-
tive = — 7’ —1, we have i(¢+1) = (*’ +1)i’, so that we may replace ¢ by 7’, which is

itive; and thus the solution applies when ¢= + an integer, corresponding to the
integrable cases of Riccati’s equation, viz., when g= + the reciprocal of an uneven
pager. By considering the coefficient of ‘++ in the direct expansion of
eWN@+ah) .

2
=1+a(2?+0h)!+ 75 (e+ ah) + &e,,

470 _ REPORT—1878.

in " emt , eV (@?+2l)—x)
2 at a 2 ‘
= eu [1+4 AV (a? + wh) aide L3 AV (a? + wh) x} + &c.,
and in ee eu (x?+-xh)+x)

Se —ax 5. 7 b a2 F : 2 :
=e [ise{ vow +ah)+e bs of vr sah) +a} + &.,
we obtain by means of the expansions

iiks. a a h .n(n+3) h® _n(n+4) (n+5) 28 )
hed ye ea a] Bee nox ECit
iv een | a “le 1D ae Loe

( Bia WAV cara h _n(n—8) h? |. n(n—4) (n—5) 23 é
qe ae A = Ory [l+ne + 13 “at ( al st &e.|

the general integrals of the differential equation in the different forms of which it is
known to be susceptible.

15. On Certain Special Enumerations of Primes. By J. W. L. GuatsHer,
M.A., FLRLS.

’ The paper related to (1) prime-puirs, and (2) primes of the form 4n+1 and
the form 4n +8 enumerated separately.

I. Prime-pairs.—By a prime-pair .s meant a pair of primes separated by only
one number ; thus, 11 and 13, 17 and 19, 29 and 81, &c., are prime-pairs. It is
clear that as the number of primes decreases as we ascend higher in the series of
numerals, the number of prime-pairs must decrease also, and the object of the
enumeration was to examine 12 rapidity of this decrease. The enumerations
relate to the first hundred chiliads (100,000 numbers) of each of the six millions
over which Burckhardt’s and Dase’s tables extend ; and the number of prime-pairs
in each ten chiliads is shown in the following table :—

First Second | Third | Seventh | Eighth | Ninth
Million | Million | Million | Million | Million | Million
I 206 84 67 64. 50 67
II 187 69 | 65 62 53 45
Tl 125 met 75 54. 538 47
IV 124 69 63 45 57 43
' Vv 114 79 55 56 63 58
VI 106 62 67 57 46 54
VIL 94 69 66 45 41 55
VIII 102 71 64: 55 54. 61
Tx 109 65 69 60* 5l 45
| x 108 84 53 47 57 43
‘Total for the
hundred | 1225 725 644 545 525 518
chiliads , ae

* The prime-pair { aan } is counted as belonging to the group 6,080,000—

6,090,000 only.
The explanation of the table is that the number of prime-pairs between 0 and

10,000 is 206 ; between 10,000 and 20,000 is 187; . . . between 90,000 and 100,000
is 108 ; between 1,000,000 and 1,010,000 is 84; between 1,010,000 and 1,020,000

oe

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 471

is 69, &c. Thus, for example, the number of prime-pairs between 7,070,000 and
7,080,000 is 54; and between 8,090,000 and 8,100,000 is 43.

The total number of prime-pairs between 0 and 100,000 is 1225; between
1,000,000 and 1,100,000 is 725;... and between 8,000,000 and 8,100,000 is 518, as
shown in the last line of the table ; and it is interesting to compare these with the
numbers of primes between the same limits which are respectively 9,593, 7,216,
6,874, 6,397, 6,369, 6,250, The numbers of prime-pairs are thus rather less than
one-tenth of the numbers of primes in the same intervals. It should be stated that
among the prime-pairs 1 and 3,3 and 5,5 and 7 are counted (2 being ignored),
and that among the primes 1 and 2 are both counted. In the 600 chiliads, the
greatest number of prime-pairs contained in any one chiliad is 36 in the first
chiliad ; while one chiliad (8,014,000—8,015,000) contained no prime-pair. For
a more complete account of the enumeration see ‘ Messenger of Mathematics,’ vol.
viii. pp. 28-88 (June, 1878).

IL. Primes of the form 4n+1 and 4n+3.—This enumeration only extends at
present over the first hundred chiliads of each of the first three millions. The
results are shown in the following table :—

| First Million Second Million Third Million

Sl eae nae an lak ba a PSNI
sal Salee (ee (te (28 | 23 | ee) 38
oa 3a is Byer ey =I 3A, 3 Ay Eis
Ba |g |S |e | ‘Bo | a | BH | Bo | oe
zc | etl veer ewe oe odes Om (27 &° peg Nebis

+ +8 + +) a + a |
if 610 619 | 1,229 391 362 753 351 Bo4 705
II 516 | 517 |1,0383 | 367 | 352) 719 | 345) 346/| 691
Til 486 | 497 | 983] 869 | 3863] 7382| 349] 344) 6938
IV 474 484 958 347 304 701 340 350 690
V 464 466 93) 361 370 7ol 343 328 671
VI 469 455 924 349 349 698 356 340 696
VII 431 | 447 | 878 | 862) -854-|- 716 | 855} 389.| 694
VIII 454 | 448 | 902 | 372) 350} 722) 348] 331 | 674
eX 445 | 4317 | 876 | 352) 354] 706} 3839] 347 | 686
xX 435 | 444 1° 879'| 373 | 865'| 788 | 3841 | 383 | 674

| Total for the i
pens } 4,784 | 4,808 | 9,592 | 3,643 | 3,573 | 7,216 | 3,462 | 3,412 6,874
te) ads ‘

The explanation is the same as in the case of the previous table—viz., the
numbers of primes of the forms 4n+1 and 4n+3 between 0 and 10,000 are 610
and 619 respectively ; between 10,000 and 20,000 are 516 and 517 respectively ;
between 1,000,000 and 1,010,000 are 391 and 362 respectively, and so on. The
enumeration (which was undertaken at the suggestion of Professor Tchébychef)
is searcely extensive enough to afford valuable results; but, owing to the ereat
difference in the properties of the primes of the two forms, the comparison between
their frequency of occurrence possesses considerable interest. ‘The numbers given
in the table are the result of a duplicate enumeration; but a third enumeration
will be required, in order to render it certain that they are absolutely free from
error.

16. Notes on Circulating Decimals. Py J. W. L. Guatsner, M.A., RS.

The author alluded to the advantage, in considering the complete theory of the
periods of circulating decimals, of including all the periods corresponding to a given

472 REPORT—1878.

divisor g. Thus, for example, suppose g=39: there are four periods, viz. dividing
1, 38, 2, and 37 by 39, we have

89) 1(0 39) 88(9 39) 2 (0 39) 37 (9
10 2 29 7 20 5

19 4
22 5 17 4 Bre 34 8
25 6 14 8 ae B57
16 4 93 5 204g se!
4 i 35 8 Biles B17

the remainders being written in the column in the middle and the corresponding
quotient digits at the side, e.g. 10 divided by 39 gives quotient 0 and remainder
10, 100 divided by 39 gives quotient 2 and remainder 22, 220 divided by 89 gives
quotient 5 and remainder 25, and so on. It follows that

lt ‘ LO 13 22 :

a 025641, ay 256410, <= §64102

25° = 041028, 18 . -aosse, 4 = doenes

39 39 39
and the numbers 1, 10, 22, 25, 16, 4 are such that if we divide any one of them
by 39, we obtain the others in this order, and all the fractions 2,, 12 4 give

ies 5
rise to the same period, though the commencement is made in each case at a
different place.

Considering periods in which the digits and their cyclical order are the same
(though the commencement may be made at a different place) as the same period,
we see that 39 has four periods, each containing 6 digits. In general, the number g
(supposed prime to 10) will have f periods each containing a figures, a and f being '
connected by the equation af= ¢ (¢g), where ¢ (g) denotes the number of numbers less

than q and prime to it. Calling the period to which I belongs, theleading period,

if the remainder g—1 belongs to the leading period, the two halves of each period
will be complementary, while if it does not, the periods will form pairs, the periods
in each pair being complementary to one another. The theory is rendered much
more simple if all the periods be considered, than if attention be confined to the
leading period.

The author had formed a table showing the values of a and f for each number
prime to 10 up to 1000: this table was obtained by counting the number of
oe and the number of digits in each period in Henry Goodwyn’s ‘ Table of

ircles’ (1828), which gives all the periods of the numbers prime to 10 up to 1024.
The table was verified by multiplying the values of a and f, which, in every case
was found to be equal tog(qg). Other such tables that have been given have
usually related only to primes, and to the number of digits in the period. There is
a table of periods in vol. ii. of Gauss’s ‘ Werke,’ pp. 412-434, but it is less complete
than Goodwyn’s. With regard to the number of figures in the periods of numbers,
it is known that if the periods of the primes N, P, Q... contain respectively
n, p,q... digits, then NPQ... has a period of a figures, a being the least com-
mon multiple of n, p,q.... The demonstration does not apply to the case of the
power of a prime. Generally, it is found that N? has a period of mN digits, N* of
nN? digits, &c., but for an obvious reason this is not true when N=8, and also it
is not true when N = 487; for 487 has a period of 486 digits and 487? has also a
period of 486 digits. It is, however, true for all other primes less than 1000, so
that if N, P,Q... be any primes, each less than 1000 (3 and 487 excepted), the
period of N*P*Q”, . . contains a digits, a being the least common multiple of »N-,
pP*-!, gQry-1,... The discovery that 487 divides its own periods is due to
Desmarest (‘Théorie des Nombres,’ 1852, p. 295), who seems to have determined
by actual division that no other prime up to 1000 possessed the same property.
In the event of a prime p being a factor of its period, we have 10?-!=1 (mod. p*),
By Fermat’s theorem, we know that 10?-!=1 (mod. p), but the theorem throws no
light upon whether 10?-!=1 (mod. p?), The question was proposed by Abel in t. iii,
p- 212 of Crelle’s ‘ Journal :’ “Can 2?-!—1, where p is a prime and w an integer

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 473

less than p, be a multiple of p??” This was answered in the affirmative by Jacobi on
p. 301 of the same volume, who showed that 3!°=1 (mod. 11”), 148=1 (mod. 297),
and 18°°=1 (mod. 377), (See also Jacobi’s ‘Canon Arithmeticus’ (1839), p. xxxiv).
Desmarest, in fact, obtained a solution of the congruence 2?-!=1 (mod. p*) for
x =10, viz. 10#°=1 (mod. 487"). The fact that only one value of p should occur up
to 1000 for which the congruence is satisfied is not remarkable when the diminu-
tion of the probability of a number being a factor of its period, as we ascend in the
series of primes, is considered. Regarding the period merely as a number taken at
random, we can see how small is the chance that a large prime should leave a zero
remainder when divided into its period; but there is no reason to suppose that
there are not values of » for which 109-!=1 (mod. p°), &c.

17. Elementary Demonstration of the Theorem of Multiplication of Determi-
nants. By M. Faux, Docens of Mathematics in the University of Upsala.

The present article is intended to give a rigorous demonstration of the im-
portant theorem above mentioned, founded upon the same elementary principles
(elimination between two systems of equations) as the demonstration which is
given by Brioschi in his excellent Treatise on Determinants, and is reproduced by
Schellbach in his German translation of this work. To the demonstration of
Brioschi, I think one must object that it is incomplete, as taking no account of the
numerators of the two quotients, from the equality of which that of the denomi-
nators is concluded.

In the following we use the notations :—

@) . a ie SUzVy~ UV, + 6 6 2 FUVay
‘ : (wr), HUV_tUBVgt © 2 © FUAVny

ee wan), » (tv), = (ev) —20,0,,

(aa), (a8), (ay),...(ax)
(ba), (68), (by),--- (bx) :
A= | (ea), (8), (eps (en)

(ka), (x8) , (hy),. . (Kx)

Gy, Ay, Ug, ».. Gy, Ao, Ag...an

Heese abs | By, Boy Bs---Bn

Cyy Cay Cgy 200Cn A= | Vy Yor ¥g-*'¥n

(3)

Ki hogy Kg, sasken fac, Uaep bapeccen

|
| ie
(08),; by), ++6(Ok),
A,= . . . . . .
- ai (*8),; (ky), ++-(Ax),
[

(€B)1, (ey1)---(ck)1
4
( ) b,, 0.6, Bay B3.+-Bn

Coy CgeeCn | y _ | Yor Ysre*¥n
. . . . 1 . . .
Kegy Kegs +-Kin Ray Kae eek

Now comparing the systems (3) and (4), we see that the constituents of A in
(8) are composed of those of D and A, exactly in the same manner as the con-
stituents in A, of those in D, and A,. The determinants in (3) are of the n™,
those in (4) of the (n—1)* order. The theorem, therefore, will be generally
demonstrated, if we prove: :

1) That it holds for determinants of the second order, and,

2) That, if it holds for determinants of the (n—1)*, it must also be true for
those of the n*" order; tc. thatif A,=D,A,, then A=DA.

474 REPORT—1878.

1) Developing the determinant of the left member, the following identity
hecomes immediately proved :—
. é &,

rE, + %E, Tym, + 2Nq | _ | 2, 2
Ni» Ne

W181 + Yoko, WT + Yon. | Yas Yo
Thus the theorem holds for determinants of the second order.
2) Suppose the theorem hold for determinants of the (n—1)* order, ¢.e., sup-
pose that :

(5) swe ee 6 A,=D.A;
then it shall be proved that
A=DaA.

Now, A, being a certain minor of A, wedenote by A,, Ay, ..., A, the minors of A
which correspond to the constituents of its first column. Then, by a known pro-
perty of determinants, we have the identities:

a,A,+B,A, + Ag+...) +,k,A, =A,
a,A, + BA, + yoAg + 5-+0) + KoAn =9,
aA, + BxAy + ysAg+ 0+) + KgAy = 0,
a, A, + B As + y,Agy +00 + Ky Ay = 0

Multiplying these equations by @,, dy, dg,...,@, respectively, and adding them, we
obtain the first of the next following equations. In the same manner, the others
are obtained by using as successive multipliers the constituents of every one of the
other rows in D, By the notations (1) we thus get:

(aa)A, + (aB)A, + (ay) Ag t+,..., + (ak) An=a,A,
(ba) A, + (08)A, + (by) A, +,..., + (Ok) A, = 5,4,
(ca)A, + (cB) A, + (Cy) Ag +400) + (ck) An =e,A,

(Ka) A, + (iB) A, + (ty) Ag + yo. + (Key = hyd.
Now eliminating A,, Aj, ..., A, between these equations, and putting
a, (a8), (ay), ..., (ak)

° b,, (28), (by), eery (dk)
V= | “py (cB), (cy), very (CK)

hy, (x8), (Ky), v4) (kx)
we get

(G) ee -wewe baer ee cg = Ut AS

Subtracting, in the expression for vy, the constituents of its first column multiplied
by 8, from the corresponding constituents of the second column, multiplied by y,
from those of the third column, and so on, and finally multiplied by x, from
those of the last coluran, we get by a known property of determinants and in

virtue of (2)
GM) (a8), (ay),, oeey (ak),

b,, v n seey (Ox),
(1) sw ne ee Ves, (08),) (ey)asy-t., (cx),

hy, (AB), (hey), --+) (ex);
Now, D, being a certain minor of D, we denote by D,, D,, ..., D,, the minors of

D, which belong to the constituents of its first column, Then we have the well-
known equations:
(8) sre ee oe 2 6 G0, 46,0, 76D, +...+%,D, =D,
a,D, + 6D, ah cD, Poses. kDa — 0,
(9): ccaectnueaee: a,D, + 6,D, + ¢,D; +... + kgsD, =0,

a,D,+6,D, +¢,D,+...+h,Dn =%
The first of the next following equations is obtained by addition of the equations

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 475

(9), after having multiplied them respectively by ,, Bs, ...,8,. In the samé manner
the second is obtained by means of the multipliers y,, y,, ..., y, and so on until the
last, which is obtained by using k,, ks, ..., Kk, a8 multipliers, The equations, thus
formed, are in virtue of the notations (1):

(a8),D, + (68),D, + (c8,D, +... + (48),D, = 0,
co (ay), D, + (by), Dz + (ey), Dy +... + (Ay),Dn = 0,

(ax),D, + (bk),Dy + (cx),Dy +... + (Kx),Dy = 0.
From the equations (8) and (10) we get by elimination of D,, D°, ..., D,

(58),, (68), ---5 (AB),
veD,=D. (by)1, (Vay eves ey);

(bk) 15 (Ck)1y «249 (ix),

The last determinant in the second member of this equation is = A,, in virtue
of the well-known fundamental theorem about the change of rows into columns.
The last equation, therefore, gives—

Vio Ss
whence, because by supposition the identity (5) holds,
we get
V— DOA.
Substituting this expression for vy in (6), there results
A=D.A, q.e.d.

18. Un the Motion of Two Cylinders in a Fluid. By W.M. Hicks, M.A.

The motion of two infinite parallel cylinders in an infinite fluid, and the motion
of one cylinder inside another full of fluid, were considered. In the second case,
when the inside cylinder (rad=6) moved as a pendulum about, the axis of the
bounding one (vad =a), it was shown that the time of vibration was changed in the

ratio
T1\2 1 L i
Sy) ES I ig Dee
r) mel ire eal
where M,M, are the masses of unit of length of the cylinder, and of the fluid
displaced thereby ; «= —4_ ; and L depends on the distance between the centres.
a-—

In the particular case where the inside cylinder touches the outside throughout

the motion it was shown that
Te iy 20°F log T(1+2)
tables of which function are given by Legendre and De Morgan.

The more general problem was then discussed, and formule obtained for the
motion of an infinite fluid in which two cylinders rest, and in which a source of
fluid exists. Thence the velocity potential for any motion of the cylinders was
deduced, and the kinetic energy of the fluid. It was shown that (u, w’; », v’,

being the velocities along and perpendicular to the line joining the centres of the
cylinders), the kinetic energy was—

2T = Pu? + (wa® + P)v? + Plu’? + (4b? + P!)v? + 2L(vv’ — uw’),
P =2ra’*y(6, 9,),
Pl = nb y ( - 4, );
L=2zraby! (6) ;

where

476 REPORT—1878.

in which

fee
y (9, 9,)=(6,? -1)*3, (6,262m1)?”
@2m—1
y'(6) = (6,2 —1) (4,721)3, (Cay
a= 5

and 6, - 6,, depending only on the radii of the cylinders and the distances of their
centres, may be expressed in various forms—e.g., if e, e, are the angles subtended
by the two cylinders, at the line where their radical plane cuts the plane of their
axes
: 6,=cotjie,, 6,=cotle,.
Or again, if » be the distance of their centres,

pe 2 Lats Meare = (r-a—6b)}
vt }

; }-/
Bis Miaaa) me ea ae irae 5)
: SL CRRA ny oh

the cylinders ae Brees If one is inside the other, this jhe is only slightly
modified.
These formulz are applicable to the case of one cylinder in a fluid bounded by

an infinite plane, by putting in them 6=a, 6, = a v'=v, ul=u; but the properties

of the fluid motion deduced from these formuls were not discussed.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 477

° TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

The Section divided itself into two departments for Astronomy and Physical
Science.—See p. 486 for the letter.

The following Papers were read in the Department of Astronomy :—

1. Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors. By Jamus GLAISHER, F.R.S.
See Reports, p. 258.

2. Report of the Commuittee on the Tides in the English Channel.
See Reports, p. 217.

3. On an Equatorial Mounting for a Three-Foot Reflector.
By the Hart or Rosse.

4, On the Tides of the Southern Hemisphere and of the Mediterranean.
By Capt. Evans, R.N., and Sir Witu1AmM THomson, LL.D.

On the coasts of the British Islands and generally on the European coasts of the
North Atlantic and throughout the North Sea, the tides present in their main fea~
tures an exceptional simplicity, two almost equally high-waters and two almost
equally low-waters in the twenty-four hours, with the regular fortnightly inequality
of spring tides and neap tides due to the alternately conspiring and opposing actions
of the moon and sun, and with large z7egular variations produced by wind. Care-
ful observation detects a small “diurnal” inequality (so called because it is due to
tidal constituents having periods approximately equal to twenty-four hours lunar or
solar), of which the most obvious manifestation is a difference at certain times of
the month and of the year between the heights of the two high-waters of the
twenty-four hours, and at intermediate times a difference between the heights of
the two low-waters,

In the western part of the North Atlantic and in the North Sea this diurnal
inequality is so small in comparison with the familiar twelve-hourly or “semi-
diurnal” tides that it is practically disregarded, and its very existence is scarcely a
part of practical knowledge of the subject ; but it is not so in other seas. There
is probably no other great area of sea throughout which the diurnal tides are
practically imperceptible and the semi-diurnal tides alone practically perceptible.
In some places in the Pacific and in the China Sea it has long been remarked that
there is but one high water in the twenty-four hours at certain times of the month,
and in the Pacific, the China Sea, the Indian Ocean, the West Indies, and very
generally wherever tides are known at all practically, except on the ocean coasts
of Europe, they are known to be not “ regular” according to the simple European
rule, but to be complicated by large differences between the heights of consecutive
high-waters and of consecutive low-waters, and by marked inequalities of the suc-
cessive intervals of time between high-water and low-water.

On the coasts of the Mediterranean generally the tides are so small as to be not

478

REPORT—1878.

S
Speed of semi-
diurnal 2(y—7)=
30° per hour.

M
Speed of semi-
diurnal 2(y—¢)=
28°984 per hour.

K
Speeds y and 27
=15°041 and
30° 082 per hour,

Speed og 4
13°-943 = ho

Speed (1=20)=
14°-959 Las ho

Speed (Syne w)
= 29° ing hour.

spoeaiey 30+)
= 28” "en hour.

Speed Ble 30+)
= 13°399 per hour.

Mean solar

ee

Mean lunar .

(ea Se ee

Luni - solar -
declinational

Lunar - decli -
national

Bhat

Smaller
lunar-elliptic

Greater
lunar- elliptic

Greater
lunar- elliptic
declinational

|
|

Diurnal .
Semi-diurnal

Quarter-diurnal

Diurnal .
Semi-diurnal
Ter-diurnal .

Quarter-diurnal

Semi-diurnal
Diurnal

Diurnal :...
Semi- diurnal
Semi-diurnal

Diurnal .

ae
i
a
|
|
Diumal . . |
:
|
;
{
{
ee

SOUTHERN

t=)
ant
a
qs
rs
5 tok
Dan
Bx, !l
Bary
25
2n3
a2
H
EAS
R, =0°039 ft.
=p0"7
R,=0-145 ft.
€,=291°°9
R,=0:004 ft.
ea LOG
R, =0°059 ft.
€, =349%2
R,=0-154 ft.
€,=287°2
R,=0:008 ft.
= 219°-1
R,=0:009 ft.
€, = 262° 4
R,=0°611 ft.
=304°°8
R,=0°051 ft.
€,=296°°6
R,=0°480 ft.
€, = 286°-0
R,=0°156 ft.
=296°7
R,=0°011 ft.
€,= 15073
R,=0°040 ft.
= 34101
R,=0:114 ft. .
= 28499

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

479

q
a }
HEMISPHERE MEDITERRANEAN
ePy>10 j |
e as Be oa . a
SS ir fb
2 wep a | | 5)
ses | Bsce! : cy aata ity
ers By Pe a Aes ay
As » tial 2 A RI+ A+
gry Ba at 2 Ai : 2, 3 I Ba
Bete) | ase a i ~ 5 By ipa > ie
hay Baden el ao ot eres Bs
Ee ae St 3 Bl Sec oS
eke 832s Es Ta = mon Sa
BS Il gaden ae Be ae 8S il al
Ber | Beaek | BE £2 ge gar fo
a Sigua | 8 i x 2% :
£A e228 il . i) 5 s
- REE S6 E
0013 ft. | 0-289 ft. |} O42 cm. | 0:28 cm 0:29 cm 0:57 cm. 0°10 in.
31°°8 259-1 39°°3 14°9 596 48°] 161°'6
07331 ft. 0:492 ft. 2.70 cm. 2°74 cm 2°74 cm 2°37 em. 1:44 in.
26°-0 195°°3 254°3 246°°3 249°°8 246°°6 100°°2
0:003 ft. 0:007 ft. 0:05 cm. 0:05 cm 0:06 cm 0:08 cm. 0-01 in.
115°6 64°°2 306° 1 259°°9 297°°7 276°°9 36°°7
0:008 ft. | 0-052 ft. | O11 cm. |] 0:09 cm 0-47 cm 0:16 cm. 0:07 in.
174°°8 B47°°7 223°°0 303°°7 12°3 83°1 268°°4
0-417 ft. 1:530 ft. 5°45 cm. 7:04 cm 5°75 cm 6°87 cm. 2°36 in.
22°8 155°4 253°°9 244°°8 2424 229°-9 94°°8
0-016 ft. 0:018 ft. 0°15 cm. 0:08 cm 0°13 cm 0°15 cm, 0:02 in.
1669-9 339°°7, 166°°3 1839°4 174°0 187°°7 207°°7
0-004 ft. 0:066 ft. 0:40 cm. 0°61 cm. 0°33 cm. 0°62 cm. 0-03 in.
295°°2 352°7 BAT°5 24°17 329°-0 3°-0 354°°5
0-236 ft. | 0-350 ft. | 2:98 cm. | 3-23 cm.| 3:67cm. | 3:29cm. | 0-41 in.
119°7 29°-2 165°'3 165°°8 191°°9 187°°6 51°9
0-124 ft. 0160 ft. 0°68 cm. 0°37 cm. 0°80 cm. 0°52 cm. 0°38 in.
21°-2 189°*4 251°4 250°°6 272°°5 267°:0 127°°3
!
0°165 ft. |. 0-481 ft. | 1:26 cm. |. 1:68 cm 1:88 cm. | 1:85 cm..| 0:30 in.
99°°-4 13°7 129°-8 1249-2 99°-0 97° 1 7204
0-056 ft. | 0-141 ft. | 1-25 em. | 1:29 cem..| 1:25 em. | 119cm. | 0-13 in.
ee} bay d 86°75 178°°6 175°8 179°4 18294 57°°9
0024 ft. | O-O60ft. | O21 cm. | 0:33 cm 0-21 cm. | 0:22 cm. | 0-25 in.
18°7 132°°8 254%] 223° 5 235°°3 274°5 11690
0°132 ft. | 0°332 ft. | 1:53cem. | 1:61cm.| 1:39cem.| 1:36cm.| 0:37 in,
31°°9 128°°3 2234 234°°3 223°-1 222°:7 116°-0
~ 0:028 ft. 0°38 cm. |) 0:17 cm 0:19 cm 0:32.cm, | 0:08 in.
19°92 429-0 48°°8 32°°7 18°-4 58°°5

480 REPORT —1878.

perceptible to ordinary observation, and nothing, therefore, has been hitherto gene-
rally known regarding their character. But a first case of application of the
harmonic analysis to the accurate continuous register of a self-recording tide-gauge
(published in the 1876 report of the B.A. Tidal Committee) has shown for Toulon a
diurnal tide amounting on an average of ordinary midsummer and mid-winter full

and new moons to nearly of the semi-diurnal tides; and the present commu-

nication contains the results of analysis showing a similar result for Marseilles; but,
on the other hand, for Malta, a diurnal tide (similarly reckoned), amounting to only

1 of the semi-diurnal tide. The amount of semi-diurnal tide is nearly the same in

4
ie three places, being, at full and new moon, about seven inches rise and fall.

The present investigation commenced in the Tidal Department of the Hydro-
graphic Office, under the charge of Staff-Commander Harris, R.N., with an exami-
nation and careful practical analysis of a case greatly complicated by the diurnal
inequality presented by tidal observations which had been made at Freemantle,
Western Australia, in 1873-74, chiefly by Staff-Commander Archdeacon, R.N., the
officer in charge of the Admiralty Survey of that Colony. The results disclosed
very remarkable complications, the diurnal tides predominating over the semi-
diurnal tides at some seasons of month and year, and at others almost disappearing
and leaving only a small semi-diurnal tide of less than a foot rise and fall. These
observations were also very interesting in respect to the great differences of mean
level which they showed for different times of year, so great that the low-waters
in March and April were generally higher than the high-waters in September and
October. The observations were afterwards, under the direction of Captain Evans
and Sir William Thomson, submitted to a complete harmonic analysis, worked out
by Mr. E. Roberts. Not only on account of the interesting features presented by
this first case of analysis of tides of the southern hemisphere, but because the
south cireumpolar ocean has been looked to, on theoretical grounds, as the origin of
the tides, or of a large part of the tides, of the rest of the world, it seemed
desirable to extend the investigation to other places of the southern hemisphere for
which there are available data. Accordingly the records in the Hydrographic Office
of tidal observations from all parts of the world were searched; but besides those of
Freemantle, nothing from the southern hemisphere was found sufficiently complete
for the harmonic analysis except a year’s observations of self-registering tide-gauge
at Port Louis, Mauritius, and personal observations made at regular hourly, and
sometimes half-hourly, intervals for about six months (May to December) of 1842,
at Port Louis, Berkeley Sound, Kast Falkland, under the direction of Sir James
Clark Ross. These have been subjected to complete analysis.

So also have twelve months’ observations by a self-registering tide-gauge
during 1871-72 at Malta, contributed by Admiral Sir A. Cooper Key, K.C.B.,
E.R.S.

Tide-curves for two more years of Toulon (1847 and 1848), in addition to the
one (1853), and for Marseilles for a twelvemonth of 1850-51, supplied by the
French Hydrographic Office, have also been subjected to the harmonic analysis.

These results, both for the southern hemisphere and the Mediterranean, will
form the subject of a paper which Captain Evans and Sir William Thomson hope
to communicate to the Royal Society in the course of the coming session. Jn the
meantime the numbers resulting from the harmonic analysis are submitted without
further comments to the British Association for comparison with those for other
places in previous Reports of the Tidal Committee. Those of them which represent
the most important of the diurnal and semi-diurnal tides are shown in the following
table, which includes also for immediate comparison the results for Toulon, 1853.

R in every case denotes, as in previous tables of the British Association Com-
mittee, the range of the particular tidal constituent on ecther side of mean level ;
so that 2R is the whole rise from lowest to highest of the individual constituent.
(In comparing results with those shown in the Admiralty Tide Tables, it must be
borne in mind that in the latter it is the rise above the level of ordinary low water
spring tides that is given as “ heights.”

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 481

e (technically called the epoch) is the angle, reckoned in degrees, which an arm
revolving uniformly in the period of the particular tide has to run through till high
water of this constituent, from a certain instant or era of reckoning defined for
each constituent as follows :—

Definition of «.*—To explain the meaning of the values of ¢ given in the
following table of results, it is convenient to use Laplace’s “ astres fictifs,” or ideal
stars. Let them be as follows :—

M the “mean moon.”

S the “mean sun.”

for diurnal tide, a star whose right ascension is 90°.

for semi-diurnal tide the “ first point of Aries,” or Y.

O a point moving with angular velocity 2c, and having 270, of right ascension
when J is in Y.

Qa point moving with angular velocity 2o-w, and 270° before M in right
ascension when the longitude of Mis half the longitude of the perigee.

P a point moving with angular velocity, 2n having 270° of right ascension when
Sis in Y.

WV a point moving with angular velocity, $+ — 4, and passing alternately
through the perigee and apogee of the moon’s orbit when © is in perigee.

LZ a point moving with angular velocity, }¢+4w, and passing alternately
through 90° on either side of the perigee of the moon’s orbit when M is in
perigee.

The value of e in each case above means the number of 360ths of its period
which the corresponding tidal constituent has still to execute till its high-water
from the instant when the ideal star crosses the meridian of the place. Thus if
n denote the periodic speed of the particular tide in degrees per mean solar hour,

its time of high-water is “ reckoned in mean solar hours after the transit of the

ideal star.
i re this definition, and in the table of results, the following notation is em-
oyed : T—
. T to denote the mean inclination of the moon’s orbit to the earth’s equator
during the time of the series of tidal observations included in each instance.
v to denote the mean right ascension of the ascending node of the moon’s orbit
on the earth’s equator during the same time.
y to denote the angular velocity of the earth’s rotation.
4 to denote the mean angular velocity of the moon’s revolution round the
earth.
7 to denote the mean angular velocity of the earth round the sun.
@ to denote the angular velocity of progression of the moon’s perigee.
“Speed” means the angular velocity of an arm revolving uniformly in the
period of any particular tidal constituent ; each angular velocity being reckoned in
degrees per mean solar hour.

5. On the Influence of the Straits of Dover on the Tides of the British
Channel and the North Sea.t By Str Witi1am THomson.

* This definition for the several cases of K diurnal,and O, P,Q, and Z differs by
_ 90° or 180°, or 270° from the definition given in the British Association Report (1876)
for a reason obvious on inspection of Tables I. and IL, pp. 304 and 305 of that
report, which (except in respect to the longitudes of perigee and perihelion) show
€ as previously reckoned for the several constituents.

} The values of I and y are given to facilitate comparison with the equilibrium
values of the several tidal constituents, according to Tables I. and IL, of the British
Association Tidal Committee’s Report of 1876.

¢ See Section E., p. 639,

1878. II

482 REPORT—1878.

6. On the Sun-heat received at the several Latitudes of the Earth, taking Ac-
count of the Absorption of Heat by the Atmosphere, with Conclusions as
to the absolute Radiation of Earth Heat into Space, and the Minimum
Duration of Geological Time. By Professor 8. Haveuton.

7. Researches made at Dunsink on the Annual Parallaz of Stars.
By Professor R. §. Batu.

8. On the Precession of a Viscous Spheroid. By G. H. Darwin, M.A.,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

L have been engaged for some time past in the investigation of the precession of
a viscous spheroid, with the intention of seeing whether it would throw any light
on the history of the earth in the remote past. As some very curious results have
appeared in the course of the work, I propose to give an account of part of them to
the British Association.

The subject is, however, so complex and long, that no attempt will be made
even to sketch the analytical methods employed.

In a paper of mine, read before the Royal Society in May last, a theory was
given of the bodily tides of viscous and imperfectly elastic spheroids; and_ this
paper formed the foundation of the present investigation.

For conyenience of diction, I shall speak of the tidally disturbed body as the
earth, and of the disturbing bodies as the moon and sun; moreover, in all the
numerical applications, the necessary data were taken from these three bodies.

An analytical investigation proved that—

The action of the sun and moon on the tides in the earth is such, that the obli-
quity to the ecliptic and the lengths of the day and month all become variable ;
the alteration in the length of the year remains, however, quite imperceptible.

The effect of the internal friction called viscosity is, that the bodily tides in the
earth lag, and are less in height, than they would be if the earth were formed of a
perfect fluid.

A general explanation was then given as to how the lagging of the tides pro-
duces the effects above referred to.*

And it appeared therefrom that when the viscosity is such that the bodily tides
do not lag es very much, there is an increase of the obliquity to the ecliptic, a
retardation of the earth’s rotation, and a retardation of the moon’s mean motion.

In this general explanation it was assumed that the lagging tides were exactly
the same as though the earth were perfectly fluid or elastic, and as though the
tide-raising moon were more advanced in her orbit than the true moon, whilst the
moon which attracts the tidal protuberances was the true moon. That is to say, it
was assumed that the tides raised were exactly the same as though the earth were
pea save’ that the time of high tide is late, and that the tides are reduced
in height. 08

Now, although this serves in a general way to explain the phenomena which
result from the supposition of the earth’s viscosity, yet it is by no means an
accurate representation of the state of the case.

In fact, the internal friction sifts out the whole tide-wave into its harmonic
constituents; and allows the different constituents to be. very. differently affected as
regards height and: phase... ery!

‘Thus the lagging:tide-wavé is not:exactly such as-the-general.explanation sup-
posed, and the nearer does the .spheroid approach to absolute rigidity the greater
does the discrepancy become, © © toriy ony A O eostiny-ost, {

“The @eneral ‘explanation is a very fair representation for. moderate viscosities ;

* See ‘Nature,’ September 26, 1878.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 483

but for large ones it is so far from correct that the tendency for the obliquity to
vary may become nil; and for yet larger ones the obliquity may tend to decrease.

A complete analysis of the state of things for various obliquities and viscosities
shows that there is a great variety of positions of dynamical equilibrium, some of
which are stable and some unstable:

Although there is all this variety with respect to the change of the obliquity,
yet the tidal friction always tends one way, namely, to stop the earth’s rotation.

It was shown in the general explanation that the effect on the moon is a force
tangential to her orbit accelerating her linear motion, and thus indirectly retarding
her angular motion. But it appears that for a very great degree of stiffness, and
for large inclinations of the earth’s axis to the ecliptic, this force on the moon may
be actually reversed ; so that the retardation of the moon’s motion may actually
be replaced by an acceleration. To a terrestrial observer, however, unconscious of
the slackening of the earth’s diurnal rotation, it would be indifferent whether the
moon were undergoing true retardation or true acceleration ; for in every case there
would result an apparent acceleration of the moon’s mean motion.

It is obvious from what has been said that we have the means of connecting
the heights and lagging of the bodily tides in the earth with an apparent secular
acceleration of the moon’s mean motion. I have applied these ideas to the supposi-
tion that the moon has an apparent secular acceleration of 4” per century, and I
find that if the earth were a homogeneous viscous spheroid, then the moon must
be undergoing a secular retardation of 3/6 per century, while the earth (considered
as a clock) must be losing 14 seconds in the same time. Under these circumstances,
the effective rigidity of the earth must be so great that the bodily diurnal and semi-
diurnal tides would be quite insensible ; the bodily fortnightly tide would, however,
be so considerable that the oceanic fortnightly tide would be reduced to one-seventh
of its theoretical amount on a rigid nucleus, and the time of high water would be
accelerated by three days.

The supposition that the earth is a nearly perfectly elastic body leads to very
different results ; which, however, I must now pass over.

From this and various other considerations I arrive at the conclusion that the
apparent acceleration of the moon’s motion affords no datum for determining the
amount of tidal friction on the earth.

Sir William Thomson has made some interesting remarks about the probable
age of the earth in connection with tidal friction, and he derived his estimate of
the rate at which the diurnal rotation is slackening principally from the secular
acceleration of the moon. He fully admitted that his data did not admit of pre-
cise results; but if I am correct in the present conclusion, it certainly appears that
his argument must lose part of its force.

The investigation of the secular changes which such a system would undergo is
surrounded by great mathematical difficulties, but I think that I have succeeded in
surmounting them by methods, partly analytical.and partly arithmetical.

In a communication of the present kind it would be out of place to consider the
methods employed, and I will therefore only speak of some of the results.

There are two standards by which we may judge of the viscosity in the present
problem ; first, the ordinary one, in which it is asserted that it requires so many
pounds of tangential stress to the square inch to shear an inch cube through so
much in such and such a time; and secondly, when the viscosity is judged of by
the amount by which the behaviour of the spheroid departs from that of a perfectly
fluid one. A numerical value for this sort of measure is afforded by the angle by
which the crest of the tidal spheroid precedes the moon, when the obliquity to the
ecliptic is zero.

ow it appears that if the earth possessed a viscosity which was not at all
great, as estimated by the tidal standard, yet the materials of the earth, when
considered in comparison with the substances which we, know, would be found to
be a substance of very great stiffness—stiffer. than lead, and perhaps nearly as stiff
asiron. I see, therefore, no adequate reason why some part of the changes, which
will be considered presently, should not have taken place during geological history.

The problem was solved numerically for a degree of viscosity which would
make the changes proceed with nearly a maximum rapidity; estimated by the

112

484 REPORT—1878.

tidal standard, this is neither a very great nor a very small viscosity, for the crest
of the semi-diurnal tide precedes the moon by 17° 30’.

I found, then, that if the changes in the system are tracked back for 56 million
years, we find the day reduced to 6 hours 50 minutes, the obliquity to the ecliptic
9° less than at present, and the moon’s period round the earth reduced to 1 day
14 hours.

This very short period for the moon indicates of course that her distance from
the earth is small. As the moon goes on approaching the earth, the problem
becomes much more complex; and for periods more remote than 56 million years
ago, I abandoned the attempt to obtain a scale of times. The solution up +o this
point shows that the times requisite for these causes to produce such startling
effects are well within the time which physicists have admitted to have elapsed
since the earth existed.

From this point in the solution the parallel changes of the obliquity, day and
month, were traced without reference to time.

It appears, then (still looking backwards in time), that the obliquity will only
continue to diminish a little more beyond the point already reached ; for when the
month has become equal to twice the day there is no longer any tendency for the
obliquity to diminish, and for yet smaller values of the month the tendency is to
increase again.

From this we learn that when the day is equal or less than half the month,
the position of the earth’s axis at right angles to the plane of the moon’s orbit is
one of dynamical stability. The whole decrease of obliquity from the present value
back to the critical point, where the month is equal to twice the day, is 10°.

From this point in the solution back to the initial state to which the earth and
moon are tending, the obliquity to the plane of the lunar orbit was neglected. I
then found that the limiting condition, beyond which it was impossible to go, was
one in which the earth and moonsare rotating, fixed together as a rigid body in 5
hours and 40 minutes. This condition was also found to be one of dynamical in-
stability, so that if the month had been a little shorter than the day, the moon
ust have fallen into the earth; but if the month had been a little longer than the
day, the moon must have receded from the earth, and have gone through the series
of changes which were traced backwards up to this initial condition.

This periodic time of the moon of 5 hours 40 minutes corresponds to an interval
of only 6,000 miles between the moon’s centre and the earth’s surface. Moreover,
if the earth had been treated as heterogeneous instead of homogeneous, this interval
between the primeval earth and moon would have been yet further diminished, as
also would be the common periodic time. The conclusion, therefore, appears to me
almost irresistible, that if the moon and earth were ever molten viscous bodies, then
they once formed parts of a common mass.

With respect to the obliquity of the ecliptic, the question is one of considerable
difficulty ; but on the whole I incline to the view that while a large part of the
obliquity may be referred to these causes, yet that there remains an outstanding
part which is not so explicable.

Besides the results of which the outlines have been given, I have obtained some
others which, as I believe, will aid in the formation of a modified edition of the
nebular hypothesis—such as some of the changes to which an annular satellite
would be subjected.

One of the collateral results which appeared in considering the secular changes
of such a system {as the earth, moon, and sun, was that a large amount of heat
would have been generated in the interior of the earth by means of friction. If,
then, it is permissible to suppose that any considerable part of these changes have
taken place during geological history, Sir William Thomson’s problem of the secular
cooling of the earth would require some modification.

The magnitude of the undertaking has not allowed me time as yet to apply
these ideas to the questions of the eccentricity and inclination of the orbit of the
satellite, nor to the cases of other planets besides the earth.

I think, however, that I see in Asaph Hall’s wonderful discovery of the Mar-
tian Satellites a confirmation of this theory. Their extreme minuteness has, I

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 485

think, preserved them as a standing memorial of the primitive period of rotation of
that planet. The Uranian system, on the other hand, appears, at least at first sight,
a stumbling-block.

It is easy to discern in the planetary system many vere cause, which tend to
change its configuration; but it is in general very hard to give any quantitative
estimate of their effects.

It will have been seen that, in the investigation of which I have given an im-
erfect account, free scope has been given to speculation, but that speculation has
een governed and directed in every case by appeal to the numerical results of a

dynamical problem, and I therefore submit that it stands on a different footing from
the numerous general speculations to which the nebular hypothesis has given rise.

9. On the Limits of Hypotheses regarding the Physical Properties of the Matter
of the Interior of the Earth. By Professor Hunry Henyessy, F.2.S.

The author pointed out that every hypothesis of a philosophical character must
conform to the condition of not being in contradiction to observed facts, The known
physical properties of solids, liquids, and gases were referred to, and the bearings
of such properties on the problems regarding the earth’s structure were indicated.
Mathematical inquiries, which started from supposing an incompressible liquid en-
closed in a compressible and elastic envelope, could not lead to conclusions at all
invalidating the opinion held by the author. He supported his views by deductions
drawn from the observed properties of solids and liquids, and not from hypotheses
of unreal and impossible properties of these substances such as formed the basis of
the elaborate and. learned mathematical labours of Sir William Thomson and
Mr. Darwin. The views he had long since maintained in opposition to the con-
clusions of the late Mr. Hopkins regarding the earth’s solidity had been discussed
in a manner satisfactory to the author in the Academy of Sciences of Paris,* when
he had formally laid his views before that scientific body, and his subsequent
studies had led him to maintain the correctness of his original views respecting the
earth’s internal fluidity.t

10. On the Climate of the British Islands.
By Protessor Henry Hennessy, F.2.S.

The author laid before the Section the results of.the discussion on temperature
observations made at a great many stations in Great Britain and Ireland tabulated
in isothermal groups. He pointed out the lines of equal temperature over the
British Isles deduced from these observations conformed to the same general law
as that which he had communicated to the Association at former meetings—namely,
that the isothermal lines are similar to the coast lines, and that some of the former
may be even closed curves, He showed that an untrue representation of tempera-
ture would be produced by introducing the artificial correction of 1° Fahrenheit
for eyery 300 feet above the sea level derived from observations in balloons; and
he explained that it was owing to this untenable mode of altering the results cf
observations of temperature that some recent maps deviate from those he had
originally produced. Among the absurd consequences of this artificial alteration
of observed results, he remarked that actual temperatures were in some instances
raised from 43° 6’ to 47° 3’, from 48° 3’ to 47° 1’, from 42° 2’ to 46° 6’, and from
44° 4’ to 48° 8’. A map of the distribution of plants would in these cases present
a semi-alpine or semi-arctic flora in contact with isothermal lines corresponding to
the flora of temperate regions. He maintained that the general law of distribu-
tion of temperature in islands surrounded by warm water currents, which he had

* “Remarques 4 propos d’une communication de M. Delaunay sur les résultats
fournis par l’Astronomie concernant l’épaisseur de la crofite solide du globe.”—
* Comptes Rendus, Inst. France,’ 1871, p. 250.

+ This Paper is published in ewtenso in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine ’ for Oct. 1878.

486 REPORT—1878.

long since announced, had been more firmly established and consolidated by ac-
cumulated observations, The paper was illustrated by maps showing the distribu-
tion of isothermal lines in harmony with Professor Hennessy’s law of distribution.

11. On a new Method of maintaining the Motion of a Free Pendulum in
vacuo. By Davip GILL.

12. On Space Numbers: an Extension of Arithmetic. By B. H. Huyton.

In the Department of Physical Science the following Papers were read:

1. Report of the Committee for commencing Secular Experiments on the
Elasticity of Wires. See Reports, p. 103.

2. A New Form of Polariscope.
By Professor Wittiam Gryius Apams, M.A., FR.S.

This instrument has been constructed by Mr. 8. C. Tisley, on the principle com-
municated by the author to the Physical Society of London (see ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’
Vol. i. p. 152, and ‘Phil. Mag.,’ July 1875). ‘The advantages gained by it are—
(1) an extensive field of view ; (2) an accurate means of measuring the rings and
the separation of the optic axes in biaxal crystals.

The polarizer is a Nicol’s prism, capable of giving a clear parallel beam of
polarized light 24 inches in diameter; this beam falling on a system of lenses, is
brought to a focus at the point where the crystal is placed. The beam, after passing
through the crystal, is rendered parallel again by another system of lenses, and
passes through a similar Nicol’s prism and another lens for focusing upon the
screen. The peculiarity of the instrument consists in the arrangement of the two
ceutral lenses, one on either side of the crystal. These two lenses are plano-
convex—yery nearly hemispheres—-and, with their flat surfaces inwards, form the
two sides of a box to hold oil or a liquid; they are so placed that their convex
surfaces form portions of the same spherical surface. The crystal is placed in the
box at the centre of curvature of the spherical surfaces of the two lenses.

For measurement, the crystal is immersed in oil, and adjusted to its right posi-
tion by a cup and socket motion; the box and the crystal with it is then turned
about an axis at right angles to the direction of the axis of the beam of light, and
thus, either of the optic axes of any crystal may be made to coincide with the
centre of the field of view, the angle through which the box is turned being
measured to minutes by means of a circle attached to it, and a vernier attached to
the fixed stand supporting the instrument. A table-polariscope on the same prin-
ciple has also been made by Herr Schneider, of Vienna, from the description given
in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine.’ By means of these instruments, both optic axes of
topaz are brought well into the field of view at the same time; and by turning the
circle which carries the box any two directions in the crystal within an angle of 96°
of one another can be brought into the centre of the field of view, and the angle
between them accurately measured. The field of view is only limited by the in-
ternal reflection at the plane surface of the lenses next to the rotating lenses.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 487

3. A New Determination of the Nwmber of Electrostatic Units in the Electro-
Magnetic Unit. By W. E. Ayrton and J. Perry. Telegram and
Letter to Sir W. THomson from Professor W. E. Ayrton.

Tue Rep Sz, August 3.

My Dzar Sir Wit11AmM,—From Singapore I sent you the following telegram
on the 13th July from Professor Perry and myself.

“ Kindly inform British Association that air-condenser measured magnetically
and statically gives mean value ratio of these units (29°80) twenty-nine point eight
nought ohms; Foucault’s velocity light.”

In the autumn of this year I propose communicating a full account of this
investigation to the Physical Society, or the Society of Telegraph Engineers, or
otherwise as you may advise; but I thought that, as the British Association Com-
mittee had for so long busied itself with the determination of electrical units, you
might deem the result of this investigation of Mr. Perry and myself worthy of a
preliminary notice at the meeting of the Association to be held this year at Dublin.
Not being sure that I should arrive in Europe in time to reach Dublin at the com-
mencement of the meeting, although I hope to be present during the last three or
four days, I took the liberty of sending you the telegram quoted above.

The result we have obtained for “v” is the more interesting, inasmuch as,
without any bias being given to any one of our experiments, the mean value is
identically the same as that obtained by M. Foucault for the velocity of light,
whereas all previous determinations of the number of electrostatic units in an
electromagnetic unit have led to results differing considerably from Foucault’s
velocity.

It appeared to Mr. Perry and myself that the method best suited for the accu-
rate determination of “v” consisted in measuring the capacity of an air-condenser—
1. electromagnetically, by the swing of the needle of a ballistic galvanometer ; and
2. electrostatically, by a measurement of the linear dimensions of the condenser,
since the equation connecting these capacities—

s=v'8,
s being the absolute electrostatic capacity,
» electromagnetic capacity,

leads to an equation involving only the square root of a resistance.

Two difficulties of course presented themselves in this investigation— difficulties
that it took us many months to overcome, labouring as we were under the disad-
vantage of experimenting in a country like Japan. They were—

1. To obtain a large air condenser, of which the plates had sufficiently true
surfaces that the electrostatic capacity could be accurately measured, at any rate
when the plates were not nearer than half a centimetre to one another.

2. To obtain a galvanometric arrangement of sufficient sensibility to measure the
small capacity of such an air condenser, and sufficiently ballistic that the air
damping should be almost inappreciable.

A full description of the condenser we employed (and which had a guard ring,
and all the different arrangements we could think of for obtaining accurate results)
will accompany the account of the investigations to which I have referred. It is
sufficient here to mention that the errors arising from the surfaces of the condenser
plates not being true planes were practically eliminated by capacity experiments
being made with successive adjustments of the condenser-plates, a different set of

oints in the upper plate being each time brought to the fixed distance from the
ower plate.

The arrangement of a ballistic galvanometer to fulfil the two conditions men-
tioned in (2) was very troublesome. I made several astatic needles, none of which
satisfied us, and we were beginning to fear my departure from Japan would
necessitate the abandoning of the investigation. At last, however, an astatic
* combination containing (40) forty small magnets (and of which a description will
accompany the paper) gave satisfactory results, and I obtained three excellent sets
of observations on June 18, June 23, and June 25, when my departure put an

488 REPORT— 1878.

end to further investigation. The mean values obtained for “v” on each of
these three days were: E
29:74 ohms June 18.
29:95 ,, fees
29°72 ,, 5) «20.

Final mean 29:80

It will be observed that the greatest difference between any one of thé three daily
means and the final mean is only about half per cent. The final number 298-0
million metres per second (and which represents the mean of ninety-eight discharges
of the air condenser) may, I think, be regarded as correct to, at any rate, one per
per cent., and is exactly equal to M. Foucault’s velocity of light.

In the astatic combinations I employed prior to June 18 I used eight needles,
and weighted the lower set of needles with pieces of brass, so as to give it a barrel
shape, but the results were unsatisfactory, as there was either not sufficient deli-
cacy or else too much damping. Consequently, all the numbers obtained prior to
June 18 have been abandoned. On June 18 were made the first set of expe-
riments with the forty-magnet astatic combination ; the idea of this arrangement
being to make an approximately spherical mass of little magnets all slightly sepa-
rated from one another, and all previously magnetised to saturation. As it would
have been too difficult to make this entire sphere all of magnets, I finished it oft
with segments cut from a little wooden sphere, But the half Napierian logarithmic
decrement was 0°12095, and we thought this too high. Consequently, in the inter-
val from June 18 to June 23, I took this astatic combination down and replaced the
segments of the wooden sphere by segments of a small leaden hemispherical shell.
* This diminished the half Napierian logarithmic decrement to 0:07825, and with a
periodic time of 39°5 seconds I obtained most consistent results. But on the other
hand, the close agreement of the results obtained on June 18 and on June 25,
leads one to conclude that the wooden segments were quite satisfactory, and that
replacing them with the leaden shell was unnecessary.

The table on the accompanying sheet gives the value of the most important
constants employed. The battery consisted of 382 perfectly new Daniell’s cells in
series, and the galvanometer had a resistance of 20,000 ohms. All resistances were
compared with a new German-silyer wire box, recently received from Messrs.
Elliott, London.

Determination of the Number of Electrostatic Units in an Electromagnetic one.

a) b oO: o
B= oSleta8E845| 2s les 2s] 3.
wo EGG | OO ga| 8 Se | ES
Date (9°, Beis 328) 89-28) 33 m2 S| os Remarks
ga 2S) bss ne ae 5 2 "a Sig © aw
=I BIAS Saal -s 8 ea 2] -x o o
Egg Sines = Be ac 3 RA Ss Ss
June 18} 1324-96} 1:024 215 | 25:3 |0:12095 | 29:74] ( Ninety-eight
ei = : : Here discharges of
» 23] 1323:14| 0:7728 34 39°5 | 0-07825 | 2995/4 the six con-
» 25] 182314) 0:7728 34 42:2 | 0-:081865) 29-72 | | denser

June 18. The lower set of needles was weighted with segments cut from a
small wooden sphere.

June 23 and after. The lower set of needles was weighted with segments
cut from a small leaden spherical shell.

Number of magnets in astatic combination, 40,

Number of new Daniell’s cells in series, 382.

* The distance between the upper condenser plate and the guard ring was
slightly increased by diminishing the size of the plate to avoid the possibility of
loss of electricity.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 489

The values obtained for “v” are (as far as I am aware) up to the present time
as follows :—

MM. Weber and Kolraush . 3 : : . 31:074 ohms,
Sir W. Thomson : ‘ c 7 : . 28:2 rf
Professor CO. Maxwell . : : : : . 288
Professors Ayrton and Perry. ; , © 129:80)79))5;

Velocity of light—M. Foucault . : C 29°8 e

During the last twelve months we have been hard at work with thedetermination
of the electromotive force of contact of metals and liquids, using a new apparatus.
Some of the results are, we venture to think, most interesting; for instance, the
electromotive force of contact of hot and cold mercury, no other conductors being in
contact with either mercury ; the electromotive force of contact of a cold metal and
hot mercury, no third conductor being in contact with either, &c., &c. The deter-
mination of the electromotive force of contact of the pairs of constituents of Mr.
Latimer Clark’s constant mercurous sulphate cell was most laborious, and occu-
pied me weeks, in consequence of the difference of potential that exists between
the body of the mercurous sulphate paste and the layer of water that floats on the
surface. However, a forlorn hope kept me hard at it, and I am glad to say at last
I was successful in getting good results. We have gone over all the old ground
that furnished the basis of our former paper, as well as much new ground.

Believe me to remain, dear Sir William, sincerely yours,
Professor Sir William Thomson, F.R.S., &e. W. E. Ayrron.

It has been decided that the full account of the above determination of ‘v”
shall be given to the Society of Telegraph Engineers during the winter 1878-79.

4, On Apparatus employed in Researches on Crookes’s Force.
By Ricuarp J. Moss, F.C.8.

The author exhibited and described the apparatus which had been employed by
himself and Mr. G. J. Stoney, F.R.S., in their researches on Crookes’s Force. Early
in 1876 they devised a means of ascertaining the existence of a reaction between the
blackened vanes of a radiometer and the sides of the surrounding glass envelope.
A flat piece of elder-pith with one side blackened was attached by one end to the
inner surface of a small flask. A light glass arm suspended in the flask from a
silk fibre carried a disk of thin microscope glass which could be brought opposite
the blackened pith, and within a millimetre or two of it. When the flask was
exhausted it was observed that the pith when illuminated repelled the glass disk,
even when the tension of the residual air was equal to 7 m.m. of mercury.
Having obtained this result, another apparatus was constructed, with the view of
obtaining comparative measurements of the force at various tensions with a given
distance between the glass and the pith; and at various distances with a given
tension of the residual gas. This apparatus is figured and described in the ‘ Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society, 1877, p. 553. It was found that in an atmosphere of
hydrogen a Crookes’s force was manifested at a distance of even 10 m.m., when the
tension of the residual gas was as much as 5m.m. of mercury. Within certain
limits the force was found to vary about inversely as the tension; and at a given
tension the variations produced by alterations in the distance between the pith and
the glass were nearly inversely as the distance until it exceeded 20 m.m. (half the
diameter of the containing tube), when the force remained almost constant, even at
a distance of 100 m,m., the maximum of which the apparatus admitted.

5. On Spheroidal Drops. By Ricnarp J. Moss, F.C.S.

According to Mr. G. J. Stoney’s recently published theory of the spheroidal state,
the drops are supported by:the pressure which is exerted between hot and cold
surfaces when they are within a certain distance from one another, depending on the

490 REPORT— 1 878.

length of the free path of the molecules enclosed between the surfaces, and on the
difference of temperature of the latter. By duly observing the conditions of this
theory it was found possible to support a spheroid of ether on a surface of the
same liquid for upwards of an hourand a half. The author has shown * that the
supporting layer of gas need not necessarily consist of the vapour of the spheroid,
or of the liquid upon which it floats; since melted paraffin, which showed no
diminution in weight even when heated for an hour zn vacuo at the temperature of
boiling water, readily yields spheroids at ordinary atmospheric tensions when its
temperature is 80-90° C. Ifthe drops are kept cool by means of a gentle current
of air, they continue to float for a considerable time.

6. On the Spherical Class-Oubie with Three Single Foci.
By Henry M. Jerrery, M.A.*

i. Let the three foci A, B, C be a quadrant apart, so that the triangle of re-
ference (ABC) is tri-rectangular. 7

A group of class-cubics thus constituted may be thus denoted by line co-
ordinates :—

2 dpqr + (ap+Bqryr) (p? +9? +7") =0,

where d is the parameter of the group, (a, 8, y) the satellite-point.

2. When there are inflexional cubics in the group, the locus of the satellite-
point may be thus found, by equating the inyariants to zero.

S= { @-(+e+y) }*—12da8y=0,
r
3

3
= {P= (+ B+y?) } + 00daBy — 54eP (8°? + 77a" + 028?)
+ 18daBy (a? + B? + y*) =0.

The eliminant of d is found to be of the eighteenth degree :—
PHY (a? +B? ab y’) (By? + ya? + a?B*)* — 12x 81a*B"y? ( Py? + ya” + a?)
a 8 x (27)?(a? + B? + y’)*(B°y? + y’a" oh aR”) ?a?p? 2
—112 x 17 x 27(a? + B? + y*) (84? + y*a? + a®B?)a*Bty* + 16 x (27)?(a? + B? + y*)8atBty*
+16 x (17)%a®A*y° = 0.

If this equation be arranged according to the powers of a, its highest term is

(27)?(B®—y*)fal +...

The curve has four loops at each of its three foci and their antipodes, at which

the tangents intersect at right angles. It is petal-shaped, like the Rhodonew of

Abbate Guido Grandi. (Gregory’s ‘ Examples of the Diff. and Int. Calc.,’ fig. 49.)
3. There are seven critic lines at the most.

For a critic value, s'~(Z) =o. This function will be found to be of the

seventh degree in the parameter (d).
The theorem may be also thus established.
By partial differentiation with respect to the variables (p, q, r),

a (p? +9? +77) + 2p(ap + Bg + yr) + 2dgr =o.
B(p?+ @ +7?) + 29q(ap + Bq + yr) + 2dpr =o.
y (p? + 9? +77) + 2r(ap + Bq + yr) + 2dpq =o.
Hence the critic lines are determined symmetrically by cubics with collinear
foci (p, g, ap—Bq).
ap RP ae
—pP+err p-Prr p+e—r

* «Proceedings of Royal Dublin Society,’ vol. i. (new series), p. 87.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 49]

\ Their common tangents are seven by a well-known theorem (Salmon’s ‘ Higher
Algebra,’ Art, 248.)

: 4, A moveable point (P) lies on AD, arcs (or im plano, right lines) connect
P with two other points B, C : the envelope of the bisector of the angle BPC is one
. of the preceding eubics. Similarly, the bisectors of the angles AQC, BRA, if Q,R
move on BD, CD, envelope the other cubics, which determine the critic lines by
their mutual combination. This is an extension of a theorem of Pliicker.

5. In the most general case, where ABC may have any position on the sphere,
the critic lines are thus determined :—

ap fe Bg (Yee Pe teres
—apP +bgQ+cerR” apP—bgQ+erR apP + bgQ— erR’
where P=ap—bg cos C —er cos B, and Q, R have similar values. But the equation
and form of the locus of the satellite, when there are inflexional values in the
group of class-cubics, is not here determined.
6. By reciprocating, the critic centres of a group of spherical order-cubics are
determined to be seven by the intersecting cubics—

ee ee
6V —2aa (aa+ 68 cosc+cycosl)
In plano, as is well known, these degenerate into three critic centres, formed
by the intersection of three hyperbole. For then cos a=cos b=cos c=1:
6V =3(a?a? + 2beBy cos a) =4 A?*, and the cubics become hyperbole :
pa Qui © “ta ry 5°
—aat+bB+cy aa—bB+cy aat+bB—cy

ee 2 ee SS ee ee ee

7. On a Cubic Surface referred to a Pentad of Co-tangential Points,
By Henry M. Jerrury, M.A.

1. A cubic surface may be generated as the locus of the foci in involution of
all the transversals, concurrent in a fixed point, which meet a system of quadrics or
conicoids, intersecting in a quadro-quadric curve. This is an extension of Cremona’s
method of generating plane cubics to solid geometry. Dr. Salmon’s process leads
to the same analytical expression. In such a system of conicoids, the locus of the
conic curves of contact of enveloping cones, with a common vertex, is a cubic
surface.

2. All the pole planes of the fixed point, with respect to the conicoids, intersect
in a straight line PQ, which is one of the 27 lines on the cubic. If the system of
conicoids be referred to their self-conjugate tetrahedron, and if the fixed point be
E, the centre of the inscribed sphere (1,1,1,1), the five triple tangent-planes through
PQ touch the cubic in the four vertices of the tetrahedron and in E the centre.
Consider any pair of lines, as AP, AQ, forming a triangle APQ with PQ. Then,
beside the original plane APQ through each of the lines AP, AQ, four more triple
tangent planes can be drawn: in all nine such planes. The same is true of the
planes through the pairs of lines at B,C,D,E, which constitute with PQ triple
tangent planes. Thus the 45 planes are exhibited. Again, besides the line PQ and
the five pairs of intersecting lines, which meet PQ in ten points, there are 16 lines,
which may be determined in five different ways. Four of the five triple tangents
through each of the lines AP, AQ (exclusive of the common plane APQ), deter-
mine 8 lines each, the number required. The same process may be used with the
same results, if the triple planes through the lines intersecting in B,C,D,E be used.
The arrangement of these planes and lines, whose discovery by Professors Cayley
and Salmon constituted an epoch in Solid Geometry, may be compared for simplicity
with Professor Schifli’s double-sixers, and Dr. Hart’s cubical system of grouping.

8. The analogues to Maclaurin’s theorem on tetrads do not present themselves.
But points on the cubic may be thus multiplied.

Transvyersals through a fixed point P on the cubic pass through the vertices
A,B,C,D,E, which constitute the pentad of co-tangential points, and intersect the

492 REPORT—1878.

surface in A’,B’,C’,D’,H’. If these five points be joined with the former five in
pairs, the points of intersection lie on the curve and are four, Q,R,S,T ; and six
other points are constituted on the curve by the intersections of AB’, A’B;
AO’, A’C; AD’, A’D; BO’, B’C; BD’, B’D: and CD’, O’D. Call these six points
(a,b), (a,c), (a,d), (,c), (0,4), (¢,d). . t i

It will be. found that these 21 points lie on 40 chords, viz., A,B,O,D,E on 8
chords each, and the other 16 points on 5 chords each, according to the following
table :—

P,A,A’|Q,A,E’ |R,A,(c,d)|8,A,(8,d) | T,A,(0,c) )BY.A,(a,6) | C,A,(a,c) | D',A,(a,d)

PBB |Q@B(cd)|R,BE’ |S,B,(a,d)|T-B(ac)|C"B.(b,c) |A',B,(a,o) |D"B,(3.d)
? > ( J

P.C,0' |Q,0,(2,d)| B,C,(a,d)|S,C,E" | |'T,0,(a,b)| D/,C,e,d) | BYC(a,c) | A°C.(a,c)

P'D,D'|Q,D,(3,c)| R,D,(ae) |S,D, (a,b) |T-D,E’ | BD(d,d) | A"D,(a,d) | C"D,(c,d)

PEE |QEA’ |REB |SEC’ |T.ED' |(a,6),E,(c,4)| (ae), E,(bd) |(b,c),E,(a,d)

4, Let the quadro-quadric curve be denoted by the equations to two conicoids
of the system :—
La? + m,B? + ny? + 7,8° =0.
1,a? + m8? + Nyy? + 7,6? =0.,
Let the equation to a transversal through a fixed point (f,g,h,k) be :—
af _ eet! BAe PIL vid 6-k _ R
r p v p }
For the segments of its distances from the conicoids :—
1,(f+AR)? + m,(g + pR)? + 2, (A + vR)? +7,(K + pR)?=0=U.
L,(f+AR)?+m,(9 + wR)? +2, (1+ vR), +7,(k + pR)*=0= V.

The following equation denotes the foci of these lines in involution: if Ht be
AG:

written for R, and finally o =1.
dU dV # dU dV _
dR ‘de do ' dk
This function yields on development :
3(hm,~lym,) Ay—nf) (f+XR) (g +R) =o.
Or, 3(1,m, —1,m,). (ag—Bf) aB=o. .
This may be reduced to the form—
(J,a? + m,B? + ny? + 7,8?) (1,aft+ mBg + nyh +7,0h).
= (d,a* + m,B? + Nyy? +7.87) (laf + m,Bg + nyyh + 7,8k).
The dual of this theorem (§ 1) may be noted.

If a system of conicoids be inscribed in a quadro-quadric torse, and if from each
line of a fixed plane tangent planes are drawn to the conicoids, the envelop of the
focal planes in involution of the system is a cubic class-surface.

5. The above equation may be obtained as the eliminant of a conicoid of the
system, and the pole-plane of a fixed point.

(J, —N,)a? + (mm, —Am,)B* + (nm, — Any) y? + (7", —A7_) B= 0.
=(1, Al, af =o.
This is Dr. Salmon’s method (§1), which seems capable of generating surfaces of
any order or class from a surface of the next lower order or class.

G6. In this investigation, f=g=h=k or E is the fixed point, without loss of
generality.

Professor Cayley’s notation is adopted for the minors of the determinant :—

Thus 12 denotes pm] “ap pone ee
29 Ma

The following relation subsists between the minors, as has been pointed out.
(‘Quarterly Journal of Mathematics,’ vol. xv.)

23.41 + 31.42 + 12.48 = o,

0.

D1, My, yy 7"
In) Mgy Nyy Ty

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 493

It will be convenient to denote by a, }, c, d, the sums of certain minors :

a=12 4138414: 6=21+4+23+4 24.
e=814+382+4+34: d=41+42+45.

Then it will be seen that at O64 e+ . d=o0.
: 23a + 3164+ 12c =6.

340 + 42¢ + 23d =0.

d4a + 41¢+13d=o0.

94a +41b +12d=o.

Hence the cubic under discussion may be written :
23By (B—y) + 8lya (y—a) + 1248 (a—8) + 41ad (5 —a) + 4288 (6 —f)
+ B4y8 (y—8) =0.
7. The equations to the tangent planes at the vertices of the tetrahedron and at
E the centre, which constitute a pentad of points, are—
128+ 13y +148 =0.

Qia Q3y + 2465 =0.
3la + 328 + 345=0.
41a +428 + 43y =0

aa+ D8 +cy + dd=0.

These are fine triple tangent planes; and any two determine the line PQ on the
eubic, through which they are drawn.
8. The equations to the pole-conicoids of the points of the pentad are—

128? + 13y? + 148? — 2a(128 + 15y + 128) =0.

21a? + 23y? + 246? — 28(21a + 23y + 246) =o.
31a? + 328? + 346° — 2y(3la + 328 + 346) =o.
Ala? + 428? + 43? —26(41a + 42a + 43y) =o.

aa®+ 0B?+ cy?+ dd =0.

The four cones (128? + 12y? + 128? =o) and the like, belong to the same quadro-
quadric, and the fifth pole-conicoid is a hyperboloid of one sheet whose asymptotic
cone is inscribed in an orthogonal trihedral angle.

8. To determine the ten lines on the cubic which intersect in PQ.

The two lines AP, AQ, are obtained by the intersection of the tangent-plane
and cone

128 +13y +146 =o.
128? + 13y? + 146? =o.
Their equations are—
ah ed Naropa neh oe ie ey
Biy: 814455 : Mt : —(12+18),
if =o w+: 12.18. 14 (12+184+14) =0.

Similar equations denote the other four pairs of lines.

9. To determine the eight triple tangent planes, four through AP, and four
through AQ, other than PAQ; and the sixteen lines on the surface, eight of
which intersect in AP, and eight in AQ, other than PQ and AQ or AP
respectively.

Write gh: hi:l44%:14F: - :
rite g +5 +75 (12 + 18)
so that (A8—gy =o) denotes the plane APD or AQD. Then, if p denote a para-
meter, the equation
B(12 + ph) +y (18—pg) + 146=0
denotes any plane through AP or AQ.

For brevity, write the coefficients at = p: a 95
the equation becomes pB+qy+8=0.

494 REPORT—1878.

Let this equation be combined with that to the cubic (§ 6.)

B’y (23 + 42q + 43p? + 2. 42nq) + By?( — 23 + 48p? + 429? + 2. 439)
+ ya (31 + 419?) + ya?(—381 4 419) + a°8(12 + 41p
+ aB? (—12 + 41p?) + 2aBy . 41pq + B°42(p* + p) + y° 43(9? + 9) =0.

After rejecting the known factor 84 —vg, the conic of intersection is thus denoted.

ee Fa (gp +p) = x 43(q? +9) + SP (-12+41p")

~27(81 +41q? [Be Se ae) =o.
7 OL Ten) + By aa ot a
This may assume the more tractable form :—
B(,2,12 ey ee 13 }
(41a + 498 + 43y) { (p +7) “(4 +)
P (41a? + 426? + 43,7).
+P (41a? + 426? + 37’)

This ternary quadric may be resolved into linear factors if
ee {2p é ni 12149? + nN
g

= (41 +42 +43) {3 4p? a 12+ Fag +13y°}

where 14p =12 + ph, 14g =13-— pg.

This quartic yields four values of the parameter p, so that the equations are
determined to eight triple tangent planes through A, since g,/ have each two
values dependent on the values of w.

The two preceding linear factors denote the traces on the co-ordinate plane
ABC, or rather the planes through D and those traces of a pair of lines which
intersect in AP or AQ. The four values of p yield sixteen in all—eight which
meet in AP, and eight in AQ.

To complete the investigation of the equations to the lines on the cubic, it
would be necessary to combine another form of a tangent plane :—

128 + y (18 + ph) +6 (14 + ph) =0.

By proceeding as above, the rejection of the known factor ky + 8, leads to“the
conic of intersection :—

dint s2uy{2(o4 38438)
i i (210? + 23? +248?) =o,

13+ pk. ,_14+ph
12 ace 12, 3
If this quadric be resoluble into linear factors

23.24{ 2p +7 (1247 +138) +7 (1202414)?

= (21423424) {2 (1202+ 14)’ +70 (1242418).

where for brevity » =

The actual solutions of these quartics has not been attempted, since the auxi-
liary cubic is cumbrous; although we may infer from the circumstance, that the
same sixteen lines may be determined indifferently from A, B, C, D, or E, that the
expressions would be explicit. This quartic yields four values of p, which substi-
tuted in the preceding quadric, determine the projections on the co-ordinate plane
ACD of four pairs of lines on the cubic which intersect in AP and four pairs

.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 495

which meet in AQ. The equations to these traces, combined with the equations
of the former traces on ABC, completely determine the lines.

10. The theorem of § 3 may be thus proved.

Let (f,9,4,%) denote P in the preceding tetrahedral system ; then A’,B’,C’,D’,E’
have for their co-ordinates (F,g,4,k), (f,G,2,4,), (f9,HL4), (fig,2,K): where

Ke pn 12g? +130? + 1402
= — A= ee eer
Ot o— +h Rien ag cri

Then the coordinates of Q,R,S,T have this type:
(f,G,H,K), (F,g,H,K), (F,G,2,K), (7,G,H,/) ;
and the points (a,b), (a,c) ... have the type (F,G,2,4), (F,g,H,A).........
With these data the theorem is as readily established, as its Plane analogue.
* Quarterly Journal of Mathematics,’ vol. xv. p. 203.

8. A New Form of Trap-Door Electrometer. By Professor Barrerr.*

9. On Unilateral Conductivity in Tourmaline Crystals.
By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson and Dr, Outver J. Lopas.

The authors regarded the phenomena of pyroelectricity as exhibited by the
tourmaline and other crystals as of the utmost significance in the theory of the
relation of electricity to the particles of matter. Dr. Lodge had read a paper at
the British Association Meeting at Glasgow on a mechanical model illustrating the
flow of an electric current through a circuit of molecules. (See Phil. Mag., Nov.
and Dec. supp. 1876.)

The considerations therein advanced had led the authors independently to con-
clude that the phenomena of pyroelectricity could be explained if it could be shown
that such crystals as were pyroelectric possessed wnzlateral conductivity (§ 25 of
above paper). The term “unilateral conductivity” had been given by Dr. A.
Schuster to a phenomenon of some obscurity observed by him in certain cases, and
which formed the subject of a communication to a former meeting of the Asso-
ciation. The term “unilateral conductivity ” was defined as follows :—If the con-
ductivity of a substance in a given direction between two points A and B was
greater when the flow was in the direction from A to B than when the flow was
in the direction from B to A, then such a substance was said to possess unilateral
conductivity.

It had been argued by the first-named of the authors of the paper that if the
tourmaline possessed a unilateral conductivity for electricity, it would also be
found to possess unilateral conductivity for heat, since the researches of Tait and
Kohlrausch had shown that the two conductivities are comparable in almost all
points of analogy. The experimental research, therefore, had divided itself into
two branches—a thermal and an electrical.

Owing to the difficulty of procuring suitable specimens of tourmaline crystal
a delay of some months occurred, but eventually this difficulty was overcome
through the kindness of Professor N. Story Maskelyne. Other crystals had also
been procured from France,

The method first suggested for comparing the two heat-conductivities as
measured in opposite directions along the axis of the crystal was that of De
Senarmont. A slice of the crystal was cut with parallel faces containing the
crystallographic axis, and having been covered with a film of wax, or with Meusel’s
double ‘iodide of copper and mercury, was heated from a point by a hot wire.
When the experiment was rapidly made, the elliptical isothermal, line marked
out by the melted wax or the blackened iodide, was found to be displaced from the

* A Model was exhibited.

496 REPORT—1878.

centre, and this displacement was towards the-analogous-pole ; showing that while
the temperature was rising, the conductivity in that direction was greater than in
the opposite direction. When, however, the experiment was done slowly with a
thicker crystal, so that thermal equilibrium was gradually attained, no such
unilateral effect could be observed. Rough preliminary experiments showed the
unequal semi-axes minor to have a ratio of about 10 to 12, but there was con-
siderable discordance between the various results.

A calorimetric method was next adopted to measure the flow of heat across a
thin wall of tourmaline cut normally to its crystallographic axis. The thin slice
was fixed between two similar portions of glass tubing, either end of which could
therefore be made to hold a weighed quantity of mercury whilst steam was blown
up into the other. In this way the heat which passed upwards through the crystal
when one surface was maintained at 100° could be measured in either direction.
Experiments were made alternately, the times required to heat the mercury
through a given range of temperature being compared in the two cases. To
eliminate error, after half the experiments had been made the crystal slice was
itself reversed between the glass tubes. The results, which exhibited as fair
agreement with one another as could be expected, showed, as before, that the con-
ductivity for heat was greater towards the analogous pole so long as the temperature
of the crystal was rising.

In respect of the electrical conductivity, time had only permitted a few preli-
minary experiments. The slice of crystal was heated in a steam bath. A five
microfarad condenser was charged through the crystal for one minute with 10 or
12 Daniell’s cells, and the condenser was then discharged through a sensitive
Thomson galvanometer of 7000 ohms resistance. The limit of the very slight swing
was accurately observed, and then the operation was repeated with the tourmaline
electrically reversed. ‘This was repeated alternately. When the temperature was
rising a difference between the two swings was perceived; also when the tempera-
ture was falling there was a difference in the other direction. But these must have
been chiefly due to the electromotive force, so-called, of the crystal. When the
temperature was steady not the slightest difference could be perceived. The authors
would wish, before being satisfied with this result, to heat the tourmaline to higher
temperatures, and to try a much higher electromotive foree—say that of 1000 cells,

10. On Gaussin’s Warning regarding the Sluggishness of Ships’ Magnetism.
By Sir Wi1uram THomson, F.R.S.

(Practical Rule and Caution.)

1. After steering for some time on westerly courses, expect 1 (a) westerly
error if you turn to the north, 1 (4) or easterly error if you turn
to the south.

_ 2. After steering for some time on easterly courses, expect 2 (a)
easterly error if you turn to the north, or 2 (6) westerly error if
you turn to the south.

The diagram representing case 1 (@) illustrates the physical
explanation: N.and 8. representing the north and south points of
the compass card (or “ true south” and “true north” poles of its

s needles), and the small letters s, s, s, true southern polarity, and
n, n,n, true northern polarity, induced in the port and starboard
ends of deck beams, and port and starboard sides of ship, while

S steering east, and remaining for some time after she has been
turned to north.

In the Admiralty ‘ Compass Manual,’ Gaussin’s warning is given
with reference to the direction of swinging, in correcting the com-

pass by magnets, according to Airy’s first method. In the Reports of the Liverpool

Compass Committee, and in Mr. Towson’s ‘Information for Masters and Mates

regarding Ships’ Magnetism,’ instances of perplexing changes in the compass are

given, and are referred to the same cause. The “sluggishness” of ships’ magnetism,

en arr

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 497

according to which it depends generally in part on the influence experienced some
time before the time of observation, and not wholly on the influence at the time,
seems to have heen first definitely noticed and discussed scientifically by Sir
Edward Sabine, in his analysis of the results of the magnetic observations in the
Antarctic exploring expedition of Sir James Ross, in the Erebus and Terror,
in the years 1839-43.

The practical rule and caution given above is of great importance in the navi-
gation of iron ships. The amount of the error which may be found cannot be pre-
dicted for ships in general, nor for any particular ship, except after much experience
and careful observation. A small effect of two or three degrees,* such as that
referred to in the Admiralty Manual as found in M. Gaussin’s experience, may be
observed in the course of quietly swinging a ship by hawsers or steam tugs. If the
ship under weigh is steamed round on the different courses, the amount of the
“ Gaussin error” may generally be greater than if she is hauled round by Warps ;
but we must not be sure that it will be so, because the shake of the screw, which
enhances the magnetization on the east or west courses, may shake it out again be-
fore the observation is made on the north or south courses. A good practical rule
in correcting the compass is, after having got it quite correct on the north and
south course, correct just half the error which is found after that on the south or
north course in the regular swinging of the ship.

The warning at the head of this article is particularly important for ships of
war after firing guns when on easterly or westerly courses, if the course is then
changed to north or south, and particularly if after the firing the change of course
is effected under canvas, without the shaking of the ship’s magnetism produced by
the engines and screw.

The warning is also very important for ships steaming through the Mediter-
ranean eastwards or westwards, and then turning south, through the Suez Canal,
or north round Cape St. Vincent ; and for ships steaming eastward from America,
and then turning northwards or southwards into St. George’s Channel.

11. On the Electrical Properties of Bees’ Wax and Lead Chloride.
By Professors J. Perry and W. EH. Ayrton.

Professor Ayrton commenced by noting the close way in which investigations
in the various branches of physical science were linked one with another, and by
remarking that experiments on electric absorption ought to have no less interest for
the scientific engineer than those on the increasing strain of materials under con-
stant mechanical stress had for the electrician. He next explained how, in conse-
quence of the absorbed charge in water being immeasurably greater than the
surface charge, the direct method of determining experimentally the specific induc-
tive capacity employed by Mr. Perry and himself, in their experiments on ‘Ice as
an Electrolyte, failed to give the result equal to the square of the index of refrac-
tion for light of infinitely long waves, and he suggested that the method recently
employed by Mr. Gordon for measuring the specific inductive capacity of solids
with very rapidly reversed charges might possibly, if applied to water, give an
answer approximately more equal to the square of the index of refraction ; how-
ever, he was inclined to think that, since Mr. Gordon’s method for solids gave
(after the application of the proper correcting factor for the thickness of the
dielectric) numbers closely agreeing with the received specific inductive capacities,
there existed no known method for correctly ascertaining the electric capacity of a
liquid. 2
: For although a condenser might be made of opposed metallic plates separated
by a space almost entirely filled with a liquid dielectric, which did not, however,
touch either plate, and although, according to the ordinary nomenclature, the two

_ plates in such an arrangement would be said to be insulated from the water and

* Much greater effects than this are actually found in the cases of gun practice,

_ and of long steaming on easterly or westerly courses referred to below.

1878! KK

498 REPORT—1878.

from one another, still, as explained in their paper on the ‘ Viscosity of Dielectrics,
a succession of rapidly reversed charges would be accompanied by true electric
conduction; in fact, that it would be well worthy of consideration whether the
explanation of the result which Mr. Gordon had brought to their notice at this
meeting, viz., that his new method of measuring specific inductive capacity of solid
dielectrics had given the old results, might not be found to consist in this conduction
—this viscous conduction he might term it, although in reality there was but one
kind of conduction, the conversion of electric energy into heat—for this conduction
would occur unequally in the two apparently balanced condensers, since the two
dielectrics varied in: viscosity, consequently the balance of capacities was not a
real one.

Nevertheless Professor Ayrton thought it highly important that careful experi-
ments should be made, both with constant and with rapidly reversed charges, on
the inductive phenomena observed in such a water condenser as he had described.

The abnormal rise in the specific inductive capacity of bees’ wax, on solidifying,
which the experiments of Professor Perry and himself had shown, coincided with
an increase in the index of refraction; he regarded this as furnishing an important
addition to the experimental proof of Professor Clerk Maxwell’s electro-magnetic
theory of light, and he hoped that some of those philosophers of Trinity College,
Dublin, who had so successfully turned their attention to the elucidation of the
molecular vibrations causing Crookes’s force, would give their views on the molecular
vibrations accompanying wave motion and electric induction.

He thought that the experiments described in the paper on bees’ wax and lead
chloride showed, in a sufficiently satisfactory way, that, where the resistance of an
electrolyte diminished by electrification, it was due to the electromotive force
employed being sufficiently great to decompose the damp in the pores of the elec-
trolyte; but, in view of the fact that the resistance of water itself increased by
electrification, it seemed to follow that the products of the decomposition of the
damp must act chemically on the solid electrolyte and cause deterioration, and
hence a smaller specific resistance. But if there were deterioration we should
expect that the specific resistance of the material would steadily diminish day by
day, a result that was not obtained in the experiments of Professor Perry and
himself, on bees’ wax at any rate, as will be seen on examining the table given
in their paper in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’for August. He therefore concluded
that further experiments on electrolytes, in which resistance diminishes by electri-
fication, were necessary to make the explanation quite complete.

12. Theory of Voltaic Action.* By J. Brown.

The author described some experiments made with a Volta’s condenser haying
plates of iron and copper, and with a ring half of copper and half iron, which
show that the difference of electric potential of these metals when in contact
depends on the atmosphere surrounding them.

While in the ordinary atmosphere iron is positive to copper, in an atmosphere
of hydrogen sulphide copper is positive to iron. These effects are explained by
the chemical theory of electricity, as due in the first-mentioned case to the superior
chemical affinity of the iron for the oxygen of the watery vapour, and other oxygen
compounds present in the air; in the second, to the greater affinity of the copper
for the sulphur of the hydrogen sulphide.

13. Mutual Action of Vortex Atoms and Ultramundane Oorpuseles.
By Professor G. Forzgs.

It is well known that amongst the numerous theories which have dealt with
the form of an atom, there is only one which is in accordance with the properties

* A description of the experiments is given in the ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ August, 1878.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 499

which we know atoms to possess. It was originated by Sir William Thomson,
whose conclusions, based on the reasearches of Helmholtz on fluid motion, may be
briefly summarised.

According to this view the whole of space is filled with a frictionless fluid, and
material atoms are portions of this fluid, having a species of rotational motion,
which, as Helmholtz proved, must continue for ever.

‘The best analogy to this universal plenum and to these vortex atoms is the
behaviour in an atmosphere of “ smoke-rings,” such as may be blown from the
mouth of the smoker of tobacco, from the funnel of a locomotive, or from the
mouth of a cannon. Such smoke-rings have remarkable properties, which are
due, not to the smoke, which merely renders them visible, but to their internal
motions.

Such “vortex rings” can travel with great rapidity. They can vibrate, they
can rebound from each other with perfect elasticity, and, supposing that such action
takes place in a frictionless fluid, they would be no less indestructible than un-
creatable by mechanical means,

It is also well known that Le Sage of Geneva conceived a kinetic theory of gravi-
tation, which has been adopted by Sir William Thomson. According to Le Sage, the
whole of space is filled with small particles, which he calls ultramundane corpuscles,
flying with enormous velocity through every point of space in every direction.
These penetrate even the void spaces between atoms, so that of those which shower
upon the earth perhaps not more than 1 in 10,000 have their velocity diminished
by collision. The others pass right through the earth. Owing to these collisions,
however, a smaller number of ultramundane corpuscles are to be found moving in
the direction from the earth than towards it. Thus the earth acts as a shield,
protecting surrounding bodies from the shower of ultramundane corpuscles in that
direction.» Hence the moon, and bodies on the earth’s surface, are battered by ultra- ©
mundane corpuscles most in the direction towards the earth. This force, driving
bodies towards the earth, explains terrestrial gravitation. Similarly, all bodies are
driven towards each other with a force varying as the product of the masses.
Sir William Thomson supposes ultramundane corpuscles to be vortex rings with no
hole in the centre and elongated, like a serpent rushing forwards and always turning
inside out, spitting its inwards out at its mouth, and absorbing its skin at the other
end. Collisions with vortex atoms would not result in a destruction of velocity
and consequent enormous generation of heat, but energy of translation is con-
verted into some other form of energy, perhaps energy of vibration.

However artificial these hypotheses may appear at first sight, the more they
are studied the more satisfactory are they. They are the only suggestions of the
kind which are in any way tenable, and they serve at least the part of working
hypotheses. Some remarkable and unforeseen consequences follow from the co-
existence of such vortex atoms and ultramundane corpuscles as Thomson has con-
ceived. The following facts seem to follow from the laws of hydro-linetics :—

1. When a body is heated, and the vortex atoms are rushing about, their
mutual collisions originate vibrations in themselves which, when they are free,
have a definite period, or periods, depending upon the nature of each vortex atom.

2. When an ultramundane corpuscle passes such a vibrating atom, the succes-
sive approaches and recessions of the atom to and from the corpuscle impress upon
that corpuscle a waye-form whose dimensions depend partly on the velocity of the
corpuscle, partly on the vibrations of the atom.

3. When a corpuscle so stamped continues its progress through the frictionless
fluid before mentioned, the position of the wave-marks remain fixed relatively to
the corpuscles, without being affected by its internal motions.

4. If such a marked corpuscle in its flight passes the neighbourhood of a cold
atom, ¢.e., one which is not vibrating, and if that atom be capable of vibrating in

-the same period as the original atom which impressed the wave-trace, then the

wave-trace on the corpuscle will, on
same manner as the original atom. :
The phonograph supplies a happy illustration of these processes :—

1. When the membrane, with needle attached, is vibrating we have the analogue
of a hot atom,

passing the atom, cause it to vibrate in the

kK K 2

500 REPORT—-- 1878.

2, If during this vibration the tin-foil on the cylinder be passed in front of the
needle, the vibrating needle stamps a wave-trace on the tin-foil.

3. The tin-foil preserves this trace during its subsequent motion.

4, If at any subsequent time the stamped tin-foil passes in front of the needle
when it is not vibrating (the analogue of a cold atom), the needle is caused to
vibrate in the same period as before.

These analogies would be more perfect if the needle were set into vibration by
being attached to a tuning-fork of definite period of vibration.

It appears, then, that the co-existence of such yortex atoms and ultramundane
corpuscles as Sir William Thomson has devised leads to the conclusion that hot
bodies must emit radiations which may be absorbed by cold bodies. The question
naturally arises, Can this action be the keystone to a new theory of light? Can
the phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, and polarisation be
explained by this kind of actionP In answer to these questions it can at present
only pe said that the germs of a complete theory of light do exist in this speculation.

Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCH.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—Professor Maxwell Simpson, M.D., F.R.S,, F.C.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Professor MAxweELL Simpson gaye the following Address :—

My position here is a highly honourable, but by no means a comfortable one.
Naturally, you expect to hear from me something new about the science which
occupies the attention of this section, and I have the miserable feeling that I must
disappoint you. How can I possibly find a fact in chemistry with which you are
not already acquainted? If, in order to cater for you, I go to France, Germany,
Russia or America, I find the abstractors of the Chemical Society have been there
before me, and have swept everything of value into their Journal. Chemists are
now d&kept perfectly acquainted with the progress of science in every part of the world,
and therefore the raison d’étre of this address, so far as announcing the discoveries
of the yearis concerned, has passedaway. I therefore propose, instead of giving you
a concentrated essence of the last twelve numbers of the ‘ Journal of the Chemical
Society,’ to bring before you the claims of this science to a place in general education,
and the claims of original research to a place in the curriculum for higher degrees in
our Universities. .

I have been deyoted to chemistry all my life. It has been my business and my
pleasure. The longer I live the more deeply am I impressed with the advantages
to be derived from its study, and I am anxious that these advantages should be
shared by the rising generation.

Whether we take into account the value of the knowledge acquired, the dis-
cipline of the intellectual faculties in acquiring that knowledge, or the effect on the
character, surely we have a right to give the study of this science a prominent
place in our schools and colleges. It would be difficult to over-estimate the value
and extent of the knowledge we derive from chemistry. Without it we can know
nothing about the air we breathe, the water we drink, or the food we eat; we can-
not understand the processes of combustion, respiration, fermentation, putrefaction,
or the endless chemical changes which are continually in operation around us, and
which affect our lives for good or for evil. In a word, the whole of the phenomena
of nature must for ever remain to us, more or less, an inscrutable mystery.

Again, is it not desirable that we should have some acquaintance with the
chemical arts, from which we derive so many of our comforts and luxuries?
Should we not know something of the arts of photography, dyeing, metallurgy—
something of the manufacture of glass and china, and of the thousand beautiful
things that are constantly in our hands? Not only is the knowledge we obtain
from chemistry very considerable in itself, but it furnishes us with a key, which
enables us to unlock vast stores of knowledge, contained in several other sciences—
these are, Physics, Geology, Mineralogy, Physiology, and I may now add, Astro-
nomy. Physicsand chemistry are so intimately connected that it is difficult to say

502 REPORT—1878,

wherethe one beginsand the otherends, The help that chemistry gives to physics is
shown by the numbers of chemists who have distinguished themselves as physicists.
I may mention a few belonging to our own time—Andrews, Bunsen, Faraday, Frank-
land, Graham, Guthrie, and Regnault.

With regard to mental discipline, the mind of the student is exercised in both
the inductive and deductive methods of reasoning. His original faculties are stimu-
lated by the consciousness that he can in many cases readily test the worth of his
ideas by experiment. With inexpensive apparatus and a good balance, the intelli-
gent student can make out for himself some of the laws and many of the facts of the
science, and it may be, also, add to them. He glides insensibly from the known
to the unknown. Indeed his spirit of inquiry, demands, in most cases, to be curbed
rather than spurred. Some students are constantly finding out new methods of
analysis or discovering the precious metals in impossible places,

The readiness with which we can cross over into the terra incognita of chemistry,
and make little explorations there, constitutes in my opinion the great charm of this
science, and, to a great extent, its value as an educational agent. What I wish to
insist upon is, that the student of chemistry can reach the field of original work
sooner than the student of most other sciences. Once he commences original re-
search, the developement of his intellectual faculties rapidly progresses. His imagi-
nation is daily exercised in propounding new theories, and devising experiments in
order to ascertain their truth or falsehood. And what more valuable intellectual
training can there be than the habit of subjecting our ideas to-the testof inexorable
experiment? In the world outside chemistry, we are, alas! too ready to take
things for granted. The chemist’s motto is, Prove all things. The ancients adopted
a different method: they assumed certain principles and reasoned from them.

‘They therefore did little in science.

hemistry promotes in a remarkable manner accuracy, thoroughness, and. cir-
cumspéction. An organic analysis requires six weighings : if any one of these is
inaccurate, the results are worthless, A qualitative test carelessly applied may
cause us, in a research, to waste months in the pursuit of a phantom or Will-o’-the-
Wisp’ which can have no corporeal existence. If we have to employ absolute
alcohol in our experiments, we must not be satisfied with going through the cere-
mony of making it absolute, but we must assure ourselves, that it 7s absolute.
Unless wé are sure of every step in our research, our results become doubtful, and
therefore 6f no value. ‘ 4

On the circumspection, also, of the original worker large demands are made.
The avenues by which error may creep in and vitiate his results are very numerous.
These he must foresee, and endeavour to close up. Laboratory work teaches us to
use our senses aright, sharpens our powers of observation, and prevents us from
reasoning rashly from appearances. It also promotes manual dexterity, and trains
the hands to work in subordination to the head.

Perhaps in no other science is the student so deeply impressed with the order
and economy of nature, the immutability of her laws, and the exactness of her
operations. These impressions will, no doubt, in after life impart seriousness to his
character, and save him from the adoption of many a wild theory.

I come now to the effect of original work on the character. Many virtues are
necessary to the chemist—courage, resolution, truthfulness, and patience. He is
often obliged to perform experiments which are attended with great danger, and no
man can hope to fight long with the elements without carrying away many a scar.
Sometimes fatal accidents oceur. Many years ago, Mr. Hennel, of the Apothecaries’
Hall, London, lost his life by the explosion of a fulminating powder which he was
preparing for the East India Company. And many of us recollect the sad death of
young Mr, Chapman, a distinguished chemist whom I had the pleasure of knowing,
who was literally blown to atoms while working in the Hartz Mountains on a new

dynamite which he had himself discovered. I must tell the ladies, however, that
accidents are not always so disastrous, but that often one may escape with merely
the loss of an eye. But the chemist must not be discouraged by fear of accident,
neither must he be disheartened by the temporary failure of his experiments, nor at
the slowness of his processes. Bunsen was obliged to evaporate 44 tons of the
waters of the Diircheim springs in order to obtain 200 grains of his new metal,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 503

Cesium. It took Berthelot several months to form, by a series of synthetical
operations, an appreciable quantity of alcohol from water and carbon, derived from
carbonate of baryta, Many years ago, in the laboratory of Wurtz—my honoured
master—a poor student, whom I knew, was carrying from one room to another a
glass globe, which contained the product of a month’s continuous labour, when the
bottom of the globe fell out and the contents were lost. Nothing daunted, he re-
commenced his month’s work, and brought his research to a successful issue.

Above all things, the chemist must be ¢7'we. He must not allow his wishes to bias
his judgment or prevent him from seeing his researches in their true light. He must
not be satisfied that his results appear true, but he must believe them to be true;
and haying faithfully performed his éxperiments, he must record them faithfully.
He may often be obliged to chronicle his own failures and describe operations that
tell against his own theories, but this hard test of his truthfulness he must not
shrink from.

But I must not weary you with the virtues of the chemist. If I have succeeded
in showing that the pursuit of this science tends largely to develope the intellect
and discipline the character, I think I have done something for chemistry. We are
told by Bishop Butler that “habits of virtue acquired by discipline are improve-
. ment in yirtue, and improvement in virtue must be advancement in happiness.”

Iamglad to see that the importance of original research as a part of higher
education is at last beginning to be recognised in this country. The Royal
University Commission at Oxford has recently recommended that candidates for
thehigher degrees in science shall in that University be required in future to work out
an original investigation. In Germany, whereeducation hasbeen solong and so well
understood, original work has been, for at least the last half century, a sine gud non
for a degree. Another admirable rule exists in that country, the adoption of which
in Great Britain might go far to wash out the stain from our islands, of not having
contributed our fair quota to the advancement of human knowledge. It is this—
the Germans make a point of securing invariably, that’ their scientific chairs shall
be filled by men who haye already distinguished themselves by their discoveries.
The professor, on his appointment, naturally desires to continue his investigations,
and endeavours to secure, and usually succeeds in securing, the assistance of his
pupils. Thisis a mutual advantage. The professor is able to do more work for
science, and the student, on his part, learns to conduct for himself an original in-
vestigation. Hence there is always a rising generation of original workers in Ger-
many, who turn out papers more or less meritorious with the rapidity of a Walter's
press. They are stimulated by the hope of one day arriving themselves at a pro-
fessor’s chair, the path to which they are well assured is only through the toilsome
field of original work. But I must not wrong the German student by the impli-
cation of a purely selfish motive in his work. His labour is one of love, and his
ambition, for the time at least, is bounded by the desire to do something for science.
And from a multitude of such enthusiasts the great professors come. Great moun-
tains are only found in mountainous countries.

I find myself insensibly led to speak of the encouragement of research in this
country; and although it has been very largely discussed in scientific circles, I will
venture to add a few words. To promote original work here, I believe it is indis-
pensable that our professors should be well paid. It would save them from the
necessity of supplementing their incomes by commercial analyses, and thus enable
them to devote their spare time to original work. And to secure that they shall
have spare time, I would like to see in every laboratory a competent assistant, who
would be able occasionally to take up the professor's lectures, should he be engaged
in important work. There are many around me who know how very exacting
original investigation is, and how necessary it is, at times, to be able to work on
without interruption ; bits and scraps of time being of no value. I am glad to see
that the Oxford Commission also recommends the appointment of well-paid assist-
ants. Well-paid professorships and well-paid assistantships would be attractive
prizes for our students to work up to; andif it were clearly understood that the only
way to these prizes was through original investigation, we should very soon have an
army of zealous and competent workers.

The plan of appointing a staff of original workers unconnected with teaching

504 REPORT—1878.

has been proposed ; but I do not approve of it. The original worker is, as a rule, the
best teacher, and the rising generation of students should not be deprived of the ~
advantage of his instruction. Moreover, as I said before, the professor may be
greatly assisted by his pupils.

No doubt the Government grant fund does a good deal for science, but the field
of its operations is, under present conditions, limited. Professors, as a rule, are so
occupied with teaching that they cannot avail themselves of the fund ; and of those
students who might be competent and willing, very few can afford to doso. Instead
of trusting to the precarious and insufficient support of the fund, they must endeavour
to settle themselves permanently in life.

It is much to be regretted that the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, with
such splendid revenues at their disposal, should contribute so little to the advance-
ment of physical science. I hope the day is not far distant when the fellowships—
or at least a few of them—which now go to reward young men for merely passing
a good examination, shall be given without examination to men who shall have ad-
vanced human knowledge in any department. At present, a fellowship of 2507. or
300/. a year, lasting ten or twelve years, and in some cases for life, may be obtained
on showing proof of a good memory—or, at most, a capacity for assimilating other
men’s ideas. To make discoveries—to follow out a new train of thought, and estab-
lish it by experiments specially devised to that end, has been left not only without
reward, but almost without recognition, in our two principal seats of learning. Is
it to be so always? The world at large, ignorant as it is, has a sounder instinct on
this subject, and the man who makes the humblest addition to the stock of know-
ledge in the world rarely fails to receive the world’s respect and honour,

The suggestions I have ventured to make could not, of course, be well carried
out unless the Government take into its own hands the appointment to all scientific
chairs, Of this I think I see indications. I believe that sooner or later the Govern-
ment will assume the supreme direction of education in this country. It has already
taken primary education under its control, and quite recently, here in Ireland, inter-
mediate education to a great extent. And does the appointment of so many
University Commissions not show a disposition on the part of the Government to
assume the direction of higher education also ?

The following Papers were read :—

1. Report of Committee on some of the lesser-known Alkaloids.
See Reports, p. 105.

2. Report on the best means of Developing Light from Coal Gas, part I.
See Reports, p. 108.

3. On the Amounts of Sugar contained in the Nectar of various Flowers.
By Aupx. S8. Witson, M.A., B.Sc.

Nectar, the sweet-tasted liquid found within the cups of insect-fertilised
flowers, is of service to the plant possessing it by affording an inducement whereby
nsects are attracted to visit the flowers. By this means cross-fertilisation is
effected, as bees, butterflies, and other insects, in their search for the nectar, bring
with them polien from other flowers adhering to their bodies which they deposit
on the stigmas. Mr. Darwin has shown experimentally what an additional amount
of vigour is thus conferred on the resulting seeds in contrast with the degenerat-
ing effect of continuous inbreeding or self-fertilisation. Very often this sweet
fluid is exuded from special glands, but in other cases from portions of the flower
that do not seem to have been specially adapted for this purpose. Morphologically,
nectaries may represent very different structures, but not unfrequently they are of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 505

the nature of an aborted organ such as a petal or stamen. It is a disputed point
among physiologists whether this saccharine matter is a true secretion or simply
an excretion of. effete matter from vegetable cells—a bi-product of the chemical
changes taking place within these cells. Nectar is, of course, the source
whence the bee derives honey, but it also affords sustenance to many different kinds
of insects as well as humming-birds. The bright colours of flowers, as shown by
Sir John Lubbock’s experiments, serve for the guidance of insects to them, and
the odours which they emit fulfil the same end. The markings on a flower’s petals,
too, always converge towards the nectar. The importance of these guides to insects
will be apparent from the following estimations, which show how indispensable it
is that as little time as possible should be lost by an insect while collecting honey.
It must be remembered, also, that in order to protect the nectar from rain, it is
usually contained in the least accessible part of the flower. The formation of
nectar is observed to take place most freely in hot weather. So great, however, is »
the economy of the plant, that it is only formed at the time when insects’ visits
would be beneficial, z.c., when the anthers are shedding their pollen or when the
stigma is mature. Biologists believe that the visits of bees, butterflies, and other
insects have in past time exercised an important influence in modifying the size,
shape, colour, &c., of flowers. The following determinations are of interest as
showing to what extent this action goes on, and as a help towards ascertaining the

value of this factor:—

Suear in: Frowers. (Fehling’s process.)

-,| Cane?
Total | Fruit | (as fruit)
mem
MECH sie, PET OWED 22. s.cc.ds-dkessoccconldvecsecoseseres 7:59 | 1:69 59
2. Everlasting pea, per flower ............ceseceseeeeeees ees 9:93, | 8:33 1:60
saVeteln( VasGCracca), Peri TACOMe. +: .00...cevcesseseer oceeee 316 | 315 ‘Ol
Be ssh POL GUNGLO TOWED -.0..c0c--scvesnceceessceceesemeriees 158; +158 =
PRPELeG OlOVET, Per HORM. .cersscccnarocosdseeveseesteectsaaccete 7:93 | 595 | 1:98
6. r PMVONGLM eens csvadecres cc ssdeesercece "132 099 033
Wee Monikshood, per flower \....0..02..s.cecvseoresccesesseees 641 | 463 | 1:78
8. Claytonia Alsinordes, per floweY ......eceeeseresereeeens ‘413| :175 283

Approximately, then, 100 heads of glover yield ‘8 grm. sugar, or 125 give
1 grm. or 125,000 1 kilo. sugar; and as each head contains about 60 florets, it follows
that 7,500,000 distinct flower tubes must be sucked in order to obtain 1 kilogramme
of sugar. Now, as honey roughly contains 75 per cent. of sugar, 1 kilo. is equivalent
to 5,600,000 flowers in round numbers, or say two and a-half millions of visits for
1 Ib. of honey!

Another point worthy of note in these results is the occurrence of what
appears to be cane sugar, and that in the case of fuchsia in the proportion of
three-fourths of the whole. This is remarkable, as honey is usually supposed to
contain no cane sugar, its presence being generally held as certain evidence of
adulteration. The question, therefore, arises whether this change, which occurs
while’ the sugar is in the bee's possession be due to the action of juices with which
it comes in contact while in the honey-bag, or whether on account of the acid
reaction of nectar it may not take place spontaneously.

4. On the Action of Chlorine upon the Nitroprussides.* By Dr. Komunp W.
Davy, Professor of Forensic Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland.

The nitroprussides are an interesting class of compounds obtained by the action
of nitric acid on the soluble ferro or ferri-cyanides, which were first investigated by

* In eatenso in the ‘Chemical News,’ Vol. XX XVIII. No. 105.

506 REPORT—1878.

Dr. Lyon Playfair several years ago. In this communication the author showed
that the statements which exist in the different standard works on chemistry, as to
chlorine having no action on those salts, are not correct, at least, as regards several
of the nitroprussides, which he has made the subject of investigation ; for he has
found that some of them are immediately, and others after long exposure to its
influence, more or less acted on by that substance, even when they are excluded
from light. When, however, they are subjected to the combined action of chlorine
and the sun’s rays, they are soon completely decomposed, the principal product
being an oil-like matter, which appears to possess all the properties belonging to the
compound known under the name of chlorocyanic oil (C,N,Cl,,), ferric chlovide,
hydrochloric acid, and a chloride of the metallic base of the salt employed.

The following nitroprussides, viz., those of potassium, sodium, barium, calcium,
zinc, iron and silver, were found to be thus decomposed, when exposed to the com-
bined action of chlorine and sun light, and it is probable that other nitroprussides
would be similarly affected. ;

The only one of those salts, however, which the author has observed resisting
this action is that of copper, which has remained apparently unaffected after some
weeks’ exposure to its influence.

5. The Adulteration Act in so far as it relates to the Prosecution of Muilk-
sellers. By Wrnest H. Coox, B.Sc., F.R.C.S., Lecturer wpon Experi-
mental Physics at the Bristol Trade and Mining School.

The object of this paper is to call attention to the unsatisfactory state of the law
relating to the prosecution of milk-sellers. In many cases innocent vendors have
been fined, and also, we may be sure fraudulent dealers have gone unpunished. Not-
withstanding that milk-sellers are constantly being fined for selling an inferior
article, yet mill continues to be the chief adulterated article of food. The Act has
practically failed to deter the sophistication of this article. We can only explain
this by the fact that milkmen find that they are fined whether they sell a pure
article or an adulterated one. It pays them best to adulterat#, and they do so. In
proof of this two cases are mentioned. In the first seyeral analysts have certified cer-
tain samples of pure milk to be adulterated, and in the second a sample of mill
obtained from a cow fed on desiccated grain was certified as skim-milk. The
records of our police courts tell us that milk-sellers are constantly being fined for
selling milk which they declare most emphatically to be pure and unadulterated.
Three courses are open to us to explain these anomalies :-—

Firstly. To place implicit reliance on the analyst, and therefore to disbelieve the
deliberate statements of the farmers and milk-sellers.

Secondly. To believe the farmer, and therefore to consider the analyst wholly at
fault.

Thirdly. To reconcile both by attributing the poverty to a variation in the
article.

In most cases the third will be found to be the true explanation.

Notwithstanding the statement of Professor Wanklyn, milk 7s a substance which
varies greatly in quality. In the author’s experience he has found as great a
difference as 18 per cent. in the value of pure milk, and Dr. Voelcker has published

analyses in which a much greater difference occurs. It appears that milk is Subject
to four different kinds of variation, viz. :—

a, A variation owing to the food.

8. A variation owing to the season.

y. A variation owing to the animal.

6. A variation owing to health.

Illustrations of these are given in the paper. In consequence of these variations,
analysts, if they wish to determine if a sample of milk is adulterated, take, as a
standard, the lowest percentage of solids or “ solids not fat” which pure milk has

been found to contain. This is the principle of the course adopted, but it is open to
the following objections :—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 507

Firstly. Each analyst being allowed to fix this percentage himself, we have
different standards employed, and consequently may have a milkman fined in one
town for selling an article which a neighbouring analyst may declare pure.

Secondly. The percentage fixed upon cannot be the lowest contained by pure
milk, because we do not know it. The amount found by Dr. Voelcker (9°35 of
solids) is the lowest at present known, but a lower number may be found.

Thirdly. This lower limit is so low that with an ordinary sample a considerable
amount of watering may take place without the possibility of detection.

For many obvious reasons it is necessary to remedy this state of things. One
method only appears to offer a chance of success, briefly, this is to buy and sell milk
by quality instead of by quantity. The difficulty of introducing this practice is
more imaginary than real. One easy method is as follows:—Divide the milk into
two qualities, first quality and second quality. The former will include all milk
containing 12-0 per cent. of solids or 9:0 per cent. of “ solids not fat” or more, and may
be sold, say, at 4d. per quart. The latter will include all milk containing less than
these numbers, and may be sold at :i4d. per quart. Ifa sample of first quality milk
be sold which, on analysis, does not contain the stated quantity, the vendor will be
fined. The great difficulty here is in making the division into two qualities. In
order to do this effectually, some simple instrument capable of making a rough
analysis is required. At present such an instrument does not exist, but we may
rely on one being forthcoming if the need be felt.

In conclusion, the following advantages are claimed for this method :-—

_ 1. The analyst not being called upon to decide upon the purity of the article,
but simply whether it contains a certain percentage of solids or of “‘ solids not fat,”
cannot make such deplorable mistakes as at present.

2. The vendor will not be fined unjustly.

3. It will tend to stop adulteration because a better price can be obtained for a
better article.

4. An article of greater constancy will be supplied to the public.

6. On some Fluor Compounds of Vanadium. By Professor H. E. Roscos,
PRD., FR.S.

508 REPORT—1878.

FRIDAY, AUGUS1 16, 1878.
The following Papers*were read :—

1. Notes on Aluminium Alcohols. By Dr. Guapstone and ALFRED TRIBE.

In 1876 the authors described the joint action of aluminium and iodine on
alcohol, and two aluminium ethylates which resulted from it. They now showed
that a similar reaction takes place with methylic alcohol, especially when the
aluminium is rendered more powerful by conjunction with deposited platinum ; and
that an analogous aluminium compound is still more readily formed from amylic
alcohol. These two substitution products had not yet been prepared in a pure con-
dition, but the authors had succeeded in preparing the butylic compound in a satis-
factory manner. This aluminic butylate is a solid body at the ordinary tempera-
ture, but melts when heated, and is capable of distillation. It is very soluble in
anhydrous ether or benzole, from which it separates on evaporation, but without
cerystallising. It is decomposed by water, butylic alcohol and alumina being pro-
duced. Its composition was found to be Al,(C,H,O),. ° There is also evidence of
an intermediate compound, soluble in water, which is probably homologous with
the aluminic iodo-ethylate, Al,I,(C,H,O)..

2. On the Estimation of Mineral Oil or Paraffin Wax when mixed with
other Oils or Fats.* By Wittaam Tuomson, F.R.S.L.

Mixed oils are now often used for lubricating purposes, and a common mixture
composed of mineral oil with some animal, vegetable, or fish oil is extensively
used, and it is an important point to be able by analysis to determine the amount
of mineral oil which such mixtures contain ; and as I could find no published pro-
cess to effect this, I devised, after much work, the following, which I found by
repeated tests to give accurate results:—Some of the sample is boiled with an
alcoholic solution of caustic soda, which converts all the animal, vegetable, or fish
oils into soap. This is then mixed with sand, evaporated to dryness on the steam
bath, the residue placed in a bottle and washed with petroleum spirit, which has
been previously distilled at a temperature not exceeding 190° Fahy. This dissolves
out the mineral oil, leaving the soap insoluble. The spirit is now distilled off from
the spirit solution in a large flask, and after thus evaporating off the bulk of the
spirit, the concentrated solution is transferred to a smaller flask with a hole blown
in its side, into which is fitted a cork carrying a thermometer and a glass tube;
the thermometer should touch the liquid, going nearly to the bottom of the flask,
which is placed on a sand bath and heated at a temperature not exceeding
220° Fahr., and dry air blown into the flask through the tube in the cork, to
remove the last trace of spirit, and the residue of mineral oil weighed and cal-
culated on the weight of original mixed oil taken. A small correction must be
allowed for an amount of unsaponifiable oil which so-called saponifiable oils always

contain, but this is about 0°6 per cent. of the saponifiable oil found.

* «Chemical News,’ Vol. XX XVIII., No. 984, Oct. 4, 1878.

‘
ae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 509

3. On the Action of Heat on the Selenate of Ammonium.* By Dr. Epmunp
W. Davy, Professor of Forensic Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons,
Treland.

The author read on behalf of his colleague Dr. Charles A. Cameron and
himself a paper containing the results of some observations which they had con-
jointly made on the action of heat upon the selenate of ammonium, The study
of the effects of that agent on the sulphate of ammonium, having in the hands of
different chemists led to interesting results, the authors thought it desirable to insti-
tute some experiments on the selenate of that base, to ascertain whether any corre-
sponding products would be obtained by its exposure to heat, selenic and sulphuric
acids agreeing so closely in their properties, and this subject being hitherto unin-
yestigated as far as they were aware.

Some selenate of ammonium, after thorough drying at 100° C., was heated in a
bath of paraffine, the degrees of temperature to which it was exposed being indi-
eated by a thermometer. It was found that when the salt was heated to about
180° C., the evolution of a minute quantity of ammonia could be readily detected,
and finding that the amount evolved increased with the rise of temperature, the
heat was gradually raised to about 250° C., when the development of ammonia be-
came much more abundant, whilst at the same time water and selenium began to
be separated. ;

This temperature was then continued as long as ammonia was evolved, and till
acid vapours made their appearance, when the heat was withdrawn.

On examining the residue after this treatment, it was found that the selenate of
ammonium had been completely decomposed, selenium and selenious anhydride,
being the remaining products. Wishing to ascertain if any gaseous matter was
evolved during the decomposition, some selenate of ammonium was heated ina tube
filled with mercury, when a considerable volume of a gas not absorbed by water
was obtained, which on examination was found to be nitrogen. It should also be
stated, that the salt was observed to have acquired a strong acid reaction, before its
final breaking up at the highest temperature to which it had been exposed in the
paraffine bath ; indicating the formation of an acid salt in the first stage of its de-
composition by heat. From the results of those and of other experiments made by
the authors, they have come to the conclusion, that when selenate of ammonium is
heated it first resolves itself into ammonia and an acid selenate of ammonium, and
that this salt, on further heating, breaks up into selenium, selenious anhydride, water,
and nitrogen, and that the reactions which occur in the process may probably be
expressed by the following formule :

Ist stage.—4{ (NH,)?SeO, j= 4(NH,. H. SeO,) + 4NH,.

2nd stage.—4(NH,. H. SeO,) =Se + 3S8e0, + 10(H,0) +N,.

A number of circumstances, however, have as yet prevented the authors being able
to confirm the correctness of the above formule by actual results.

In conclusion, the foregoing observations are interesting, a3 they show that in the
first stage of the decomposition of the selenate of ammonium by heat, there is an
acid salt formed, like as in the case of the sulphate of that base when similarly
treated, as was pointed out by Dr. Schweitzer ; but in the separation of selenium, in

the second stage of the process, there is no analogy in the case of the sulphate of
ammonium.

4, A New Method of Alkalimetry. By Louis Smsorp, F.0.8.

The method recommended by the author consists in the reverse application or
Liebig’s process for estimating hydrocyanic acid, and is based on the fact that the

_ volumetric determination of an alkaline cyanide by means of silver nitrate is in no-
_ wise affected by the presence of free hydrocyanic acid. From the volume of silver

= ihe

solution used, the quantity of alkali may be as readily calculated as that of the
etyanogen. If the applicability of this process for alkalimetric purposes were con-

* In extenso in the ‘ Chemical News,’ Vol, XXXVIII, 133,

510 REPORT— 1878.

fined to the estimation of caustic alkalies, nobody would, in the author's opinion,
think of using it in preference to the process commonly used ; but he wished to
show that it might with great advantage be applied to the determination of alka-
line carbonates. From 0:5 to 1 gramme of the potassium or sodium carbonate should
be dissolved in about 100 c.c. of distilled water, the solution mixed with an excess
of hydrocyanic acid (10 to 20 c.c. of acid of Scheele’s strength), and then deci-
normal solution of silver nitrate added from a burette until a permanent opalescence
is produced. The reaction occurs in accordance with the following equation :—

K,00, + 2HOy + AgNO, = KAgCy, + KNO, + CO,

The first drop used in excess causes a precipitation of silver cyanide. Whereas
under ordinary circumstances hydrocyanic acid is incapable of decomposing alka-
line carbonates, it effects a complete decomposition in the presence of silver nitrate.
The mixture does not require boiling, and the whole operation may be performed
within a few minutes.

If after the end of the titration the mixture is boiled, and the addition of
decinormal solution of silver nitrate proceeded with, this time using potassium
chromate as an indicator, the volume of silver solution required to ensure complete
precipitation of the silver cyanide will be exactly equal to that used in the first
titration. ‘

KAgCy, + AgNO, =2Ag0y + KNO,.

This second reaction might then, if desired, be used as a check on the determi-
nation. In the presence of chloride, the volume of silver solution used in the
second experiment will be greater than that used in the first, the difference between
the two being exactly that required to precipitate the chloride. In this manner a
determination of the chloride might be readily combined with that of the alkaline
carbonate.

The following results were quoted to show the great accuracy of the process :—

Pure Potassium carbonate used Carbonate found

i 0:5851

0°1670 0:1672

0°8775 0:8779

Mixtures of pure potassium carbonate and sodium chloride :—

Used Found
K,CO, sia = ee 0-2000 0:2005

NaCe 4° ods ae 0:0680 0:0683

Jf K,CO, eas ree ae 0:9760 0:9750

| NaCe ae ae HE 0:1825 01830

The author gives the following reasons why for the essay of samples of potash or
soda he considers this process as better than the one usually employed :—

1. The solution does not require boiling, and the operation therefore requires less
time than the usual process.

2. The change from absolitte clearness to an unmistakable turbidity as produced
by a single drop of the reagent is more striking than that of the colour of litmus
brought about by a drop of normal sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.

3. The test solution being a deci-normal one, the results obtained are more
accurate than those obtained with standard normal mineral acids. °

4, With but little additional trouble, and without having to operate on fresh
sample, the process may be readily coupled with an accurate determination of the
chloride present in the alkaline carbonate.

In concluding, Mr. Siebold stated that he was at present engaged in experiments
showing a still wider range of useful applicability of this process ; and that the re-
ay of these experiments he hoped to be able shortly to lay before the Chemical
Society. ;

i SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.
The Section did not meet.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 511

: MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

The following Papers were’ read :—

1. Notes on Water from the Severn Tunnel Springs.
By Witritam Lanr Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.8.

The plans for the construction of this tunnel had been fully described to Section G,
at the Bristol (1875) Meeting, by its engineer, Mr. Charles Richardson. By the
summer of the present year, the trial heading, part of which was to form the per-
manent drain of the tunnel, had been driven more than half way across under the
Severn, which was 2} miles wide at that point, and had successfully passed under
the remarkable channel of the “Shoots.” In driving through the pennant rock,
several springs had been met with, some of which had since run dry, In the
opinion of the engineer, no Severn water could find its way to these springs, the
source of which he thought were the “backs” in the pennant. The author had
analysed water from four springs, and from the Severn at various states of tide, and
from deep land wells in the neighbourhood, the results of which led him to believe
that by far the greater portion of the water flowing from these springs was derived
from the Severn. Details of the analyses were given.

2. On the Thetines.* By BH. A. Lerrs, Professor of Chemistry, University
College, Bristol.

The experiments were undertaken as a sequel to the research made by Professor
Crum Brown and the author on dimethyl thetine and its compounds, and with
a view to the thorough investigation of the thetines as a group—the phenomena
attending their formation, the action of heat and oxidizing agents on them, and the
difference in their properties as the series is ascended. Incidentally the action of
bromacetic acid on certain hydrocarbon sulphides, and the action of bromacetic and
iodacetic ethyl ether on sulphide of methyl were studied.

3. On the Spectrum of Chlorochromic Acid. By G. Jonnsronn Stonny
and Professor J. Emerson Reynoxps.
See above, p. 434.

4. Summary of Investigations on the Pyridine Series. By Dr. W. Ramsay.

These bases, which possess the general formula OxH,,,_,, are tertiary bases.
They form an additive product with iodides of alcohol radicals, of which a good
example is O,H,N.CH,I, best named pyridine methyl-iodide, as it resembles a
salt in its constitution. They are not attacked by nitrous acid; and the cyanate,
when heated, undergoesno molecular change, but merely splits up into the base,
_ and the usual polymer of cyanic acid, cyanuric acid.

* For a detailed account of the above, see ‘ Trans. Roy. Soc, Edin.’ 1878.

512 REPORT—-1878.

Picoline, C,H,N, on oxidation yields a dicarbo-pyridenic acid, O,H.NO,,
which, on distillation with soda-lime, decomposes into pyridine, C,H.N, and car-
ponic anhydride, 2CO,. It has, therefore, the structural formula C,H,N(CO.OH),.
Attempts to prepare lutidine, C,H,N, from the aldehyde of that acid, as well as
by the reaction O,H,N(CO.0.CH,), =C;H,N +200, failed, owing, in the first
instance, to the small yield of aldehyde, and, in the second, to the total decom-
sition of the product into pyridine, carbonic anhydride, and carbon.

In spite of the failure of these attempts, the author regards it as probable

that picoline is methyl-pyridine from the following consideration :—The amount of
heat evolved in the formation of these bases is probably very high. That heat,

added to the amount evolved by the combination of the base with an acid, is likely

to be greater than the total number of heat-units evolved during oxidation of
the base; hence these bases are unoxidisable in acid solution. But when oxidised

in alkaline solution, the amount of heat evolved by oxidation is supplemented by

that arising from the combination of the resulting acid with the alkali, and then

exceeds the heat evolved during formation of the base. The presence of nitrogen

therefore gives great stability to the molecule, and prevents the methyl-groups

from being oxidised to carboxyl groups, as is the case with toluol, xylol, &e. At

least three acids of the formula C,H,NO, have been discovered, and it is pro--
bable that as many as six are capable of existence. These the author has named

a, 8, and y, dicarbopyridenic acids. The a-acid is obtained by oxidising picoline

or lutidine, and the last two from lutidine.

An attempt to pass from furfurol to pyridine by the series of reactions—

po

} C.H,O0Ce C,H,ON
2) 5-6 ~ 2? Ss 5 , 5
Furfurol. Furfuryl Furfuryl ek ,
alcohol. chloride. amine.
CeHENG
Pyridine,

was unsuccessful, owing to the instability of furfuryl chloride.
From the stability of the pyridine group, and the instability of the furfurol
group, the author regards it as probable that the constitution of the former is best

expressed by a closed, and that of the latter by an open chain.

5. On some of the Derivatives of Furfurol. By Dr. W. Ramsay.

It was found impossible to prepare furfuryl chloride by the action of phos-
phorie chloride, or of hydrochloric acid gas on furfuryl alcohol, O5H,O,, owing to
a complete decomposition of the organic matter, with separation of carbon.

Furfurine, prepared by heating furfuramide, and possessing the same formula,
C,,H,,N,0,, unites with methyl-iodide, forming the hydriodide of methyl-furfurine ;
this salt, on treatment with ammonia, deposits the base C,,H,, (CH,)N,O,, as a
viscous oil, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol. The base again unites with
methyl-iodide, giving the hydriodide of dimethyl-furfurine, C,;H,,(CH,),N,O,HI,
also decomposable by ammonia with liberation of the base, dimethyl-furfurine,
C,,H,,(CH,).N203. This base appears also to be capable of union with methyl-
iodide.

sited 3
hydrogen replace
obanle to decide,

then, appears to be a secondary base, containing two atoms of
able by methyl. Whether more can be replaced the author was
as the loss by repetition of the operation was very considerable.

6. Nitric Acid; its Reproduction from the lower Oxides of Nitrogen.
By Bernarp C. Motnoy.

In treating in this short memoir of the economic use of nitric acid, it would be
well to state by way of preface why it is considered worthy of such attention.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. oes

We are aware in the first place that it is the highest oxide of nitrogen known,
that, parting so easily and freely with its oxygen as it does, it stands highest in the
list of oxidising agents, and consequently amongst the most useful chemical re-agents
in manufacturing enterprises.

There are two drawbacks in some cases fatal to its use: one is the high price
of the acid; and the other the injurious and malodorous gases which are evolved
during the deoxidation of the acid. The object, therefore, in these researches has

‘been twofold—firstly, to introduce the greatest possible economy in the use of nitric

acid ; and secondly, to get rid of the malodorous and injurious gases which are
evolved. In effecting the former the latter has been successfully attained.

To make this operation clear it will be well to recall for a moment the severa
oxides of nitrogen.

There are five compounds of nitrogen with oxygen, containing respectively
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 volumes of oxygen to 2 of nitrogen, viz., taking them in the as-
cending order of the oxygen—

1. Nitrous oxide, N,O.

2. Nitric oxide, N,O,.

3. Nitrous anhydride, N,O,.
4, Nitrogen peroxide, N,O,.
5. Nitric anhydride, N,O,.

If water be added to the fifth or highest oxide, we have nitric acid H,N,O,, or
2HNO,.

When any oxidisable substance is presented to nitric acid, the nitric acid parts
with a portion of its oxygen to combine with the substance to be oxidised, and the
nitrogen is evolved, combined with the remaining oxygen as lower oxides of
nitrogen.

Under the most favourable conditions not more than fifty per cent. of the oxygen
contained in the nitric acid can be used for the purpose of oxidation. In many
cases, however, the percentage is as low as twenty. Moreover, a fresh supply of
the acid will be required for each successive operation.

Now it will be evident that if sufficient oxygen be made to combine with these
lower oxides of nitrogen, nitric anhydride will be formed, which, when combined
with water, reproduces nitric acid. To effect this reproduction economically, the
“means” employed must themselves be economical in order to be useful.

We will deal with the gases evolved during the deoxidation of nitric acid.
These gases will be composed of a mixture of lower oxides of nitrogen, which will
be of adeep brownish red colour, caused by the presence of nitrogen peroxide.
These gases or fumes are conducted into the chamber or towers where they are to
be reoxidised. These towers consist of closed chambers about, for ordinary pur-
poses, thirty feet high and three feet in diameter. Their form and material may be
varied, but they may be constructed of glazed earthenware pipes or a slate. The
tower rests in a reservoir, into which the reconverted acid fallsand from which it is
afterwards drawn. Into the sides of the tower may be fitted sight-holes glazed
with glass, so that the quantity of the gases may be roughly judged by the depth
of the colour inside the tower. The top of each tower is of a conical form, and in

_ the centre of the cone is fixed a jet, through which steam and hot water are forced.

This jet is so arranged as to be capable of being easily and accurately adjusted in
order to cause a cloud or spray of very finely divided hot water of about a tem-
perature of 100° O. to fall slowly through the tower or chamber. Atmospheric air is
allowed at the same time to enter the tower. The construction of the jets should
be so arranged as that the quantities of hot water and the admission of air may be

_ regulated at will. As is obvious, the tower should be gas tight, except as hereafter

described. Now the gases or fumes coming from the vessel in which the nitric acid
is being used will gradually rise till the tower is charged. When so charged the

_ jet is brought into action; steam and hot water are turned on into the jet in such

_ proportions as that the steam will strike and divide the water into a minutely

divided spray, the steam itself being condensed in the water, so that a misty spray
of hot water slowly falls down through the tower.
oe descent the particles of hot water come into contact with the oxides of
, LL

514 REPORT—1878.

nitrogen. The nitrous anhydride (N,O,) and nitric oxide (N,O,) are under these
conditions immediately oxidised by the air (admitted and drawn in through the air
holes or through the jet) into peroxide of nitrogen N,O,. The several reactions may
be combined thus :—

N,0, + N,O, +30 =2N,0,.

This peroxide of nitrogen (N,O,) is quickly absorbed by the spray and decom-
posed by it into nitric oxide and nitric acid. The nitric acid is dissolved by the
hot water of the spray and carried down into the reservoir at the foot of the tower.
The nitric oxide remains undissolved by the spray, but is oxidised as fast as pro-
duced by the air into peroxide, which in turn becomes split up into nitric oxide
and nitric acid, the latter being collected as before in the reservoir. The re-action
may be approximately shown thus :—

6N,0, + 2H,0 = 3N,0, + 8HNO,.

Eventually, therefore, the lower oxides of nitrogen becoming oxidised by con-
tact with air into the higher peroxide, and this in turn becoming absorbed by the
spray and divided into nitric oxide and nitric acid, which latter is always dissolved
and carried down, and the reactions being successively continuous, the whole of the
original nitric acid, when used and operated upon under these conditions, will be
regained.

: Practically the whole of these reactions occur simultaneously, so that the nitric
acid is reproduced from the lower oxides as soon as they are generated.

This process places another weapon in the power of the manufacturer, and ren-
ders available for many purposes a re-agent at present limited in its application.

In conclusion, I will only add that in no single instance has the process failed or
even varied in its results.

7. On some Substances obtained from the Root of the Strawberry.
By Dr. T. L. Putrson, F.C.S.

The author has found in the root of the strawberry certain substances closely
allied with some that are contained in the cinchona barks. The principal of
these is called Fragarine, and can be obtained in large quantities by a process which
with cinchona bark yields the product called Cimchona ved. There exists in the
strawberry root a kind of tannin, closely allied to quinotannic acid, and when
its solution is boiled for some time with hydrochloric acid, it decomposes into
elucose and fragarine, which is precipitated as a reddish brown amorphous
substance, highly electrical by friction, taking a reddish purple colour with alkalies,
yielding nitro-and chloro-compounds of a yellow colour, and a conjugated acid with
sulphuric acid. On being heated, fragarine yields water and is decomposed.
without fusion, yielding much charcoal and a white sublimate, soluble in water,
which is, apparently, pyrocatechin; its solution gives a green colour with salts of
iron. Melting potash decomposes fragarine with production of dark brown sub-
stances and a little protocatechuic acid, which can be isolated by ether from the
acidulated solution, and also colours iron salts green.

Whilst fragarine is being produced by boiling with hydrochloric acid there
is diffused through the laboratory a very agreeable odour of essence of cedar.
The root also yields a product very similar to quinovic acid. ;

8. On a new Mineral White Pigment. By Dr. T. L. Puirson, F.C.8.

For many years past attempts have been made by several chemists to discover
some new mineral white of a less costly and less dangerous nature than white lead.
Very little success seems to have attended these researches until quite lately.
First, the oxide of zine produced by the combustion of the metal in the air was
found to have certain properties which allowed it to be used as a non-poisonous
substitute for carbonate of lead. But its production is very costly, and its cover-

of 5

on

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 515

ing power or “ body” is not comparable with the latter. Next, an ingenious white
or stone-coloured paint was economically produced from oxide of antimony by
Dr. Stenhouse, which appeared to answer very well in certain circumstances. I
myself have made a great number of experiments with the view of utilising some
of the artificial silicates, such as those of lime, magnesia, and zinc, &c., which
possess a very brilliant white colour, by submitting them to a great variety of
treatments; but I have been unsuccessful in imparting to them anything like the
“body ” of white lead; they all become more or less translucid when mixed with
oil, like pure silicic acid itself, whatever mechanical treatment they may have pre-
viously undergone.

Whilst occupied with these researches I learned accidentally that Mr. Thomas
Griffiths, of Liverpool, had obtained a new pigment, the basis of which was the
white sulphide of zinc, and’ on submitting this new product to examination I
found, with considerable astonishment, that it surpassed the ordinary white lead

in every respect, in colour, in resistance to the weather and gaseous emanations,

and in durability ; moreover, that it was not destructive to the health of the work-
men who manufacture or who use it. Mr. Griffiths has been experimenting, I
understand, for about ten years upon the best means of producing this new mineral
white upon.a large scale, and has, apparently, now brought its preparation to a
state of perfection which has gone beyond the most sanguine expectations.

A salt of zinc, which may be the sulphate or the chloride, is precipitated
by a soluble sulphide ; the latter being either sodium, calcium, or barium sulphide,
or a mixture of them;, precautions are taken to ayoid the precipitation of any
black sulphide of iron, if perchance the zinc solutions contain a little of that metal;
the bulky product is collected, dried, and transferred to a furnace, where it is
calcined for some time at a cherry red heat. During the calcination it is carefully
stirred to bring each portion successively in contact with the air ; it is then raked
out whilst quite hot into vats of cold water, where it is levigated, and afterwards
collected and dried.

The result is a white pigment of exquisite beauty. Its covering power, when
mixed with oil, is greater than that of any substance hitherto discovered, being
about 25 per cent. higher than that of the same weight of pure carbonate of
lead.

According to my analysis, this new product is really an oxy-sulphide of zinc,
the composition of which varies somewhat according to the length of the cal-
cination and the heat attained. Hence it is a difficult matter to get it exactly of
the same composition at each successive operation. Nevertheless, this is attained
quite closely enough for practical purposes. The best product appears to correspond
in composition as nearly as possible to the formula, 5ZnS+ZnO. But occa-
sionally a larger quantity of oxide is produced and the product by means im-
proved thereby.

In some experiments which I made for the purpose of testing the capabilities
of this new white pigment, as compared with the old zine white (oxide of zinc),
and white lead (pure carbonate of lead), I was perfectly surprised at the results,
my own experiments made with the view of discovering a substitute for the latter
haying proved such utter failures, and I look upon this new oxy-sulphide of zine
pigment as one of the, most interesting products hitherto derived from mineral
chemistry. As it possesses much more covering power than the old zinc white, or
oxide of zinc, it is considerably more economical than the latter. As to white
lead, it has only one recommendation as a colour, namely, its great “body” or
covering power; but it is liable after a time to saponify the oil, producing a soap
which is more or less translucid ; moreover, it is darkened by gaseous emanations

and it is detrimental to health. The new product possesses none of these draw-

backs. It has all the covering power of white lead, combined with permanency
in colour, and resistance to the saponifying influence of the oil, and is a much finer
white. Nothing more is requisite but to ensure for it a constant composition, and

T have little doubt that this difficulty will be overcome in the course of a short’
time.

LL2

516 REPORT—1878.

TUESDAY, AUGUS1 20, 1878.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On a Simplification of Graphic Formule. By Outver J. Lover, D.Sc.

In the graphic formule of a compound the elements are ordinarily represented
by their chemical symbols (capital letters), and the connection between the atoms
by straight lines joining the letters. Now graphic formule are of most use in
organic chemistry, where the principal compounds consist only of the elements
C, H, O, and N, whose atomicities are generally 4, 1, 2, and 3 or 5 respectively. In
any formule, therefore, four bonds generally radiate from the letter CO; N is the
meeting-place of three or five bonds, according to-circumstances ; two bonds meet
at each O, and a single bond terminates at every H. Supposing then that the
letters were omitted and the bonds joined together, the position of the atoms would
still be apparent as the meeting-place of a definite number of bonds, and therefore
the letters are unnecessary.

The simplification proposed in the paper is the omission of the usual symbols
used to denote the atoms, and the joining of the bonds in such a way as clearly to
define the atomicities, and therefore the natures of the several atoms. Formule
so drawn become reduced to a sort of geometrical diagram; and conversely any
geometrical diagram represents some real or imaginary chemical compound.

For instance, in the accompanying figure—

1

elie ae See

6 7 8 9 10
Se eet Gi aa
(1) represents CH* or marsh gas. (2) is common alcohol.
(8) is acetic acid. (4) propionic acid.

(5) Succinic acid (without the 2 bars in the middle it would be oxalic, with
only one malonic, acid), and so on.

The free bonds of unsatisfied radicals are easily indicated by arrowheads.

When chlorine or iodine substitution compounds are to be shown, the free ends
may be dotted, to indicate that the monad is not hydrogen, e.g., Secondary propyl
iodide, No. (6). In all cases where graphic formule are used, the common em-
pirical formulz will or should be written alongside; and the element intended by
the dot in any particular case will therefore be clear. Other details and numerous
illustrations are given in the paper. The constitution of a body is thus exhibited in
a very cont form which appeals to the eye and impresses itself readily on the
memory. The formule of even complex bodies are very rapidly drawn, for a few
strokes, instead of representing but a single atom, as H, represents a whole group ;
for instance (7) is the radical ethyl; (8) is prussic acid ; (9) ammonic cyanide ; (10)
is urea; and the commonly occurring radicals are recognised at once without taking
the formule to pieces. At the same time the symbols denoting the different radicals
are such as arise naturally, and are not arbitrary and intrinsically meaningless such
aseven Et must be held to be ; and they may always be analysed whenever required.

re

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. : 517

2. On the Detection by means of the Microphone of Sounds which accompany

the Diffusion of Gases through a thin Septum. By W. CHANDLER
Roserts, /.R.S.

The author pointed out that the passage of a gas through a porous septum
was undoubtedly due to molecular motion, and as any facts which bear on
molecular movement are of much importance, he exhibited and described
various forms of apparatus, by the aid of which the passage of hydrogen through
thin septa of paper and graphite might be studied withthe microphone. He indi-
cated the several points which appeared to be in favour, as well as those which
were against the view that the vibrations of the molecules of the gas could
actually be detected, and he stated that further experiments were in progress.

3. A short Account of Baeyer’s Synthesis of Indigo. By Professor J.
Emerson Reynoxps, M.A., F.C.8.

4, Dr. Ramsay exhibited Victor Meyer's Apparatus for taking Vapour
Densities of Substances with High Boiling Points.

5. On the Condensation of the Gases hitherto called Permanent.
By Professor James Dewar, F.R.S.

6. On a Method of Elementary Organic Analysis by a Moist Process.
By Professor WanKLyn and W. J. Cooper.

7. On some Peculiarities of the Vartry Water, and on the Action of that Water
upon Boiler Plates. By Cuartes R, C. Ticnporne, LL.D., Ph.D.,
F.CS.

The water of the river Vartry, from which we get our supply in Dublin, has
been repeatedly analysed, therefore I will not trouble the section with a detail of
its composition. It will be sufficient for my purpose to remind the section of its
general composition, which may be stated to consist of—

Organic matter of a peaty nature, 1:6 to 2 grains per gallon.
Mineral matter 24 grains per gallon.

The mineral matter chiefly consisting of chlorides of the alkalies, and the alkaline
earths in equal proportions. ;

The hardness is nearly all permanent, as there is but a trace of carbonates
present. The point I wish to draw attention to, however, is the presence of nitrates
and nitrites. The first are always present, the latter occasivnally in the summer
and autumn months. They were present when last tried on the 5rd of August.
I have never seen any published analysis which mentions the existence of these
acidulous radicals. As my object is to determine the condition of the nitrogen
salts, and as heat seems to reduce nitrates when occurring in this water, I had re-
source to evaporation by the aid of a vacuum and sulphuric acid; the test I used
being the brucia test, an extremely delicate one if properly applied. For my
nitrates 1 used a thin starch solution, made with a little dilute glycerine to keep
it, and a solution of tartaric acid preserved by alittle salicylicacid. The iodide of

518 REPORT—1878.

potassium being carefully purified from iodate, the solutions keep very well, and
are reliable. The iodide should be dissolved as required. The Vartry water does
not give indications with the tests as a rule without concentrating it. I subjoin
the results of my experiments on the 3rd of August :— tu

1. Water evaporated to 4 at 100°. gave a very striking indication of nitrites,
besides nitrates.

2. Evaporated in a vacuum to 2 it gave no indication.

3. Evaporated zn vacuo to + it gave an indication of nitrites and nitrates. :

In January 1878, the Vartry gave no indication of nitrites, but contained, as
usual, nitrates, and gave an indication on evaporating to one-half. We see by
these observations that evaporation tends to reduce the nitrates. Also that from
fermentative action changes occur at certain periods of the year, which result in
the reduction of nitrates to nitrites. |

We see also that these nitrates and nitrites are present in very minute quantities.
I have never found 0:1 of a grain per gallon said to be present in Loch Katrine
water; the highest amount I have ever found being 0:06, determined by the
aluminium process. But still, when these salts are rapidly concentrated, as they
are in the feeding of high-pressure steam boilers, the nitrogen salts become very
serious items of corrosion, owing to the ease with which the acidulous radicals are
dissociated at high temperature, e.g.—

NaNO, = NaNO, + 0.
2NaNO, + H,O=2(NaHO) + 2NO.
2NO + Fe = FeO + N.O.

I exhibit a boiler plate, which is not eaten away by the corrosive action of
water, but the corrosion is determined by the steam of the Vartry water. I also
exhibit glass corrosion produced by the same means.

Some experiments were instituted in sealed tubes which bear strikingly upon
this subject, and which I now beg to place before the section.

No. 1.—In this experiment distilled water was boiled in a tube and a piece of
bright wire inserted. The tube was then sealed, after the air had been exhausted.
It is now some months old, and it will be observed that there is comparatively no
action. We are to infer, therefore, from this experiment, that at ordinary tempera-
tures water is without the slightest action upon ironin vacwo. We all know how
rapidly iron is oxidized in the presence of water containing air.

No. 2 is iron sealed up in yacuo with Vartry water, and submitted to high-
pressure steam at 30lbs. to the square inch. The action is sharp and well marked,
the results being the production of ferric oxide in considerable quantities, and mag-
netic oxide. The lattercan be recognised on applying a magnet outside the tube.

The third tube was a similar experiment with pure water, containing 0:1 grain
per gallon of nitrate of potassium. This also was sealed in vacuo. The results
are almost identical with the second experiment, only that more magnetic oxide
seems to have been formed. The fourth experiment was one in which a nitrite was
substituted for the nitrate. Here nothing but ferric oxide was formed of a peculiar
bright colour, and in scales.

That the corrosion of the boiler plate mainly proceeds from the nitrogenous
molecules, I think there can be little doubt. But the quantity of these acidulous
radicals being very small, any of the alkaline preservations would remedy this
corrosive action. If, however, neglected, these nitrogenous acidulous radicals would
ine certainly lead to mischief, and therefore they are imminent sources of

anger.

8. On a New Process of Photo-Chemical Printing in Metallic Platinum.
By W. Wi1118s, jun.

519

Sucrion C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.8.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Mr. Joun Evans gave the following Address :—

Iw opening the proceedings of this section, I cannot but call attention to the
fact that the present is the third occasion on which the British Association has met
in this city, its first meeting here having taken place in the year 1835, or forty-
three years ago. On that occasion, as indeed for many years afterwards, the two
distinct, though to some extent cognate branches of study, Geology and Geography,
were classed in the same section, and its president was a man of wltom Trish science
may well be proud, and who, I am thankful to say, is-still living to enjoy his well-
deserved honours—the veteran geologist, Sir Richard John Griffith, the author of
the first Geological Map of Ireland. It seems hardly credible that the construction
of this map was commenced in the summer of 1812, or sixty-six years ago; but
the records of the Geological Society of London testify to the more remarkable fact
that Sir Richard Griffith was elected a fellow of that society in 1808—seventy
years ago. Indeed, in 1854, when the Wollaston medal was awarded to the then
Dr. Griffith, the president, the late Professor Edward Forbes, spoke as he said
reverentially to one of the earliest members of the society, and to a geologist who
appeared in print before he, the president, was born. It was well said on that
occasion that the map lately mentioned was one of the most remarkable geological
maps ever produced by a single geologist ; and I make no doubt that those who
are at present engaged on the Geological Survey of this island will testify, as did
reed to the value of this “surprising monument of observation and
skill.

When speaking of the Geological Survey of Ireland, it will not, I am sure, be
thought out of place if I offer here a tribute of respect to the memory of one who
was originally a student in the college within whose walls we are assembled, and
who subsequently occupied posts of the highest importance in connection with the
Geological Society of Dublin and the Geological Survey of Ireland, besides filling
the professorial Chair of Geology in this University : I mean Dr. Thomas Oldham,
the late director of the Geological Survey of India. With the marvellous amount
of work which he was enabled to accomplish in that country you are all acquainted,
and you will all share in the regret that the period of his well-earned retirement—
that“ requies optimorum meritorim”—should have been so quickly cut short by
death. His name will, however, long survive, and future students of geology will
have no difficulty in recognising the distinguished labourer in their science after
whom the Cambrian Oldhamia of the Wicklow hills so worthily received its name.

But to return to this Association.

On the next occasion of its meeting in Dublin, in 1857, Section C. had become
devoted to geology alone, and geography was excluded, the president being Lord
Talbot de Malahide, a nobleman whom also we still have among us, and who is
alike well known to archeologists and geologists.

520 REPORT—1878.

As the last meeting of the Association in this city took place twenty-one years
ago, it would at first sight appear that in opening our proceedings I might with
propriety dwell on the progress which has been made within that period in the
development of the geology of Ireland. I must, however, remind you that it is
only four years since the Association held its meeting in what I may almost call
the neighbouring town of Belfast, when the accomplished chief of the Geological
Survey in Ireland presided over this section, and delivered an address in which
some of the more interesting features of the country, especially those of the
volcanic district of the north-east of this island, were discussed. During the

resent year, moreover, he has published his comprehensive work on the Physical

eology and Geography of Ireland, which I commend to you as far more likely to
call your attention to the characteristic features of the country and the latest
discoveries with regard to its geology than anything I could compile.

In addition to this, there has appeared during the present year another inte-
resting volume, which records the impressions of a highly intelligent foreign
geologist on visiting this country. I mean the ‘Aus Irland’ of Dr. Arnold yon
Lasaulx, Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Breslau. For this volume,
in which shrewd remarks on the country and its inhabitants are mingled with
geological observations and valuable comparisons of the Irish formations with
those of other countries, we are indebted to the meeting of the British Association
having been held two years ago at Glasgow, which attracted the author to visit the
British Islands.

So much having lately been published upon the geology of this country, I shall
content myself with making a very few general observations with regard to it, and
propose subsequently t9 touch briefly on some of those questions which, within the
last twelve months, have occupied the attention of those who are engaged in the
advancement of our science.

As to the geology of this country, I may observe that we are here assembled
just on the edge of that great central plain which forms so important a feature in
the map of Ireland, and which stretches from Dublin Bay on the east coast to
Galway Bay on the west, with hardly a portion of it attaining to an elevation of
three hundred feet above the sea, over a tract of country nearly one hundred and
fifty miles in extent in almost every direction.

The boundaries of this great plain and those of the Carboniferous Limestone
almost coincide, so that we have here the somewhat remarkable feature of a forma-
tion which in England is of such a character as to have received the name of the
Mountain Limestone, constituting in the neighbouring island nearly the whole of
the plain country. In some of the north-western counties, however, as for instance
Fermanagh and Sligo, it assumes its more mountainous character. Nearly the
whole of this central plain is overlain with boulder clay, limestone gravel or middle
drift, and extensive bogs, so that the subjacent rock is but occasionally seen. In
several places detached bosses of Old Red Sandstone rise through the limestone,
and there is also good reason for believing, with Professor Hull, that the whole of
the area was at one time covered with the upper members of the carboniferous
group, including the true coal measures, of which unfortunately but small patches
remain, and those upon the margin of the plain. From the absence of the upper
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Oainozoic formations over the area, Professor Hull has
arrived at the conclusion that the surface remained in the condition of dry land,
while that of England was being submerged beneath the waters of the sea, over
the bed of which nearly all these formations were deposited. To a certain extent,
however, he leaves it an open question whether some of the Mesozoic strata which
occur over the north-east of Ireland may not have been deposited over the centre
and south. The amount of denudation over this central area has, no doubt, been
such that the chances of even Professor Judd finding traces of these latter deposits
appear at first sight to be but small; but whether the whole of this vast amount of
denudation is due to the wasting influence of rain, rivers and other sub-aérial agents
of erosion, is a question which I venture to regard as at all events open to discus-
sion. It appears to be the case that in some parts of the north of Iveland the
whole of the upper Carboniferous beds had been denuded before the deposition of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 521

any Permian strata, as these are deposited immediately on the Carboniferous Lime-
stone ; and if this amount of denudation had taken place in pre-Permian times in
the north, there seems a possibility of the same having been the case in central
Ireland. If so, it is possible that some traces of the later deposits may yet be
found on the central plain. Certainly, if we are still to regard the white chalk asa
deep-sea deposit, the cretaceous rocks of the north-east of Ireland must have at one
time extended farther south than they do-at present, and somewhere or other there
must have been shore deposits of that period formed further south than the Upper
Greensand of Antrim. The careful investigations of Professor Judd have largely
extended our knowledge of the Secondary rocks of the western coast and islands
of Scotland, and he has been able to show that the Jurassic series of the Western
Highlands could not have had a thickness of less than three thousand feet. It is
therefore hard to believe that with such a development in so closely neighbouring
a district, the deposits of the same age in Ireland can have been restricted to their
present area. ;

Professor Judd considers that the amount of denudation in the Scottish High-
lands since the Mesozoic and even the Miocene period has been enormous, and that
the great surface features of the Highlands were produced in Pliocene times. It
seems therefore possible, if not probable, that so long a period of exposure to sub-
aérial influence as that assigned to the central plain of Ireland by Professor Hull,
would have resulted in a more uneyen land surface than that which we now find.
At all events, the history of this remarkable physical feature is one which is of
high interest, and can hardly as yet be considered as closed.

With regard to the mountainous districts surrounding the central plain, we
shall, I believe, have the opportunity of visiting some parts of the Wicklow
Mountains, a district from which a portion, at all events, of the native gold of
Treland was procured in ancient times, as indeed it continues to be. Of the
abundance of gold in this country in early times, a glance at the magnificent col-
lection of ancient ornaments preserved in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy
will serve to give an idea. Even in times more recent than those in which the
bulk of these ornaments were made, gold was an important product of this country,
and Iam tempted to quote a few lines from an early English poem, ‘ The Libell
of Englishe Policye,’ witten in the year 1436. In treating of the commodities of
Treland, the author says that the country is

“So large, so gode, and so commodious
That to declare is straunge and merveilous.
For of silver and gold there is the ore
Among the wilde Irish, though they be pore ;
For they ar rude and can theron no skille
So that, if we hadde ther pese and good wille,
To mine and fine and metal for to pure
In wilde Irishe mighte we find the cure;
As in Londone saith a jewellere
Which broughte from thennes gold oor to us here,
Wherof was fined metal gode and clene,
That at the touch no better coude be sene.”

Sir William Wilde has observed that the south-western half of Ireland has
yielded a greater amount of gold antiquities than the north-eastern, and probably
this would hold good with regard to the production of the metal itself, though it
has been found in the counties of Antrim, Tyrone, and Derry, as well as in those of
Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford, and Kildare.

The north-east of Ireland possesses, however, another geological feature peculiar

to itself in that great expanse of volcanic beds which formed the subject of Pro-

fessor Hull’s address to this section at the Belfast meeting. My only object in
now mentioning them is again to call attention to their containing the only remains

of a Miocene flora which are to be found in this island. Analogous beds were

detected in the corresponding basalts in the Island of Mull by the Duke of
Argyll in 1851. With the exception of the Hempstead beds of the Isle of Wight,

522 REPORT—1878.

which should probably be classed as Oligocene, and the Bovey Tracey beds of
Devonshire, these are almost the only deposits of Miocene age in the British Isles.
The contrast presented by the scarcity of deposits of this period in Britain with
their abundance in the north-west, centre, and south of France, Switzerland, and
generally in the south of Europe, is striking. Instead of thick deposits covering
hundreds of squaré miles of country, like the Miocene beds bordering the Pyrenees
or those of the great system of the Auvergne, we have small patches owing their
preservation either to volcanic outbursts having covered them up, or to some
favourable circumstance having preserved them from total denudation. Whether
we are to assume, with the late Professor Edward Forbes, that the general dearth
of these strata in the British Isles arose from the extent of dry land which pre-
vailed during the long interval between the Eocene and Pliocene periods, or whether
we assume the former existence of widespread marine deposits which have since
been entirely removed, the case is one not without difficulty. At all events, the
absence of representatives of this period within the British area has a tendency to
prevent a due appreciation of the enormous extent of the Miocene period being
generally felt in this country. Nor, generally speaking, do we, I think, take a fair
estimate of the remoteness in time to which we must date back the commencement
of that lengthened period. Professor Haughton, judging from the maximum ob-
served thickness of each successive deposit, has calculated that a greater interval
of time now separates us from the Miocene period than that which was occupied
in producing all the Secondary and Tertiary strata from the Triassic to the Miocene
epoch, and, without endorsing the whole of my accomplished friend’s conclusions,
T incline to concur in such an estimate. When it is considered that the Ballypalidy
beds of Antrim and the Lough Neagh clays are the sole representatives in Ireland
of two periods of such length and importance as the Miocene and Pliocene, their
high interest will be more apparent, and I trust that no opportunity of minutely
studying them will be neglected. ‘

There is one other point with regard to Irish geology on which it will be well to
say a few words, though it is of a negative rather than a positive character. I mean
the absence, so far as at present known, of Palzolithic implements in this country.
It is true that Professor Hull, in the book to which I am so much indebted, speaks
of araised beach on the Antrim coast as containing worked flints of that rude
form and finish known as Paleolithic ; but this is a slip of the pen, by which the
author has fallen into the not uncommon error of applying a terin which is merely
significant of the age of the implements to their external character. However
rude may be the workmanship of the flint implements found at Kilroot, they belong
to the Neolithic, and not to the Palolithic period. So far as I am aware no example
of any implement belonging to the age of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and other mem~
bers of the post-pliocene fauna has as yet been found in Ireland. Indeed, the
remains of Elephas primigenius and its associates are of exceedingly rare occurrence
in this country, though they have been found with those of bear and reindeer in the
Shandon Cave near Dungarvan. It is, of course, impossible to foretell what future
researches may bring to light; but judging from analogy it seems hardly probable
that until ancient river-grayels containing the remains of the post-pliocene group
of mammals are found in this island, veritable Paleolithic instruments will be
discovered. The association of the two classes of remains is so constant that we
may fairly assume that the animals formed the principal food of the Paleolithic
hunters, and that any causes which lead to the absence of the one class will lead to
the absence of the other also.

There is, however, one member of that old quaternary group which is far more
abundant in Ireland than it is in England or on the continent of Europe—the
megaceros—which has rightly received the appellation of Hibernicus.

I hope that we may have an opportunity, under the guidance of Mr, Richard
Moss, of seeing some of the remains of this “antlered monarch of the waste ” in
the position in which they were originally interred, and it will be an interesting
question for consideration whether these remains can be regarded as of the same
geological age as those of the English caves and riyer-gravels, or whether they do
not for the most part belong to what Professor Boyd Dawkins has termed the Pre-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 523

historic period. It seems by no means improbable that this gigantic stag survived
in this country for ages after he had become extinct in other lands, and that the
view held by Professor Hull of his extinction being due to persecution by man is
correct. If this be so it would seem to follow that the human occupation of
Treland is of far more recent date than that of the sister country. ;

And this brings me to one of those questions which have of late been occupying
the attention of geologists. I mean the date which is to be assigned to the imple-
ment-bearing beds of Paleolithic age in England. Dr. James Geikie has held that
for the most part they belong to an interglacial episode towards the close of the
Glacial period, and regards it as certain that no Paleolithic bed can be shown to
belong to a more recent date than the mild era that preceded the last great sub-
mergence.

His follower, Mr. Skertchly, records the finding of Paleolithic implements in
no less than three interglacial beds, each underlying boulder clays of different ages
and somewhat different characters—the Hessle, the purple, and the chalky boulder
clay. This raises two main questions, first, as to how far Dr. Croll’s theory of the
great alternations of climate during the Glacial period can be safely maintained ;
und secondly, how far the observations as to the discovery of implements in the
so-called Brandon beds underlying the chalky boulder clay can be substantiated.
Another question is how far the Paleolithic deposits can be divided into those of
modern and ancient valleys, separated from each other by the purple boulder clay,
and the later of the two older than the Hessle beds. It would be out of place here
to discuss these questions at length. I will only observe, that in a considerable
number of cases the gravels containing the implements can be distinctly shown tobe
of much later date than the chalky boulder clay, and that if the implements occur
in successive beds in the same district, each separated from the other by an enormous
lapse of time, during which the whole country was buried beneath incredibly large
masses of invading ice, and the whole mammalian fauna was driven away, it is a
very remarkable circumstance. It is not the less remarkable because this succession
of different Paleeolithic ages seems to be observable in one small district only, and
there is as close a resemblance between the instruments of the presumedly different
ages as there is between those of admittedly the same date. I have always main-
tained the probability of evidence being found of the existence of Man at an earlier
period than that of the post-glacial or quaternary river gravels, but, as in all other
cases, it appears to me desirable that the evidence brought forward should be tho-
roughly sifted and all probability of misapprehension removed before it is finally
accepted. In the present state of our knowledge, [ do not feel confident that the
evidence as to these three successive Paleolithic deposits has arrived at this satis-
factory stage. At the same time it must be borne in mind that if we make the
Palzolithic period to embrace not only the river gravels but the cave deposits of
which the south of France furnishes such typical examples, its duration must
have been of vast extent.

In connection with the question of Glacial and Interglacial periods, I may
mention that of climatal changes in general, which has formed another subject to
which much attention has of late been given. The return of the Arctic Expe-
dition, and the reports of the geological observations made during its progress,
which have been published by Captain Fielden, one of the naturalists to the Expe-
dition, in conjunction with Mr. De Rance and Professor Heer, have conferred
additional interest on the question of possible changes in the position of the poles
of the earth, and on other kindred speculations. Near Discovery Harbour, abot
latitude 81° 40’, Miocene beds were found containing a flora somewhat differing
from that which was already known to exist within the Arctic regions, ‘The
Grionell Land lignite,” say the authors of the report, “ indicates a thick peat moss,

with probably a small lake, with water lilies on the surface of the water, and reeds

on the edges, with birches, poplars, and taxodiums on the banks, and with pines,
firs, spruce, elms, and hazel-bushes on the neighbouring hills.” When we consider
that all of the genera here represented have their present limits at least from
twelve to fifteen degrees farther south, while the taxodium is now confined to
Mexico and the south of the United States, such a sylvan landscape as that

524 REPORT—1 878.

described seems entirely out of place in a district within six hundred miles of the
pole, to which indeed, if land then extended so far, these Arctic forests must have
also extended in Miocené times. Making all allowance for the possibility of the
habits of such plants being so changed that they could subsist without sunlight
during six months of a winter of even longer duration, I cannot see how so high a
temperature as that which appears necessary, especially for the evergreen varieties,
could have been maintained, assuming that Grinnell Land was then as close to the
North Pole as it is at the present day. Nor is this difficulty decreased when we
look back to formations earlier than the Miocene, for the flora of the secondary and
Paleozoic rocks of the Arctic regions is identical in character with that of the
same rocks when occurring twenty or thirty degrees farther south, while the corals,
encrinites, and cephalopods of the carboniferous limestone are such as, from all
analogy, might be supposed to indicate a warm climate.

The general opinion of physicists as to the possibility of a change in the posi-
tion of the earth’s axis has recently undergone modifications somewhat analogous
in character to those which, in the opinion of some geologists, the position of the
axis has itself undergone. Instead of a fixed dogma as to the impossibility of
change, we find a divergence of mathematical opinion and variations of the pole
differing in extent, allowed by different mathematicians who have of late gone into
the question, as for instance the Rey. J. F. Twisden,* Mr. George Darwin,t+ Pro-
fessor Haughton,t{ the Rey. E. Hill,§ and Sir William Thomson.|| All agree in the
theoretical possibility of a change in the geographical position of the earth’s axis
of rotation being affected by a redistribution of matter on the surface, but they do
not appear to be all in accord as to the extent of such changes. Mr, Twisden, for
instance, arrives at the conclusion that the elevation of a belt twenty degrees in
width, such as that which I suggested in my presidential address to the Geological
Society in 1876, would displace the axis by about ten miles only ; while Professor
Haughton maintains that the elevation of two such continents as Europe and Asia
would displace it by about sixty-nine miles; and Sir W. Thomson has not only ad-
mitted, but asserted as highly probable, that the poles may have been in ancient
times “ very far from their present geographical position, and may have gradually
shifted through ten, twenty, thirty, forty, or more degrees without at any time any
perceptible sudden disturbance of either land or water.”

Tam glad to think that this question, to which I to some extent assisted to
direct attention, has been so fully discussed, but I can hardly regard its discussion
as being now finally closed. It appears to me doubtful whether eventually it will
be found possible to concede to this globe that amount of solidity and rigidity
which at present it is held to possess, and which to my mind at all events seems to
be in entire disaccordance with many geological phenomena. Yet this, as the
Rey. O. Fisher J has remarked, is presupposed in all the numerical calculations
which have been made. I am also doubtful whether, in the calculations which
have been made, sufficient regard has been shown to the fact that a great part of
the exterior of our spheroidal globe consists of fluid which, though of course
connected with the more solid part of the globe by gravity, is readily capable of
readjusting itself upon its surface, and may, to a great extent, be left out of the
account in considering what changes might arise from the disturbance of the
equilibrium of the irregular spherical or spheroidal body which it partially covers.
It appears to me also possible that some disturbances of equilibrium may take place
in a mysterious manner by the redistribution of matter or otherwise in the interior
of the globe. Captain F. J. Evans,** arguing from the changes now going on in
terrestrial magnetism, has suggested the possibility of some secular changes being
due to internal, and not to external causes; and if it be really true that there is a
difference between the longest and shortest equatorial radii of the earth, amount-
ing to six thousand three hundred and seventy-eight feet,tt+ such a fact would appear

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1878, p. 35.
+ Proc. R. S., vol. xxv. p. 328. Phil. Trans., elxvii. p. 271.

} Proc. R. 8., 1877, 1878. § ‘Geol. Mag.,’ June, 1878.
|| Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1876, p. 11. { ‘Geol. Mag.,’ July, 1878.
** Nature, May 16, 1878, +t Thomson and Tait, Phil. p, 648.

“sre

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 625

a

to point to a great want of homogeneity in the interior of our planet, and might
suggest a possible cause for some disturbance of equilibrium.

I have mentioned Professor Haughton among those who, from mathematical
considerations, have arrived at the conclusion that a geographical change in the
position of the axis of rotation of the earth is not only possible but probable. In
a recent paper, however, he has maintained that, notwithstanding this possibility
or probability, we can demonstrate that the pole has not sensibly changed its posi-
tion during geological periods. He arrives at this conclusion by pointing out that
in the Parry Islands, Alaska and Spitzbergen, there are Triassic and Jurassic de-

osits of much the same tropical character, and then by a geometrical method
fixing the north pole somewhere near Pekin, and the south pole in Patagonia,
within seven hundred miles of a spot where Jurassic ammonites occur, shows that
such a theory is untenable. In the same way he fixes the pole in Miocene times
near Yakutsk, within eight hundred miles of certain Miocene coal beds of the
Japanese islands. These objections are at first sight startling, but I think it will
be found that if, instead of drawing great circles through certain points, we regard.
those points as merely isolated localities in a belt of considerable width, there is
no need of fixing the pole of either the Jurassic or the Miocene period with that
amount of nicety with which Professor Haughton has ascertained its position.
The belt may indeed be made to contain the very places on which the objection is
founded. Still the method is a good one, and I hope that as our knowledge of
foreion geology extends it may be still further pursued. There is, however, one
farther consideration to be urged, and that is as to the safety of regarding all de-
posits of one geological period as contemporaneous in time. Although an almost
identical flora may be discovered in two widely-separated beds, it appears to
me that chronologically they are more probably of different ages than absolutely
contemporaneous; and, inasmuch as the duration of the Miocene period must
have been enormous, there would be time—if once we assume a wandering of the
poles—for such wandering to have been considerable between the beginning and
end of the period.

I must not, however, detain you longer upon this phase of geological specula-
tion, but will advert to a subject of more practical interest, the discovery of
Paleozoic rocks under London. So long ago as 1856 the Kentish Town boring
had shown that immediately below the Gault red and variegated sandstones and
clays occurred, which Professor Prestwich regarded as probably of Old Red or
Devonian age. The boring of Messrs. Meux and Co. has now shown that under
Tottenham Court Road, at a depth of little more than nine hundred feet from the
surface, there are true Devonian beds, with characteristic fossils, and that Mr.
Godwin-Austen’s prophecy of the existence of Paleozoic rocks at an accessible
depth under London has proved true. Professor Prestwich, from a consideration
of the French and Belgian coal-fields, inclines to the belief that in the district
north of London carboniferous strata may be found. Unfortunately the expense
of conducting deep borings, even with the admirable appliances of the Diamond
Boring Company, is so great that I almost despair of another experimental bore-
hole like that carried out in the Wealden district under the auspices of Mr. Willett,
being undertaken.

In the department of theoretical geology I would call your attention to some
experiments by M. Daubrée, of which he has given accounts at different times to
the French Academy of Sciences. In these experiments he has attempted to re-
produce on a small scale various geological phenomena, such as faulting, cleavage,
jointing, and the elevation of mountain chains. Although the analogy between
work in the laboratory and that on the grand scale of nature may not in all cases
be perfect, yet these experiments are in the highest degree instructive, and reflect
no little credit on the ingenuity of the distinguished chief of the Ecole des Mines.

With regard to recent progress in paleontology, I must venture to refer you to
Professor Alleyne Nicholson’s inaugural address lately delivered to the Edinburgh
Geological Society, but I cannot pass over in silence the magnificent discoveries in
North America, which are principally due to the researches of Professors Marsh,
Leidy, and Cope. The diceratherium, a rhinoceros with two horns placed trans-

526 REPORT—1878. .

versely, and the dénoceras, somewhat allied to the elephant, but with six horns
arranged in pairs, are as marvellous as some of the beasts seen by Sir John
Maundevile on his travels, or heard of by Pliny. But perhaps the most remark-
able series of remains ever discovered are those which so completely link the
existing horse with the eoheppus and orohippus, and still farther extend the pedi-
gree of the genus eguus, which had already been some years ago so ably traced by
Professor Huxley.

Of these American discoveries, as well as those made in the Tertiary beds of
Europe, M. Albert Gaudry has largely availed himself in his recent beautiful
volume on the links in the animal world in geological times, a work which will
long be a text-book on the inter-relation of different orders, genera, and species,
I am tempted to make use of some portions of M. Gaudry’s own analysis of the
book, which he communicated to the Geological Society of France. Beginning
with the marsupials of the close of the Secondary and beginning of the Tertiary
period, he shows that they are succeeded by such animals as the pterodon, the
hyenodon, the proviverra, and arctocyon, which present a mixture of marsupial and
placental characters, and to some extent justify a theory of the transition from one
order to the other. He next examines the marine mammalia, and points out that,
so far as at present known, they make their appearance later than those of the
land, and that the examination of the pelvis of the halitheriwm tends to support
the idea of the mammals, such as the sirenians, which at the present day have no
hind limbs, being descended from terrestrial quadrupeds, for those limbs in the
halitherium are much less reduced than in its recent successors, the dugong and
manatee. After tracing the numerous links which are to be found between the
extinct and living pachydermata, he proceeds to show that, notwithstanding the
great distance between them and the ruminants, transitions may be seen. The
earliest ruminants were devoid of horns and antlers, but possessed upper incisors,
and by a comparison of the molars of different genera it may readily be conceived
how the large bosses of the omnivorous teeth of the pachyderms gradually shaded
into the small crescents of the teeth of the ruminants. At the same time the
passage from the heavy and complicated extremities of the limbs of the pachyderms
to the simpler and lighter feet of the ruminants can be traced. The history of the
horse family is also discussed, and the descent of existing proboscidians from the
mastodonts is shown to be probable, though the previous forms from which the mas-
todonts and dinotheria are derived are as yet unknown. Nor can the origin of the
carnivora as yet be suggested, though passages between the six existing families of
the order may be observed. In conclusion, M. Gaudry devotes a chapter to the

uadrumana, and thinks that palsontological observations tend to diminish the
isolation in which these mammals now stand with regard to the other orders.

One of the most important features insisted on by M. Gaudry is that to
which I have already alluded—the development of the complicated molars of most
mammals. His view is that by a comparison with early and with foetal forms the
probability may be shown of these compound teeth being made up of what in
earlier forms were simple teeth—or, as he has termed them, denticules—which
have coalesced in’ the same manner as have some other parts of the normal bony
skeleton. In the compound teeth the denticules in some cases preserve their
original conical form, as in the pig tribe ; in others are elongated transversely, so as
by their junction to form ridges, as in the tapirs; while in others, again, they are
drawn out into longitudinal crescents, as in the ruminants. Between these forms
there are, of course, innumerable transitions. They do not, however, appear to me
to affect the importance of M. Gaudry’s observations, which must ie regarded
as of the highest value in all attempts to trace the inter-relation of different forms
of mammalian life. I must not, however, detain you longer on this subject, as I
trust that I have said enough to show the importance and interest of this book.

The discoveries of early forms of birds with teeth do not come within M.
Gaudry’s province; but Professor Marsh has largely added to our knowledge of
these remarkable forms. The Tertiary Odontopteryx toliapicus from Sheppey,
described by Professor Owen, seems rather to be endowed with bony tooth-like
processes in the jaw, than with actual teeth, and the head of the Arg:ornis from

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 52a

the same locality is at present unknown. But the Hesperornis and Ichthyornis from
the cretaceous beds of America possess veritable teeth, in the one case set in a
long groove in the jaw, and in the other in actual sockets. Such intermediate, or,
as Professor Huxley would term them, intercalary forms, tend materially to bridge
over the gap which at first sight appears to exist between reptiles and birds, but
which to many palzeontologists was far from being impassable, long before the
discoveries just mentioned. The amphiccelous character of the vertebrm of
ichthyornis presents another most remarkable peculiarity, which is also of high
significance. I hear rumours of the discovery of another archeopteryx in the
Solenhofen Slates, which is said to present the head in a much more complete con-
dition than that in which it occurs on the magnificent slab now in the British
Museum. As yet, I believe, the jaws have not had the matrix removed from
them; but should they prove to be armed with teeth, it will to me be a cause of
satisfaction rather than surprise, as confirming an opinion which some fifteen years

* I ventured to express, that this remarkable creature may have been endowed
with teeth, either in lieu of or combined with a beak.

I must not, however, detain you longer with any of these general remarks,
which are, moreover, becoming somewhat egotistic, but will now proceed to the
business of this Section, in which I hope that more than one paper of great value
and interest will be forthcoming.

‘The following Papers were read :—

1. Sketch of the Geology of the Environs of Dublin.
By Professor HE. Hutt, F.R.S.

2. On the Ancient Volcanic District of Slieve Gullion. By Josupa Noway,
M.R.LA., §¢c., of H.M. Geological Survey of Ireland.

Slieve Gullion is a somewhat isolated mountain situated some few miles north
of Dundalk, and west of ‘the picturesque hilly country lying between the bays of
Dundalk and Carlingford. The rocks which mainly compose it are massive dolerites
and elvanites, which have been erupted through granite of Lower Silurian age.
From evidence obtained in a neighbouring locality, there is every reason to believe
that the period of this eruption was about the close of the Palozoie epoch. On
the west and south of the mountain the elvanite forms a remarkable dyke-like ridge,
when it changes in its character from a granitoid rock to a felstone porphyry.
Simultaneously with this change, suggesting conditions of less intense heat and
pressure, a remarkable fragmental rock makes its appearance. It is here almost
altogether composed of granite pieces; so much so that it might be taken for a
disintegrating condition of that rock, but that the base is not crystalline. Its
mechanical character is confirmed on tracing the ridge further, where the granite
gies place to Silurian slates and grits. Here there is a mixture of slate and granite

ragments, and still further in the slate district it is almost altogether composed of

slate débris. At all these places the fragmental rock is intimately associated with
the porphyry, so that where both are’well exposed in sections it is impossible to
draw any line of demarcation between them, the lower part of the former gradually
acquiring the character of the latter, by the appearance in increasing quantity of
fragments of porphyry, until it ultimately passes into that rock.

That we have here something analogous to volcanic agglomerate we can scarcely
entertain a doubt. Nevertheless, it differs very much from the usual type of that
_ rock, as it is, except in the deepest portions, mainly composed of pieces of non-
volcanic rocks, those pieces being of the crust through which the igneous mass was
posed, and varying accordingly ; granite agglomerate prevailing in those portions

ormerly occupied by that rock, a mixture of slate and granite near the boundary
of these formations, and slate fragments almost exclusively in the Silurian country
to the south-east. It is impossible to account for these phenomena by supposing

* Nat. Hist. Rev., vol. v. p. 421.

528 REPORT—1878.

that we have here the result of an ordinary eruption, where lava is ejected, and we
are forced to believe that it was altogether aériform. From the great extent of
country over which the agglomerate occurs, it is not improbable that the explosion
which accompanied the protrusion of the nearly horizontal dyke affected a con-
siderable area at the same time, disrupting and triturating to powder the overlying
rocks, the vast volume of which, falling back into the opening, together with the
rapid consolidation of the igneous mass consequent upon so great a disengagement
of the interstitial vapour, combined to check the volcanic activity before it could
produce scoriz or lava.

Another point of interest in connection with this district is the evidence it
affords of the connection between the plutonic and the volcanic rocks, This is not
indeed as fully exemplified here as in other districts, as, for instance, in the Western
Isles of Scotland, where Professor Judd traces all the gradations from granite to
pumice and scoriz, yet it is sufficiently illustrative of the principle when we find
plutonic rocks graduating into others which by their protrusion have produced me-
chanical accompaniments.

3. Notes on the Glaciation of Ireland, and the Tradition of Lough Lurgan.
By W. Martiev Wiis, F.R.A.S., F.0.8.*

In comparing the vestiges of ancient glaciation (especially those of Norway
and Ireland) with the deposits of existing Alpine glaciers, the author has been
much impressed with the very general fact that, although the “till” and other
varieties of boulder clay are of unquestionable glacial origin, they are unrepresented
by the moraines, &c., of the glaciers now existing in the temperate zones; and on
the other hand true representatives of recent Alpine moraines are very rarely
found among the ancient glacial deposits.

An explanation of this is offered. Living Alpine glaciers (with a few ex-
ceptions) terminate on mountain slopes, and are sources of mountain torrents.
These torrents wash out, carry away, and afterwards deposit as a distinct alluvium
the material corresponding to the clayey matrix of the ancient drift, leaving
behind only the boulders and smaller stony particles to form the stony heaps of
modern moraines.

The remarkable absence of such moraines on the very long and remarkably
glaciated coast line and mountain slopes of Scandinavia is explained by the fact
that the glaciers of that region originated ina great nevé, covering the table-land
fjelds which overflowed down their boundary valleys into the sea.

The great central plain of Ireland is compared to such a fjeld. During the
glacial epoch it was covered with ice, was a great mevé or glacier source, and its
outlet glaciers flowed on all sides over the surrounding mountain barriers down
their seaward slopes into the ocean and terminated there, leaving the bulk of their
mineral burdens in the sea.

Glaciers thus outthrust upon the waters under a climate in which the annual
snowfall exceeded the annual thaw, would be thinned from below and grow from
above, and thus extrude their mineral matter downwards instead of upwards, as in
Alpine temperate-zone glaciers. ‘

They would present a further inversion of such glaciers, by bending upwards
by flotation as they advanced, instead of downwards by gravitation ; and their ere-
vasses would therefore be formed at the lower instead of the upper surface of the
ice, and would gape downwards instead of upwards.

As they became thawed below by the friction of their advance they would
accumulate a vast amount of débr7s at their base, effecting far more erosion than
the clearer ice-bottom of modern Alpine glaciers. Thus, more fine slimy im-
palpable powder or clay material would be formed, and this, in its slimy condition,

* The views of the constitution of ancient glaciers, and the formation of boulder
clay, contained in this communication, are more fully discussed in a paper on ‘ The
Great Ice Age and the Origin of the Till,’ published in the ‘Quarterly Journal of
Science ’ of April, 1877.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 529

gravitation. But as it thinned out, this pressure must have gradually diminished
until it became ni, when the depth of water and thinning of the ice effected
approximate flotation. Then the mud, &c., would be deposited, and the shallowed
sea would form a submarine plain of the neutral depth over which the glacier would
just lightly slide and thus form a striated pavement of till.

If the conditions remained constant, this deposit would continue level as we see
it at Bodé and other places in Norway ; but if climatic or other conditions fluctuated,
the varying advance and recession of the glacier and its varying pressure would
produce a ploughing up of the soft material into submarine ridges such as abound
in the Irish bays that are mouths of the great glaciated valleys, and are also found
so abundantly on and near the coast.

The islands of Clew Bay are specified as striking examples of this.

Having lately met with an account of a tradition which describes a great fresh-
water lake on the present site of Galway Bay, and having already noted many of
these long ridges of till in that Bay, the author revisited Galway with the object
of further examining them in reference to the tradition which states that the fresh-
water lake was converted into a bay by the sea breaking through the boundary or
bar that had previously separated the fresh from the salt water.

The general result of this exploration of both shores of the Bay and several of
its islands was, that the existence of such a barrier or of a series of such barriers
appears very probable; but their position does not indicate so large a lake, as the
Ee ronery Lough Lurgan which is described as one of the three great lakes of

reland.

The outermost barrier probably stretched from the cliffs of Barna (which are

formed by the sea washing away one of these ridges of till and exposing a fine
perpendicular section about 50 feet thick) to Aghinish Point, meeting the Kilcro-
gan promontory on the way, when this ridge of drift extended much farther west-
ward, as its present truncated headland of till indicates that it must have done.
, These, and other minor headlands of till, all the obvious remains of promontories
that have been cut off, are connected by a bar that stretches obliquely and irregu-
ae across the Bay from Barna, in County Galway, to Finvarra Point, in County
; are.

The promontories and island ridges do not extend fairly. across the Bay, but lie
in a direction from E.N.E. to W.S.W. They are still so numerous and extensive
as to visually overlap each other and present the appearance of an inner bar, en-
closing the inner bays of Galway and Kinvarra. This occurs when they are viewed
from the shore of Salthill, about 2 miles from Galway.

A minor bar is well seen from the railway on leaving Oranmore station on the
way to Galway. The till cliff of Roscarn Point is there seen opposed to a similar
cliff on the opposite side with a channel cut between them.

If the ancient barrier was nearly as high as the present cliffs of Barna, the
waters of the traditionary lake must have backed over a large area of the flat land
around Galway, and it may even have been continuous with Lough Corrib.

Another form of drift which covers a large area of the central limestone plain
_ of Treland is described as analogous to that which covers the Dovrefjeld, the Fille-
j fjeld, and most of the other Norwegian fjelds, and which the author has described
in detail in ‘Through Norway with Ladies,’ pages 50 and 238, as the material
_ which subsided when the great nevé of the Great Ice Age finally thawed away.
It is neither boulder clay nor loose stony moraine material, but an intermediate
agglomeration of sand and gravel with boulders that are more angular than those
of moraines or boulder clay, and show little or no signs of striation. The name of
boulder sand or glacier gravel is suggested. It cccurs, commonly as a thin
layer spreading over the limestone and occasionally as long humpy ridges, and
_ is connected with the formation of Eskers.
¢

,

would be thrust forward so long as the glacier exerted considerable pressure by its

are

WY

1878. MM

530 REPORT—1878.

4, Notice of some additional Labyrinthodont Amphibia and Fish from the
Coal of Jarrow Colliery, near Castlecomer, County of Kilkenny, Ireland.
By Wiut1am Heuer Batny, F.L.8., F.G.S., MRLA., Sc. Acting
Paleontologist to the Geological Survey of Ireland.

The Geological Survey having recently acquired a number of specimens from
Jarrow Colliery, near Castlecomer, through the kindness of Mr. J. Dobbs, the pro-
prietor, and Mr. A. McLuckie, manager of the colliery, consisting of amphibian
reptiles and fish, in addition to those previously collected from the same colliery,
at the request of Mr. Hull, Director of the Survey. The following short descrip-
tion of these interesting specimens was given by Mr. Baily.

This series of fossils consists of more than 50 specimens, all belonging to the
vertebrata, 25 of them being amphibia, 20 fish, and the remainder of doubtful
character.

The largest amphibian is one already described by me as Anthracosaurus Edget
in a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy, January 18, 1875. These remains
indicate an animal which must have been from eight to ten feet in length; they
consist of a triangular-shaped head, under jaw, and other portions of the skull, not
however in a good condition for study, together with a group of twelve well-defined
vertebree and ribs in much better preservation than those before obtained.

The other amphibian remains I have identified with the following genera and
species, described by Professor Huxley in the ‘Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, vol. xxiv. (Science), pp. 851, &c. :—

Keraterpeton Galvani, of which there are four specimens.

Ophiderpeton Brownriggw, two specimens.

Dolichosoma Emerson, three specimens.

Erpetocephalus rugosus, one specimen.

There are others evidently amphibian, including two heads, which I have not
yet succeeded in identifying ; possibly some of them may belong to one or both of
the two genera alluded to by Professor Huxley, but not figured, under the names
of Dichospondylus and Brachyscelis.

The fish remains include a fine example of what I believe to be Megalichthys
Hibberti. This great sauroid is here represented by a specimen three feet seven
inches in length, the extremity of the tail being deficient.

Another fine fish, referred to the genus Celacanthus, appears to be allied to
C. granulatus Agassiz, hitherto confined to Permian strata, only the caudal ex-
tremity having previously been known. The skeleton of this fish is very complete,
its length being 22 inches, and breadth at commencement of ventral fin six inches.

In this collection there are also some groups of ribs and other bones, which corre-
spond with those of a large fish from the same colliery, named Campylopleuron by
Professor Huxley, but which may possibly be identical with the fish we have
referred to Megalichthys Hibbert.

Several specimens of the defence spines of cestraciont fish, Gyracanthus
formosus, Ag.,* and a single palatal tooth of Ctenodus, complete the list of fish
which have been identified. There are also several detached bones and fragments
in this collection of vertebrate remains at present undetermined.

* G. formosus and G. tuberculatus I believe to be identical, as suggested by
Agassiz.

Rie.

a

id mos

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 531

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Exploration of Kent's Cave. Fourteenth Report.
See Reports, p. 124,

2. Sizth Report on the Victoria Cave Settle.—See Reports, p. 377.

3. Report on Fermanagh Caves—See Reports, p. 183.

4. Fourth Report of Commission on Underground Waters.
See Reports, p. 382.

5. The Relative Ages of the Raised Beaches and Submerged Forests of
Torbay. By W. Penaewty, F.R.S., F.G.S., Se.

Near Hope’s Nose and Berry Head, the northern and southern horns of Torbay,
Devonshire, there are fine examples of a raised beach about 30 feet above the
level of the existing tidal strand; whilst along.the central shores of the bay, at
Tor Abbey, Paignton, Godrington, and Broad Sands, there are exposed at low
water, more or less frequently, considerable accumulations of clay, with
stumps of trees rising vertically, and having roots and rootlets ramifying through
the mass. In short, Torbay presents admirable studies of the raised beaches and
submerged forests found so frequently at intervals along the entire coasts of
Deyon and Cornwall, and affords evidence, so far at least as the bay is concerned,
that during the formation of the beach the country was about 30 feet lower than
at present, whilst at the time of the forest growth it was not less, but may have
been much more, than 80 feet higher than now; and that, in each case, the move-
ment was so uniform and so tranquil as not to destroy or to modify the approxi-
mate horizontality of the areas. It has always been admitted that the beaches and
the forests cannot have been coeval; and there has been a prevalent but not an °
unchallenged belief that the beaches are the older. The object of this paper is to
afford proof, through evidence hitherto overlooked, of the correctness of this
chronology.

The parish of Paignton, forming the central shore of the bay, is terminated on
the north-east by a narrow gulley, through which a rivulet reaches the sea. At
this point the sea cliff is no more than 20 feet high; as it extends towards the
south-west it gradually reaches 55 feet, and thence, with a gentile declivity, it
descends to within a foot or two of the sea-level, at about -25 mile from the
rivulet. Beyond this, the coast for a considerable distance is a sandy plain,
covered with greensward a very few feet above high-water level. The cliff just
mentioned consists of two zones; the lowermost being the well-known Trias of
South-Eastern Devon, whilst the uppermost belongs to a much more recent
formation.

MM 2

532 REPORT—1878.

A study of the upper zone shows that the materials are remarkably angular,
and consist of fragments of grit derived from Devonian beds at no great distance ;
that they are very loosely aggregated, have no approach to a stratified arrange-
ment, but lie with their longest axes at all angles to the plane of the horizon; that
the accumulation—never more than a few feet thick—is thinnest where the cliff is
highest; that the contour of the surface on which it lies is very much the same as
that of the present surface; and that stones so prevalently angular and so lacking
in arrangement could never haye been subjected to the rolling and assorting power
of the sea; in other words, that the accumulation is of sub-aérial origin. When,
however, the Torbay raised beaches were formed, and the country was 30 feet
lower than at present, the greater part of the Paignton cliff was submarine; hence
the bed of angular stones must have been lodged in its present place at a period
subsequent to the elevation of the beaches.

On following the coast towards the sandy plain on the south-west, the bed of
angular stones passes under a bed of clay. This superposition, distinct and unmis-
takeable, is exposed for a distance of nearly 400 feet; and the clay, occupied with
stumps and roots of large trees, is finally covered with a thick accumulation of
peat, traceable, especially after violent gales, in all directions, and to the low-water
line; forming, in short, a well-marked remnant of the Torbay Submerged Forest.
The clear superposition proves, beyond a doubt, that the period of the forest growth
was subsequent to that of the formation of the bed of angular stones, which, as
already shown, was in its turn subsequent to the era of the elevation of the
beaches. The facts show, moreover, that since the beach era the Torbay district
has never been at so low a level as it was at that time.

6. Experiments on Filtration of Sea Water through Triassic Sandstone.*
By Isaac Roserts, F.G.S.

7. On the New Geological Map of India. By V. Batt, M.A., F.G.S.

The last occasion when the subject of the geology of India was prominently
brought before this Association was during the meeting at Dundee in 1867, when
the late lamented Dr. Oldham described the general features and sequence of for-
mations as then known. To his memory a just tribute has already been paid by
the President of the Section and Professor Hull. Of him, on the occasion of his
leaving India, it was well said by the present Superintendent of the Survey, Mr.
H. B. Medlicott, F.R.S., ““ Where he has sown others have reaped.”

Since the year just alluded to considerable progress has been made, and the
map now exhibited shows the state of our knowledge up to a twelvemonth ago,
when it was sent to press. From its small scale of 64 miles to the inch it is but
little more than an index, and merely indicates the limits of the principal forma-
tions. For large tracts of India, however, maps, showing the minor details and
subdivisions already exist.

Some idea of the magnitude of India may be gathered from the fact that a
portion of country equal to Ireland, big as it looks on the map opposite on the
scale of one inch to a mile, would make but an inconsiderable gap were it removed
from the map of India.

This map is intended to illustrate a manual of the geology of India, which is
now being prepared by the two senior members of the Survey, Messrs. Medlicott
and Blanford. The publication of this work, which will take place towards the
end of the present year, will, it is expected, place Indian geology on a more stable
and externally intelligible footing than it has hitherto enjoyed. In Europe it is
hoped to prove the means of enlisting the interest and critical aid of geologists in
elucidating many of the peculiarly perplexing questions connected with the subject

* Incorporated in the Report on ‘ Underground Waters.’ See Reports, p, 397.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 533

of homotaxis. In India it is hoped that the work will incite local amateurs to
aid our small staff. In former times much good yeoman’s service was done by
amateurs, whose observations were incorporated in Greenough’s well-known map.
But in the India of to-day it would be difficult to name half a dozen amateur geolo-
gists. The causes of this scarcity of volunteers are not difficult to explain. There
is now more pressure from official duties, and the facilities for making short runs
to Europe during periods of relaxation are vastly increased.

The details of the geology of India are far too complicated to be disposed of in
a speedy review like the present. The more especially as some of our palzeontolo-
gists have attempted to establish minute correlation of horizons with those recog-
nised and established in Europe. Hence have arisen what are known as “ paleeon-
tological contradictions”—the marine fawnas, where existing, not always pointing
to the same conclusions as the floras.

Broadly speaking, it may be said that there are two geologies in India—that
of the Himalayas and adjoining tracts, and that of the Peninsula proper. The
former conforms in general characters with that of Europe, but the latter is very
much swi generis, unlike, at least as regards many of the formations, the geology of
any other well-known tract on the earth’s surface. It is on this account that a
duplicate arrangement of the index has been found to be necessary.

The author then gave a brief description of the principal Peninsular forma-
tions, and pointed out their leading characteristics and probable correlation with
European rock systems. He indicated on the map the position of the principal
coalfields, and stated that the total area of actual coal measures was possibly not
less than 30,000 square miles. The position of the coalfields in reference to that
of many of the large cities was most*unfortunate, and as regards the southern
and western parts of India native coal was generally undersold by English and
Australian.

Regarding the Talchir boulder bed, he was anxious to retract an early opinion
of his which had recently been quoted by the President of the Geological Society
of London. The glaciation of some of the boulders since found was as distinct as it
was on the boulders exhibited to the meeting by Mr. Williams in connection with
his paper on the glaciation of Ireland. And recently, as also on a former occasion
some years ago, he had come upon a boulder deposit in the Talchir series, which
was full of masses of Vindhyan quartzite which must have been carried for 50 or
60 miles from the nearest possible source, and had in all probability been ice borne.

With some remarks on the nature and distribution of laterite, the author con-
cluded his brief sketch.

534 REPORT—1878.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.

» The following Papers were read :—

1. On the supposed Radiolarians and Diatoms of the Carboniferous Rocks. °
By Professor W. C. Wittiamson, IBS.

At the meeting of the British Association in 1872, Mr. Carruthers described
some small objects to which he gave the generic name“of Traquairia, and which he
concluded were Radiolarian skeletons. A characteristic series of these objects
having been obtained .by the author, he felt compelled to reject Mr. Carruthers’
determination as to their nature. They are small spherical bodies, from which Pa
ject numerous slender and apparently muricated branching prolongations, which
have at a superficial glance the appearance of spines, but which were shown to be
something very different. The entire sphere is encased in a structureless membrane,
of which the supposed spines are tubular, thin-walled, cylindrical extensions, and
which in turn give off numerous symmetrically-arranged tubular branches, which
probably ramified in a mucilaginous (?) investment. Within this outer membrane
were one or two other capsular membranes, the innermost of which was found, in
several examples, to be filled with cells that bore every indication of being vege-
table tissues, being absolutely undistinguishable from similar cells found in the
interiors of macrospores, and of cryptogamic sporocarps found associated with the
Traquairie. These combined features led the author to regard the germs as
belonging to the vegetable rather than to the animal kingdom, and to represent a
cryptogamic form of reproductive structure.

The author further described the minute organisms found in some of the moun-
tain limestones of North Wales, and which have been regarded as Radiolarians by
some geologists. These appear to be wanting in true Radiolarian characteristics,
but most of them seem rather to have been hollow, calcareous spheres. It is the
opinion of Professors Roscoe and Schorlemmer that the substitution of carbonate
of lime for silica in these organisms is a most improbable occurrence, and one that
can only be deemed possible in the case of organisms whose originally siliceous com-
position is beyond the reach of doubt—which is very far from being the case in the
instances referred to.

Some time ago, Count Castracane announced a discovery of numerous remains
of marine and fresh-water Diatoms in the siliceous ash remaining after coal had
been subjected to certain chemical processes, of which the Count recorded the
method. Dr. Roscoe permitted Mr. Smith, one of his able assistants, to make for
the author similar preparations of thirty examples of Yorkshire and Lancashire
coals, prepared according to Count Castracane’s directions, in Dr. Roscoe’s labora-
tory, under the eye of that distinguished chemist. There is every guarantee for the -
correctness of these preparations, but none of them exhibit the least traces of
Diatomaceous structures. Hence the author concludes that, so far as his experience
enables him to judge, there are as yet no evidences of the existence of either
Radiolarians or Diatoms during the Carboniferous age.

2. On some Fossils from the Northampton Sands.
By Joun Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S., Se.

These fossils from the ironstone beds of Duston, near Northampton, are casts
of lithodomous borings originally made in lumps of coral, impressions of which

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 535

they still bear on their outer surface. In the interior, the presence of the shells
is still to be traced. Their history appears to be that the cavities made by the
boring shells were first filled with lhmonite, subsequently converted into carbonate
of iron and eventually into hematite. Last of all, the enclosing coral has been
entirely removed by the infiltration of water charged with carbonic acid. This last
process has probably taken place since the emergence of the beds from below the
sea-level. The Northampton sands have been fully described by Mr. Samuel
Sharp, F.G.S., in the ‘Quart. Journ. of the Geological Society.’—Vol. xxxiy.

3. Notes on some new species of Irish Fossils, By Witi1aM HELwier Batty,
F.LS., F.GS., MRLA., §c., Acting Palwontologist to the Geological
Survey of Ireland.

A new species of starfish was described by the author of this paper, under the
name of Palasterina Kinahani, from Lower Silurian strata of Caradoc-Bala age,
rocks on shore near Bannow, county of Wexford; also two new species of Cepha-
lopod shells from Carboniferous limestone, under the following names—

Goniaties Leesont, townland of Tomdeely South, county of Limerick;

Orthoceras Clarkii, townlands of Doohyle South and Doohybeg, county of
Limerick.

536 REPORT—1878.

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Metamorphic and Intrusive Rocks of Tyrone.
By Josren Nowan, M.R.LA., §c., of HM. Geological Survey of Ireland.

The rocks described in this paper occupy the central parts of County Tyrone,
extending from Omagh eastwards and north-eastwards towards Slieve Gallion.
They consist for the most part of anamorphous green hornblendic rock, in the midst
of which is a wide lenticular tract of micaceous gneiss and schist. The author
shows that these two classes pass gradually into each other, and that even among
the amorphous hornblendic rocks traces of schistose structure can generally be
observed, while local transitions into schist frequently occur. Gradations into
more crystalline rocks were also noted and, described, those of a hornblendic cha-
racter passing into a felspathic variety in which little or no hornblende occurs,
while quartz and orthoclase are developed, so that a coarse quartz porphyry is pro-
duced, passing ultimately into granite.

It was also shown that some of the granite was intrusive during the period of
the Old Red Sandstone and its association with metamorphic rocks of Lower
Silurian age explained on the hypothesis that the intrusive granite was due to re-
metamorphism at the later period, so that portions of the already crystalline rocks
were completely fused and became irruptive. That metamorphic action in this
district continued up to and even after the Old Red Sandstone age seems to have
been the opinion of the late General Portlock, who in his ‘ Geological Report on
Londonderry with Parts of Tyrone,’ &c., has described these rocks and their
relations to each other at considerable length. He did not seem to haye considered
the granite to be intrusive, but merely a metamorphosed condition of what we
now call the Lower Carboniferous Sandstone, which was then classed with the
Old Red formation.

2. On the Origin of Crystalline Rocks. By T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S.

3. On some New Areas of Pre-Cambrian Rocks in North Wales.
By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.GLS.

In addition to the areas of pre-Cambrian rocks already described by the author,
he now includes amongst that ancient group the following, which he has recently
explored, accompanied by Professor Torell, of Stockholm, and Mr. Tawney, of
Cambridge, and during part of the time by Professor Hughes, of Cambridge, and
Dr. Sterry Hunt, of Montreal.

1. Some cupriferous schists with their associated green bands (intrusive green-
stone of the Survey), and including Robel Fawn, to the north of Dolgelly.

2. The so-called ‘intrusive felspathic porphyries and Greenstone breccias,’ in
the neighbourhood of Pwllheli.

3. The so-called intrusive syenitic (Rhos Hirwain Syenite) and felsitic masses
and the associated schists which together form the extremity of the promontory of
Caernaryonshire, and also Bardsey Island.

4, The so-called ‘intrusive felspathic porphyries’ in the neighbourhood of
Llanfihangel and Nevin.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 537

5. The granite and felstone of the Eifel range, and some masses of felstone
to the north.

6. The so-called ‘altered Cambrian,’ to the south of Glyn Clifon.

7. The ridge of granite and the whole of the so-called altered Cambrian rocks
in Anglesea.

In these areas it was found that the rocks resolved themselves into three very
well-defined groups, and as the author had already recognised that these groups
formed part of three distinct formations at St. David’s, unconformable on one
another, he proposed to divide the rocks of North Wales in the same manner.

The lowest beds are like his Dimetian at St. David’s, and consist chiefly of
granite or granitvid gneiss rocks.

The next in ascending order is the great felsitic group, and for this he proposes
the name Arvonian,* since it forms so large a part of the mountains in Caernarvon-
shire.

The third includes most of the so-called altered Cambrian beds, and consists
chiefly of schists, or schistose rocks, and is usually a highly chloritic group. This
he associates with the Pebidian of St. David's.

4. On “ Cervus Megaceros.” By Wi.t1am WILLIAMS.

The “ Cervus Megaceros,” commonly called the “ Irish Elk,” whose remains often
occur in the marl beds under the peat bogs of Ireland, appears to have been drowned
by miring in the stiff clay forming the beds of lakes which were once very numerous
in the country, but which have since silted up, and are now occupied by peat bogs.
The author, having been engaged for ten weeks making excavations in search of
these remains in the Bog of Ballybetagh, ten miles from Dublin, had arrived at the
following conclusions—Ist, that the animal had lived after the first glacial epoch,
as he found the remains resting on the lower boulder clay; 2nd, that the clay in
which he found them seemed to indicate a temperate climate, as it was mostly com-
posed of vegetable matter, indicating very little degradation of mineral matter from
the surrounding hills ; 3rd, the clay last mentioned is covered with a bed three feet
thick, containing hardly any vegetable matter, it being almost all mineral. He
concludes that this bed of clay was produced by ice action degrading and wearing
down the hills. That it is glacial he infers—

1. From its texture, it being ground granite,

2. From its quantity ; an ordinary mild climate would not wear down the hills
_ to produce such a bed, and as it is at a level of 800 feet it has not been imported
from the drainage of other places.

3. From haying found a reindeer’s antler in this bed, he infers that a sub-arctic
climate must have prevailed at time of its deposit.

4, From the broken state in which the antlers are found, he cannot conceive
any force which would have been sufficient to break one of these beams of hard
sound bone three inches in diameter, unless the vertical pressure of immense masses
of ice, while the antlers were embedded in the lower clay; running water could
not do it; for the teeth have not their corners broken off, nor are the tracks of the
blood-vessels in the antlers ground off or water worn.

Hence he infers that the animal lived after the deposit of the lower boulder
clay, and previous to that of the upper boulder clay, or that it lived inter-glacial
and may have been exterminated by the last ice period.

5. On the Rocks of Ulster as a Source of Water-Supply.
By Wim A. Tran, M.A.0, HM. Geological Survey of Ireland.

The author referred to the backward state of the study of hydro-geology in Ire-
land, and to the acknowledged necessity for larger and purer supplies of water for

* From the Roman name Azvonia, and from which the present name of Carnarvon
is derived.

538 REPORT—1878.

many towns in Ulster. In too many cases the present supplies were derived from
the uncertain and dangerous sources of shallow-surface wells, situated within the
habitable area—sources universally condemned as scarcely possible to be free from
pollution.

The two great systems of water supply were contrasted—that by catchment
basins with reservoirs, and that by deep wells or borings. The author strongly
advocated the latter, where geological formations would warrant a trial. He
showed that many towns in England were successfully supplied by artesian wells
or borings into the Chalk or New Red Sandstone formations.

The rocks of Ulster were then reviewed with. special reference to their
suitability for rendering water by boring, and the best localities for such operations
enumerated.

Among the formations which did not possess the essential conditions necessary for
success were mentioned the Lower Silurian rocks which comprise the greater portion
of the counties of Down, Louth, Armagh, and Monaghan, and the granitic tracts of
Newry, Slieve Croob and Mourne, in which localities the catchment basin system
had to be adopted, as was the case for the Newry water supply.

In the same category were placed the granitic and metamorphic tracts of Done-
gal and West Londonderry.

The New Red Sandstone—in England one of the chief formations in which to *
bore for water—occupies in Ulster a very limited surface area, being for the greater
part overlaid by other formations. Artesian borings in these rocks had proved
successful, as at the ‘“Cromac Springs” in Belfast, while in other cases they had
been unsuccessful, from a wrong selection of sites.

The Chalk and Hibernian Greensand formations were shown to be the great
water-bearing strata of Ulster, occupying a very extensive area in the counties of
Antrim and Londonderry, but overlaid by other formations, such as the Tertiary
basalts. The Mesozoic rocks form a geological basin, the basaltic area occupying
the centre, with the Chalk and Greensand cropping out almost continuously along
its margin, and underlaid by the plastic clays of the Lias or Keuper marls. The
occurrence of this basin was clearly demonstrated by the elevations and dip of the
chalk around its margin, and its deep-seated existence inside, as at Templepatrick
and other places. The presence of large quantities of water in the Cretaceous beds
was apparent everywhere, from the number of large springs along the outcrop, and
the constant outpouring of water where the lip of the basin was low, resulting
in frequent landslips, as at Garron Tower, Carnlough, Glenarm, Whitehead and
other places. ;

The existence of water held under hydrostatic pressure within the basin was.
as evidenced by the numerous large perennial springs occurring in the basaltic

ateau.

The sequence of the formations within this area and the occurrence of water-
bearing strata were then enumerated. Below the so-called upper basalt there
exists the first great water-bearing stratum at the ferruginous lithomarge bed of
the iron-ore measures. For potable purposes it is too highly charged with hydrated
oxide of iron. The lower aluminous hed is also water producing, of a purer
quality, but less plentiful ; the districts where these occur are, however, compara-
tively small.

By boring through the overlying basalt within this extensive basin the chalk
and greensand could readily be pierced—if within the area of the lower basalt, at
no great depth—and where, undoubtedly, a plentiful and pure supply of water
would be obtained.

The districts where such, with every prospect of success, might be attempted
would be approximately along the valley of the river Bann, or near Ballymena,
Ballymoney, Coleraine or Antrim. The districts of Cookstown, Dungannon and
Moneymore were differently situated geologically, but the formations were fayour-
able, and water had been proved in the bore-holes for iron ore in that neigh-
bourhood.

The author strongly advocated, for certain localities in Ulster, the adoption of
deep wells or borings for the purpose of obtaining water supplies.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 539

6. On the Occurrence of certain Fish Remains in the Coal Measures, and the
Bvidence they afford of their Fresh-water Origin.* By Janus W. Davis,
F.G.S., L.S., Hon. Secretary of the Yorkshire Geological and Poly-~
technic Society.

A few miles south-west of Leeds, in the district of Morley and Adwalton,
there is a bed of cannel coal which is extensively wrought. It occurs about 150
yards above the silkstone or blocking coal; the latter forming the base of the
middle coal measures in the West Riding of Yorkshire. An average section of the
bed of cannel or stone coal is as follows :—

Feet Inches

Timpure canniel ..........ssccscsscverescesncceresccecnsescneseeess 0 1
WinminellConlrewccrccssacserssosces Ppsoocosee CCUneE DC UDRELce Deas 0 6
Impure cannel............-00+0 Ncccddscvuiseativesedncss+csc¥esss 0 2
Wirtiec.doecereneesseicceesess ss riedceeutea coadctoeecesocatcccseneuctes 0 2
COMMNONY COR sc cccsciccesesedessttriesccoesoesetucseticcen sos enone 0) 3
Slightly impure cannel .............sseeeeerseeeeeeeeeeeee eens 0 5
Slacks Sal Otsaeteesacccceas ac datacees veddodees aececeeesesoasesc 0 3

In the cannel coal, and more numerously in the impure cannel above and below
it, there occur numerous fossil remains of fish. They consist of both elasmo-
branchs and ganoids, but by far the most common are specimens of Colacanthus
lepturus, Ag. The extent and seeming method of deposition of the cannel coal—
viz., in a series of small inland lakes, at times dried up, and at others more or
less filled with water—taken in conjunction with the internal anatomy of the
Ccelacanthus and the frequent occurrence of the fossil bones of Labyrinthodonts,,
lead to the inference that these swampy pools were very similar to thoséfound in
Africa and Australia at the present time, where Lepidosiren and Ceratodus inhabit
their muddy beds, and during the dry season, when the ponds and streams are
dried up, are enabled, by the action of a lung-like air-bladder, to exist either out
of the water or buried in the mud until the rainy season again enables the fish
to breathe in the ordinary manner by gills. The Ccelacanthus are similarly pro-
vided with a swim bladder, whose walls have been erroneously described as osseous,
which, so far as can be ascertained, served an exactly similar purpose to that of
the Lepidosiren now existing. These facts, together with others cited in the paper,

oint to the conclusion that the strata were of subaqueous, and in all probability
freshwater origin.

7. On the Discovery of Marine Shells in the Gannister Beds of
Northumberland.t By G. A. Lezour, F.G.S.

The author described the circumstances of the find, which took place in the first
instance near the village of Whittonstall, in South Northumberland, at the begin-
ning of the present year (1878). He then adverted to some hitherto unrecorded
previous observations of marine forms in the Lower Coal Measures in the neighbour=
hood of Wylam and Prudhoe, by Mr. G. C. Greenwell, F.G.S. The species
altogether were the following :—

A, from Whittonstall (four localities) :
Aviculopecten papyraceus.
Av, sp., two forms not sufficiently well preserved for specific determination.
Orthoceras sp., a small elegant form.
Encrinite stems, decomposed in every case.

* Published in full in the ‘Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological and Poly-~
technic Society ’ for 1878. . ‘

-+ The subject will be found treated more fully in the author’s ‘ Outlines of the
Geology of Northumberland.’ London and Newcastle, 1878.

540 REPORT—1878.

B, from Wylam and near Prudhoe:

Ca sp quoted from memory by Mr. Greenwell.
Mr, Lebour then described the Gannister beds of the district, discussed their

relations to the overlying and underlying members of the Carboniferous series, and
concluded that, north of the Tees, the lines defining the division stratigraphically

were purely arbitrary.

8. Report on proposed Kentish Explorations—See Reports, p. 380.’

9. Report on Fossils of N. W. Highlands of Scotland.—See Reports, p. 130.

:
:
:
:

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 541

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Influence of ‘‘ Strike” on the Physical Features of Ireland.

"By Epwarp T. Harpmay, F.C.8., F.R.G.S.L., Geological Survey of Ireland.

Although not often mentioned in geological works, the influence of “ strike” in
determining the lines of direction of the principal physical features of a country is
recognised by most geologists, but in few countries is the relation so distinctly
shown as in Ireland. The author was led to pay attention to this subject on
reading Mr. J. F. Campbell’s paper ‘On the Glaciation of Ireland,’ * in which that
gentleman assumes that the south-west and north-east trend of some of the
mountains of Ireland is due to the glacial action of a huge ice sheet passing over
Treland from the south-west of Scotland. After some years’ examination, how-
ever, the author has found that in most cases the trend of the hills, and course of
rivers, &c., are determined by the strike alone; and he now wished to place the
facts noted before the section :—

(1) Mountains.—The Donegal highlands trend to the south-west, along the line
of strike of the ancient crystalline stratified rock. The basaltic plateau of Antrim
follows in outline the windings of the outcrop of the underlying chalk, and, conse-
quently, the strike of the basalt upheaved with it. The Mourne Mountains and
Slieve Croob also coincide in direction with the stratified rocks on their flanks,
except where joints or faults have given rise to minor lateral valleys, e.g. Car-
lingford Lough. Adherence to the line of strike is also seen in the hills forming
the flanks of the Wicklow Mountains, in the Kilkenny and Tipperary coal-tields,
the Comeragh and Knockmealdown Mountains, and is most remarkably shown in
that series of flexured carboniferous, old red sandstone, and Silurian rocks forming
the hills of Cork and mountains of Kerry, the axes of which stretch from Dun-
garvan (Co. Waterford) to Cape Clear and Bantry Bay. Its influence is again
shown in the shaping of the high ground forming the Munster coal-field, and
finally in the mountainous district of Connemara; although here, in places,
obscured by the action of faults. The Twelve Pins, Muilrea, the mountains
flanking Killarney harbour, and the country northwards around Nephin Mountain
are striking examples. Towards the central plain the isolated mountains of old
red sandstone and Silurian rocks rising through the carboniferous limestone, viz.,
the Slieve Bloom Mountains, the Devil’s Bit, and the Galtees, conform to the same
rule, the axis in strike and direction being parallel.

(2) Rivers.—In the North of Ireland especially, many of the rivers follow the
windings of the strike. The Suir follows the line of strike for eighty miles, only
beginning to cross it about ten miles from the sea. The Blackwater runs along the
strike for seventy miles of its course, crossing it for only sixteen miles. The Lee is
directed by the strike for some fifty miles of its length, as is also the Bandon
River for the greater part of its course, while the Shannon may be traced along the
strike of the beds for by far its greatest distance.

(8) Inland Lakes.—Most of the lakes are conformable to the strike in their
ereater outline, the smaller details being determined by the jointing. Of these may
be mentioned Lough Neagh, Loughs Corrib and Mask, Lough Erne (most notably),
Lough Allen, Lough Derg, and the far-famed Lakes of Killarney.

(4) Sea Loughs, Bays, §c.—The majority of these may be included :—Lough
Foyle, Belfast Lough, Strangford Lough, Lough Larne. The most notable ex-
amples are those in the south-west :—Roaring Water Bay, Dunmanus Harbour,

* ¢ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ London, May 1872,

542 REPORT—1878.

Bantry Bay, Kenmare River, and Dingle Bay; also the mouth of the Shannon,
Galway Bay, and Clew Bay. Further north the principal bays and indentations
along the line of coast stretching from Broadhaven to Donegal—Killala Bay, Sligo
Bay, and Donegal Bay—have been excavated in their great outlines along lines of
strike.

In conclusion, the author pointed out that nature had adopted the least expen-
sive method of working, since it is always easier to excavate along a line of strike
than across the bedding. Usually cleavage, or incipient cleavage, is induced along
the line of strike by the forces which upheaved the rocks, and denudation is most
easily effected therefore in that direction.

2. On Hullite, a hitherto wndescribed Mineral; a Hydrous Silicate of pecu-

liar composition, from Carnmoney Hill, Co. Antrim, with Analysis. By
Epwarp T. Harpman, F.C.8., H.M. Geological Survey. With Notes
on the Microscopic Appearances, by Professor E. Hutt, M.A., F.R.S.

Part I,—This mineral occurs in abundance at Carnmoney Hill, near Belfast, in
the basalt forming the old neck of a Miocene volcano. It has never been described
or analysed, and has been referred to on the survey maps, and labelled in the survey
collection as Obsidian, doubtless from its black colour and waxy lustre. In
physical character it somewhat agrees with the Chloropheite of Macculloch, but
is entirely different in composition, which more resembles that of Delessite. From
this, however, it differs essentially in colour, hardness, streak, and specific gravity.
It appears, on the whole, to belong to the ferruginous-chlorite group, however.

Physical characters.—Colour, velvet black. Hardness, about 2. Brittle.
Lustre, waxy, dull; streak olive brown. Before blowpipe, with difficulty fusible
‘at edges to a black glass, which in some specimens is magnetic. Very slightly
affected by strong acids, but decomposed when boiled in the powdered state in
strong H.Cl. Occurs, filling amygdaloidal cavities in the basalt of Carnmoney
Hill, near Belfast, and Shane’s Castle, Lough Neagh.

Chemical composition compared with that of Delessite and Chloropheite :—

Hullite | Delessite* | Chlorophoeitet

Sistas S10 peansides «taigsatanee sole -oieeyieanosay satan 39°437 31:07 33°30
(Adnminn, AdiOaiasstsctess excesses rset avadesi 10°350 15°47 =
Peroxide of Iron, Fe,O, ............0000+ 20720 17-54. =e.
Protoxide of Iron, FeO.................0008 3°699 4:07 26°70
Protoxide of Manganese, Mn0O............ trace a 42s
Teamne AO BW sanep sees va noniiesnds one ee foe. onde 4-484 19:14 —
Magnesia, MgO .......seccseseeeeseeeeeeeeees 7474 0:46 —
IW ietet pln ON oo -aseb-d00+veeecessenneonensnecs 13618 11°55 40:00
Waxbome Acid OO) oi isse-ccccseeseoscee. traces — ==
99°782 100:00 100:00

a — | FeSiO, + 6H,O
Sip MCE) oe et ae tceashe oo vAQitUEE. 1-76 2°39 2-02

It will be noticed that there are striking differences in the composition of the
new mineral from the others. The large amount of water in Chlorophzite, and the
fact that it appears to have been obtained by difference, seems to throw some
doubt on the analysis.

It is difficult to express the composition of Hullite by a chemical formula.

* Dana's, ‘System of Mineralogy,’ 1874, p. 497.
+ Ib. p. 410. Also Western Isles of Scotland. John Macculloch, M.D., p. 505.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 543

That given above does not agree with any known types of silicate. Supposing it
to be a mixture of peroxide and silicate, we should get the formula—

[H,M’”,0, + (M’,M’”,Si,0,,) +411,0],

a mixture with a meta-silicate, on the type, H,,Si,0,,, corresponding with the
tale and chlorite series. Or, supposing it to be a mixture of an aluminate, or
ferrate, with a silicate, we get a formula not unlike that proposed for Ripidolite,

WiZ.—
[M’,Al,0, + M’”,H,Si,0,, + 4H,0],

a part of the water being basic. Either of these formulas seems probable.

Its low specific gravity and its resistance to the blowpipe are remarkable, con-
sidering the large amount of iron.

The author proposes to name this mineral Hullite, after Professor Hull, who
has done much valuable work.in elucidating the microscopic mineralogy of the
basalts of Ireland.

Part Il.— Microscopic structure of the Basalt.—Professor Hull describes the
microscopic appearance of the mineral, and of the rock in which it occurs. The
basalt contains short prisms of augite imbedded in a paste of plagioclase felspar, a
great deal of olivine, and the mineral described above in abundance. Under the
microscope, the latter is of a dark amber brown colour, nearly opaque. It per-
meates the whole rock, filling the interstices, and enclosing the other minerals. It
does not polarize, and is, therefore, not crystalline, but assumes very much the
character of amorphous chlorite, being apparently, like it also, a secondary
mineral formed after the consolidation of the rock.

The rock contains an abundance of olivine, not seen in such quantity in any
other basalt of Antrim, and hardly ever so fresh and unaltered. In most cases
the outer form only is preserved; but here it is as fresh as in the lavas of

’ Vesuvius. From this it might be inferred that the rock was comparatively recent,

did we not know it to be older than the Glacial and Pliocene periods.

3. The Progress of the Geological Survey of Ireland.
By Professor Epwarp Hutt, M.A., F.R.S., Director.

(With the Sanction of the Director-General.)

The author gave a short account of the progress of the Survey from its com-
mencement in 1832, under the late General Portlock, R.E., down to the present
day, stating that the whole country south of a line drawn roughly from Larne,
on the coast of Antrim, to Sligo, had been surveyed, while 160 sheets of the
geological map on a scale of 1-inch to the statute mile had been published.

Along with these had also been issued 78 separate Explanatory Memoirs,
describing the structure and paleontology of 126 sheets. It had also been found
necessary to revise the geology of the Leinster and Tipperary Coal-fields, the
Carboniferous trap-rocks of County Limerick, and the south-east portion of the
country, including part of Wicklow and Wexford. The coal-fields of the North of
Treland had also been surveyed, and published on maps both on the “ 6-inch” and
“J-inch” scales; and it was also intended that the districts of County Antrim,
containing the pisolitic iron ores, should be illustrated by maps on both scales.
The tract still remaining to be examined included the greater portion of the
counties of Donegal, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Sligo, and Antrim.

4. Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks.—See Reports, p. 185.

544 REPORT—1878.

5. The Geological Relations of the Atmosphere.
By T. Sturry Hont, DL.D., F.BR.S.

The author began by noticing the inquiries of Ebelmen into the decomposition
of rocks through the influence of the atmosphere, resulting in the fixation of car-
bonic acid and oxygen, and discussed the question at length, with arithmetical
data. He inquired farther into the fixing of carbon from the air by vegetation
with liberation at the same time of oxygen both from carbonic acid and from the -
decomposed water, the hydrogen of which with carbon forms the bituminous coals
and petroleums. It was shown that the carbonic acid absorbed in the process of
rock-decay, during the long geologic ages, and now represented in the form of car-
bonates in the earth’s crust, must have equalled probably two hundred times the
entire volume of the present atmosphere of our earth. This amount could not, of
course, exist at any one time in the air; it would at ordinary temperature be lique-
fied at the earth's surface. When came this vast quantity of carbonic acid which
must have been supplied through the ages? The hypothesis of M. De Beaumont,
who supposed a reservoir of carbonic acid stored up in the liquid interior of the
planet, was discussed and dismissed. The gas now evolved from the earth’s crust
from yoleanié and other vents was probably of secondary origin and due to carbo-
nates previously formed at the surface.

The solution of the problem offered by the author is based upon the conception
that our atmosphere is not terrestrial, but cosmical, being a universal medium
diffused throughout all space, but condensed around the various centres of attrac-
tion in amounts proportioned to their mass and temperature, the waters of the
ocean themselves belonging to this universal atmosphere. Such being the case, any
change in the atmospheric envelope of any globe, whether by the absorption of the
disengagement of any gas or vapour would, by the laws of diffusion and static
equilibrium, be felt everywhere throughout the universe, and the fixation of car-
bonic acid at the surface of our planet would not only bring in a supply of this gas
from the worlds beyond, but, by reducing the total amount of it in the universal
atmosphere, diminish the barometric pressure at the surface of our own and of
all other worlds.

This conception of a cosmical atmosphere of which our own forms a part is not
new, but was put forth by Sir William R. Grove in 1848, and is developed in the
very learned and ingenious work of Mr. Mattieu Williams, on ‘The Fuel of the
Sun,’ and has lately been noticed by Dr. P. M. Duncan in its geological bearings,
Ebelmen, in 1845, pointed out that the greater weight of an atmosphere charged with
carbonic acid would increase the temperature due to solar radiation at the earth’s
surface, and greatly modify atmospheric phenomena. ‘Tyndall, by his subsequent re-
searches on radiation, showed that certain gases, in amount too small to affect con-
siderably the barometric pressure, might influence powerfully climatic conditions,
and suggested that in the former presence, in the atmosphere, of moderate quantities
of a gas like carbonic acid might: be found a solution of the problem of the cli-
mates of former geologic ages. According to the author, the amount of this gas,
which, since the advent of life on our earth, has been subtracted from the univer-
sal atmosphere,’ although it may not have sufficed to diminish by more than a
small fraction the pressure at the earth’s surface, would account for all the con-
ditions of geological history so far as temperature and climate are concerned.

He maintains that while we have evidence of a warm or sub-tropical climate
prevailing over the Arctic regions from the Carboniferous down to the Lower Oreta-
ceous times, and a gradual refrigeration up to the temperate climate of the Miocene
age, we had for the first time in the Pliocene age the evidence of Arctic cold, which,
with some variations, has continued until now. Since that date geographical varia-
tions have caused and may again cause local climatic changes of considerable mag-
nitude; but no such changes could permit the existence, over continental areas
within the Arctic circle, of such tropical vegetation as we know to have once
flourished there. Geographical changes, as Dr. F. Campbell Dawson and others
have so well pointed out, might lift large areas into the region of perpetual frost,
and thus give rise to local glacial phenomena, and may, moreover, account for con-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 545

‘siderable local climatic variations at the sea level since the Pliocene age. We
cannot, however, account in this way for the warmer climates of previous ages, but
must seek for their cause in the former constitution of the atmosphere.

Touching the suggestion that former climatic changes were due to a displace-
ment of the earth’s axis of rotation, the author expressed the opinion that it is
irreconcilable with the fact, long ago insisted upon by him, that “the direction
of the Arctic currents, which are guided by the earth’s rotation, appears, from the
distribution of marine sediments, to have been the same since very early periods.”
Dawson has reinforced this argument by recalling the fact that the southward mi-
gration of successive floras shows, in like manner, that from the Devonian age the
general courses of oceanic currents, and consequently the position of the earth’s
axis, have not changed.

6. Report of Committee on the Conductivity of Rocks.
See Reports, p. 133.

7. On the Saurians of the Dakota Cretaceous Rocks of Colorado.
By Professor H. D. Corr.

8. Notes on Eribollia Mackayi, a New Fossil from the Assynt Quartzite in
the North-Western Highlands of Scotland. By James Nicou, F.R.S.EF.,
F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.

The remarkable fossils to which the above name has been given were found on
the western shore of Loch Eriboll by Mr. Donald Mackay, of Portnacow, in a por-
tion of the Assynt quartzite, or middle deposit of the west coast series of strata.
On a small block (of 9 inches by 7) more than a dozen peculiar bodies are seen
running down into the interior. They are mostly rounded and conical in form, and
show a central core, covering about half the width, and enclosed in an outer wall.
One of the most regular measures about 1} inch above, and 3} inches long to the
point below. Others are smaller, but similar in form and structure. Some of them
oceur single, but others are joined in twos or threes, and arranged as if in
parallel rows. One of the largest, about 2 inches across, is more square in form,
and does not taper as it descends.

The single conical forms much resemble Orthoceratites, but show no trace of
septe or partitions ; whilst the internal appearance and mode of grouping rather
fnclines the author to regard them as corals, approximating, in form at least, to
Cyathophyllide. A similar fragment, found some years ago in the quartzite at
Ullapool, shows no structure when polished. As they differ very widely from any
known organism, he has named them Eribollia, from the locality, Mackayi, from
their discoverer. Some of the curious bodies, formerly described as casts of annelid
tubes may, he thinks, also prove similar corals. From the Ullapool quartzite he
has also a whorled shell (Macluria ?).

The author in conclusion stated that he still adheres to his published views of
the structure of the North-Western Hichlands.

9. On the Influence that Microscopic Vegetable Organisms have had on the
Production of some Hydrated Iron Ores. By M. AupHonse Gages.

Geologists are aware of the influence some microscopic animal living organisms
have in the formation of bog irqn ore, resulting from the iron of surrounding decom-
posing rocks, and also of the properties that the skeletons of these organisms com-
Municate to the iron.

1878. NN

546 REPORT— 1878.

There are also other deposits of iron ores, far more important, and which cover
immense tracts of land, especially in the tertiary formations; many of them are
remarkable for their purity, and are free from débris of former rocks.

Under what influence were some of these so-called limonites, or brown hema-
tites, formed? ‘This problem can, I believe, be more or less solved by the
observation of a phenomenon going on in some of the large iron tanks holding
Vartry water.

We have in the College of Science, Dublin, a large iron tank on the roof of the
house, into which a constant supply of water flows freely. After a certain lapse of
time, the bottom of the tank and also the sides are covered with sponge-like concre-
tions, assuming the various shapes of the well-known concretions of lime or iron
ore found in various geological formations. The above sponge-like deposits are,
in our case, nothing else but vegetable microscopic organisms— billions, I may say,
of thread moulds, Penicillia.

These organisms accumulate after many months to such an extent as to form an
immense sponge intercepting the flow of water. Nevertheless, in the case of the
pen tank, the water remains pure and pleasant to drink, and is without any taste
of iron.

These organisms have, I may say, assimilated the iron (as hydrated sesqui-
oxide) and made of it a part of their constitution.

During the process of life they have consumed the carbonic acid, and they
leave as a last result, when dried in a water-bath, a pure ore of iron, containing
a mere skeleton of carbon, and haying a formula corresponding to that of brown
hematite.

OO OR

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 547

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.

‘The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Age of the Crystalline Rocks of Donegal.
By Professor W. Kine, D.Sc.

2. On the Correlation of Lines of Direction on the Globe, and particularly
of Coast Lines. By Professor J. P. O’Rxitty. -

The forces which have acted from the interior of the globe have been the
most important of those which have produced the present distribution of land and
water at its surface.

Those forces are more essentially, contraction due to secular cooling, and gravi-
tation. Furthermore, the mineral constitution of the earth’s crust has necessarily
influenced the mode of action of those forces, and assuming that constitution to
be homogenous, and to be represented by the lavas modern and ancient, we might
expect that the contraction forms presented by those lavas when in great mass
would represent the forms to which secular contraction gives rise at the surface of
the earth, and that these would be limited by lines of direction presenting poly-
gonal forms somewhat as the contraction forms of the older lavas (basalts and
trachytes). Those lines of direction would represent the joints or fissures along
which the interior forces have exercised their greatest action, that is, those lines
which are represented on the globe by mountain chains. Now these influence
notably the forms of the continents as represented by the present distribution of land
and water. On the other hand, the boundaries of seas past and present have been
and are simply coast lines determined by the intersection of the sea surface with
the upraised strata, whose direction is essentially represented by that of the adjacent
mountain chains, and of the system of fissures or joints forming their axes. Thus
mountain chains and coast lines can be correlated.

Having measured a series of blocks of basalt at the Giant’s Causeway, I have
found that the dominating polygonal angle, or that one which most frequently
occurs, is the angle 110°, and its supplement 70°; moreover, that the form presented
by an isosceles triangle having 70° and 70° at the base, and 40° at the summit, is
markedly present in the basalt columns of Fair Head. This form I had pre-
viously recognised as continually occurring on maps, especially geological, and
have thereon based a system of correlation of lines of direction.

Adopting as line of departure, the direction of the Kast Coast of Madagascar,
and taking this from Imray’s most recent chart, I have found that the creater
number of lines of direction of coasts and mountain chains on the earth’s surface
can be derived therefrom solely by the intervention of the angle 40° and its mul-
tiples, and 70°, and as proof have transferred from the globe those lines to maps,
both geographical and geological, and found such lines to be related with many
others on the map through the intermediary of those angles, and that this law is
general. Amongst the many maps which might be exhibited in proof thereof, I
would mention Haidinger’s Geological Map of Austria, whereon occur marked lines
of direction which can be most. distinctly reduced to this law, as also the maps of
the Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland.

NN2

548 REPORT—1878.

3. Concerning the Extent of Geological Time. By Rev. M. H. Cross, F.G.S.

This paper was only intended to afford desired opportunity for wivd voce discus-
sion on the above subject. Since geology has her own strong and unrefuted
arguments for the great extent of geological time, it is not logically necessary for
her to do more than to show, if it can be shown, that the physical arguments for
the very inconvenient restriction thereof rest upon still unproved assumptions.
The argument from the rate of cooling of the earth seems to have been satis-
factorily shown by Mr. T. Mellard Reade to be quite inconclusive. The argument
from the probable duration of the sun’s radiation of heat assumes, inter alia, that
the original nebula from which the solar system was formed was cold, and-also
that the unit of gravitation, relatively to the mass of that system, has been constant
from the time when that mass began to fall together, and throughout the enormous
interstellar distance which has doubtless been traversed by it since that time. Dr.
Croll’s suggestion in answer to the former of these assumptions is logically suffi-
cient as a reply to the whole of this argument. Nevertheless, it may be added, as
to the latter assumption, that those physicists who have entered upon certain
speculations as to the cause of gravitation cannot deny that it is perfectly credible,
and even probable, that gravitation is not an essential accompaniment of matter,
and that the unit of gravitation may not be constant throughout all time and
space. The argument from the earth’s figure in connection with the retardation of
her rotation by the ocean tides depends upon the doctrine of the steel-rigidity of
the earth taken as a whole, as do also the calculations of various writers on
subjects, which bear, in different ways, on the present one. However, Sir W.
Thomson himself has greatly weakened the support of this doctrine. But geology
(as regards the matter in hand) is not concerned to question it; although it is, at
first sight, a difficulty. The results obtained by the Tide Committee of the Asso-
ciation point to the conclusion that there is an 18°6 year-tide in the body of the
earth depending upon the revolution of the moon’s nodes, and that the rigidity of
the earth, even if it be, in one sense, as high as that of steel, is yet a viscous
rigidity, by which she may yield almost indefinitely to sufficient long-continued
straining forces. Other considerations confirm this latter position. This 18°6
year-tide, whether resulting from such viscosity proper, or from plasticity of a
different kind, must cause a variation in the earth’s rate of rotation haying the
same period. This variation would probably be sensible if looked for by: the
astronomers, who would confer a boon on the geologists by endeavouring to detect
it. Dr. John Evans’s suggestion of the possibly considerable mobility of the axis
of rotation relatively to the body of the earth bears in certain ways on the
present question; the mechanical objection to it, already greatly weakened by
Rey. O. Fisher, might be quite removed by the investigation suggested.*

4. On the Harth’s Avis. By Rev. Professor Havcuton, M.D., F.R.S.

5. Geological Results of the late British Arctic Expedition.
By Captain Frermpey, R.A., and Mr. De Rance.

The author describes Laurentian gneiss of Cape Sabine, and the Cape Rawson
beds of Grinnell Land; the overlying Silurian rocks; the Devonian rocks of Dana
Bay; the Carboniferous Limestone of Feilden Peninsula, and the Miocene beds of
Lady Franklin Bay; the Pleistocene deposits and glaciation of the coasts of
Grinnell; and the method of formation of the Icefoot.

He discusses the bearing of these results on what was already known on Arctic
geology.t

* See ‘Geological Magazine,’ Oct. 1878.
t See ‘ Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xxxiv. p, 556.

Srction D.—BIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.

Department of Zoology and Botany.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Professor FLowrR gave the following Address, entitled :—
A Century's Progress in Zoological Knowledge :—

‘

‘On the 10th of January, 1778, died the great Swedish naturalist, Charles Linné,
more commonly known as Linneus, a name which will ever be mentioned with
respect and regard in an assembly devoted to the cultivation of the sciences of
Zoology and Botany, as whatever may he the future progress of those sciences, the
numerous writings of Linneus, and especially the publication of the Systema
Nature, can never cease to be looked upon as marking an era in their development.
That work contained a systematic exposition of all that was known on these
subjects expressed in language the most terse and precise. The accumulated
knowledge of all the workers at Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy since the world
began, was here collected together by patient industry, and welded into a complete
and harmonious whole by penetrating genius.

Exactly a century has passed since Linneus died. What of the progress of
the subjects to which he devoted his long and laborious life? This one century is
a brief space compared with the ages which have passed since man began to dwell
upon the earth, surrounded by living objects, which have, more and more as
time rolled on, awakened his curiosity, stimulated his faculties to observe, and im-
pelled him to record the knowledge so gained for the benefit of those tocome. How
does it stand in comparison which tkose which preceded it, in the contributions it
has thus acquired and recorded ?

It may be not without interest in commencing our work at this meeting to
cast our eyes back and take stock, as it were, of the knowledge ofa hundred years
ago, and of that of the present time, and see what advances have been made; to
look at the living world as it was known to Linneus and as it is known to our-
selves. The Systema Nature, the last edition of which, revised by the author, was
published in 1766, will be a convenient basis for the comparison ; but as the subject
is one which, even in a most superficial outline, might reach such lengths as would
well tire out the most patient of audiences, and absorb time which will be more
profitably occupied by the valuable contributions which are forthcoming from other
members of the Association, I will merely take a small section of the work, about
100 pages out of the first of the four volumes, those devoted to the first class Mam-
MALIA. The comparison of this part is perhaps the easiest, as the contrast is the
least striking, and the progress has been comparatively the slowest. The knowledge
of large, accessible, and attractive-looking animals had naturally preceded that of
minute and obscure organisms, and hence, while in many other departments the
advance has altogether revolutionized the knowledge of Linnzeus, in the Verte-

550 . REPORT— 1878.

brated Classes, especially the one of which I shall now speak, it has only extended
and reformed it.

In taking the Systema Nature of Linnzeus, the comparison is certainly carried
back somewhat beyond the hundred years which have elapsed since bis death, and
the brilliant contributions to the knowledge of the Mammalia of Bution and
Daubenton just then beginning to be known, and the systematic compilation of
Erxleben (published in 1777), are ignored; but for the present purpose, especially
considering the limited time at my disposal, it will be best not to go beyond the
actual text of the work in question.

Before considering systematically the different groups into which Linnzeus
divides the class, I must remark in passing upon what is the greatest, and indeed
most marvellous difference between the knowledge of Zoology of our time and that
of Linnzeus. Now we know that the animals at present existing upon the earth
are merely the survivors of an immensity of others, different in form, characters,
and mode of life, which have peopled the earth through vast ages of time, and
to which numerically our existing forms are but infinitesimally small, and that the
knowledge we possess of an immense number of them, fully justifies the expecta-
tion of an enormous further advance in this direction. In the time of Linnzus
the existence in any past time of a species having no longer living representatives on
the earth, though perhaps the speculation of a few philosophical minds, had not
been received among the certainties of science, and at all events found no place in
the great work we are now considering.

In the twelfth edition of the Systema Nature we find the class MAMMALIA
divided into seven orders: I. Primates, Il. Bruta, Ill, Fere, 1V. Glires, V. Pecora,
VI. Bellue, VII. Cete. These orders contain forty genera without any intermediate
subdivisions, The genera are again divided into species, of which the total num-
ber is 220.

The first order, Priwarss, contains four genera: Homo, Simia, Lemur, and
Vespertilio.

The vexed question of man’s place in the zoological system was thus settled by
Linneus. He belongs to the class Mammalia, and the order Primates, the same
order which includes all known monkeys, lemurs, and bats: he differs only ge-
nerically from theseanimals. But then we must remember that the Linnean genera
were not our genera, they correspond usually to what we call families, sometimes,
to entire orders. So that practically man’s position is much the same as that to
which, after several vicissitudes, as his separation as an order by Blumenbach and
Cuvier, or as a subclass by Owen, he has returned in the systems of nearly all
the zoologists of the present day who treat of him as a subject for classifica-
tion upon zoological and not metaphysical grounds.

Yet since the time of Linnzus the whole science of Anthropology has been
created. There is certainly an attempt at the division of the species Homo sapiens
into six varieties in the Systema Nature, but it has scarcely any scientific basis.
Zoological Anthropology may be said to have commenced with Blumenbach, who,
it is interesting to recall as an evidence of the rapid growth of the science, was @
contemporary with most of us in this room, for he died as lately as 1840, although
his first work on the subject, ‘De generis hwmant varietate nativa,’ was published
three years before the death of Linnzus, too late, however, to influence the work
we are now speaking of. The scientific study of the natural history of man is
therefore, we may say, but one century old. To what it has grown during that
time you are probably aware. Scarcély an important centre of civilisation in
the world but has a special Society devoted to its cultivation. It forms by itself a
special department of the Biological Section of our Association—a department of
such importance, that on this occasion no less distinguished a person than a former
most eminent President of the whole Association was thought fit to take charge of
it. From him you will doubtless hear what is its present scope, aim, and compass.
I need only remind you that except the one cardinal point of the zoological relation
of man to other forms of life, which Linnzeus appears to have appreciated with in-

tuitive perception, all else that you will now hear in that department was not
dreamt of in his philosophy.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 551

As might naturally be supposed, apes and monkeys have, for various reasons,
attracted the attention of observers of nature from very early times, and conse-
quently Linnzus was able to give rather a goodly list of species of these animals,
amounting to thirty-three; but of their mutual affinities, and of the important
structural differences which exist between many of them, he seems to have had no
idea, his three divisions being simply regulated by the condition of the tail, whether
absent, short, or long.

We now know that the so-called Anthropoid or man-like apes, the gorilla,
chimpanzee, orang, and gibbons, form a group apart from all the others of such im-
portance, that everything related to their history, structure, and habits has been most
assiduously studied, and there is now an immense literature devoted to this grou
alone. Nothing could better illustrate the advances we haye made in a hundre
years, than the contrast of our present knowledge of these forms with that of
Linneus. It is true that, as shown in the most interesting story of the gradual de-
velopment of our knowledge relating to them in the first chapter of Huxley’s ‘ Man’s
Place in Nature, the animal now called gorilla was, without doubt, the pongo, well
known to, and clearly described by our countryman, Andrew Battle, a contemporary
of Shakespeare ; and that a really accurate and scientific account of the anatomy of
the chimpanzee had been published as far back as 1699 by Dr. Edward Tyson, who,
as the first English comparative anatomist, I am proud to claim as in some sort a
predecessor in the chair I have the honour to hold in London, as he is described on
the title-page of his work as “Reader of Anatomy at Chirurgeons’ Hall.”

Linneus was, however, not acquainted with these, and his second species of
the genus Homo, H. troglodytes, and his first of the genus Sima, S. satyrus, were
both made up of vague and semi-fabulous accounts of the animals now known as
chimpanzees and orangs, but hopelessly confounded together. Of the gorilla, and
what is stranger still, of any of the large genus of gibbons, or long-armed apes of
South-eastern Asia, he had at:the time he revised the Systema no idea,

The remaining monkeys, we now know, fall into three very distinct sections :
the Cercopithecide of the Old World, and the Cebide and Hapalide of the New,
or by whatever other names we may like to designate them. Although members
of all three groups appear in the list in the Systema, they are all confusedly mixed
together. Eyen that the American monkeys belong to a totally different stock
from those of the Old World, does not seem to have been suspected.

The genus Lemur of Linnzeus comprehends five species, of which the first four
were all the then known forms of a most interesting section of the Mammalia.
These animals, mostly inhabitants of the great island of Madagascar, though some
are found in the African continent, and others in some of the Southern and Hastern
parts of Asia, constitute a well-defined group, but one of which the relations are
very uncertain. At one time, as in the system of Linnzeus, they were closely asso-
ciated with the monkeys. As more complete knowledge of their organization has
been gradually attained, the interval which separates them structurally from those
animals has become continually more evident, and since they cannot be placed
within the limits of any of the previously constituted orders, it has been considered
advisable by some naturalists to increase the ordinal divisions in their behalf and te
allow them to take rank asa distinct group, related to the Primates on the one hand,
and to the Carnivora and Insectivora on the other, The knowledge of their rela-
tions, however, bids fair to be greatly increased by the discoveries of fossil forms
lately made both in France and America, some of which seem to carry their
affinities even to the Ungulata.

Existing upon the earth at present, besides the more ordinary Lemurs to which
the species known to Linnzus belong, there are two aberrant forms, each represented
by a single species. These are the little Tarsius of Borneo and Celebes, and the
singular Chiromys, or Aye-aye, which, though an inhabitant of the head-quarters of
the group, Madagascar, and living in the same forests and under the same con-
ditions as the most typical Lemurs, exhibits a thost remarkable degree of speciali-
zation in the structure both of limbs and teeth, the latter being modified so as to
resemble, at least superficially, those of the Rodents, a group with which in fact it
was once placed. It was discovered by Sonnerat in Madagascar in 1780, two

552 REPORT— 1878,

years after the death of Linnzeus. The specimen brought to Paris by this traveller
was the only one known until 1860. Since that date, however, its native land
has been more freely open than before to explorers, and many specimens have been
obtained, one having lived for several years in the Gardens of the Londdn Zoo-
logical Society.

The history of a name is often not a little curious. Linneus applied the term
Lemures, i.e. the departed spirits of men, to these animals on account of their
nocturnal habits and ghost-like aspect. The hypothetical continent in the Indian
Ocean, supposed to have connected Madagascar with the Malayan Archipelago is
called by Mr. Sclater, Lemuria, as the presumed original home of the Lemur-like
animals. Although the steps are not numerous, it might puzzle a classical scholar,
ignorant of Zoology, to explain the connection between this continent and the
Roman festival of the same name.

The fifth animal which Linnzus places in his genus Lemur, under the name of
L. volans, is the very singular creature to which the generic term Galeopithecus has
since been applied. It is one of those completely aberrant forms, which having no
. Near existing relations, and none yet discovered among extinct forms, are perfect
age to systematic zoologists. It is certainly nota lemur, and nota bat, as has

een supposed by some. We shrink from multiplying the orders for the sake of
single genera containing only two closely allied species; so we have generally
allowed it to take refuge among the Jnsectzvora, though without being able to show
to which of that somewhat heterogeneous group it has any near affinities.

The fourth genus of the Primates is Vespertilio, comprising six species of bats.
This genus has now by universal consent expanded into an order, and one of the
best characterized and distinctly circumscribed of any in the class: indeed, those
who kave worked most at the details of the structure of bats find so much diversity
in the characters of the skull, teeth, digestive organs, &c., associated with the modi-
fication of the forelimbs for flight common to all, as almost to entitle them to be
regarded rather as a sub-class. Anatomical, as well as paleeontological evidence,
show that they must have diverged from the ordinary mammalian type at a very
far distant date, as the earliest known forms, from the Kocene strata, are quite
as specialized as any now existing, and no trace has hitherto been discovered of
forms linking them to any of the non-volant orders. By the publication within
the last few weeks of a valuable monograph on the existing species of the group,
entitled “‘ A Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum,”
by G. E. Dobson, we are enabled to contrast our present knowledge with that of
the time of Linnzeus. Although the author has suppressed a large number of
nominal species which formerly encumbered our catalogues, and wisely abstained
from the tendency of most monographists to multiply genera, he describes four
hundred species, arranged in eighty genera: nearly double the number of species,
and exactly double the number of genera, of the whole class MamMMALra in the
Systema Nature, and these Dr. Giinther remarks in his Preface are probably only
a portion of those existing. The small size, nocturnal habits, and difficulty of
capture of these animals, are sufficient reasons for the supposition that there are
still large numbers unknown to science. In the list of Linneus, the first primary
group of Dobson, the Megachiroptera, now containing seventy species, is represented
by a single one, V. Vampyrus, obviously a Pteropus, to which the blood-thirsty
habits of the fabulous Vampyre are attributed, but which is not absolutely identi-
fied with any one of the known species. The other species described by Linnzeus
can almost all be identified with bats at present well known.

A curious example of the results of basing classification upon a few, and those
somewhat artificial characters, is afforded by one of the true bats, now called
Noctilio leporinus, though admitted by Linnzeus to be ‘simellimus vespertilionibus,
similiter pedibus alatus, being separated from the others, not only generically, but
even placed in another order, that of the GrirxEs or Rodents, because it did not, or
was supposed not, to fall under the definition of the order Prrmatxs, which begins
‘ Dentes primores incisores supertores IV. parallel.’ In reality this bat has four
upper incisors, but the outer ones are so small as to have been overlooked when
first examined. But even, if this were not so, no one would now dream of basing

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.— DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 553

an animal’s position upon such a trivial character when opposed to the totality of
its organization and habits.

The characters of the incisor teeth are placed in the first rank in the definitions
of all the orders in the Systema Nature, and hence the next order called Brora,
characterized by ‘dentes primores nulli superius aut inferius,’ contains a curious
mixture of heterogeneous animals, as the names of the genera Elephas, Trichechus,
Bradypus, Myrmecophaga, Manis, and Dasypus will indicate. It contains, in fact,
all the animals then known comprised in the modern orders of Proboscidea,
Sirenia, and Edentata, together with the walrus, one of the Carnivora. The name
Brura has been revived for one of these orders, that more generally called Edentata,
but I think very inappropriately, for it was certainly not equivalent, and if re-
tained at all, should rather belong to the Proboscidea, as Elephas stands first in
the list of genera, and was probably in the mind of Linnzeus when he assigned
the name to the group.

It is curious to find that the striking differences between the African and the
Indian elephants, now so well understood by every beginner in Zoology, and all
the facts which have already been accumulated relating to the numerous extinct
forms of Proboscideans, whether Mammoths, Mastodons, or Dinotheria, were quite
unknown to Linneus. .One species only, Elephas maximus, represented in the
zoology of a hundred years ago, was all that was known of the elephants or
elephant-like animals.

The genus Vrichechus of this edition exhibits a very curious phase of zoological
knowledge: It contains two species. 1. 7. rosmarus, the Walrus, now known to
be a modified seal, and therefore a member of the Linnwan order Ferm, and 2. 7.
manatus, a name under which were included all the known forms of Manatees and
Dugongs, in fact the whole of the modern order Strenia; animals widely removed
in all essential points of their organization from the walrus, with which they are
here generically united. Their position, however, between the elephant on the one
hand and the sloths on the other, is far better than their association with the
Cetacea, as in Cuvier’s system, an association from which it has been most difficult
to disengage them, notwithstanding their total dissimilarity, except in a few ex-
ternal characters. Although the discovery of many fossil forms has done much
to link together the few existing species and to show the essential unity of the
group, it has thrown no light upon their origin, or their affinities to other mam-
mals. They still stand, both by their structure and their habits, a strangely
isolated group, and it baffles conjecture to say whence they have been derived, or
how they have attained their present singular organization.

The remaining genera of the Linnzan order Brura constitute the group out of
which Ouvier, following Blumenbach, formed his order Edentata, a name certainly
not happily chosen for a division which includes species like the great Armadillo,
having a larger number of teeth than any other land mammal, but which, neverthe-
less, has been so generally adopted, and is so well understood, that to attempt to
change it would only introduce an element of confusion. Four out of five of the
principal modifications of form in the group at present known, are indicated by the
four Linnean genera, Bradypus or Sloth, Myrmecophaga or Anteater, Manis or
Pangolin, and Dasypus or Armadillo. The advances during the century have con-
sisted in the accumulation of a great mass of details respecting these groups; the.
addition of a fifth and very distinct existing form, the Orycteropus or Cape Ant-
eater ; and the discovery of numerous and very remarkable extinct forms, such as
the Megatheriums and Glyptodons of South America, so fully known by their
well-preserved osseous remains. There is, however, still much to be done in work-
ing out the real relationship of the somewhat isolated members of the order, if it
be anatural order, both to each other, and to the rest of the Mammalia, from which
they stand widely removed in many points of organization.

The third order of Linnzus, Frrm, contained all the then known animals,
which, with whatever diversities of general structure, agreed in their predatory
habits, and possessed certain general characters of teeth and claws to correspond,
though the terse definition of “ Dentes primores supertores sex, acutiuscult, canine
salétarit,” is by no means universally applicable to them. This order was broken

554 REPORT—1878.

up by Cuvier into the orders Carnivora and Insectivora, and the genus Didelphys, in-
cluded in it by Linnzeus, has been since by universal assent removed to another group-

The first six genera belong to the very well-defined and probably natural group
now called Carnivora. The one placed at the head of the list, Phoca, is equivalent
to the large and important modern sub-order Pinnipedia, the walrus, however,
though essentially a seal, having been, as before mentioned, relegated by Linneeus
to another order, on account of its aberrant dentition. But three species are recorded
in the genus: P. ursina, the sea-bear of the North Pacific (now Otaria ursina) ;
P. leonina, founded on Anson’s sea-lion, now commonly called the elephant seal.
or sea-elephant (Macrorhinus proboscideus, or more properly leonmmus); and
P. vitulina, the common seal of our coasts.

The terrestrial sub-order of Carnivora is represented by five genera: 1. Canis,
including the dog, wolf, hyena, fox, arctic fox, jackal, &c. 2. Felis, with only six
species, but still one of the few Linnean genera, which covers exactly the same
ground as at present in the opinion of the majority of zoologists, although it may
be mentioned as an example of the tendency towards excessive and unnecessary
multiplication of generic names which exists in some quarters, that it has been
divided into as many as fourteen. 3. Viverra, a heterogeneous group, containing
ichneumons, coatis, and skunks, animals belonging to three very distinct families,
according to modern ideas. 4. Mustela, a far more natural group, being nearly
equivalent to the modern family Mustelide ; and, lastly, a very comprehensive genus
Ursus, consisting of U. meles, the badger, U. lotor, the racoon, U. duscus,
the wolverene, and all the true bears known, comprised in the single species
U. arctos. Many interesting forms of Carnivora, as Cryptoprocta, Proteles, Eupleres,
Ailurus, and Arluropus, have no place in the Linnean system, being comparatively
modern discoveries. The very recent date (1869) at which the last-named remark-
able animal was made known to science by the enterprising researches of the Abbé
David into the Fauna of Eastern Thibet, gives hope that we may not yet be at the
end of the discovery of even large and hitherto unsuspected forms of existing
mammals.

Next in the Linnean system comes the genus Didelphys, constituted for the
reception of five species of American opossums, ‘Thisis a very interesting landmark
in the history of the progress of the knowledge of the animal life of the world, as
these five opossums, forming a genus in the midst of the order Ferm, were all that
was then known of the great sub-class Marsupialia, now constituting a group
entirely apart from the ordinary members of the class. It is difficult now to
imagine an animal world without kangaroos, without wombats, without phalangers,
without thylacines, without dasyures, and so many other familiar forms, and yet
such was the animal world known to Linneus. It is true that a species of
kangaroo from one of the islands of the Austro-Malayan Archipelago was described
as long ago as 1714 by De Bruyn, who saw it alive at the house of the Dutch
governor of Batavia, and that Captain Cook and Sir Joseph Banks saw and killed
kangaroos on the east coast of Australia in 1770, and had published figures and
descriptions of them in 1773, or five years before the death of Linnzeus, but the
work we are now considering contains no traces of knowledge of the existence of
such a remarkable and now so well-known animal.

The three remaining genera of Ferm, Talpa, Sorex, and Erinaceus, contained
all the known species of the present order Insucrrvora, which now embraces many
and very varied forms, quite unsuspected a century ago, and to which it is probable
that others will be added by the time the exploration of the animal products of the
world is completed.

The fourth order, GirREs, has remained practically unchanged to our day,
although the name Rodentia has generally superseded that bestowed ‘upon it by
Linneeus. The five genera of the Systema Nature, Hystrix, Lepus, Castor, Mus,
and Sciwrus, have been vastly increased, partly by subdivision and partly by the
discovery of new forms. Noctilio is, as before mentioned, removed to the Chiroptera,
but its loss is well compensated for by Hydrocherus, the well-known Capybara,.
the largest existing member of the group, which in the Linnean system is placed:
among the Bellue, in the same genus with the pigs.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 555

The fifth Linnzean order, Prcora, is a fairly natural group, equivalent to
Ouvier’s Rwminantia; but it is no longer considered of the value of an order, since
the animals composing it have now been shown to be as closely related to certain
of those belonging to the next order as they are to each other. The first genus,
Camelus, contains both the American Lamas and the Old World camels, the
demonstration of the common origin and close affinities of which has been one of
the important results of the recent discoveries in the paleontology of the Western
continent. In the next genus, Moschus, were placed the well-known musk deer of
the highlands of Central Asia, and two small African antelopes, which have no
special affinity with it. The subsequent inclusion in the same genus of the small
chevrotains (Traguline), which was very natural at the time, as they agree per-
fectly with the musk in the absence of horns and the presence of large canine tusks,
by which artificial characters the genus was defined by Linnzeus, was one of those
unfortunate associations which has greatly retarded the progress of knowledge of
the true affinities of the group. Judging by the popular works on Zoology, it is
still as difficult to apprehend that a chevrotain is not a musk deer, as it is that a
manatee is not a cetacean; both errors of the same kind, if not quite so gross, as
that of regarding a whale as a fish, ora bat asa bird. The genus Cervus contains
six species of true deer, including the moose, reindeer, red deer, fallow and roe,
associated with the giraffe.

The twenty-one species at that time recognized of the great group of
hollow-horned Ruminants are distributed quite artificially in three genera,
Capra, Ovis, and Bos. Though subsequent investigations have greatly increased
the number of species known, we are still in much uncertainty about their mutual
affinities and generic distinctions. Being a group of comparatively modern origin,
and only just attaining its complete development, variation has chiefly affected the
less essential and superticial organs, and the process of extinction of intermediate
forms has not operated sufficiently long to break it up into distinctly separated
natural minor groups, as is the case with many of the older families, which yield,
therefore, far more readily to the needs of systematic classification, especially as
long as the extinct forms are unknown or ignored.

The sixth order of land mammals, BELLU”®, corresponding to the Pachydermata
of Cuvier, contains what is now known to be a heterogeneous collection, viz. the
horses, the hippopotamus, the pigs, rhinoceros, and the rodent capybara. The
abolition of these two last orders and the entire re-arrangement of the ungulate
mammals, into two different natural groups, now called Artiodactyla and Perisso-
dactyla, first indicated by Cuvier in the ‘ Ossemens fossiles,’ from the structure of
the limbs alone, and afterwards confirmed by Owen from comparison of every part
of the organization, has been one of the most solid advances made in our knowledge
of the relations of the Mammalia during the present century.

The past history of this, as of so many other groups of vertebrated animals,
has been brought to light in an unexpected manner by the wonderful discoveries of
fossil remains made during the last ten years in the Rocky Mountains of America ;
discoveries, the importance of which will only be fully appreciated when the
elaborate and beautifully illustrated work which Professor Marsh has now in
progress, is completed.

The last Linnzean order, Crt, is exactly conterminous with the order so named,
or rather more generally modified to Cetacea, in the best modern systems, for
Linneus did not commit the error of Cuvier and others, of including the Strenia
among the whales. His knowledge of the animals composing the group was neces-
sarily very imperfect, indeed it is only within the last few years, especially since the
impulse given to their study by Eschricht of Copenhagen, that the great difficulties
which surround the investigation of the structure and habits of these denizens of
the open sea have been so far surmounted that we have begun to obtain clear views
of their organization, affinities, and geographical distribution.

Two most remarkable forms of mammals, so abnormal in their organization as
now to be generally considered deserving the rank of a distinct sub-class, the Hehidna
and Ornithorhynchus, were first made known to science in 1792 and 1799 respectively,
and consequently have no place in the Systema Nature. The very recent discovery

556 REPORT— 1878.

of a third form to this group, or at least a very striking modification of one of the
forms, the large New Guinea echidna (Acanthoglossus Bruynit), is the last im-
portant acquisition to our knowledge of the class.

In this brief review of the progress of one small section of one branch of
zoological knowledge it will be seen that it is chiefly of systems of arrangement,
of classification, and of names that I have been treating. By many biologists of
the present day these are looked upon as the least attractive and least profitable
branches of the subject. The interest of classification, though it has lost much in
some senses by the modern advances of scientific biology, has, however, gained
vastly in others. The idea that has now, chiefly in consequence of the writings of
Darwin, taken such strong hold upon all working naturalists—the idea of a gradual
growth and progressive evolution, and therefore genetic connection between all living
things—breaks down the artificial barriers which zoologists raise around their
groups, and shows that such names as species, genera, families, orders, &c., are
merely more or less clumsy attempts to express various shades of differences among
creatures connected by infinite gradations, and in this sense destroys the importance
attached to them by our predecessors. On the other hand, it immensely increases
the interest contained in the word “ relationship,” as it implies that the word is used
in a real and not, as formerly, in a metaphorical sense. There is a kind of classifi-
cation, such as we might apply to inanimate substances or manufactured articles.
We may say, for instance, that a tumbler, a wine-glass, and a tea-cup are more
‘closely related to each other than either one is to a chair or a table, and that they
might be formed into one group, and the last-named objects be placed in a second.
This kind of classification is certainly useful in its way, for methodical arrangement
-and descriptive purposes. It is the kind of arrangement which Linnzeus and his
contemporaries applied to animals. It is, however, a very different classification
from that which supposes that the members of a group having common essential
characters are descended from a common ancestor, and have gradually, by whatever
cause or means, become differentiated from other groups. On this view a true
classification, if it could be obtained, would be a revelation of the whole secret of
the evolution of animal life, and it is no wonder that many are willing to devote
so large a share of their energies to endeavour to attain it.

The right application of the principles of nomenclature, first clearly established
by Linnzeus, to the groups we form is, again, by no means to be despised, as laxity
and carelessness in this respect are becoming more and more the greatest hindrances
to the study of Zoology. The introduction of any new term, especially a generic
name, and indeed the use of an old one by any person whose authority carries
weight, has an appreciable effect upon the progress of science, and should never be
done without a full sense of the responsibility incurred. All beginners are puzzled
and often repelled by the confused state of zoological nomenclature to an extent to
which those who have advanced so far as only to care for the things, and to whom
the actual names by which they are called are comparatively indifferent, have little
idea. Those whose special gift or inclination leads them to the pursuit of other
branches of Biology, as Morphology, Physiology, Embryology, &c., must have
definite names for the objects they observe, depict, or describe, and are de-
pendent upon the researches of the systematic zoologist for supplying them, and
catons not neglect to take his counsel, otherwise much of their work will lose its
value.

Several times has the British Association thought this a worthy subject for the
consideration of its members, and through the instrumentality of a committee of
working naturalists drew up in 1842 an excellent code of regulations and sugges-
tions on the subject of zoological nomenclature. These rules were revised and
reprinted in 1865; and in accordance with a resolution adopted at the last annual
meeting at Plymouth they have been again republished at the cost of the Asso-
ciation during the present year. The mere issue of such rules must have had a
beneficial effect, as they have undoubtedly been a guide to many careful and
conscientious workers. Unfortunately there are no means of enforcing them upon
those of a different class, and there is still something wanting, short of enforcing
them, which possibly may be within the power of the Association to effect. In

.

¥
’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 557

the administration of the judicial affairs of a nation, besides the makers of the laws,
we have an equally essential body to interpret or apply the law to particular cases—
the judges. However carefully compiled or excellent a code of regulations may
be, dubious and difficult cases will arise, to which the application of the law is
not always clear, and about which individual opinions will differ. The necessary
permission given in the Association rules to change names which are either
‘glaringly false,’ or ‘not clearly defined,’ opens the door to considerable latitude of
private interpretation. As what we are aiming at is simply convenience and
general accord, and not absolute justice or truth, there are also cases in which the
rigid law of priority, even if it can be ascertained, requires qualification, and other
cases in which it may be advisable to put up with a small error or inconvenience to:
avoid falling into a larger one. I may name such cases as the propriety of reviving
an obsolete or almost unknown name for one which, if not strictly legitimate, has
been universally accepted, or the retention of a name when already applied to a.
different genus, instead of the institution of another in its place. For instance,
should the name Echidna, by which the well-known Monotremous Mammal is.
known in every text-book and catalogue in every language, be susperseded by
Tachyglossus, because the former name had previously been applied to a genus of
snakes? or should the chimpanzee be no longer called Troglodytes lest it should
be confounded with a wren? Should Chiromys be discarded for Daubentonia,
Trichechus for Odobenus, and Tapirus for Hydrocherus? Should the Java slow
lemur be called Loris, Stenops, or Nycticebus? Should Sowerby’s whale be placed
in the genus Physeter, Delphinus, Delphinorhynchus, Heterodon, Diodon, Aodon,
Nodus, Ziphius, Micropterus, Micropteron, Mesodiodon, Dioplodon, or Mesoplodon,
in all of which it may be found in various systematic lists? Should one of the
largest and best known of the Cetaceans of our seas be called Balenoptera mus-
culus, Physalus antiquorum, or Pterobalena communis, all names used for it by
authors of high authority? Should the smallest British seal be called Phoca
hisyrda, feetida, or anellata?

I might go on indefinitely multiplying instances which will be answered
differently by different naturalists, the arguments for one or the other name being
often nicely balanced. What is wanted, therefore, issome kind of judicial authority
for deciding which should in future be used. If a committee of eminent naturalists,
selected from various nations, and divided into several sections, according to the
subjects with which each member is mosé familiar, could be prevailed upon to take
up the task of revising the whole of our existing nomenclature upon the basis of
the laws issued by the Association in 1842, occasionally tempering their strictly
legal decisions with a little discretion and common sense, and with a view, as
much as possible, of avoiding confusion, and promoting general convenience; and
if the working zoologists of the world generally would agree to accept the decisions
of such a committee as final, we should dispose of many of the difficulties with
which we are now troubled. ‘here seems to me no more reason why the nomen-
clature of such a committee, if it were composed of men in whose judgment their
fellow-workers would have confidence, should not be as universally accepted as is.

“the nomenclature of the last edition of the Systema Nature of Linneus. We have
agreed not to look beyond that work for evidence of privrity, aud why should we
not agree in the same way to accept decisions which would probably be arrived at
with even fuller knowledge and greater sense of responsibility ?

Whether this suggestion will be received with favour or not, it appeared to me
that it was one not inappropriate for the consideration of this Section which has
already dealt with the question in'a manner so advantageous to science, and also
for this year which has witnessed the hundredth anniversary of the death of the
great teacher of systematic zoology.

Our knowledge of the living inhabitants of the earth has indeed changed since
that time. Our views of their relations to the universe, to each other, and to our-
selves, have undergone great revolutions. The knowledge of Linnzeus far sur-

_ passed that of any of his contemporaries ; but yet of what we now know he knew

ut an infinitesimal amount. Much that he thought he knew we now deem false.

! Nevertheless, some of the oldest words to be found in all his writings contain

558 REPORT— 1878.

sentiments which still claim a response in the hearts of many. Although we are
less accustomed to see such words in works of science, that is no proof that
their significance has been impaired by the marvellous progress of knowledge.
With the words which Linnzus selected to place at the head of his great work I
will conclude—

“O Jehova,

Quam ampla sunt tua opera!

Quam sapienter ea fecistt !

Quam plena est terra possessione tua !’

The following Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Close-time Committee.—See Reports, p. 146.

2. Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Naples.
See Reports, p. 149.

3. On the Geographical Distribution of the Cheiroptera.
By Dr. G. E. Dosson.

Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso among the Reports.
See p. 158.

4. Notes on the Geographical Distribution and Migrations of Birds, S§e., on
the Northern Shores and Lands of Hudson's Bay. By J. Raz, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.

Dr. Rae read a long paper on the above subject, chiefly with the object of supple-
menting the writings of Sir John Richardson, whose descriptions are in some
instances incomplete, in consequence of that admirable zoologist not having been
able to visit certain localities in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s territory, and having
had to depend upon the reports of others, who sometimes were not very conver-
‘sant with the subject.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 559

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on a case of Commensalism in the Holothuria.
By Dr. A. F. ANDERSON.

2. On certain Osteological Characters in the Cervide and their probable
bearings on the past History of the Group. By Sir Victor Brooke, Bart.

3. The Habits of Ants. By Sir Joun Luszock, F.R.S.

4. On the Habits of the Field-Vole (Arvicola agrestis, L.).
By Sir Watter Exuior, F.B.S.

The species above named, more commonly known as the short-tailed field-mouse,
has been observed of late to be annually increasing. In the early part of 1876, it
appeared in such numbers in the hill pasture farms of the border districts between
England and Scotland, and in the western parts of Yorkshire, as to cause serious
damage to the grazing ground on which the sheep mainly depend for maintenance
in spring, thereby inflicting serious loss on farmers by the impoverishment and death
of stock. Notwithstanding the efforts of the shepherds and their dogs, assisted by
an unusual influx of birds and beasts of prey—hawks, buzzards, owls, weasels, foxes,
&c.—their numbers were not sensibly diminished; but on the approach of summer
they began to perish with hunger after exhausting their own means of subsistence,
and the few survivors were driven by starvation to their usual haunts. Their
favourite abodes are low-lying humid meadows and damp plantations, in which they
construct superficial burrows, breeding five or six times in the year, and preducing
six to eight young at a birth. Autumnal rains and severe winter frosts generally
]oll great numbers, and it is to an absence of these checks, during a series of mild
seasons from 1872-76, that their late abnormal increase is attributed.

It is remarkable that during the same period a kindred foreign species, the
Arvicola arvalis, Pallas, was creating similar damage to the corn-tields of Austria
and Hungary, and only the other day a paragraph in the Times stated that they are
now destroying the wheat crop in Moldavia.

Several instances are recorded of mischief done by the common vole to young
plantations, notably those described by Jesse in the royal forests of Hampshire and
Gloucestershire.

These facts show that although they have hitherto confined their attacks (as
far as known) in our own country to woods and pastures, they may, under con-
ditions favourable to their increase, attack our cereal produce. It would be well,
therefore, for game preservers to consider whether they are not promoting such a
contingency by the persistent destruction, under the name of vermen, of the natural
enemies of the vole, and for farmers to reflect whether they may not carry too far
the extirpation of the mole, of which voles are a favourite prey.

560 REPORT— 1878.

One object in offering these observations to the section was to ascertain whether
anything similar had been observed in Ireland, where it is believed the vole is not
common, for it is observed that it, as well as its British congeners, A. amphibia
and A. glareolus, are omitted from Mr. Barrington’s list of mammals given at page
91 of part ii, in the Guide to Dublin prepared for this meeting of the Associa-
. tion.*

* The paper of which the above is an extract will appear in the ‘ Transactions.
of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club’ for the current year.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.

The Department did not meet.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 561

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.
Part IV. On Development. See Reports, p. 193.

2. On the Willemoesia Growp of Crustacea. By C. Spence Bats, F.R.S.

Among the many objects of interest taken from the depths of the ocean during the
cruise of the Challenger, there were few that attracted more attention than the so-
called blind Crustacea.

These were described by Mr. Willemoes-Suhm rather fully both in ‘Nature’
and in the ‘Transactions of the Linnean Society,’—in the pages of the former under
the name of Deidamia; but in the latter Mr. Grote, having discovered that this
name had been in use for a genus of Sphingide, changed it to Willemoesia, in com-
pliment to the unfortunate marine zoologist of the expedition.

Soon after it had been published it was recognized by those who had given at-
tention to the subject to resemble a small crustacean that Dr. Heller had described
among the “ Crustaceen des siidlichen Europa,” from a single male specimen in the
collection of the museum at Vienna, to which he gave the name of Polycheles
typhlops, belonging to the same group. I believe that I am correct in stating that
Mr. Wood-Mason was the first, in the ‘ Journal of the Asiatic Society ’ for 1875, to
point out the resemblance between the Polycheles of Heller and Willemoesia of the
Challenger expedition.

Each of these zoologists has described the animal as being blind; and it is sup-
posed that on this character Heller founded the specific name of his species, the eyes
of which, he says, are rudimentary ; and Willemoes-Suhm says that “the eyes are
entirely wanting, nor is there any place left open where you might expect to find
them.”

Both these observant naturalists haye passed over the peculiar character of the
organ of vision that belongs to this group of animals. Heller has classified it with
the family Astacidze in a division by itself; and they haye both asserted that it
closely corresponds with the fossil genus Eryon.

Dr. Camil Heller, moreover, says that it bears a strong resemblance in the form
of the body to the ‘Scyllaride,’ from which it differs essentially by the structure of
the antennze, the form of the chele, and the narrow sternum. With the Astacide
it has in common the possession of the leaf-like appendage at the base of the second
antennze and the chelate character of the pereiopoda; in all other respects it differs
from Astacus.

Willemoes-Suhm says: “ Among the living Decapoda Macrura there is hardly
a group with which Wellemoesia could be said to be very closely allied. Nearest
to it are undoubtedly the “Scyllarine ;” but these, like all the genera of the family
Palinuride, differ from it in the absence of the lamellar appendage of the second
_ antennze, and in the presence of palpi at the base of the gnathopoda, which, as we
haye seen, are wanting in this new genus. Nor can it, for this latter reason, be re-
ped to the Astacide, with which it has in common the presence of the antennal
scale,”

“The genus,” says Heller, corresponds greatly with the fossil crustacean de-
Scribed by Deshayes from the slate-quarries of Solenhofen (Eryon Cuvieri), since

1878. 00

’

562 REPORT—1878.

also in this are found a flattened carapace and similarly formed antenne and
pereipoda. The hinder part of the body is much narrower than the anterior; and
the leaf-like appendage of the second pair of antenne is much enlarged. It forms
a link between the Scyllaridz on the one hand, and the Astacidz on the other.”

“Tt is very astonishing, indeed,” says Willemoes-Suhm, “that, among all the
crustaceans known to us, Willemoesta approaches most closely the fossil Eryontide.
If we compare, for example, our figure of W. crucifera with the figure of Eryon
arctiformis, and the description of the ‘Tribu des Eryons’ given by Milne-Edwards
(and probably taken especially from Desmarest’s ‘ Crustacés Fossiles’) we find most
striking resemblances between the two forms. In W. crucifera as well asin Eryon
the carapace has nearly half the length of the whole body; and in both forms its
lateral borders are wing-like expansions which are divided by two deep incisions
into three portions. The anterior border of the carapace is nearly straight in both
forms.

“ Eryon was probably not blind; for the eye-stalks have been found in several
specimens. Its antennz seem to be somewhat more reduced then in Willemoesia ;
but the second pair of them has, according to Desmarest, ‘ une écaille assez large,
ovoide et fortement échancrée.’ This is the chief difference between Eryon and the
Palinuride, and the same in which Willemoesia also differs from that group.”

So much do the fossil and recent animals resemble each other that the dis-
coverer of the recent species says, ‘If the last pair of pereiopoda and the pleon of
Eryon were presented to me I should undoubtedly declare them to be parts of the
genus Wellemoesta. There are the same line of spines at the top of the rings, the
same wing-like expansions on both sides, and that characteristic ‘caudal apparatus.’
Also the fine fringe of hairs which distinguishes the caudal fin of Wéllemoesia is to
be seen in the fossil crustacean.”

“ Eryon,” continues the same author, “ differs from the living genus chiefly by
the presence of eye-stalks and of palpi at the base of the gnathopoda. According
to Guenstedt, the latter were observed only with difficulty; and their presence
seems not to be beyond all doubt.” And the lamented carcinologist of the expe-
dition looked forward to his return, when he would look over the original
specimens and satisfy himself, so as to enable him to give a more detailed account
of the relations of Wellemoesia to Eryon. That they must be very close he had
no doubt, and considered that among the Eryontide this new genus must take its
place, between the Astacide and Palinuride.

It will be desirable that we should examine the animals and see how far the
conclusions arrived at by two independent observers can be supported by extended
inquiry.

Taller describes Polycheles as having a thin dermal structure, »wdimentary eyes,
antenne like those of Willemoesia, and four pairs of pereiopoda chelate, and one
(the fifth pair) simple.

Willemoes-Suhm describes Willemoesia as having the eyes and eye-stalks entirely °
wanting ; four or five pairs of pereiopoda chelate in distinct species.

In all other respects the descriptions of the two authors agree..

The Challenger collection contains specimens of this group from thirteen
different places; and in every one I was able, upon close examination, to find the
eyes very distinct, though singularly situated. Moreover, there is a variation in
form and position that gives them a value in classification, particularly when taken
into consideration with the relative forms of the several pairs of pereiopoda.

The dorsal surface of the several species of this group is flattened and de-
pressed, and the anterior margin is tolerably straight; the central tooth, which is
sometimes single and sometimes double, is never directed forwards in the form of
a rostrum, but upwards and obliquely forwards. In the anterior margin on each
side there is a deep cleft in the dorsal surface, in which the eye with its peduncle
is lodged; the anterior extremity, being directed forwards, outwards, and down-
wards, is covered over by the lateral projecting wings of the carapace. It appears
to have two points of vision, the one upwards by the dorsal surface, the other
downwards and outwards by the lens at the extremity of the peduncle. But
these several points are liable to vary in degree. In some the dorsal notch is
almost non-existent, in others it is very deep; and it is by this variation, taken in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 563

connection with the power of change in the form of the pereiopoda, that I purpose
classifying the several species of this interesting group.

PorycHeEtEs, Heller.
(Crust. des siidl. Europa.)

Tn this genus I accept the author’s definition, that it has the anterior four pairs
of pereiopoda chelate and the fifth simple. But instead of saying that the eyes
are rudimentary, I assert that they are immovably lodged in a notch in the dorsal
surface of the carapace, with the anterior extremity projecting beneath the antero-
lateral wings of the carapace.

PENTACHELES, 0. g.

All the pereiopoda are chelate, and the eyes are lodged immovably in a notch
in the antero-dorsal surface of the carapace, with the anterior extremity projected
beneath the antero-lateral wing-like extremity of the carapace.

WILLEmMoEsIA, Grote.
(‘ Nature,’ October 1873.)

All the pereiopoda chelate, and the eyes immovably situated in the anterior or
frontal surface of the cephalon, and neither lodged in a notch in the dorsal surface
of the carapace nor covered by the antero-lateral wing of the carapace. Eyes
small, directed outwards and forwards.

PoLYCHELES. 4 :
Fathoms Temp.
CRUGITEr eto seesk ces West Indies ...... 450 ... Glob.-ooze.
13 Cla eee ee KermadecIsland... 520 6° Hard.

Wp Waceassiesseeaees New Guinea ...... 1070 2°'1 ~ Glob.-ooze.
WPHeCAULIS) Mc sseec0s HBigiigashawcctskeesseene 310 Soh wes
typhlops ............ Mediterranean...... +. oe

PENTACHELES.
MRIS tar swes cea ccnctsss Philippine Islands 500 5°3 Gilob.-ooze.
PSM ORNT, F200 54.80 200 Dataeonig a. ..-c.-.- 120 a ds
SRPRCING 5... cess ta. IBY coer carps gees 610 3°7 — Gilob.-ooze.
ObSCurus ............ New Guinea ...... 1070 2°-1 Glob.-ooze.
auriculatus ......... Bujtccecctetwses ee CLO ... Glob.-ooze.
MORTON oc cdiece socks New Hebrides...... 315 ae al C.
WILLEMOESIA.
leptodactyla ......... North Atlantic ... 1900 1°°9 Gilob.-ooze.
wens ....Juan Fernandez... 1375 1°8 Glob.-ooze.

”

The eyes of the several genera, although they may differ from each other in
structural detail, yet correspond throughout the group in a common characteristic.
The peduncle is reduced to a minimum and fixed as a rigid part of the dermal
structure, over which a portion of the carapace is projected.

If we turn to the animal while it is yet embryonic (and our only opportunity
is its observation before it has quitted the egg), although in an advanced condition,
we see that previously to the eruption from the ovum it attains atleast the zoéa
stage of development, and that the eyes are large and distinctly pedunculated, just
in the same way as the zoéa of Alpheus in the embryonic condition ha eyes con-
siderably larger and more like the permanent organ in other genera than the adult

parent from which it springs.

The alteration from the original type to a depauperised condition is therefore
due to causes acting through the habits of the animal after it has passed through
its zoéa stage. This is precisely the way that Alpheus has passed; anil as the

002

564 REPORT—1878.

result has been somewhat similar, it is highly probable that the conditions have
been parallel.

Alpheus in the young stage is a free-swimming animal with powerful organs of
vision ; but in its adult condition it burrows in the mud of the sea-bottom, where
the eyes are of little use, except to see things in close proximity, and where they are
liable to injury from rough accidents, unless they be protected, as they are, by the
streneth of the overlying carapace.

The history of Willemoesta and its allies I believe to be very parallel with that
of Alpheus. In its young stage it has well-developed eyes, which it loses when it
has arrived at its adult condition. This I believe to be attributable to a similar
cause, viz. that it burrows in the soft mud of the deep-sea bottom.

This is borne out by an examination of the contents of the stomach, which I
found to be full of the remains of the structures found in the Globigerina-ooze.

That the depauperised state of the organs of vision is not due to the loss of
light from the great depth at which Willemoesia is taken is evident from the fact
that Thalascaris, n.g. (Cranognide) is taken at depths equally great, and is
remarkable for the large size of its eyes. ;

Willemoesia, moreover, is not necessarily one of our deepest sea inhabitants.
Willemoesia leptodactyla was taken both in the Atlantic and Pacific at a depth
of 1900 and 1375, while Polycheles Hellert and Pentacheles obscurus were taken
north of New Guinea at a depth of 1070; yet most of the other species, even in-
cluding Polycheles Helert, were taken at depths between 610 and 120 fathoms.

The bottom temperature has only been recorded in seven of the stations at
which the species were taken—that is, only from the deeper soundings; these,
however, vary from 6° to 1°8 C. Iam therefore inclined to think that temperature
can only be second to that of the character of the sea~bottom itself.

Out of the thirteen stations from which specimens of this group have been
recorded, the bottom consists of what has been named Gilobigerina-ooze in eight,
one is recorded of mud, and two ‘r.c.’ (which, I suppose means red clay), and one
only on hard ground; but as this occurs only once, and that with an animal
(Polycheles Helleri) that is also recorded from another station where Globigerina-
ooze exists, I think that we may safely infer that the whole group are inhabitants
of a soft bottom, preferring that in which animal life suitable for their existence
abounds, and that their general structure and form are in accord with their habitat.

3. On the supposed Radiolarians and Diatoms of the Coal-measures.*
By Professor W. C. Winuiamson, F.R.S.

4. On the Association of an Inconspicuous Corolla with Proterogynous
Dichogamy in Insect-fertilised Flowers. By Aux. 8. Witson, M.A., B.Sc.

. It is a well-ascertained fact that the great majority of conspicuously coloured
flowers are proterandrous, that is, the anthers are matured before the stigmas of the
same flower. Plants where this arrangement for the prevention of self-fertilisation
obtains have also for the most part their flowers growing close to each other,
forming a more or less compact inflorescence, as in Erica, Calluna, Vaccinium, Digi-
talis, Linaria, Gladiolus, &c. The flowers are also in many cases all turned to one
side of the floral axis, the inflorescence being termed secund. By these means the
plants as a whole are rendered more conspicuous. In the indefinite or basifugal
mode of flowering which is the commonest form, the flowers come out in succession
from below upwards; hence on any given spike the older flowers will be lower
down than the younger ones, and it follows with proterandrous dichogamy the
lower flowers will at a given time be in the second or female stage, while those
towards the upper extremity of the stalk will have only attained to the first or
male condition. The lower flowers will in fact have shed all their pollen, and have
their stigmas ready to be fertilised by the time the anthers of the upper flowers are
beginning to shed pollen, On the other hand, in a plant with proterogynous

* See Section C., p. 534.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 565

dichogamy, it is clear that, if we still keep to the indefinite mode of flowering, the
lower or older flowers on any given plant will be in the second or male stage by
the time the younger upper ones have reached the first or female stage, seeing that
in this case the stigma is developed before the anthers of each flower. Scrophwaria
nodosa affords a good example of a plant having proterogynous dichogamy, and to
it the present paper chiefly refers. In this plant the stigma, after fertilisation, is
removed out of the pathway to the nectar by the bending back of the style on the
outside of the corolla; thereafter the stamens straighten out to occupy the place
formerly held by the stigma, and begin to shed their pollen in this position. The
corolla of this flower, as usual in proterogynous plants, is small and obscurely coloured.
There is also a /ax inflorescence, the flowers not being crowded together on one side
as in proterandrous and highly coloured flowers, but scattered all round, so that as
a whole the plant is not easily discerned from a distance, nor does it readily strike
the eye as a conspicuous object. That it is truly dependent on insects and not on
the wind for the transference of its pollen, is proved by the presence of a well-
developed nectariferous gland, and by its emitting odour. Its inflorescence so far
agrees with the indefinite form that as a whole the older flowers (in this case male)
occur lower down than the younger (female) ones. Among such inconspicuously
flowered plants proterogynous dichogamy seems to prevail, just as the proterandrous
is characteristic of highly coloured flowers. Hitherto it has not been shown in
what way an entomophilous or insect-fertilised plant could possibly profit by a
small uncoloured corolla, nor has any reason been given why this apparent dis-
advantage should be generally associated with proterogynous dichogamy. The
aa of a wasp visiting Scrophularia nodosa afforded the solution of this pro-

lem. The manner in which it proceeded was quite exceptional. The first flower
on the stem which it visited was the top one; from this it passed to the others in
a somewhat irrecular manner going downwards, and finally left the plant from the
lowest flower. The same thing having been observed repeatedly, a key to the whole
question was furnished ; for any one who has watched bees collecting honey from
flowers must have observed that the bee goes to the bottom flowers first, and then
visits those next above on the same stalk in regular succession from below upwards,
Now, that this order of visitation is of importance in reference to the cross-fertili-
sation of a plant, will be obvious if we bear in mind a fact which the experiments
of Mr. Darwin (‘Cross and Self-fertilisation,’ p. 299) have clearly demonstrated, viz.,
that “a cross between the flowers on the same plant does not at all increase the
number of seeds, or only occasionally, and to a slight degree.” Now, were an insect
invariably to visit first those flowers on a plant which are shedding their pollen,
and then to pass to those with mature stigmas, clearly the usual result of this would
be that it simply removed pollen from the anthers of the flowers in the male stage,
and deposited it on the stigmas of those flowers on the same plant which happened
to be in the female stage. The effect of this would be little or no better than self-
fertilisation. This is well illustrated in the case of Gladiolus. In this strikingly
beautiful plant we have well-marked protandry in association with a highly con-
spicuous perianth, while the development of the flowers is from below up, so that
the older lower flowers have shed their pollen by the time that of the upper ones
are ready. The anthers are at first bent forwards and downwards, so that they rub
their polien on the back of a bee entering the flower; meanwhile the immature
stigma is above and behind them, quite out of the way of an insect going into the
flower. When the pollen is shed, however, the stamens straighten up out of the
way, while the stigma lobes expand and bend downwards and forwards, so that they
stand in the fairway to the nectar ready to scrape off pollen from any insect as it
passes down the tube formed by the perianth. In this case a bee entering one of
the lower and older flowers has any pollen that it brings with it from another plant
removed from its back by the pendant stigmas of these flowers, and when it ascends
to the younger male flowers towards the top of the spike receives a plentiful supply
of pollen previous to leaving for another plant. This pollenit will not fail to deposit
on the stigmas of the female flowers which it first enters. From this it appears,
then, that the whole elaborate arrangements of Gladiolus to ensure cross-fertilisa-
tion would be frustrated, were the insects frequenting it to begin at the top flowers
and proceed downwards, instead of visiting them in the reverse order from below

566 REPORT—1878.

up as they habitually do, for pollen would then simply be taken from the younger
upper flowers, and deposited on the stigmas of those lower down the stalk. In
like manner, a similar effect would result in the case of proterogynous plants, were
these visited exclusively by bees or insects adhering to the ascending habit of the
bee, for pollen would in that case be transferred from the lower older male flowers to
the upper female ones, the insect leaving with little or no pollen to carry to another
spike. Thus the chances of cross-fertilisation would be minimised, and the ends
served by the flower’s dichogamy, nectar, and odour would be missed. For these
reasons it seems highly probable that proterogynous plants like Scrophularia nodosa
are adapted to the visits of insects which do not possess the ascending habit of the
bee, but visit flowers when in search of honey in an irregular manner, or in an
order exactly the opposite of that observed by the bee, as in the case of wasps
visiting Scrophularia before referred to. The lax inflorescence, too, favours an
irregular order of visitation, for as the flowers are placed at a distance apart, it is
almost impossible for an insect to visit them in perfectly regular order. We see,
then, that in both cases things are so arranged that an insect on coming to a plant
shall first enter a female flower, and there deposit the pollen it brings from other
plants, and that before it leaves, whether a bee leaving from the top, or a wasp from
the lower flowers, it is well dusted with pollen from the male flowers it last enters,
According to H. Miiller, the flowers of Scrophularia are chiefly frequented by wasps ;
and S. aquatica Mr. Darwin states to be fertilised exclusively by wasps. It seems
only fair to infer that such flowers are in some way specialised to suit the nature
and habits of these insects. We have thus got so far with our explanation as to
see how plants having proterogynous dichogamy do not have their apparatus for
cross-fertilisation rendered ineffectual, as would undoubtedly be the case were the
ascending mode of visiting flowers rigidly followed and universal among all species
of insects. It still remains to trace the connection of this with obscurity in the
flowers, which appear to shun observation almost as distinctly as proterandrous
flowers court it. Within certain limits it is an advantage as regards cross-fertilisa-
tion that a plant’s visitors should be confined to a few or even to one species of
insect, for an insect visiting all flowers indiscriminately would be likely to have
deposited all the pollen taken from a particular species of flower on the stigmas
of other and different species where it would be of no use, before coming to
another plant of the same species as the first. This is probably the reason
why the great majority of flowers are visited only by a very limited number
of species of insects. Sir John Lubbock gives a list of plants with one species
opposite each as its sole visitant; whether this be really so or not, unmistakably
there is a tendency in this direction. If, then, we find a plant whose flowers secrete
nectar, and ascertain that it is visited almost exclusively by certain species of
insects, and if the flowers do not possess a large coloured corolla, we are at liberty
to conclude that these insects are able to find such plants without its guidance, and
that the materials consumed in its production can be otherwise turned to better
account in the economy of the plant, just as in the case of self-fertile cleistogamic
flowers. Assuming, then, that inconspicuous flowers are adapted .to the visits of
wasps, is there anything in the habits of these insects different from those of bees,
that would afford an explanation of the remarkable fact that they appear to be
able to discover a small uncoloured flower as easily as a bee can a large and con-
spicuous one? Wasps differ from bees in one important respect, that while the
latter are exclusively vegetable feeders, the former add to their vegetable diet by prey-
ing on insects smaller than themselves. AJ] through the animal kingdom carnivorous
animals are endowed with keener powers of scent and vision than graminivorous
creatures, Indeed, it is a direct result of natural selection that a creature whose
food is perpetually eluding it should in time acquire acuter perceptive powers than
one whose food is more easily obtained. That keenness of vision, then, which
enables a wasp to descry its prey at a distance, aided by an acute sense of odour, in
all probability also enables it to discover these obscure flowers without the guidance
afforded by a large coloured corolla. This obscurity, therefore, specially adapts
these flowers for fertilisation by wasps to the exclusion of insects less highly en-
dowed in these respects; while the wasp gains this advantage, that it has an
increased chance of finding honey in such flowers on account of the likelihood of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 567

their being overlooked by other honey collecting insects. For this reason wasps,
as Mr. Darwin observes, do not frequent coloured flowers to the same extent that
bees do, as they probably meet so often with disappointments in the way of flowers
that have been emptied of their nectar previously. Hence it appears that the bee is
more highly specialised as a collector of honey than the wasp.

5. On the Nectar of Flowers. By Auzx. 8. Witson, M.A., B.Sc.

Some observations on this subject made by the author during the past summer
revealed several highly interesting. points connected with the labours of an insect
collecting honey. ‘These are attended with more difficulties than might at first
sight be supposed, for it appears that nectar is only produced during certain states
of the atmosphere—dry warm weather being most favourable. The industry of the
bee is probably indispensable to its existence, as a small quantity of honey represents
a very large numberof flowers visited. In the case of thecommon red clover, 125
heads were found by analysis to give one gramme of sugar. Now, as each head con-
tains about sixty florets, even in this plant, which is comparatively rich in nectar,
7,500,000 distinct flower-tubes must be sucked for each kilogram of sugar collected.
This corresponds to about two and a half millions of visits for a pound of honey.

_ In most of our common flowers the amount of nectar is much smaller, usually

dilute and in many cases absent ; moreover, in someinstances it appears to be formed
only when the essential organs are mature. If in addition the class of sham
nectar producers, which is perhaps larger than has been supposed, and previously
emptied flowers, as well as those whose nectaries are inaccessible, be taken into
account, it will be seen that a great number of fruitless visits must be made by
these insects. Bees, however, do not visit any flower at random, but appear to
know which flowers are secreting and which are not, on any particular day. Thus,
the flowers of Vacemium Myrtillus were thronged with bees while those of Ulex:
Europeus were unvisited, on a day when the former were secreting copiously and the
latter were quite dry. The extreme solubility and diffusibility of sugar render it
necessary that the nectar should be well protected from rain, and various arrange-
ments for this purpose are found in flowers—such as the mouth of the flower hang-
ing downwards, cushions of hairs, papille, spurs, &c, In the flower of the prim-
rose, if the limb of the corolla be covered with water, it will be found that none
can penetrate down the corolla-tube to the nectar, on account of the peculiar
character of the surface of the petals causing a capillary repulsion. Werethere no
such means of protection the sugar would speedily be diffused to parts of the flower
where it would be accessible to insects without their being of any service in the
way of cross-fertilisation. In the fuchsia, which is rich in nectar, it is to be
observed that no nectar is formed before the flower opens, and the amount is
greatest at the time when the anthers are ready to dehisce. This in all likelihood
happens in other cases where it is more difficult, on account of the smallness of the
flowers, to ascertain the conditions. In this flower it is remarkable that three-
fourths of the saccharine matter is in the condition of cane or uninyerted sugar. _
Possibly this, taken in connection with the fact that nectaries are not un-
frequently aborted or degenerated organs, such as a petal or stamen, may throw
some lightfon the question in dispute among physiologists, as to whether nectar
should be regarded as a true secretion or simply as an excretion of effete matters
from the vegetable cells. It has further a physiological interest, as throwing light
on the share which the bee has in elaborating honey, since this substance contains
no cane sugar, although on account of the acid reaction of the nectar the process of °
inversion possibly goes on spontaneously. The extensive character of the operations
that would appear, from the foregoing considerations, to be performed by insects
which collect honey, enables us to form some conception of the importance of this
factor, and will help us to judge of the adequacy or efficiency of this cause, which
biologists believe to have exercised in past time an important influence in modify-
ing the size, form, and colour of flowers, as well as in determining the character, of
certain organs of the insects by which such flowers are frequented.

568 REPORT— 1878.

6. Notes on some Dimorphic Plants. By Auex. S. Wison, M.A., B.Sc.

This paper had reference to Erythrea centauriwm and Silene acaulis, The
author pointed out that the former plant was probably dimorphic, as it exhibited
heterostyly and had two kinds of pollen grains, in these respects closely resembling
the primrose and bog-bean, as well as several others belonging to the order Gen-
tranacee, of which itis a member. Stlene acaulis was shown to have three kinds of
flowers, male, female, and hermaphrodite, thus resembling S. inflata, which Axel
has shown to be triceciously polygamous.

7. Some Mechanical Arrangements subserving Cross-fertilisation of Plants
by Insects. By Aux. 8. Witson, M.A., B.Sc.

The plants considered were Pinguicula vulgaris, Vinca minor, and the fox-glove.
In Vinca the curiously shaped stigma resembles the stopper of a glass bottle. The
circumference of its lower disc secretes a viscid substance which serves to smear the
pollen so as to cause it to adhere to insects, thus resembling physiologically the
sticky disc of the common orchid, The filaments of the stamens present a curious
geniculate bend close to their insertion on the corolla, which acts as a lever when
depressed, lowering the anther with its pollen into contact with the viscid matter
on the lower part of the stigma. Somewhat similarly a peculiar bend on the fila-
ments of the two stamens of Pinguicula, when pressed, causes the anthers to descend
so as to impinge onan insect entering the flower, this latch-like mechanism dislodging
the pollen from behind the under lip of the semi-petaloid stigma. The remarkable
twists and curyings of the filaments of the fox-glove appear to act in a manner
exactly analogous, for an insect pressing on their upturned edges as it passes over
the floor of the flower must cause a shower of pollen to fall on its back from the
overhanging anthers, on account of the disturbance produced by this lever-like
mechanism,

8. On the Stipules of Spergularia Marina. By Atnxanper Dickson, M.D.,
fiegius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow.

The stipules of this plant exhibit a peculiarity, which, if observed at all by de-
scriptive botanists, has not received the attention it deserves on account of its re-
markable character. The stipules are free from the petioles, and are wholly
cellular in structure. From connation of those of opposite leaves they form “ in-
terpetiolar stipules,” with more or less regularly, though slightly, bifid extremities,
Lastly (and this is the important point), these stipules are united to each other
round the backs of the petioles, so that a sheath is formed completely surrounding
the axis and the two leaf-bases. This connation of stipules round the backs of the
petioles is very interesting, as being a rare phenomenon, Cases are not uncommon
where the two stipules are connate on the inner side of the leaf-base, constituting
the so-called “axillary stipule,” é.g., Potamogeton lucens, &c., or on the opposite
side of the axis from the leaf, e.g., Ficus elastica, Ricinus, Astragalus alpinus, &c.,
constituting the so-called “ oppositifoliar stipule ;” hut the only reference to conna-
tion of stipules behind or outside the leaf-base the author has been able to find, is to
the case of certain species of Astragalus by St. Hilaire in his‘ Morphologie” In
those species of Astragalus examined by the author he did not meet with any
where the stipules are actually connate in this way ; but in some, e.g., A. alopecuroides,
the bases of the stipules extend round the back of the leaf-stalk till they meet—a
condition just short of connation. In the stipules of Spergularia, as we have seen,
there is the interesting combination of the interpetiolar connation, with connation
round the back of the leaf. In‘“‘ English Botany” the condition is fairly enough
represented by the artist, but the morphological peculiarity does not hitherto seem
to have impressed itself upon the botanical mind.

“TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 4669

9. On the Inflorescence of Senebiera didyma. By Atnxanper Dickson, M.D.,
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow.

The inflorescence here, like that of the mass of Cruciferous plants, is racemose.
The racemes are “ oppositifoliar,” and at first sight the arrangement seems to be
analogous to that of the oppositifoliar inflorescences of Vitis or of Alchemilla
arvensis, where the inflorescence is really terminal, but is thrown to the side by a
preponderant development of a “ usurping shoot,” the axillary bud of the last leaf
produced by the primary axis before ending in the inflorescence ; and it is to be
noted that, of all the foliage leaves, that opposite the raceme is the only one ap-
parently destitute of an axillary bud, which on the supposition would be represented
by the “usurping shoot.” If, however, the plant is more closely examined, a very
remarkable condition is disclosed—one, indeed, which offers a morphological pro-
blem of considerable difficulty, and which probably can be effectually solved only by
developmental study. The peculiarity consists in the constant occurrence of a
solitary flower springing somewhere from the internode below the raceme, either
about half-way down towards, or almost close to, the level of the leaf below. So
far as observed, the solitary flower is never quite so low as the level of the lower
leaf. Probably the first idea which would occur to one would be that this is a
peculiar case of adhesion of parts; it might be supposed that from almost imme-
diately above the second last leaf of the main axis, the bases of the terminal raceme,
of the “usurping shoot,” and of the axillant leaf ofthat shoot, had all become fused
together. Now, although cases are known, on the one hand, of adhesion between
the base of a terminal flower and that of the “ usurping shoot” (e.g., Helianthemum
vulgare), and on the other hand between the base of an axillant leaf and that of the
usurping shoot in its axil (e.g., Sedum sp.), we do not know of connation of all three
together. It is possible, but not probable. The view which seems to the author
most fully to satisfy the conditions of this remarkable case may be stated briefly
in categorical form as follows:—

ist. The racemose inflorescence is terminal, and properly begins just above the
level of the “ second-last” leaf. It would tius include the aforesaid solitary flower.

2nd. The raceme, after producing one ebracteate flower, produces at its second
node a foliage-leaf, from whose axil the “usurping shoot” springs.

By such an explanation we can dispense with any cumbrous adhesion-hypothesis
such as that indicated above. The peculiarity is that the main axis does not per
saltum pass from the condition of a leafy axis to that of an axis of inflorescence,
but begins by producing one flower and then developing a foliage-leaf, beyond which
the series of flowers is uninterrupted. The “usurping shoot,” as above indicated,
represents the axillary bud of the foliage-leaf by which the raceme is interrupted.

10. On the Siz-celled Glands of Cephalotus, and their similarity to the Glands
of Sarracenia purpurea. By AtnxanpeR Dickson, M.D., Regius Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Glasgow.

The author pointed out that the peculiar six-celled glands found on the outer
surface of the pitcher, both surfaces of the pitcher-lid, and both surfaces of the
foliage-leaf of Cephalotus, are very nearly identical in structure with the glands on
both inner and outer surfaces of the pitcher of Sarracenia purpurea, which were
originally described by August Vogl. The author suggested that the remarkable

.) . . . . . . .
_ resemblance in this respect, taken in connection with certain correspondences in the

details of the insect-trapping apparatus, might indicate an affinity not hitherto sus-
pected.

570 REPORT— 1878.

11. Exhibition of Specimens of Isoetes echinospora. By ALEXANDER DICKSON,
M_D., Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow.

Dr. Dickson exhibited specimens referable to this species which he had lately
found growing on muddy bottom, among Potwmogeton, in about two feet of water
in Loch Oallater, Aberdeenshire. The plants were remarkable for the very slender
and tapering character of the leayes, which curve outwardly. The macrospores
are very markedly echinate, and in diameter about one-fourth smaller than those of
Isoetes lacustris.

12. Some rare Scottish Alpine Plants. By Dr. J. Baytny Banrour.

Specimens of some peculiar form of Scottish Alpine plants were exhibited—
chiefly willows, sedges, and hawkweeds.

Of the willows, the most interesting was Sadler’s willow (Salia Sadleri, Syme).
This plant was discovered in 1874 by Mr. Sadler, on the rocks at the head of Loch
Kander, Aberdeenshire. Since that date it has never been collected. In August
of the present year Mr. Sadler, revisiting Loch Kander, found it in fair abundance,
the specimens exhibited being of his gathering.

Of the other plants that were worthy of notice was Carex frigida, All. This
sedge—a novelty in the British flora—was found by Mr. Sadler, in 1874, near the
spot where he discovered Salix Sadlerii, Syme. Since then it has not been gathered,
until this year Mr. Sadler again obtained some good specimens at the original
locality. The chief interest in this plant centres in its being a rare instance of a
non-Scandinavian plant inhabiting the Scottish Alps.

13. Notes on Naiadacee. By Dr. J. Baytey Batrovur.

Matis

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 4571

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Vertebrata of the Permian Formation of Texas.
By Professor Epwarp D. Cops, S.A.

2. Note on the Genus Holopus. By Sir Wryvittn Tomson.
3. Note on some Deep Sea Radiolarians. By Sir Wryvitte THomson.

4, On the genus Ctenodus (Agassiz). By Dr. R. H. Traquair.

5. The Mammoth in Siberia. By Henry H. Howorru, F.S.A.

The existence of the carcases of mammoths and rhinoceroses in Siberia, with their.
flesh and other soft parts intact, presents a problem which has not been hitherto
satisfactorily solved. There are two theories current as to the means by which
they came there. One is that they were floated down the great Siberian rivers
from more tropical countries, and the other that they lived where their remains are
now found. The former has now few adherents save perhaps Middendorf. The
nature of the rivers; the fact that it would be impossible for such masses of flesh to
float down them for hundreds of miles without being broken to pieces; the fact that
they are found standing upright, that we have specimens of the remains of their
food and the outward woolly covering of their bodies, are a few of the facts
which conclusively show that théy were not floated down the rivers. The remain-~
ing alternative which is now almost universally held, that they lived where their
remains are found, necessitates another postulate, however. It is quite clear that
neither elephant nor rhinoceros could live under the conditions which now prevail
on the tundras bordering the Arctic Ocean; the terrible climate, the absence of trees
and the universal covering of snow for a large part of the year makes it clear, @
priort, that there must have been a change of climate in Siberia since they lived,
and this is largely supported by the existence of traces of woods, and remains of a
more southern vegetation, far to the north of the present limit of trees; and it seems
clear that a temperate climate prevailed all over Siberia when the mammoths lived
there. But there is another difficulty, which, so far as the author knew, has not
hitherto been noticed. The fact of the flesh of these animals having been preserved
intact, proves that they must have been frozen immediately after death, and re-
mained frozen ever since. If the ground had thawed even during one summer,
they would have decayed and been dissipated. Again, as they were buried in earth
and mud, it is clear that when so buried the ground must have been soft. It is
impossible to conceive of large masses of flesh being pushed underground if the
earth was frozen fast, as it is over all Northern Siberia, from two feet below the
surface. It follows, therefore, that the change of climate was sudden, was in fact
in the nature of a catastrophe; and this is supported by the fact of the mammoths

572 REPORT—1878.

and their associated companions being found in such hecatombs, while, as is familiar
to travellers, the remains of modern elephants which have died in the forests are
seldom found. This accounts also largely for the flesh of the huge beasts not
haying been torn and eaten by their carnivorous contemporaries. This conclusion
seems at issue with much modern geological speculation, which rather shrinks from
postulating catastrophes, but it nevertheless appears to be inevitable.

6. Recent Additions to the List of Irish Lepidoptera. By R. W. SInctatr.

7. A Wryneck obtained in Ireland was exhibited by A. B. Jacos.

8. Germinating specimens of Cardamine pratensis were exhibited by Dr.
JoHN PRIce.

Y a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 573

Dwi DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.

CHAIRMAN OF THE DEPARTMENT—Professor Huxley,
{PH.D., LL,D., SEC. R.S., F.G.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

The Department did not meet.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.

Professor HuxLzy gave the following Address:—

WuaeEn I undertook, with the greatest possible pleasure, to act as a lieutenant of
my friend the President of this Section, I steadfastly purposed to confine myself to.
the modest and useful duties of that position. For reasons, with which it is not
worth while to trouble you, I did not propose to follow the custom which has
grown up in the Association of delivering an address upon the occasion of taking
the chair of a section or department. In clear memory of the admirable addresses
which you have had the privilege of hearing from Professor Flower, and just now
from Dr. McDonnell, I cannot doubt that that practice is a very good one; though
I would venture to say, to use a term of philosophy, that it looks very much better
from an objective than from a subjective point of view. But I found that my re-
solution, like a great many good resolutions that I have made in the course of my
life, came to very little, and that it was thought desirable that I should address you
insome way. But I must beg of you to understand that this is no formal address.
T have simply announced it as a few introductory remarks, and I must ask you to

- forgive whatever of crudity and imperfection there may be in the mode of expres-

sion of what I have to say, although naturally I shall do my best to take care that
there is neither crudity nor inaccuracy in the substance of it. It has occurred to me
that I might address myself to a point in connection with the business of this de-
partment which forces itself more or less upon the attention of everybody, and
which, unless the bellicose instincts of human nature are less marked on this side of
St. George’s Channel than on the other, may possibly have something to do with
the large audiences we are always accustomed to see in the Anthropological De-
partment. In the Geological Section I have no doubt it will be pointed out to you,
or, at any rate, such knowledge may crop up incidentally, that there are on the
earth’s surface what are called Joc of disturbance, where, for long ages, cataclysms
and outbursts of lava and the like take place. Then everything subsides into quie-
tude ; but a similar disturbance isset up elsewhere. In Antrim, at the middle of the
tertiary epoch, there was such a great centre of physical disturbance. We all know
that at the present time the earth’s crust, at any rate, is quiet in Antrim, while the
great centres of local disturbance are in Sicily, in Southern Italy, in the Andes, and
elsewhere. My experience of the British Association does not extend quite over a
geological epoch, but it does go back rather longer than I care to think about; and
when I first new the British Association, the Jocus of disturbance in it was the
Geological Section, All sorts of terrible things about the antiquity of the earth,

574 REPORT—1878,.

and I know not what else, were being said there, which gave rise to terrible appre-
hensions. The whole world, it was thought, was coming to an end, just as I have
no doubt that, if there were any human inhabitants of Antrim in the middle of the
tertiary epoch, when those great lava streams burst out, they would not have had
the smallest question that the whole universe was going to pieces. Well, the
universe has not gone to pieces. Antrim is, geologically speaking, a very quiet
place now, as well cultivated a place as one need see, and yielding abundance of ex-
cellent produce ; and so, if we turn to the Geological Section, nothing can be milder
than the proceedings of that admirable body. All the difficulties that they seemed
to have encountered at first have died away, and statements that were the horrible
paradoxes of‘ that generation are now the commonplaces of schoolboys. At present
the locus of disturbance is to be found in the Biological Section, and more par-
ticularly in the anthropological department of that Section. History repeats it-
self, and precisely the same apprehensions which were expressed by the aborigines
of the Geological Section, in long far back time, are at present expressed by those
who attend our deliberations. The world is coming to anend, the basis of morality
is being shaken, and I don’t know what is not to happen if certain conclusions which
appear probable are to be verified. Well, now, whoever may be here thirty years
hence—I certainly shall not be—but, depend upon it, whoever may be speaking at the
meeting of this department of the British Association thirty years hence will find,
exactly as the members of the Geological Section have found, on looking back thirty
years, that the very paradoxes and horrible conclusions, things that are now thought
to be going to shake the foundations of the world, will by that time have become
parts of every-day knowledge and will be taught in our schools as accepted truth,
and nobody will be one whit the worse.

The considerations which I think it desirable to put before you, in order to show
the foundations of this conviction at which I have very confidently arrived, are of
two kinds. ‘The first is a reason based entirely upon philosophical considerations,

namely, this—that the region of pure physical science, and the region of those ques- .

tions which specially interest ordinary humanity, are apart, and that the conclusions
reached in the one have no direct effect in the other. If you acquaint yourself with
the history of philosophy, and with the endless variations of human opinion therein
recorded, you will find that there is not a single one of those speculative difficulties
which at the present time torment many minds as being the direct product of
scientific thought, which is not as old as the times of Greek philosophy, and which
did not then exist as strongly and as clearly as such difficulties exist now, though
they arose out of arguments based upon merely philosophical ideas. "Whoever ad-
mits these two things—as everybody who looks about him must do—whoever takes
into account the existence of eyil in this world and the law of causation—has before
him all the difficulties that can be raised by any form of scientific speculation. And
these two difficulties have been occupying the minds of men ever since man began
to think. The other consideration I have to put before you is that, whatever may
be the results at which physical science as applied to man shall arrive, those results
are inevitable—I mean that they arise out of the necessary progress of scientific
thought as applied to man. You all, I hope, had the opportunity of hearing the
excellent address which was given by our President yesterday, in which he traced
out the marvellous progress of our knowledge of the higher animals which has been
effected since the time of Linnzeus. It is no exaggeration to say that at this
present time the merest tyro knows a thousand times as much on the subject as is
contained in the work of Linnzus, which was then the standard authority. Now
how has that been brought about? If you consider what zoology, or the study of
animals, signifies, you will see that it means an endeavour to ascertain all that can
be studied, all the answers that can be given respecting any animal under four
possible points of view. The first of these embraces considerations of structure.
An aimal has a certain structure and a certain mode of development, which means
that it passes through a series of stages to that structure. In the second place, every
animal exhibits a great number of active powers, the knowledge of which constitutes
its physiology ; and under those active powers we have, as physiologists, not only to
include such matters as have been referred to by Dr. M‘Donnell in his observations, but
to take into account other kinds of activity. I see it announced that the Zoological

b

~~ @

———E————eOo

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 575

Section of to-day is to have a highly interesting paper by Sir John Lubbock on the
habits of ants. Ants have a polity, and exhibit a certain amount of intelligence, and
all these matters are proper subjects for the study of the zoologist as far as he deals
with the ant. There is yet a third point of view in which you mayregard every animal.
It hasa distribution. Not only is it to be found somewhere on the earth’s surface, but

alzeontology tells us, if we go back in time, that the great majority of animals have
had a past history—that they occurred in epochs of the world’s history far removed
from the present. And when we have acquired all that Inowledge which we may
enumerate under the heads of anatomy, physiology, and distribution, there remains
still the problem of problems to the zoologist, which is the study of the causes of
those phenomena, in order that we may know how they came about. All these
different forms of Imowledge and inquiry are legitimate subjects for science, there
being no subject which is an illegitimate subject for scientific inquiry, except such
as involves a contradiction in terms, or is itself absurd. Indeed, I don’t know that
I ought to go quite so far as this at present, for undoubtedly there are many be-
nighted persons who have been in the habit of calling by no less hard names con-
ceptions which the President of this Meeting tells us must be regarded with much re-
spect. If we have four dimensions of space we may have forty dimensions, and that
would be a long way beyond that which is conceivable by ordinary powers of imagina-
tion. I should, therefore, not like to draw too closely the limits as to what may be
contradiction to the best-established principles. Now, let us turn to a proposition
which no one can possibly deny—namely, that there isa distinct sense in which man is
ananimal. There is not the smallest doubt of that proposition. If anybody entertains
a misgiving on that point he has simply to walk through.the museum close by, in
order to see that man has a structure and a framework which may be compared,
point for point and bone for bone, with those of the lower animals. ‘There is not the
smallest doubt moreover that, as to the manner of his becoming, man is developed,
step by step, in exactly the same way astheyare. There is not the smallest doubt
that his activities—not only his mere bodily functions, but his other functions—are
just as much the subjects of scientific study as are those of ants or bees. What we
call the phenomena of intelligence, for example (as to what else there may be in
them, the anthropologist makes no assertion)—are phenomena following a definite
casual order just as capable of scientific examination, and of being reduced to defi-
nite law, as are all those phenomena which we call physical. Just as ants forma
polity and a social state, and just as these are the proper and legitimate study of the
zoologist, so far as he deals with ants; so do men organise themselves into a social
state. And though the province of politics is of course outside that of anthropology,
yet the consideration of man, so far as his instincts lead him to construct a social
economy, is a legitimate and proper part of anthropology, precisely in the same way
as the study of the social state of ants is a legitimate object of zoology. So with re-
gard to other and more subtle phenomena. It has often been disputed whether in
animals there is any trace of the religious sentiment. That is a legitimate subject
of dispute and of inquiry ; and if it were possible for my friend Sir John Lubbock to
point out to you that ants manifest such sentiments he would have made a very
great and interesting discovery, and no one could doubt that the ascertainment of
such a fact was completely within the province of zoology. Anthropology has
nothing to do with the truth or falsehood of religion—it holds itself absolutely and
entirely aloof from such questions—but the natural history of religion, and the origin
and the growth of the religions entertained by the different kinds of the human race,
are within its proper and legitimate province. I now goa step farther, and pass to
the distribution of man. Here, of course, the anthropologist is in his special region.
He endeavours to ascertain how various modifications of the human stock are
arranged upon the earth’s surface. He looks back to the past, and inquires how far
the remains of man can be traced. It is just as legitimate to ascertain how far the
human race goes back in time as it is to ascertain how far the horse goes back in
time ; the kind of evidence that is good in the one case is good in the other; and the
conclusions that are forced on us in the one case are forced on us in the other also.
Finally, we come to the question of the causes of all these phenomena, which, if
permissible in the case of other animals, is permissible in the animal man. What-
ever evidence, whatever chain of reasoning justifies us in concluding that the horse,

re)

576 REPORT— 1878.

for example, has come into existence in a certain fashion in time, the same evidence
and the same canons of logic justify us to precisely the same extent in drawing the
same kind of conclusions with regard to man. And it is the business of the anthro-
pologist to be as severe in his criticism of those matters in respect to the origin of
man as it is the business of the paleontologist to be strict in regard to the origin of
the horse ; but for the scientific man there is neither more nor less reason for dealing
critically with the one case than with the other. Whatever evidence is satisfactory
in one case is satisfactory in the other; and if any one should travel outside thelines
of scientific evidence, and endeavour either to support or oppose conclusions which
are based upon distinctly scientific grounds, by considerations which are not in
any way based upon scientific logic or scientific truth—whether that mode of ad-
vocacy was in favour of a given position, or whether it was against it, I, occupying
the chair of the Section, should, most undoubtedly, feel myself called upon to call
him to order, and to tell him that he was introducing topics with which we had no
concern whatever.

I have occupied your attention fora considerable time; yet there is still one
other point respecting which I should like to say a few words, because some very
striking reflections arise out of it. The British Association met in Dublin twenty-
one years ago, and I have taken the pains to look up what was done in regard to
our subject at that period. Atthat time there was no Anthropological Department.
That study had not yet differentiated itself from zoology, or anatomy, or physiology,
so as to claim for itself a distinct place. Moreover, without reverting needlessly
to the remarks which I placed before you some time ago, it was a very volcanic
subject, and people rather liked to leave it alone. It was not until a long time
subsequently that the present organisation of this section of the Association was
brought about ; but it is a curious fact, that although truly anthropological subjects
were at the time brought before the Geographical Section—with the proper subject
of which they had nothing whatever to do—I find, that even then, more than half
of the papers that were brought before that section were, more or less distinctly, of
an anthropological cast. Itis very curious to observe what that cast was. We
had systems of language—we had descriptions of savage races—we had the great
question, as it then was thoucht, of the unity or multiplicity of the human species.
These were just touched upon, but there was not an allusion in the whole of the
proceedings of the Association, at that time, to those questions which are now to be
regarded as the burning questions of anthropology. The whole tendency in the
present direction was given by the publication of a single book, and that not a very
large one—namely, ‘The Origin of Species.’ It was only subsequent to the pub-
lication of the ideas contained in that book that one of the most powerful instru-
ments for the advance of anthropological knowledge—namely, the Anthropological
Society of Paris—was founded. Afterwards the Anthropological Institute of this
country and the great Anthropological Society of Berlin came into existence, until
it may be said that, at the present time, there is not a branch of science which is
represented by a larger or more active body of workers than the science of anthro-
pology. But the whole of these workers are engaged, more or less intentionally,
in providing the data for attacking the ultimate great problem, whether the ideas
which Darwin has put forward in regard to the animal world are capable of being
applied in the same sense and to the same extent to man.

That question, I need not say, is not answered. It is a vast and difficult
question, and one for which a complete answer may possibly be looked for ia the
next century ; but the method of inquiry is understood; and the mode in which
the materials bearing on that inquiry are now being accumulated, the processes by
which results are now obtained, and the observation of new phenomena lead to
the belief that the problem also, some day or other, will be solved. In what sense
I cannot tell you. 1 have my own notion about it, but the question for the future
is the attainment, by scientific processes and methods, of the solution of that
question. If you ask me what has been done within the last twenty-one years
towards this object, or rather towards clearing the ground in the direction of
obtaining a solution, I don’t know that I could lay my hand upon much of a very

* definite character—except as to methods of investigation—save in regard to one
point. I have some reason to know that about the year 1860, at any rate, there

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 577

was nothing more volcanic, more shocking, more subversive of everything right and
proper, than to put forward the proposition that as far as physical organisation is
concerned there is less difference between man and the highest apes than there
is between the highest apes and the lowest. My memory carries me back
sufficiently to remind me that, in 1860, that question was not a pleasant one
to handle. The other day I was reading a recently-published valuable and in-
teresting work, ‘L’Espéce Humaine,’ by a very eminent man, M. de Quatre-
fages. He is a gentleman who has made these questions his special study, and
has written a great deal and very well about them. He has always maintained
a temperate and fair position, and has been the opponent of evolutionary ideas, so
that I turned with some interest to his work as giving mea record of what I
could look on as the progress of opinion during the last twenty years. If he has
any bias at all, it is one in the opposite direction to that in which my own studies
would lead me. I cannot quote his words, for I have not the book with me, but
the substance of them is that the proposition which I have just put before you is
one the truth of which no rational person acquainted with the facts could dispute.
Such is the difference which twenty years has made in that respect, and speaking in
the presence of a great number of anatomists, who are quite able to decide a
uestion of this kind, I believe that the opinion of M. de Quatrefages on the sub-
ject is one they will all be prepared to endorse. Well, it is a comfort to have got
that much out of the way. The second direction in which I think great progress
has been made is with respect to the processes of anthropometry, in other words,
in the modes of obtaining those data which are necessary for anthropologists to
reason upon. Like all other persons who have to deal with physical science, we
confine ourselves to matters which can be ascertained with precision, and nothing
is more remarkable than the exactness which has been introduced into the mode of
ascertaining the physical qualities of man within the last twenty-five years. One
cannot mention the name of Broca without the greatest gratitude; and I am quite
sure that, when Professor Flower brings forward his paper on cranial measurements
on Monday next, you will be surprised to see what precision of method and what
accuracy are now introduced, compared with what existed twenty-five years ago,
into these methods of determining the facts of man’s structure. If, further, we
turn to those physiological matters bearing on anthropology which have been the
subject of inquiry within the last score of years, we find that there has been a vast
amount of progress. I would refer you to the very remarkable collection of the
data of sociology by Mr. Herbert Spencer, which contains a mass of information
useful on one side or the other, in getting towards the truth. Then I would refer
you to the highly interesting contributions which have been made by Professor
Max Miller and by Mr. Tylor to the natural history of religions, which is one of
the most interesting chapters of anthropology. In regard to another very impor-
tant topic, the development of art and the use of tools and weapons, most remark-
able contributions have been made by General Lane Fox, whose museum at Bethnal
Green is one of the most extraordinary exemplifications that I know of the inge-
nuity, and, at the same time, of the stupidity of the human race. Their ingenuity
appears in their invention of a given pattern or form of weapon, and their profound
stupidity in this, that having done so, they kept in the old grooves, and were thus
prevented from getting beyond the primitive type of these objects and of their orna-
mentation. One of the most singular things in that museum is the exemplification
of the wonderful tendency of the human mind when once it has got into a groove
to stick there. The great object of scientific investigation is to run counter to that
tendency.
Great progress has been made in the last twenty years in the direction of the
discovery of the indications of man ina fossil state. My memory goes back to
_ the time when anybody who broached the notion of the existence of fossil man
would have been simply laughed at. It was held to be a canon of paleontology
that man could not exist in a fossil state. I don’t know why, but it was so; and
that fixed idea acted so strongly on men’s minds that they shut their eyes to the
plainest possible evidence. Within the last twenty years we have an astonishing
_ accumulation of evidence of the existence of man in ages antecedent to those of
et we have any historical record. What the actual date of those times was,
° er)

578 REPORT—1878.

and what their relation is to our known historical epochs, I don’t think anybody
is in a position to say. But it is beyond all question that man, and not only man,
but what is more to the purpose, intelligent man, existed at times when the whole
physical conformation of the country was totally different from that which
characterises it now. Whether the evidence we now possess justifies us in going
back further or not, that we can get back as far as the epoch of the drift is, I
think, beyond any rational doubt; that may be regarded as something settled.
But when it comes to a question as to the evidence of tracing back man further
than that—and recollect the drift is only the scum of the earth’s surface—I must
confess that, to my mind, the evidence is of a very dubious character.

Finally, we come to the very interesting question—as to whether, with such
evidence of the existence of man in those times as we have before us, it is possible
to trace in that brief history any evidence of the gradual modification from a
human type somewhat different from that which now exists to that which is met
with at present. I must confess that my opinion remains exactly what it was
some eighteen years ago, when I published a little book which I was very sorry to
hear my friend, Professor Flower, allude to yesterday, because I had hoped that it
would have been forgotten amongst the greater scandals of subsequent times. I
did there put forward the opinion that what is known as the Neanderthal skull
is, of human remains, that which presents the most marked and definite charac-
teristics of a lower type—using the language in the same sense as we would use
it in other branches of zoology. I believe it to belong to the lowest form of
human being of which we have any knowledge, and we know from the remains
accompanying that human being, that as far as all fundamental points of structure
were concerned, he was as much a man—could wear boots just as easily—as any
of us,so that I think the question remains pretty much where it was. I don’t
know that there is any reason for doubting that the men who existed at that day
were in all essential respects similar to the men who exist now. But I must point
out to you that this conviction is by no means inconsistent with the doctrine of
evolution. The horse, which existed at that time, was in all essential respects
identical with the horse which exists now. But we happen to know that going
back further in time the horse presents us with a series of modifications by which
it can be traced back from an earlier type. Therefore it must be deemed possible
that man is in the same position, although the facts we have before us with respect
to him tell in neither one way nor the other. I have now nothing more to do than
to thank you for the great kindness and attention with which you have listened to
these informal remarks.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on the Prehistoric Monwmnents of Cornwall as compared with those
in Ireland. By Miss A. W. Buckuanp.

The prehistoric monuments of Cornwall, believed by archeologists to be the
work of the same race as those of Ireland, present, in the midst of strong resemblance,
certain points of difference, which deserve the attention not only of archeologists
but of ethnologists. In both countries they consist of tumuli, including chambered
barrows and giants’ graves—monoliths or menhirs, circles, cromlechs or dolmens,
and holed-stones, all probably sepulchral ; and hut-circles, cliff-castles, curious caves
and crosses, whilst in Ireland we find in addition earthworks called raths and
round towers. Long barrows, which are looked upon as the most ancient of burial
places, belonging to the stone age, are wanting in both countries, hence we may
infer that the people who erected them in England and Scotland never inhabited
Cornwall and Iveland, where the earliest barrows seem to belong to the Bronze age,
the mode of interment in Cornwall being chiefly by cremation; but these tumuli may
not represent the earliest tombs in these countries. Sir William Wilde believes
that the earliest premetallic Irish were the erectors of gigantic cromlechs covered
with earth, whilst the menhirs in both countries are very ancient memorials of
the dead, although not always covering a grave, the “ Pipers ” in Cornwall being of
the latter class. Some of these menhirs were afterwards converted to Christian
uses, whilst some in Ireland bear Ogham inscriptions. The circles in Cornwall are

ea ieee Mas

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 579

«small as compared to those of Stonehenge and Avebury. Nine exist in the extreme
West of Cornwall, but no avenues are traceable in connection with them, the same
fact having been observed of some of the Irish examples; the Cornish consist generally
of nineteen stones. The cromlechs of Cornwall are of the free-standing order, but
-seem to follow no special rule as to the number of stones composing them. The
chambered tumuli and giants’ graves do not equal in size the great pyramids of
Dowth and New Grange, although of the same general construction. "The holed
“stones of Cornwall, which vary greatly in form and size, have their counterparts in
Treland, Scotland, and France, but the men-an-tol seems unique; their use is unknown,
but in Cornwall and in Ireland they have a reputation as healing agents. From the
~difference in shape and size they could hardly have served as doors to dolmens, like

_the Indian examples, but probably were associated with the God of Healing. Of

non-sepulchral monuments the beehive huts form animportant part. Several groups
exist in Cornwall, apparently identical with the Irish cloughans in Kerry and Arran.
The Cornish cliff-castles and Irish raths are both ascribed to the Danes, but they
differ essentially in construction, the Irish rath consisting of earthwork only, whilst
the Cornish cliff-castles are three or four circles of uncemented stones heaped
together to form walls. The crosses of Cornwall, with few exceptions, seem older and
ruder than those of Ireland, and bear no inscriptions in Ogham, although there are
-on some hieroglyphic markings, but it is noteworthy that the Irish round towers do
not appear in Cornwall, although traditions of Irish saints are numerous there. All
these monuments are generally ascribed to the Celts, but this is probably an error,
“since maps showing the distribution of these remains prove that in most countries
they follow certain lines, indicating the migrations of different tribes or races. The
-great cromlechs of Ireland are found chiefly on the coast, and similar groupings occur
in almost every country, so that a map of the world wherein these are clearly marked
would be a great boon to ethnologists. Two distinct types of skull, the one do-
licocephalic, the other brachycephalic; are found associated with the Irish remains,
and although both are assumed to be Celtic, the term seems inapplicable to both.
The constructors of similar monuments in India belong to the dark-skinned pre-
Aryan stock. Attention to the distribution, position with regard to the cardinal
points, and the number of stones forming these monuments, is of considerable im-
portance, and also their constant occurrence in bog or waste land. Their position
appears to the author to have some connection with the point from which their
builders first emigrated, and the rude hieroglyphs on some, to denote the tribal
marks or totems of deceased chiefs.

2. Flint Factories at Portstewart and elsewhere in the North of Ireland.
By W. J. Kyow es.

Since this subject was brought forward at the Glasgow meeting there have been
found at Portstewart, besides additional flint implements and beads, some lumps of
orous lava, of the nature of pumice,‘and a few small flakes of obsidian. The lava

ds rounded by waterwearing and floats on water, and the flakes or chips of obsidian

have bulbs of percussion. It is supposed that these substances are not native pro-
-ductions, but that the lava, with obsidian attached, may have been carried by currents
from a distance, and cast ashore at Portstewart.

Sandhills near Castlerock, County Londonderry, and at Whitepark Bay, near
Ballintoy, were examined, and similar objects to those found at Portstewart were
obtained. At Whitepark Bay, which was the richer of the two, many hundreds of
flint implements were found, together with an oval toolstone, bone pins, bored and
eut bones, hammer-stones, cores, flakes, broken pottery, broken and split bones,

-teeth, and shells. Blackish layers representing the ancient surface are to be seen

like those at Portstewart. The layers vary from about three to twelve inches in
thickness, and the objects are found imbedded in them, except where they are set
free by denudation. Twenty or thirty feet of sand protected by close vegetation
rests on the layers on some places, while in others the covering is removed, but the

layer which is pretty solid and coherent has resisted the action of the wind and still

remains.
PP2

580 REPORT—1878.

The animal remains as determined by Professor A. Leith Adams, F.R.S., were
found to contain those of man, horse, ox, dog or wolf, fox, deer, and hog.

Flint factories are also found at Larne and other places round the coast. Some
are also found inland at a distance from the places where a supply of flint could be-
obtained. In one of these inland places on the banks of the Bann, near Portglenone,
several flint implements were found approaching the form known as paleolithic—
all having a thick base for holding in the hand and a cutting point—and it was
thought strange that these, like the palzolithic implements of large size as men-
tioned in Evan’s “ Stone Implements,” should be found mainly in connection with
rivers.

Our best authorities believe that all the stone implements found in Ireland
are of Neolithic age. It is not known that any extinct animal, such as the mam-
moth and Irish Elk, has been found asssociated with flint implements in Ireland,
but the implements from the Bann were found in the diatomaceous deposit below
the peat where remains of Irish Elk are usually found, and well-marked flakes have-
been found at considerable depths from the surface in the raised beach at Larne, and
there is at present in possession of the Rey. Dr. Grainger, M.R.I.A., of Broughshane,.
County Antrim, a mammoth’s tooth found near Larne,* These facts, it was thought,
were sufficient at least to create a suspicion in our minds that some of the Irish stone
implements might be found to be older than the Neolithic age.

3. The Prehistoric Sculptures of Ilkley, Yorkshire. By J. Rommiy ALLEN.

Treland is a country rich in sculptures of the prehistoric period, and it is most
important to science that the comparative method should be applied to this branch
of research, The object in bringing the subject before the British Association at
Dublin is to enable the Yorkshire examples here described to be compared with
those found in Ireland. The particular type of .sculpture dealt with in the follow-
ing paper is known as “ cup-and-ring marking.” _ Sculptures of this description
were discovered in the North of England in 1825, and subsequently in Scotland,
Ireland, Brittany, and Wales. The most valuable addition to the information already
collected was made in 1877 by Mr. Rivett-Carnac, who found cup-and-ring marks,
identical with the ones of this country, amongst the Kamaon Hills in India. The
meaning of the symbols is fully understood by the natives, and is supposed to have
reference to “ Zingam” worship. Cup-and-ring marks in Great Britain are in-
timately connected with the burial rites, and therefore probably with the religious
ceremonies of the ancient inhabitants of this country, since the symbols are fre-
quently found carved on the stones of sepulchral circles and chambers, and on the
cover stones of cinerary urns. A full investigation of the subject may be the
means of throwing great light on the nature of the religion which preceded Chris-
tianity in this country. Examples of prehistoric sculpture from different localities
should be carefully compared. The remnants of Paganism incorporated in the
superstitions of remote districts and found mixed with the ceremonies of the
Christian church should be critically examined. The most successful method of
conducting such researches is to work steadily backward from the historic period
to the prehistoric, tracing the gradual course of development to its source.

The remainder of the paper is deyoted to a description of the magnificent group
of cup-and-ring sculptures found on rocks in the neighbourhood of Ilkley, in York-
shire.

4. Report of the Earth-works Committee ; being an account of Excavations im
Cesar’s Camp, Folkestone.—Major-General Lane Fox, F.R.S., regrets
that it has not been possible to complete this report in time for the
present volume.

5 On Excavations at Mount Caburn, Lewes, Sussex.
By Major-General Lanz Fox, F.R.S.

* See Dr. Grainger’s paper, Transactions of Sections, 1874. p. 73.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 581

SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.

This Department did not meet.

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Methods and Results of Measurements of the Capacity of Human Crania.
By Wit1am Henry Frower, F.2.S.

The capacity of the cavity of the cranium is one of its most important
measurements, and at the same time one of the most difficult to ascertain. The
results of about three thousand experiments were given in this communication.
Two methods had been chiefly employed—1l. That of Broca, as described in his
memoir Sur la Mensuration de la Capacité du Crane, Mém. de la Société d’An-
thropologie, T. 1** (2° Série), Paris 1873; the material used being leaden shot.
2. That of Busk, “Note on a ready method of measuring the capacity of skulls,”
“Journ. Anthrop. Inst.,” vol. iii. p. 200. In both the author has had the
advantage of the personal explanations and instructions of their respective in-
ventors. When thiccs two methods were used to measure the same skulls, the
author found that the first invariably gave a larger capacity than the second,
amounting generally to as much as 3 or 4 cubic inches. To ascertain which, or
whether, either was absolutely correct, test skulls, prepared by stopping the larger
apertures with wax, and impregnating the bone tissue with melted paraffin to
make it impervious to fluids were employed. In these the capacity could be
ascertained with exactness by means either of mercury or water. In a skull so
prepared, Broca’s method of mensuration gave 70 cubic centimetres above the real
capacity, Busk’s 10 to 15, A slight modification of the last, using mustard seed,
and taking every care to fill both the cranium and the choremometer to the utmost
by repeated shakings, gave very accurate results. The details of the method
‘(which cannot be described in an abstract) were demonstrated to the audience.

The results of the measurement of the collection of about a thousand crania
in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England were then described,
but their value as affording the data for comparing different races was not great,
owing to the insufficient numbers of each race available for comparison, as all
immature skulls, ¢.e. those in which the basal suture was not closed, were rejected
in the averages, and the sexes were carefully separated. To ascertain the influence
of sex, all the skulls of whatever race in the collection in which the sex is abso-
lutely known from other evidence than that presented by the skull itself, were
measured with the following result :—Sixty-three skulls of Inown males have an
average of 1433 cubic centimetres. Twenty-four skulls of known females have
-an average of 1224 cubic centimetres, giving the proportion of 1000 to 854. The
largest normal skull in the collection is 2075; it is that of an Englishman of
unknown history ; the smallest, a female Vedda, measures 960 cubic centimetres.
The following are the averages of male skulls only, expressed in cubic centimetres,
the numbers of the skulls measured being placed in brackets. The insufficiency of
amany of these will be obvious, but they may serve as approximations. With

582 REPORT—1878.

regard to the higher races, especially the English, it must be noted that the skulls
examined are those of the least intellectually developed portion of the community,
while with some of the lower races, it may be rather the reverse. The general’
order in which the races are placed does not differ greatly from that of the tables.
of Barnard Davis and Broca; but the actual capacities are all smaller, especially
than those of the latter author,owing to the difference of the method of measure-
ment employed. West Coast of North America, mostly deformed (7), 1589;
Lapps (4), 1569; Ancient Italian (11), 1558; Eskimo (17), 1546; Modern Greek
(9), 1546; English (17), 1542; Guanches (6), 1498; Japanese (6), 1486; Kaffirs
(7), 1485; Modern Italians (74), 1475; Ancient Egyptians (8), 1464: Polynesians
(18), 1454: Malays (17), 1482; Chinese (16), 1424; African Negroes of various
tribes (26), 1877 ; Peruvians (47), 1545; Melanesians (30), 1318; Tasmanians (6),.
1309; Hindoos (28), 1306; Australians (26), 1285; Andamanese (4), 1220;
Veddas (3), 1208. ;

2. Report of the Anthropometric Committee—See Reports, p. 152.

3. Ona Colour Scale. By KE. W. Brasroox.

Having regard to Professor Broca’s types of colour of eyes, hair, and skin adopted
by the Association in their ‘Notes and Queries on Anthropology,’ and to the selec-
tionmade from those types by the Anthropometric Committee, the writer drew attention
toa very comprehensive scale of colours lately published by the Société Stenochromique-
of Paris, given to him by Dr. Paul Topinard, as affording a step towards universal
scientific language on the matter. The scale comprises forty-two colours and about
twenty shades of each, altogether more than 800 shades. ‘The writer attempted to
identify Broca’s types of eye-colour with some of the shades of colours 4, 10, 12,
13, 18, 19, 33 and 34 in the scale; and his types of hair and skin colour with some
of those of 3, 4, 5,6, 52, 33, 34 and 35—showing thata comparatively limited range.
would suffice for all practical purposes in anthropology,

4, Left-handedness. By Henry Murrueap, M.D.

The writer directed attention chiefly to the seeming hereditariness of left-handed=
ness in some families instancing his own as one in which he had been unable to trace-
a single instance of left-handedness. Contrasted with this he gave statistics of a
family (named White) in Cambuslang for a period of 123 years. Of the individuals of
this family so far as accurately known thirty-four used the right hand and nine the left s.
nearly twenty-one per cent. Information as to the other members could not be relied
on. Only one of the nine married and had children whose right and left-handedness-
was known (she had five children two of them left-handed) so that in the majority of
the instances given the parent was not left-handed. In all cases measured ‘by the-
writer, left-handed individuals have the left foot from one-third to one-eichth of an
inch longer than the right. The converse of this is usual in right-handed people.
Right-handed people in looking with one eye (the other being shut) use the right.
All left-handed femates, so far as hitherto scrutinized, use the left. Of left-handed
males examined only two out of fourteen used the left eye.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 583

5. On the Evils arising from the use of Historical National Names as
Scientific Terms. By A. L, Lewis.

The propositions endeavoured to be established by the author were: (1) That
there were at the first population of Europe certain primitive races, (of which three
were particularly described); (2) that these races are so mixed at the present day that
representatives of them appear not only in most European nations, but in the same
families, and among children of the same parents; (3) that notwithstanding this
mixture, and the effects which it must permanently have, racial characters display
an astonishing permanence ; (4) that this mixture, being so slow in its effects, and yet
having become so general, has probably been at work for a very great length of
time, so great that the peoples to whom the earliest history of Europe introduces us
were probably nearly as much mixed as those of the present day ; (5) that it is de-
sirable to diseontinue the use of the political names of those peoples as ethnic names,
and to employ others based on the physical characteristics of the individual ; (6).
that while physical characteristics are the only basis for a true division into races,
yet in any practical application of this division the influence upon individuals of
different races of a community of language, custom, history, or tradition must not be
lost sight of, although these things do not prove community of race, but only the
contact at some time or other of the races to whom they are now common,

6. On some American Illustrations of new Varieties of Man.
By Professor DanteL Witson, LL.D.

7. On the Courses of Migration and Commerce, traced by Art Relics and
Religious Emblems. By J. S. Puen, LL.D., F.S.A.

In this paper references were first made to some remarkable sculptures of the
oldest historical notice, existing in the mountains of Asia Minor, particularly the
“Niobe” of Homer, on Mount Sipylus, and the Sesostris figure at Nymphio, and
subsequently, to the various colossal and other rock-hewn sculptures in the Sporades
and Cyclades, having affinity, by similarity of style, to those of Asia Minor. It was
then mentioned that according to Strabo, tradition showed that the religion of this
part of Asia Minor was transferred to the south of Gaul, in the ancient city of Mas-
silia, now Marseilles, and thence consequently it spread over the west of Europe.
That this religion brought with it the idea of the colossal in representation, which
Peectly accounts for the ancient colossal figures in Brittany and Britain, and the

ove for the colossal still found over the whole of that part of France lying between
Marseilles and Brittany, the old route of tin traffic between Britain and the Medi-
terranean. Still existing Phoenician customs were referred to on the same route,
and then references were made to some discoveries on this route, and in the south
of Britain and the south of Ireland, which tended to.the conclusion that the articles
discovered were introduced by Oriental, probably by Phoenician traders. One of
these was a sculptured human head in the exact style of Assyrian art, as found at
Nineveh, and which was discovered some slight distance under the surface on the
estate of the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe, in Devonshire, who had drawn the attention
of the author of the paper to it, and furnished him with a photograph. Anothev
was a bronze mask or head found in a bog in the south of Ireland, near the Galtee
mountains; it was the property of Lord James Butler, by whom the particulars and
a photograph were furnished to Dr. Phené with a request that he would give his
attention to the matter, and throw what light he was able on the subject; and to
which, in response to such request, the author had devoted much time and research.
This bronze represented the head of a cow, and had a close resemblance to the head
found by Dr. Schliemann at Mycenz, which he identified as the head of Hera.
The latter relic was minutely examined by Dr. Phené at Athens, every facility

584 REPORT—1878.

being afforded him by the Greek Government. The Mycenz head was silver, with
horns thickly plated with gold, and the head found in Ireland was a bronze one, with
the horns (missing) made to take on and off, thereby clearly indicating that they were
capable of being removed for security, and were therefore, no doubt, also golden.
Both the heads had the sun disc on the forehead, but the bronze one, which he con-
sidered was evidently of Phoenician workmanship, had also the emblem of Astarte
or Ashtoreth, the Sidonian deity, on the forehead. In the mask found in Ireland,
the tongue protruded, indicating sleep or rest, and this symbolism was further ex-
emplified by the crescent moon being placed beneath the sun disc, and so indicative
of her rest or sleep, a strong similitude when taken in connection with the well-
known appeal to the priests of Baal, who must have represented their deities in
action or occupation, “Cry aloud, for he is a god, either he is talking, or he is pur-
suing, or sleepeth, and must be awaked.” Dr. Phené, who had gone carefully over
the whole districts referred to in Asia Minor, Greece, the Levant, and the complete
course in France, found a cow’s head sculptured in the island of Paros, and another
on part of an ancient temple now forming the lintel of a Greek church near Amycle,
not far from Sparta. Another object of great interest was represented, as were all
the others, by a fine photograph representing a bronze figure of a deity, shown to be
the Tyrian Hercules, found at Vienne, near Besancon, not far from the old route re-
ferred to, through Gaul. This deity bore on its head an enormous crown composed
of hammers, the number of which agrees with the united number of the Kabiri of
Samothrace and the Cyclopes of Sicily, their occupation being the same, viz. that
of metallurgists. Dr. Phené considers they represented the same personifications,
but lost the attributes of divinity as their traditions were brought westward. The
attitude of this deity and a vessel he holds in his right hand agree with the repre-
sentation of one of the Kabiri on a coin of Pergamus.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—-DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 585

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Les Races Anciennes deVIrlande. Utilité de Vétude des traditions qui
les concernent pour V’ethnographie de V Europe prinutive. Par Henri
Marri.

Jai désiré présenter a cette savante association quelques observations sur un
sujet qui me semble digne d’intérét et qui mériterait de plus amples développe-
ments ; mais j’aurai atteint mon but si j’ai pu attirer l’attention de l’assistance sur
la question qui me préoceupe: cette question, c’est la concordance que je crois
trouver entre les résultats qu’obtiennent actuellement les recherches des anthropo-
logistes et des ethnographes sur les vieilles populations du continent et les résultats
que donne ]’étude des traditions historiques et légendaires de I’Irlande.

Les anthropologistes signalent une race brune brachycéphale qui existe le long
du Danube dans les régions ot ont dominé jadis les Gaulois blonds dolicocéphales ;
on retrouve cette race brune en France, dans la Celtique de César (France centrale)
et plus ou moins dans le reste de Ja France ; on la retrouyve aussi a des proportions
diverses en Angleterre, Galles, Ecosse, Irlande. On la retrouve partout mélée
aux Gaulois ou Celtes blonds ou chatains et aux yeux bleus. Ces hommes bruns
étaient la race dominée: les grands Gaulois blonds de l’histoire grecque et romaine
étaient la race dominante.

Examinons maintenant ce que nous donnent les traditions irlandaises.

LIrlande semble d’abord occupée par des sauvages qui n’ont pas de nom dans
Vhistoire; puis arrivent successivement plusieurs essaims, plusieurs colonies de
Celtes primitifs dont les établissements ne subsistent pas, mais dont le souvenir
cependant persiste ; leurs conducteurs supposés sont évidemment des personnages
mythologiques, de vieilles divinités qu’on a transformées beaucoup plus tard en
personnages humains. Un de ces noms importe 4 signaler : le nom de Némedh, et
parce que Némedh est l’ancétre supposé des colonies postérieures qui réussirent
enfin a s’établir d’une maniére durable en Irlande, et parce que ce nom de Némedh
se retrouve partout dans les traditions des peuples celtiques, depuis 1’Ivlande
jusque dans la Gaule d’Asie (Galatie): il désigne tout ce qui est ancien, véné-
rable, sacré: c’est le nom miéme des sanctuaires druidiques.

A la race de Némedh, suivant la tradition, appartient donc le premier peuple
qui ait laissé des traces subsistantes en Irlande, le peuple des Fir-Bolgs. On a voulu
en faire des Belges, mais ils n’ont pas le moindre rapport avec les Belges de César,
qui sont les plus récents, en Occident, des grands Gaulois blonds. Les Fir-Bolgs
sont au contraire trés anciens, et ils sont une petite race brune. Comment alors la
tradition en fait-elle une branche des descendants de Némedh, c’est-a-dire des
Celtes ou Gaulois? C'est que, s'ils n’étaient pas de méme sang, ils étaient de
méme langue et de mceurs analogues plus ou moins; ils étaient celtisés quand ils
vinrent en Irlande ; les noms d’hommes et de lieux qui proviennent d’eux sont des
noms celtiques comme ceux des premiéres colonies et comme ceux des autres
immigrations postérieures.

Cette observation relative aux Fir-Bolgs d’Irlande est également applicable
aux Ligures de Gaule et d’Italie, ce peuple brun, mélé aux Celtes, qui, dans les
oa historiques, ne parlait plus d’autre langue que la langue des Gaulois ou

eltes,

Parmi les usages celtiques qu’avaient les Fir-Bolgs, la tradition leur attribue
celui d’élever des tumulus, des monuments mégalithiques, quoique les plus con-

586 REPORT—1878.

sidérables de ces monuments ue leur soient point attribués. En Angleterre, de
méme, on signale les restes brachycéphales trouvés dans les rouwnd-barrows qui
paraissent se rapporter aux fréres des Fir-Bolgs d’Irlande.

Au huitiéme siécle avant l’ére chrétienne, peu de temps aprés la venue des Fir-
Bolgs, la tradition, suivant les Annales des Quatre Maitres, fait arriver un peuple
nouveau : il s’appelait la race de la Déesse Dana ou des Dieux de Dana: ce sont de
grands hommes blonds aux yeux bleus, des druides autrement organisés que les.
druides bretons, avec une mythologie différente et qui parait antérieure. Ce peuple
& organisation sacerdotale conquiert ]’Irlande sur les Fir-Bolgs et les assujétit. Un
vieux poéme bardique sur la bataille de Moytura ot les Dananniens vainquirent les Fir-
Bolgs, contient une particularité bien remarquable, que Lady Ferguson a signalée dans
son excellent livre On the Ancient Irish before the Conquest. A 1l’6poque ou le poéme
fut écrit, les Gaéls d’Inlande ne portaient depuis bien des siécles que des glaives de-
fer: cependant les bardes se souvenaient si bien de l’Age du bronze, que l’auteur du
poéme explique la différence qui existait entre l’armement des Dananniens et celui
des Fir-Bolgs; ces derniers n’avaient que de mauvaises 6pées triangulaires, larges,
courtes, mal fabriquées; les autres avaient des épées plus longues, mieux fabri-
quées, mieux affilées, de forme élégante Or, vous pouvez vérifier au Museum de
VTrish Royal Academy exactitude du poéte: ces deux sortes d’épées sont rangées-
dans les vitrines 4 cdté les unes des autres. Vous avez 1a les armes dont se servaient
les deux peuples rivaux il y a 2,500 ans.

J’ai fait remarquer l’accord qui me paraissait exister entre les observations.
anthropologiques et la tradition. Il y a aussi accord entre la tradition et les

hilologues, les linguistes. La linguistique nous montre une grande famille de
ancues, la famille aryenne, se formant dans 1’Asie centrale, et en conclut que nos
aieux, ceux-lé du moins qui nous ont donné nos langues européennes, sont venus dé
cette région. la tradition irlandaise ne remonte pas jusqu’a l’Asie centrale, mais
elle est sur la route; elle fait venir les diverses colonies de la Thrace, de la Gréce,.
cest-a-dire du Pont-Euxin et de l’Asie-Mineure, en résumé, de |’Orient. Peu
importent les fables, et les infiltrations classiques, relativement modernes, qué
altérent ici les vieux souvenirs celtiques; le fond, c’est la marche des immigrations
d’Orient en Occident. Je ferai observer que la tradition welche ou cymryque de
Galles est en accord avec la tradition irlandaise. Lhu Gadarn, ancienne divinité
que les Triades transforment en conducteur de peuple, améne les Cymrys du pays
de l’EKté (Bro haf), ou, dit la glose, est a présent Constantinople.

Pour les Dananniens, les Tuatha-De-Danann, il y a quelque chose de particulier,
et qui mérite grande attention. Ils ne viennent pas tout droit de l’Orient; ils
viennent de Lochlin, c’est-a-dire de la Scandinavie.

Tl y a des traditions qui les font venir 1,200, et jusqu’a 1,500 ans avant V’ére-
chrétienne ; mais la plus accréditée, celle qu’ont choisie les Quatre Maitres, dans
leurs grandes Annales d’Irlande, fixe leur avénement au huitiéme siécle seulement.

Or, les études des savants du Nord nous fournissent ici un rapprochement trés
frappant. Les savants Suédois et Danois font remonter approximativement &
huit siécles environ avant V’ére chrétienne l’arrivée en Scandinavie d’un peuple
qui succéde & celui qui élevait des monuments mégalithiques. Ce nouveau peuple
construit des tumulus ot il n’y a plus de grottes de grandes pierres, mais des
chambres funéraires en petits matériaux, ot l’on trouve les guerriers non incinérés,
avec leurs grandes épées de bronze, plus longues, plus larges, plus lourdes que les
6pées irlandaises, et parfois avec les restes de leurs vétements. Ces conquérants
sont, j’en suis convaincu, les Cimbres de l’histoire romaine, Celtes de race, et partis:
du Pont-Euxin pour le Nord & la méme é6poque ow leurs fréres les Bretons en
partaient pour l’Occident. L’archéologie ne signale dans la Scandinavie rien
dintermédiaire entre ces hommes aux grandes épées de bronze et aux ornements
dor, auxquels appartenaient aussi les grandes trompettes de bronze,—rien d’inter-
médiaire, dis-je, entre les Cimbres et les Scandinaves, les cuerriers aux épées de
fer et aux ornements Wargent, qui ne paraissent dans le Nord qu’au commencement
de l’ére chrétienne.

Un passage du grand géographe Strabon me parait se rapporter 4 la migration
des Cimbres et des Bretons vers le Nord et l'Ouest. Strabon rappelle une tradition
suivant laquelle une double émigration de Cimmériens et de Vénétes ou Hénétes:

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 587

serait partie du Pont-Euxin 4 une époque postérieure 4 la rédaction de I'Iliade,
mais antérieure 4 cette autre émigration cimmérienne donc parle Hérodote et
que détermina l’invasion des Scythes six siécles avant notre ére. Cela nous
donnerait encore 4 peu prés huit siécles avant notre ére, l'Iliade étant considérée
comme datant d’environ neuf siécles avant Jésus-Christ. Les Vénétes sont restés
celtisés et mélés aux Celtes en Italie, en Armorique, en Galles, en Ecosse.

Voici comme ces migrations des Cimmériens ou Cimbres me paraissent nous.
ramener aux Tuatha-De-Danann. Les Cimbres remplacent dans le Nord le

euple des monuments mégalithiques. Or, la tradition irlandaise fait venir les
Mons de Scandinavie & une époque qui se rapproche de la venue des Cimbres
dans le Nord. N’est-il pas probable que la caste sacerdotale du Nord a émigré
deyant les conquérants, avec une partie de la population, et qu'elle est arrivée
en Irlande, ou la tradition lui attribue les plus imposants des monuments mégali-
thiques, Newgrange et autres ?

A propos des Cimbres, Pline cite quelques mots de leur langue, qui ont une-
physionomie tout-a-fait bretonne, et Tacite nous dit que les Alstii (Mstoniens ?).
parlent une langue trés voisine du breton.

Pour me résumer sur les Dananniens, ils sont, 4 mes yeux, une branche des.

premiéres migrations celtiques dont Némedh est le prototype. Ils auraient été les.
constructeurs des monuments mégalithiques en Scandinavie, pendant que d’autres
Celtes primitifs, leurs fréres, construisaient nos monuments de Gaule (Bretagne et
autres), d’Albion, ete. Newgrange et les autres grands monuments dananniens.
d'Irlande seraient donc postérieurs 4 Carnac, Locmariaker, etc., quoique appartenant
4 la méme tradition et & une branche analogue des Celtes. Les signes symboliques
des monuments de Bretagne et ceux des monuments irlandais, sans étre absolument
pareils, sont trés analogues; il n’y a que ce qu’on pourrait nommer une différence
de dialectes.
- Les Tuatha-De-Danann, vainqueurs des Fir-Bolgs, furent, a leur tour, deux
siécles aprés, suivant la tradition, vaincus par de nouveaux conquérants, les Scotts
ou Milésiens, clans héroiques, qui subjuguérent les tribussacerdotales. Les Milésiens,.
eux, seraient venus du Sud-Ouest, comme les Dananniens, du Nord-Est. Is étaient
partis de Espagne. Is étaient moins blonds, chatains ; ils semblent avoir été de-
race plus ou moins mélangée: je les appellerais volontiers des Celtibéres. Je
poserai seulement deux questions en ce qui les concerne: 1°. Avaient-ils déja les
armes de fer quand ils arrivérent ? Les Gaulois du Danube, qui, aprés avoir envahi
Vest de la Gaule, envahirent l’Italie, avaient déja les épées de fer lorsqw ils prirent
Rome, prés de quatre siécles avant notre ére, et les Celtibéres, de leur coté, eurent
de bonne heure des glaives de fer, et de meilleure trempe que ceux des Gaulois.

2°. Ce qu’on dit de la religion des Milésiens est singulier. Tribus héroiques, ils.
devaient avoir des dieux héroiques ; on leur attribue cependant des dieux cosmogo-
niques ; Crom, leur grand dieu, est un Chronos, un Saturne: son nom yeut dire
courbe, la courbe génératrice du cercle qui se referme sur lui-méme: il est entouré
de douze dieux inférieurs, comme une année mystique avec ses douze mois. Cela
conviendrait bien mieux aux Dananniens qu’aux Milésiens. Serait-ce une partie
de la mythologie danannienne dont Cormac ne nous parle pas dans son Gilossatre,
lorsqwil cite la déesse Dana et la famille de dieux issue d’elle? Les Scotts.
auraient-ils recu ce mythe des Dananniens ?

Je terminerai, quant & ces vieux peuples, en émettant le voeu que l’on entre-
prenne de fouiller Jes tumulus irlandais qui passent pour les plus anciens, ceux qui
sont censés étre les tombeaux de Beath, d’Hire ou Ceasair, et autres personnages
prétendus conducteurs des premiéres colonies. On n’y trouvera pas les restes de
ces étres mythiques; mais on pourra y trouver des objets archaiques trés
ihtéressants pour les études pré-historiques ou, pour mieux dire, pour les études.
des origines de histoire.

Permettez-moi d’ajouter une observation personnelle: j'ai visité une partie des
comtés de Galway et de Mayo: je comptais y rencontrer en majorité les
descendants des Fir-Bolgs: j’ai vu au contraire dominer dans cette contrée la
race blonde aux yeux bleus, de beaucoup la plus nombreuse. 5

Dans la séance du vendredi 16, M. le major-général Lane Fox a lu un trés
intéressant rapport sur le camp de César, & Folkestone, et sur le Mount Caburn,

588 REPORT— 1878.

en Sussex. Les observations de son rapport peuvent s’appliquer a plusieurs des
anciennes fortifications appelées en France camps de César, et qui sont d’anciens
opptda celtiques occupés bien aprés César par les Romains; mais un plus grand
nombre de ces oppida celtiques, en France, n’ont jamais été occupés par les
Romains: je citerai le prétendu camp de César prés Dieppe, auquel une tradition
sans doute mieux fondée donne le nom de cité de Lime et ow I’on trouve des
objets de provenance celtique trés ancienne.

J’émettais le voeu que Von fouillét les tumulus irlandais réputés les plus
’ anciens; la fouille pratiquée dans un des tumulus de Moytura a déja donné un
résultat : ce tumulus passe pour le tombeau d’un des chefs des Fir-Bolgs. On
yia trouvé une urne trés primitive, ot Jes ornements fort simples paraissent avoir
été creusés avec l’ongle dans la terre avant la cuisson. Ceci se rapporte trés bien
avec les traditions sur les Fir-Bolgs, qui passent pour beaucoup moins civilisés que
leurs vainqueurs les Tuatha-De-Danann. A ceux-ci appartiendraient les urnes
beaucoup plus finement ornées et de forme assez élégante, trouvées dans d’autres
tumulus, et trés analogues par le style avec celles des monuments de France.

Je remercie la savante assemblée d’avoir bien voulu m’entendre et serai trés
satisfait si quelques-unes des personnes éclairées qui la composent prennent intérét
aux questions que j'ai touchées et contribuent par leurs lumiéres 4 les résoudre.

Une derniére observation me revient 4 propos de l’écriture Ogham. I] ne
parait pas douteux qu’elle provienne des Tuatha-De-Danann. Sils ont habité la
Scandinavie avant l’Irlande, ils n’y employaient pas encore l’Ogham, puisqu’on ne
le trouve pas sur les monuments mégalithiques du Nord; c’est done depuis leur
arrivée en Irlande qu'ils l’ont inventé, et l’on peut le qualifier spécialement de-
caractére druidique irlandais.

2. On some objects of Ethnological Interest collected in India and its Islands.
By V. Bat, M.A., F.G.S.

Mr. Ball exhibited and described a number of objects which he had collected in
some of the least-known and wildest parts of India, and in the Nicobar and Anda-
man Islands.

From the peninsular there were a series of stone implements, having a marked
resemblance to certain well-known forms of wide distribution. There were also
some peculiar adze-shaped implements, found in Western Bengal, which had served
to confirm a previously expressed supposition* as to a prehistoric connection having
existed between the Mundas of Bengal and the Muns of Burmah.

Other objects shown were battle-axes and musical instruments used by the
Khonds of Orissa ; fire-sticks from Sambalpur; and boomerangs from Katiawar.

Nicobar Islands.—Photographs of the villages and people of these islands served

to illustrate the peculiarity of the structure of the houses and the costume of the
people, which latter was further exemplified by some wooden figures, which the
author considered were rather to be regarded as effigies of the departed than as
idols. The tail-like strips of cloth which hang from the waist and trail on the
ground were probably the cause of the ancient belief in the existence of tailed men
on some of the islands inthe Bay of Bengal. In one of the editions of Ptolomy’s
map, islands which were not improbably intended to represent the Nicobars are
labelled “ Satyrorum insule tres quarum incole caudas ut sunt satyrorum habere
-dicentur.” Other objects from the same islands were a specimen of picture-writing ;
-ear-cylinders ; cocoa-nut-shell water-vessels ; a copper-headed hog-spear, and a large
‘sheet of cloth made of the beaten bark of a species of Celtis. ‘The author gave
‘his reasons for believing in the existence of a Negrito race similar to the Andamanese
in the interior of the Nicobars.

Andaman Islands.—The objects from these islands which were exhibited and
‘described were, human skulls adorned with shells, and which had been carried by
the relatives of the deceased slung on their shoulders; glass bottle flakes, used for
‘shaving ; necklaces of turtle bones; a cooking vessel of sun-dried clay in a bamboo
frame; bows and arrows of peculiar shapes; bones of turtle and Dugong from a

* By General Sir Arthur Phayre.

Ti tts ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 589

trophy ; and oysters from a kitchen midden, the latter being remarkable from the
fact that the Andamans of the present day do not, it is said, eat oysters, though
they do eat other shell-fish. In conclusion the author remarked that ingenious in
construction as some of the objects were, their invention probably dated back to a
long distant time, since, in his experience, no savages of the present day ever invented
a new implement or changed the manner of performing any single custom of their
lives.

3. Notes on the Tribes of Midian. By Carrain R. F. Burton.
Sée Section EH, p. 630.

4, Notes on some Tribes of Tropical Aborigines. By T. J. Hurcurnson,
late Her Majesty’s Consul at Callao.

The memoir commenced by the author's statement of the tribes he was about to.
speak of being some of those in the tropical regions of West Africa and South
America, with whom he had become acquainted during his twenty-three years of
going to and fro in climes beyond the seas. Its chief object was to tell peculiarities
of these tribes—to show the analogies in superstitions and social barbarities, as
well as in a sort of indigenous civilization, amongst peoples of different races,
dwelling on different sides of the globe. The Aborigines of Tropical Africa were.
first introduced under the different heads of—l. Pagan Superstitions. 2. Domestic
Slavery. 38. Polygamy. 4. Cannibalism. 5. Social Barbarities. 6. Idioms or
Languages. A description was given of the peculiar ideas in parts of Western Africa
about the first Creation of Man. From this the author went on to the Tropical African
system of polytheism—Serpent worship in Fernando Po was described as existing in
the fact of the skin of a large kind of boa constrictor, called the “ Roukaronkon”
being annually suspended from a tree in the “Reossa” (or large forum space for
palavers), and all the children born within the previous year being carried out by
their mothers, and their little hands held up to touch the tail of the serpent. The
people of the Egbo or ‘ tiger’ tribe have an idea of an Almighty power, whom they
entitle “ Abasi Ibum.” But as he is believed to be the Creator of all things incom-
prehensible, they worship a subordinate god-head whom they entitle Idem-Efik.
Their superstition of making what they entitle “ devil houses” in obsequies for the
dead, wherein are put furniture, drink, eatables, and cloth, were shown to be pre-
cisely the same as exist amongst the Mongolian tribes in the Feejee Islands, as
described by Dr. Leeman. This people (the Efiks) at Old Calabar, likewise ad-.
minister “ Afias,” or Ordeals, pretendedly to detect crime, but in reality to keep the
slaye class in subjugation. They have also a biennial custom of purifying their
towns from evil spirits. Domestic slavery was described in Western Tropical
Africa, where all the women, from the wives of Kings and Chiefs downwards, were
described as slaves. There isa custom on the Gold Coast to buy or appropriate
out of the ménage of domestic slavery a boy or girl, and bestow on him or her the title
of Crabbah or “Oerah.” This signifies that they are to be looked on as the soul or
spirit of master or mistress. _ They are treated well, never asked to work, wear chains
of gold round their necks, with a medallion of gold, and when their owners die they
are killed to accompany them into the next world. The two social institutions of
Polygamy and Cannibalism were touched on briefly—An analogy was pointed out
between the practice which existed amongst the Moxos, a tribe of South Americans
now extinct, and the people of Old Calabar, when the author was out there twenty-
five years ago, of the barbarous practice of killing twins. The paper touched on the
tribes of South American Indians—the Tobas, Guaicaruses, Abipons, and Mocoyvis
—seen by the author in the tropical parts of the Gran Chaco, which he traversed in
1863. The Chimoo people of Peru were also spoken of. Differences of idioms be-
tween the tropical Africans living almost in contiguous districts were related, and
the same shown to exist in Bolivia (within the tropics also), where in one province
thirty-seven different tribes of Indians existed in former times, each tribe haying a
different idiom, and many of them having such a limited knowledge of arithmetic
as to be able to count only to five, and some to three,

-590 REPORT—1878.

-5. On the Prehistoric Relations of the Babylonian, Egyptian, and Chinese
Characters and Oulture. By Hypr Cuarke, V.P.A.S., V.P.S.S.

Referring to the relationship of these three groups of characters, the writer
gaye illustrations of a community of meaning and form, and of a diversity of
sound, This indicated that the original words attached to the characters belonged
to some earlier language different from these, and in which the sounds having
identical meanings corresponded. Taking the cuneiform characters for Ka and Ba
they were in opposition (equivalent to HK). Together they formed the word
Kaba, a well-known recognisable prehistoric negative used for Not, Death,
&e. In Chinese the roots 7 and 75 for No and Not indicate a com-
bination of the same characters (HK). In the ancient Shwo wen there are
three arms on each side, so that the original form may be indicative of two hands
in opposition. Further, while in later times Kappa is K, in square Hebrew Caph
is nearer to C, and Caph means the Hollow of the Hand and is female, and in oppo-
sition to its neighbouring letter Yod, which signifies the Hand or emblem of the
man or male. On the other side Akkad 42 of Lenormant, sounding Ka and ga
is a square character (originally converted from round QO), and signifying Mouth,
Speak. The square Chinese character 30 signifies Mouth, Speak, and sounds
K’eu and ga(p). No. 156 Akkad square signifies Presence ( = Face) and enclosure
(=Field). The Chinese character for Face 109, and for Garden 102, correspond to
Akkad. No. 204 Akkad signifies both House and Speak, conjunctions of meaning
for the same sound to be found in the African or prehistoric languages. No. 71
Akkad stands for Fish, Ship, equivalents for which are found in Africa. No.
459 Aldkad (|| or =) stands for Son, Water, River, also combined as one word
in Africa. No, 354 Akkad signifies Tongue and Serpent, again combined in Africa,
In Chinese square characters, converted from round (Q) for O), are used for
equivalents prehistorically, and psychologically and philologically connected,
-as Round, Circle, Eye, to See, Sun, Moon, Face, Head, Ear, Mouth, to Say,
Sound, Mother. The favourite sound in Chinese for this group is M, (as in
English Mouth, Moon, Mother). This series is continued in the alphabets, the
Pheenician, Sabean, Safa, and some of the features may be recognised in modern
Roman as O. Indeed, in the alphabets many emblems of the ancient Nature-
worship, or emblems may be recognised as I, y,C,U,0,V,0,S,T, A? M,®,K.
With regard to the comparative philology of Akkad, Mr. Clarke continued to
resist the Ugrian classification of M. Ujfalvy, and showed that the roots in Akkad
and in Ugrian can be identified with those of the languages of prehistoric character
of the Old and New World, but remarkably in Houssa, Mandingo, Pulo, Timbuktu,
Aku, of Africa. Thus they approach in their affinities the Kolarian group of
India as much as the Ugrian, and must precede the Dravidian or Tamil. This
afforded independent evidence, in contradiction of the Semitic theory of M. Halevy,
that the transliteration assigned to Akkad words by. Lenormant is correct. At
the same time we must allow for an earlier epoch of culture in characters and in
mythology, antecedent to that of the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Chinese, and cor-
responding to that of the moundbuilders. With regard to the Egyptian mythology
Mr. Clarke gave illustrations of the prehistoric origin of Pasht (the moon) Seb
[Shepi], (Siva), and Kaba, He again maintained with regard to and “A
that in cuneiform, the yowel A, is male, and A, the vowel U and O, is female.

6. On the Spread of the Sclavs. By H. H. Howorrn.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 591

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Flint Implements in Eqypt and in Midian. By Cartain R. F. Bourron.
See Section H, p. 630.

2. Notices of an Expiring Race on the Bhutan Frontier.
By T. Durant Beieuton.

3. Report of Excavation of a Bone Cave near Tenby, S. Wales.
See Reports, p. 209.

4. Inscribed Bone Implements. By J. Park Harrison, M.A.

At the meeting of the British Association at Plymouth last year, I exhibited
some marks upon chalk, from the entrances of subterraneous galleries, at Cissbury,
near Worthing, made by neolithic flint-workers for the purpose of obtaining
materials for tools and weapons. They were of two kinds :—

1, Symbols, such as are often seen on ancient coins.

filed Sele did yee oe

2, Simpler signs, and straight lines in different combinations,

iy J i Wl Oe Bel A a IS

Both descriptions of marks have been pronounced by eminent paleographists
to be Runes, or adaptations of early characters by a semi-barbarous people.

No sufficient evidence, however, existed that the marks at Cissbury were con-
temporaneous with the galleries until March last, when the discovery of a skeleton
buried with British rites, and with flint implements only associated with it, some
ten feet higher than the entrance of a gallery, over which there were signs of a
similar description to some in the second category (believed to be the earliest),
removed all doubt respecting their antiquity.

Search has since been made for runes of early date in France, which has re-
sulted in the acquisition of evidence of an inductive kind that brief inscriptions,
possibly only charms, but perhaps names and dedications, were in use in very early
times in Western Europe. Some twenty examples (all on implements of horn
or bone) have been found in various museums, and the collections so opportunely
brought together this summer at the Paris Exhibition.

There are also rune-like incisions on a bone which bears the remarkable outline
of a horse, from the upper strata of the Victoria cave at Settle,* which are very
similar to marks in the second category at Cissbury.t And it should be mentioned,

* «Journ. Anthrop. Inst.’ vol. viii. p. 182.

+ I have also very recently heard that Runes have been found on a bone needle
co. Kilkenny.

5)
592 REPORT—1878.

that the marks on the butts of two lance-points, of which graphic representations.
are given in the ‘ Reliquize Aquitanice,’ are considered by the accomplished editor
(Professor Rupert Jones) to be inscriptive.

It is not supposed that any of the early races, either in France or England,
invented written characters. All that it is necessary to assume is that a know-
ledge of letters may have been acquired by commerce or “contact” from a people
in a higher state of civilisation, just as bronze was introduced into neo-lithic
France from the East at what appears to have been a less remote period.

In support of this I may mention that Professor Rhys, from a critical study of
the Ogham characters, arrived some time back at the conclusion that they must
have been founded on an earlier alphabet, which he considers would ultimately
have been derived from the East.* Owing, however, to the perishable nature of
the material (viz. wood) on which the earlier Runes are traditionally supposed to
have been inscribed, no remains were believed to be in existence.

It is important, so far as the more distinctive forms at Cissbury are concerned,
that the significant fact should be known that coins have been found on the coast
of Sussex, which Mr. Ernest Willett informs us are of the type of those of Sex, a
Carthaginian colony in the South of Spain: + and some of the Runes of that district
are like the symbols at Cissbury last alluded to.

5. The Primitive Human Family. By C. StAnttanp Waxes, M.A.I.

After an examination of the theories of Mr. MacLennan, Sir John Lubbock,
Mr. Morgan, and Mr. Herbert Spencer, all of which assumed that, owing to the un-
certainty of paternity, the primitive human family was based on kinship through
the female only, it was shown that such an assumption is not consistent with the
social phenomena exhibited among uncultured peoples, which require the full recog-
nition of relationship through the male as well as through the female, and that,
while the clan or gentile organization is based on the latter, the primitive authority
of the father as the head of the family is perpetuated in the tribal organization.

* See ‘ Lectures on Welsh ¢ hilology.’ Triibner, p. 366.
+ ‘Numismatic Chron.,’ 1878, vol. xvii. New Series.”

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 593

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAIRMAN OF THE DEPARTMENT —R. McDONNELL, Esq., M.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

The Department did not meet,

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878,

Dr. McDonnEtt gave the following Address :—

Srxcz this Association met twelve months ago, the science of physiology has suf-
fered an irreparable loss. In February last, Claude Bernard died, in the sixty-fifth
year of his age. He was interred with a degree of pomp never in this country,
and rarely even in France, accorded to men of science. His country showed how
highly and how justly they estimated the merit of a man who—gentle, unobtrusive,
modest—by the greatness of his genius and the brilliancy of his many discoveries,
shed a lustre on the land which gave him birth.

It was my privilege to have been at one time a pupil of this illustrious physio-
logist. It will be my pride if I can show to a thoughtful and cultivated audience,
such as I have the honour to address, that the discoveries of my honoured master,
although of necessity made by experiment on animals, have added much to that
stock of knowledge which has conferred the greatest benefits upon mankind,

In an address like this, limited to a short time, it would not be possible to give
a detailed account of the work accomplished by Bernard. To.do so would be to
give a history of the progress of physiology for the last five-and-thirty years. His
researches were so extensive and some of his discoveries so vast, that, by com-
parison, they seemed to make others appear small, as the gigantic Californian pine
seems to dwarf a goodly-sized oak which grows alongside it, Hence we speak of
Bernard’s less important researches—of his minor discoveries, although of sufficient
magnitude to haye seemed great if made by another. Of these I cannot speak at
length. Yet some of my hearers well know that the services which Bernard has
rendered to science by his researches on the pneumogastric nerves, the fifth pair, the
chorda tympani, the facial, etc., are not small. Assuredly, the same may be said
for his observations on “recurrent sensibility ;” on the blood pressure and the gases
of the blood; on the variations of colour in this fluid according to the active or
passive condition of the functions of the organ traversed by it; on the variations
of temperature during these conditions of functional activity or inactivity; on the
elective elimination by the glands of substances introduced into the economy, or of
those which, as morbid products, accumulate in the system as the result of certain
morbid states; on the special character of the action of the varieties of the salivary
secretions ; upon the influence of the nervous centres on the secretion of saliva; on
the electric phenomena manifested in nerve and muscle; on albuminuria connected

_ with lesions of the nervous system; and (notably in its important practical bear-

ings on uremia) on the modifications of the secretions of the stomach and intes-
tines after arrest of the elimination of urea through the natural channels,
1878. QQ

594 REPORT—1878.

Claude Bernard, in truth, left his mark deeply on every aspect of physiology on
which he touched. His discoveries, however, as regards the functions of the pan-
creas, of the liver, and concerning the vasomotor system of nerves, are those on
which his fame will ever chiefly rest.

It is not too much to say, that, prior to the communications made by Bernard
to the Société de Biologie, little or nothing definite was known of the normal
action of the pancreatic fluid. Even a popular audience can form a judgment as
to the practical value of Bernard’s researches in this direction. Before the pub-
lication of his memoir the fluid secreted by the pancreas was regarded as something
destined: to dilute the bile and render it less acrid—its true action as a liquid taking
a special and active part in.the digestion of particular kinds of food was, we may
say, unknown. Bernard was the first physiologist who obtained pure, healthy
pancreatic fluid from a living animal. It was he who showed its reaction. He
demonstrated its extraordinary digestive power, not only over fats, but over other
alimentary matters. He proved it to be the only one of the digestive liquids which
at once forms a complete and permanent emulsion with fats. It is true Dr. Richard
Bright had before (in 1832) observed fatty diarrhcea as existing in cases of organic
disease of the pancreas, but, in fact, his observations were barren, and did not
serve to direct attention to the action of the pancreatic fluid in digestion until
after Bernard’s discoveries threw additional light on the question. Bernard’s
researches on this subject have been so thorough and complete that he has left
little to be learned. Yet there are many excellent physicians, who in their daily
practice profit by his discoveries, who know little of the steps by which these dis-
coveries were made, ‘They prescribe pepsine and pancreatine in one form or
another, but oftentimes they know as little of the discoverers of these agents as the
cheesemonger does about the secretion or coagulation of the milk from which the
cheese is made which he sells over his counter. It is hardly honest in such per-
sons to form and express a dogmatic opinion upon what experimental physiology
has done for practice without conscientiously endeavouring to inform themselves
on this subject.

As regards the work accomplished by the liver in the animal economy, Bernard
did nearly as much as he did for the pancreas. As every one knows, the liver is a
large organ; it performs duties the importance of which to the health and happi-
ness of mankind can hardly be overrated. Yet up to the year 1857 medical men
were in absolute ignorance of one half of what the liver does. ‘They knew that it
secreted bile; it was reserved for Bernard to discover another and no less impor-
tant function hitherto unknown. The majority of those engaged in practice even
still, I believe, look upon the liver as if the principal duty of this gland were
nothing else than the secretion of bile. It is certain, however, that it does other
work, little, if at all, inferior in importance to the formation of biliary matters, and
quite as necessary to the maintenance of health. Its power of making and storing
up for a time within its cells, a material resembling starch, constitutes, without
doubt, one of its most important functions. This no person will for a moment
doubt who takes the trouble of ascertaining by experiment the immense increase
or diminution in bulk which the liver may be made to undergo in the space of a
few days by such changes of diet as increase or diminish the amount of this starch-
like material in its tissue.

It was in March 1857, that Bernard announced the important discovery of a .
material formed by the liver closely resembling starch or rather dextrine of vege-
table origin, and, like it, readily changing into sugar in the presence of ferments.
Some of those present are aware that I have ventured to differ from my illustrious
teacher as to the ultimate destination of this substance in the animal economy. I
prefer, therefore, to designate it by another name than that which he gave to it.
He called it sugar-forming substance (glycogenic substance or glycogene). This
name involves the supposition that it is destined for the formation of sugar. It is
not quite fair in science to give names which point directly to one’s own theory-
As some of those who, like Dr. Pavy and myself, have investigated this subject
with a good deal of care, have still reason to doubt the sugar-forming theory as
regards this substance, we naturally prefer a name which does not involve this
supposition, We wish it to be called animal starch or dextrine (amyloid substance

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 595

or zoo-amyline). But, call it by what name we may, its discovery stands forth as
a great fundamental fact. It would be difficult to imagine a discovery more ex-
tended in its applications. In the course of his investigations on this subject,
Bernard showed the influence of diet, of digestion, of inanition upon this function
of the liver. He showed the influence of the nerves and nervous centres in rela~
tion to it. He made the important discovery of the production of diabetes artifi-
cially. He was led to discover a similar function as regards the formation of

amyloid substance on the placenta. He built up an entirely new theory of diabetes,

fundamentally changing the view hitherto held on this subject, and, in short, made
the whole field his own.

It is obvious to every one who allows himself calmly to reflect for a moment,
that no physician can be a good practitioner who does not know something of the
work done and the duties performed by the heart, or the stomach, or the lungs,
etc., in a healthy state. Diseases are deviations from health ; to understand the
one it is necessary to know something of the other. It must appear quite puerile,
therefore, to any thinking person, the assertion that the discovery of an important
new function in a great organ like the liver did not modify the practice of medicine
and throw new light on disease, not of the liver alone, but throughout the whole
frame. You will pardon me, therefore, if I again express my doubts of the intelli-
gence or the honesty of those practitioners who treat contemptuously experimental
physiology and such work as has been achieved by men like Claude Bernard,

Faust, in his great soliloquy, addressing the Sublime Spirit of good, says :—
“Thou didst not grant to me merely the cold gaze of open-mouthed astonishment. °

‘Thou permittedst me to see into the depths of Nature as into the bosom of a

friend.”

It has been the lot, no doubt, of a few among those whom I address, to have
exhibited to some of their friends the circulation of the blood, as seen through the

_ Microscope, in the web of the frog’s foot. They will have been struck, no doubt,

as I have heen, by the effect which this spectacle, when witnessed for the first time,
has on different observers. Some look upon it much as they would upon a clever
conjuring trick. It is to them no more than a transformation scene on the stage
is toachild. “ How fast it goes,” they say. They are astonished that anything
of the kind should go on in a frog. The cold unintelligent gaze of open-mouthed
wonderment is, perhaps, even too strong an expression for any emotion which stirs
them. Others there are who are struck dumb by the sight before them. One sees
at once that they have caught a glimpse of a boundless ptospect—that they feel
it has been granted to them to see more deeply into the bosom of Nature than
they have ever done before. One perceives, to use again Goethe's words, that the
Sublime Spirit has not turned to them his countenance in vain.

There is an anecdote which I have dreamed of—as true, perhaps, as many such

_ anecdotes are, yet full of beauty—that when Malpighi first showed to the Pope,

whose friend and physician he was, this marvellous sight, his Holiness, having con-
templated it for some moments in silence, raised his hands and eyes to heaven,
repeating the “Te Deum,” then, kneeling, thanked God for having permitted .him
to live to see so impressive a sicht. “Is it indeed true,” he asked, “ that this won-
drous movement goes on within me and you and all men?” Being told that
doubtless it was so, “Mirantur aliqui,” he ‘said, using the words of St. Augustin,
“ altitudines montium, ingentes fluctus maris, altissimos lapsus fluminum et gyros
siderum :—relinquunt seipsos nec mirantur!” Apparently, Pope Innocent XI.
viewed with less jealousy dnd suspicion than many ecclesiastics are wont to do,
those divine writings traced on the face of Nature (too little studied by the theo-
logian), the interpretation and decipherment of which is the province and the plea-
sure of the man of science.

T have been led to this reflection, as it appears to me to explain the difference
between various individuals when contemplating some new disclosure in natural
science ; it illustrates the fashion in which the discovery to which I next allude is
viewed by different classes of minds. A small filament of nerve, no thicker than a
tiny silken thread, is divided in a rabbit's neck. Immediately a change is observed
in the pupil of the eye on the same side. The ear on that side is felt to be obviously
hotter than the other; the blood-vessels on that side of the head throb and contain

QQ2

596 REPORT—1878.

more blood. This same small filament of nerve is galvanized, and the reversal of
the abcve phenomena is found to take place. To some this observation is not only -
a mere meaningless juggler’s trick, but a cruel one. To others it is a key which
opens a chamber full of treasures. It is like a newly-discovered isthmus or bridge
uniting two vast continents—that of the circulatory system with that of the ner-
yous system. In this controlling power of the nerves over the calibre of the blood
vessels lies the explanation of many of the most interesting phenomena which go on
within us. The burning flush of shame, the cheek blanched with fear, the sudden
activity of glandular secretion, as when an emotion of the mind causes tears to
flow, or salt placed on the tongue causes the secretion of saliva. The activity of
the brain in our waking moments, its death-like inactivity during sleep, the regula-
tion of our temperature, ete., are, within the limits of health, phenomena connected
with this controlling power of the sympathetic nervous system. Within the-
domain of disease, its applications are without end or number; from the sympa-
thetic and often painful swelling of the milk glands (hardly to be regarded as a
morbid action) to the condition of the blood-vessels of the brain which causes the
dreaded convulsive seizure of epilepsy, this dominion of the sympathetic nervous
system over the blood-vessels has a meaning and a practical importance.

It would be unjust to others to say that Claude Bernard was the sole discoverer:
of this vasomotor nervous system, as it is called. It would be equally unjust to
his memory not to admit that his researches had a large share in this discovery.
Pourfour du Petit and Dupuy had no doubt, long since divided the cord of the
great sympathetic nerve in.the neck, and noticed some of its consequences. But
the real discovery of the vasomotor neryous system was reserved for our time.
The illustrious physiologist (Dr. Brown-Séquard) who now fills the chair in the
Collége de France, rendered famous by such predecessors as Bernard, Magendie,
and Laennec, has no small share in this discovery, and, as regards its application
to the explanation of the phenomena of disease, and its treatment, has accom-
plished more than any of his predecessors. We owe to Bernard the discovery of
the principal results due to division of the cervical portion of the sympathetic
nerve ; assuredly the discovery is one in which experimental physiology has reason
to triumph, for it must be regarded as one of the most valuable disclosures of
modern science. It cements together the vast number of isolated facts which,
since the days of Prochaska and Robert Whytt, have been accumulating upon the
hands of physiologists, but which, in the length and breadth of their importance,
even Marshall Hall himself did not appreciate. But let us turn to the other half
of this experiment; let me remind you that Dr. Brown-Séquard in America, Pro-
fessor Claude Bernard in Paris, and Dr. Augustus Waller in England, almost
simultaneously observed that galvanization of the divided sympathetic is followed
by a reversal of all the phenomena which haye been already noticed to follow its
divyision—the vessels contract, heat diminishes, secretion is checked. These experi-
ments are illustrative of the influence of the nervous system over the vascular.
They have formed the basis of physiological theories very widely differing from
each other, and perhaps less striking but not less valuable experiments bearing on
the same subject. The muscular tunic of the vessels which ramify through the
body places them under the control of the nervous system as completely as is
the heart itself. As the muscular structure of the heart, so the muscular structure
of the vessels is subject to emotional and reflex influences. It is not only the
blood-vessels of the cheeks which blush. The greater development of the muscular
tunic in the vessels of glands and of the brain, shows that in those situations the
arrangements for controlling the blood supply are even more complete than else-
where. It is true that it has long been known that intimate relations exist between
organs more or less remote from each other. The term sympathy has long been in
use, and equally applied to the healthy functional activity as to the pathological
disturbances of organs distinct from each other. In the eyes of the practitioner,
the morbid sympathies (or reflex disturbances), such as occur in teething children,
or, later in life, from irritation of the gastro-intestinal or genito-urmary systems,
etc., have naturally eclipsed in interest the normal physiological sympathies, such
as that between the uterus and mammary gland, the mucous membrane of the
tongue and the salivary glands, etc. But be it remembered that they are closely

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 597°

kindred phenomena, similar in mechanism, and, in fact, often passing into each
other so gradually that it is impossible to say where the normal terminates and the
morbid begins. It is hardly possible to conceive any kind of research which bears
more closely than these upon the various maladies that flesh is heir to.

Some hard-hearted individuals, however, in these countries, confounding their
own selfish feelings with true humanity, who, I would venture to say, have rarely
spent days or nights of their lives watching at the bedside of real suffering,

«“ Who live
In mere mock knowledge of their fellow’s woe,
Thinking their smiles may heal it,”

who fancy themselves too humane to seek a remedy for human agony in an experi-
ment which it would be painful to themselves to conduct—such persons have
heaped much obloquy on the name of Bernard. Let me pass by these in silence.
There are others who, admitting the greatness of his achievements and his power
of kindling an enthusiasm for research among his pupils, think that these same
results might have been attained by a less amount of repetition of experiment.
Them I would truly respect. Most earnestly would I urge those physiologists who,
either as original inquirers or as teachers, may follow in the footsteps of Claude
Bernard, while they admire him as a sincere, zealous, patient searcher after truth,
to imitate him in that, and avoid what they believe to have been his errors.

Bernard’s discoveries, in truth, tell but a small part of the tale of all that he
accomplished during his lifetime. He was one of thoge truly great teachers who
exercise a great and expanding influence over the minds of their pupils. He pos-
sessed a gentle, mild, and thoroughly infectious enthusiasm. A conscientious worker,
a sincere lover of truth, a marvellously dexterous experimenter, he possessed the
power of expressing himself with great precision and great simplicity. His pupils
in every part of the civilized world will indeed account him as one

“Of those immortal dead who live again
In minds made better by their presence: live
In pulses stirred to generosity,
In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn
For miserable aims that end with self,
In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars,
And, with their mild persistence, urge man’s search
To vaster issues.’’

The following Papers were read :—

1. Observations on some Points in the Osteology of an Infantile Gorilla
Skeleton. By Auten Tuomson, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

Dr. Allen Thomson exhibited the skeleton of an infantile female Gorilla, which
he had prepared from a specimen sent him some time ago, and which is now placed
in the Hunterian Museum of Glasgow University.

The first dentition had been recently completed, and the age of the animal was
estimated to be from eighteen months to two years. It had been shot through the
head and had sustained a fracture of the thigh, but had lived long enough after the
injuries to allow a healing process to be set up round the two apertures by which
the lead pellet had passed through the opposite parietal bones of the cranium, and
the fractured femur to be reunited by bone.

The author reserved for another opportunity the fuller account of the state of
ossification of the bones of the skeleton, and limited his remarks for the present to
several points in the osteology of the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.

In instituting a comparison between the skull of the infantile gorilla and that of
the adult or of other animals, the author pointed out the importance of adopting a
reliable standard position in which the skulls submitted to observation should be
placed so as to secure uniform results; and, following Professor Flower, gave
the preference to that recommended by Broca, in which the horizontal plane of
“the skull is made to coincide with that of the visual or orbital axes; and he showed,

598 REPORT—1 878.

by reference to drawings of the young and adult gorilla skulls, and those of other
animals and of man, the necessity and advantages of such a standard in enabling the
observer to make accurate corresponding representations and measurements of di-
mensions and directions, The resemblance of the view taken in the norma facialis:
of the infantile gorilla to the human skull was very striking.

In its general form this skull, as belonging to the infantile age, like that of its
congeners and of man, differs remarkably from that of the adult; and in the case of
the gorilla and orang, more particularly of the male, in the proportionally large size
of the cranial part, the smaller size of the face, jaws and teeth, and in the entire
absence of the crests of bone which attain such an enormous size in the adult male
gorilla. In the infantile condition there is probably little or no difference in the
form of the skull in the two sexes ; but as age advances, and more especially as the
second dentition appears, the distinctions arise by the greater development of the
jaws and by the gradual approach and elevation of the temporal ridges, which remain
distinct in the female, but rise into the sagittal and occipital crests of the male. In
the skull shown there was as yet no appearance of the temporal lines, except in the
commencement at the zygomatic process of the frontal bone. The double ridges on
each side described by recent authors come to be obvious only at the change of the
dentition.

For comparison with the human form the skull of a child of about two and @
half years of age with the first dentition recently completed was employed, and
many points of jinterest were brought out. Among these the capacity of the cra-
nium may be mentioned. “That of the child’s skull now referred to was 64 cubic
inches, that of the infantile gorilla 233, while the average adult human skull may be
stated at 85 cubic inches, and that of the adult male gorilla at 33, and of the female
at 28 cubic inches. :

The author then referred more particularly to a point in the osteology of the:
skull which had excited considerable interest since the researches of Virchow and
Gruber had thrown some light upon it, viz. the mode of union of the several bones
which meet at the antero-lateral fontanelle of the foetal skull, or the ptereon of Broca.
It is now known that considerable differences in this respect occur in the human
skulls of the same and different races of men, and it has long been known (Owen)
that among the anthropoid apes there are differences of a similar kind, and that
these differences are in some instances at least connected with the existence of a
separate bone in the seat of the place of meeting at the ptereon, of the frontal,
parietal, squamous, and alisphenoid bones, to which the name of epipteric has been
given by Professor Flower.

In the great majority of human skulls, as well known to anatomists, the anterior:
inferior angle of the parietal bone joins here the alisphenoid in a greater or less ex-
tent,* and thus excludes the frontal and squamous bones from mutual union ; while
in a smaller number of instances the alisphenoid and parietal are separated by the
junction of the squamous and frontal bones.

Now, in the gorilla, as shown in the skull exhibited, and in nine other skulls of
the same animal examined by the author, the mode of union at the ptereon is in-
variably squamo-frontal. In the chimpanzee he found the same kind of union to:
prevail as in the gorilla in 23 out of 27 skulls examined ; but in two examples the
uaion was spheno-parietal on both sides, and in two others it was squamo-frontal on
one side and spheno-parietal on the other.

In the orang, again, a greater difference was observed, for out of 30 skulls
observed, the spheno-parietal union was present on both sides in 16, and the squamo--
frontal in 7, while in 4 the mode of union was different on the two sides, and in 8
there existed the intervening epipterie bones, occupying as it were the common
territory.

Tn 9 skulls of the Gibbon examined, 8 presented the spheno-parietal mode of

union, and in the other case there was unilateral squamo-frontal union with an
epipteric bone on the opposite side.

* The author referred here to the differences observed in the human skull, but
as he is engaged in unfinished observations on this subject, he reserves their de~
scription for another opportunity

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 599

The author had made a considerable number of observations in different genera
of Simiz and Prosimie, from which it appeared that in the whole of the American
monkeys examined without exception, amounting to 40 specimens from the genera
Mycetes, Ateles, Cebus, Pithecia, Nyctipithecus, Callithrix, and Hapale, the union
at the ptereon was spheno-parietal ; and the same was found to be the case in the
18 apis observed of Lemur, Galago, Loris, and Cheiromys.

In 96 skulls observed belonging tomonkeysof theOld World, considerable variety
was found. In 23 of Macacus, 1 Colobus, and8 Cercocebus, all had squamo-frontal
union ; of 33 baboons, the same kind of union existed in 29, in 1 double and in 1
unilateral spheno-parietal union was observed, and in 3 cases epipteric bones were
present. In 10 skulls of Semnopithecus observed, 9 had spheno-parietal and one
squamo-frontal union ; and in 20 skulls of Cercopithecus there was spheno-parietal
union in 10 and squamo-frontal in 7 on both sides, and unilateral union of the two
different kindsin 3.

The author left for future consideration the causes determining these varieties,
more especially as connected with the origin and mode of ossification of the
epipteric bone ; but he showed the probability of a number of the varieties being
attributable to the existence of such an intermediate bone at an early period, and te
its union with one or other of the bones surrounding the ptereon. This union
might be with alisphenoid, parietal, or squamous, but very rarely with the frontal
bone. The author considers it doubtful that the epipteric is homologous with the
posterior frontal, first described by Serres, afterwards by Rambaut and Renault,
and more recently by Von Ihering (1872), but believed that the further explanation
of the differences shown to exist in the mode of union of the bones at the ptereon
is to be sought for with success in the history of their development, upon which he
expected some light to be thrown by observations in which he was engaged.

Dr. Thomson also directed the attention of the section to some peculiarities in
the mode of ossification of the bones of the trunk in the young gorilla, which he
connected with the very frequent varieties observed in the adult condition of these
and other anthropoid apes.

These observations referred—Ilst, to the condition of the sternum as regards the
relative size of the presternum and mesosternum, and the number and place of im-
plantation of the costal cartilages into the sternum; 2nd, tothe number of vertebral
ribs, and the occasional development of additional ribs upon the lumbar vertebre ;
and 3rd, to the variations in the relative number and state of development of the
lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebre in the four genera of anthropoid apes.

The author reserved to another occasion the fuller description of thesé observa-
tions, which were still incomplete.

2. The Intrinsic Muscles of the Mammalian Foot. By D. J. Cunnincuam,
M.D., F.R.S.E., Sexior Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of Edin-
burgh.

The typical arrangement of the intrinsic muscles of the pes is the same as in the
manus, and this arrangement is seen to best advantage in the feet of certain of the
marsupialia. In these animals the muscles are laid down in three layers, viz. :—

(1) A plantar layer of adductors.

(2) A dorsal layer of abductors.

(3) An intermediate layer of flexores breves.

According to this disposition each digit is furnished with three muscles—one
from each layer.

Deviations from the typical arrangement may take place by suppression or
fusion of certain of the elements of the different layers. Fusion of the constituents
of the intermediate and dorsal layers is extremely common, whilst fusion of the
intermediate and plantar muscles is a very rare occurrence.

But this disposition of the intrinsic foot muscles does not account for the pre-
sence of an opponens muscle. This muscle may proceed from one of two sources.
Most commonly it is a development from the flexor brevis, and is thus associated

600 REPORT—1878.

with the intermediate layer of muscles (e.g. man, lemurs, phalanging marsupials),
It may be derived, however, from the plantar layer, and thus be associated with the
adductors (e.g. lion, dog, leopard, puma, otter, and other digitigrade carnivora).

Lastly, in many adult animals, the relation of the intrinsic muscles to the
metatarsus, both as regards their origin and position, corresponds with transitory
conditions in the foot of the human embryo.*

3. On the Gill Skeleton of Selache Maxima. By A. Macauister, M.D.

The author directed the attention of the section to a fine specimen of the gill
skeleton of this shark in the Museum of the University. The remarkable dentinal
gill-rakers are preserved im situ, and the different portions of the cartilages of the
palato-pterygoid, hyoid, and branchial arches are shown united. These are from a
large shark cast ashore last year at Kinsale, but, unfortunately, much mutilated
before it came into the hands of Mr. Cullen, the museum assistant of the Uni-
yersity.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.

The Department did not meet.

* This paper will be found in an extended form in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology ’ (Oct. 1878).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 601

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Phenomena of Binaural Audition.*
By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson, D.Sc., B.A.

This paper resumed an investigation on which the author had reada paper in Sec-
tion A, the preceding year. The following points summarize the communication :

(a) There is an interference of the perception of sound: for the tones of two
tuning-forks or other simple tones, differing slightly in pitch, and capable of inter-
fering, are still heard to interfere when conducted separately to the two ears.

(b) When two simple tones in unison reach the ears in opposite phases, the
sensation of sound is localised at the back of the head instead of in the ears. This
and the preceding phenomenon are easily experimented upon with Graham Bell’s
telephones, or with indiarubber tubes to bring the sounds to the ears.

(c) This localisation of an objective acoustic “ image” is independent of the
pitch of the sounds.

(d) When the difference of phase is partial, the sensation is localised partly in
the ears, partly at the back of the head.

(e) if the difference of phase be complete, and the intensities unegual, the
acoustic “image,” instead of being at the middle of the back of the head, is nearer
to that ear in which the sound is louder.

(f) It is possible to discern the difference between two compound tones which
differ only in phase but not in pitch, or in intensity of their component partial tones ;
for when two such compound tones are brought to the ears so that the vibrations of
any partial tone present reach the ear in opposite phases, that particular partial tone
is singled out and localised at the back of the head.

(g) When two simple tones are led singly to the two ears no differential tone is
heard. There is some evidence that summational tones are heard.

(h) To binaural audition dissonances are excessively disagreeable, and ordinary
consonances harsh.

(i) Vibrations mechanically conveyed to a point of the parietal or occipital
regions of the skull at one side of the median line are apparently heard in the ear
of the other side of the head.

2. On the Theory of Muscular Contraction. By G. F. Frrzceraup, M.A.

Assuming a muscle to consist of fibriles averaging “th of a centimetre in dia-
meter, and that they may be treated as a system of elongated cylinders of fluid
with a superficial tension capable of variation by the action of nervous stimuli in
accordance with M. Lippmann’s experiments on the relations of electrical difference
of potential to the superficial tension of fluids, it may be shown that a force of
4 Inlogrammes per square centimetre might be produced, which approximates to the
observed maximum contractile force. The striations in striated fibre are accounted
for by the instability of uniform fluid cylinders, the necessity for a continual
stimulus to keep up a given contraction by the constant repair going on in living
muscle, and the heating of a muscle when it contracts, is completely explained by
the fact that all fluid surfaces heat when they are allowed to contract under the
action of their superficial tension.

3. On the Nervous System of Meduse. By G. J. Romangs, F.L.S.
: * See ‘ Phi]. Mag.,’ Nov. 1878.

602 REPORT—-1878.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.
The following Papers were read:—

1. On the Excretion of Nitrogen. Part I1.—By the Skin.
By J. Byrne Power.

I have already published a paper upon the renal excretion of nitrogen, Since
then I have made some experiments on the cutaneous excretion of nitrogen, the
results of which, and the modus operandi, I beg to lay before this Association for
the first time. I may mention that I was induced to undertake these as well as
my former researches with a view to the study of the physiological action of the
hot-air bath, which I have found personally beneficial, in the hopes of establishing’
its utility on a scientific basis. In considering the action of prolonged sweating:
the question most practically important is, can the skin be made to act vicariously
of the other organs of excretion, and, if so, to what extent? I believe that the
generally received opinion is that the skin can be made so to act; and how far such
opinion is warranted by experiment I hope in this paper to show more clearly than
has hitherto been done. At present I confine myself to the cutaneous excretion of
nitrogen, an element the excretion or retention of which in the system is a ques-
tion of supreme importance, physiologically and pathologically. Without here
attempting to quote the numerous authorities, I may shortly state what I consider
to be the present position of this important question. Funke, by the results of his
experiments upon himself and his two pupils published in 1853, not only verified
those of Anselmino, Berzelius, Favre, and others as to the existence of nitrogen in
the sweat, but proved its existence as urea, and was the only person, as I believe,
who ever succeeded in making an estimation of the total quantity of nitrogen ex-
creted by the skin in a given time until I attempted it myself. On the other hand,
many experimenters—Voit, Ranke, Parkes, and others—have denied the existence
of nitrogen in the sweat. They arrive at this conclusion inferentially, finding that
the amount of nitrogen excreted by the kidneys and bowels was equal, and in some
cases even exceeded, the quantity ingested, therefore leaving no room for any
excretion by the skin. The most recent English authority on the point—the late
eminent Professor Parkes,in the Croonian Lectures delivered by him before the
College of Physicians in London, in 1871—after reviewing most of the authorities,
thus concludes :—“ On the whole, there appears to be little doubt that, apart from
detached skin structures, the balance of evidence is against the passage of nitro
genous substances by the human skin.” I do not think that the form of negative
proof advanced by these authorities can stand before the positive results of those
who obtain nitrogen in some form or other as a constituent of the fluid portion of
the sweat. With regard to Funke, I consider that his estimation of the excretion
of nitrogen per diem—amounting to as much as from 4°76 to 7:045 grammes—
is excessive. He arrives at these results by multiplying the quantity obtained in‘an
hour by 24, necessarily assuming the constancy of the sweat secretion, which
assumption is contradictory to the statement made in another part of his paper, to
the effect that “in one or two hours the quantity of the supply begins to diminish,
even though the temperature and movements remain unaltered, and falls to such a
minimum that one can scarcely perceive the increase even during greater intervals
of time.” Funke obtained the sweat from the arm only, and, having ascertained
by measurement a ratio between its superficies and that of the whole ‘body, he thus
estimated the entire cutaneous excretion. His experiments were made under con-
ditions of more or less violent exercise. I made mine on the body in a state of
rest in the hot-air bath, considering results thus obtained more referable to con-
ditions of disease. I shall now, without dwelling on my many failures, briefly
state the mode of collecting the excretion which I finally adopted as being the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.— DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 603

best. Having first tested the atmosphere of the ward in which I was about to
operate to ascertain that it did not contain free ammonia in any quantity, I placed
upon one of my hospital beds an indiarubber sheet, and over it another sheet of
pure linen, upon which the person to be experimented upon lay. Over his body
was placed a wooden cradle or canopy, covered outside with a thick felt, and lined
inside with linen, which coverings were to be carefully adjusted round his neck. To
raise the temperature with the canopy I used the lamp-furnace invented by the
late Surgeon-Major Wyatt, the flame from which fitted accurately through a hole
in the coverings guarded by a wooden ring. Considering the spirit-lamp of
Wyatt’s furnace objectionable for many reasons, I substituted a Bunsen gas-burner.
To insure the regular renewal of the air within the canopy, and to prevent its
saturation, as well as to collect any free ammonia which might be evolved, I intro-
duced a tube leading from a Bunsen air-pump, which tube was connected with two
glass towers filled with large beads and charged with half an ounce of dilute
hydrochloric acid of known strength. Through another hole in the canopy I
introduced a Daniel’s hygrometer, by which I was enabled to observe the tempera-
ture and calculate the degree of saturation of the atmosphere within. As the gas,,
water, and re-agents employed contained some small portion of nitrogen, my first
task was to ascertain the constant error arising from this source. To effect this I
performed three blank experiments, omitting only the introduction of the person
to be experimented upon. The result was that I obtained a small quantity of
nitrogen nearly equal in each case and haying a mean value of -063 grammes,
that being the total amount collected in one hour under the experimental con-
ditions. The water I used was Vartry water, and when I used it unfiltered
I employed the above number as a constant. As it would be necessary to
use filtered water in order to eliminate epithelium, I made three similar blank
experiments, using filtered Vartry water, and obtained another constant amount-
ing to ‘0408 gramme of nitrogen, which I used in all experiments on filtered
water. The method employed for estimating the nitrogen was that to be described
hereafter. I commenced a series of experiments upon myself, with the assistance of
my clinical clerk, Mr. Clune. One of these I shall now describe. I first took a
sponge bath for the purpose of removing loose epithelial scalts, as well as minute
fibres from the under-clothing, which I always found adhering to the skin, and
having noted my pulse, respiration, bodily weight, and temperature, I entered under
the canopy. The coverings being carefully adjusted round my neck, the gas-furnace-
was lighted, the air-pump and hygrometer adjusted, and the experiment continued
for an hour or an hour and a half, the time being carefully noted. Before leaving
the canopy the pulse, respiration, and bodily temperature were again noted, also the
mean temperature and. point of saturation of the atmosphere within the canopy.
On leaving the canopy I got into a bath containing 20 litres of Vartry water acidu-
lated with an ounce of the dilute hydrochloric acid of known strength. I took with
me into this bath the linen sheet upon which I had lain whilst under the canopy,
and with it I gently rubbed myself so as to remove any loose epithelial scales. On
leaving the bath I again weighed myself, and in twenty minutes after I again noted
my pulse, respiration, and bodily temperature. I caused the linen and india-rubber
sheets, as well as the towels containing the dilute hydrochloric acid, to be washed in
the water of the bath, and then brought a specimen of it to my laboratory for analysis.
The process of analysis of this water which I employed was briefly as follows :—I
carefully measured 100 ¢.c., and poured it into a partial-distillation flask, which
I altered to suit my purposes by shortening and bending the side tube upwards
towards the mouth. I now took a porcelain dish, in which I placed a small quantity
of pure sand carefully cleansed with hydrochloric acid, and subsequent washing
with distilled water, and moistened it with a drop of strong sulphuric acid. Hay-
ing placed the dish upon a water-bath, I inverted the flask into it, and, properly
suspending it, carefully evaporated the water as it gradually flowgd into the dish ;
I then removed the sand from the dish, and, mixing it with soda-lime, placed it in
a small combustion tube, and proceeded to estimate the quantity of nitrogen con-
tained in the 100 c.c. in the manner referred to in my former paper. Hence I
calculated the quantity contained in the 20 litres, and from this quantity I deducted
my constant, thus ascertaining the total quantity of nitrogen excreted by the skin
during the experiment. I have described an experiment in detail, as all the others.

604 REPORT—1878.

were conducted in a similar manner, except when I filtered in order to get rid of
epithelium, a circumstance noted in my tabular statement of results, in which case,
of course I employed the constant for filtered water. I may here note that I ex-
amined the deposit from the water of the bath under the microscope, and found it
to contain scarcely a trace of anything but epithelial scales. On comparing my
experiments with those of Funke, we find that the quantities of nitrogen obtained
by Funke are much greater than mine. This difference may arise from the cireum-
stance noted already, that Funke’s experiments were conducted under the con-
ditions of more or less violent exercise, which I, accepting the views of Liebig, so
strongly supported by the recent experiments of Professor Flint on the pedestrian
Mr. Weston, believe to be always accompanied by waste of muscular tissue, and
consequent increased execretion of nitrogen. I am aware that this view has been
controverted by the experiments of several eminent physiologists, but I believe that
my work tends somewhat to confirm it, though indirectly. I believe that the cutaneous
excretion of nitrogen in normal healthy conditions is but small. But in my table
will be found the results obtained from a patient suffering from Bright’s disease
(marked [c]), showing an excretion of nitrogen more than double the average
amount in my own case (marked [a]). I note that in case [6] the renal excretion
of nitrogen was considerable, increased by the use of the hot-air bath, a result I
conceive of great importance, due, I believe, to the temporary febrile condition
induced by the bath, evidenced by the increased rate of pulse and bodily tempera-
ture. I have since found this view confirmed by the experiments of G. Von Schleich,
of Tiibingen, showing an increased excretion of urea caused by the use of the
ordinary hot-water bath. But I have not as yet had an opportunity of making
further researches, on this point. I have again to thank my friend Professor J,
Emerson Reynolds, under whose guidance’my experiments were conducted, for his
valuable and kind assistance.

| Weight of Cutaneous Excretion of
4 Body a Nitrogen
= ol =|
2. ale les E
F Se Alccope ‘Palusdtag tL slike nce ccsedtabeesog
Se es 2 a on| to | 28s eS
Baht ale Sr ulaes ve coh Be | ee [oe So oes
g\| 2 |)8 18 | 8 |ee|ee| e8s| gf
a x ay 4 Lc = om By tof
el c= an ig fl <p =F Di ed
mw | A 4 H Ala = A'S z,
Ibs. | lbs. | Fahr. | h. m. | grms. | grms
1/124 {123 |107 | 10 |11-56 |0-049 | 0-01 0-039 |)
2/124 11925 |/106 | 10 {1202 |0113
3/124 {123 |111 | 1 30 |10:86 |0-129
41124 |1298 |116 |10 1|12:7 |0-097
51124 |193 1116 |10 |10:56 |0-113 ae A,
(6/1225 122 [125 | 10 |13'53 |0-129 | 0.038 | 0-091 ealthy.
7|1225 |122 |124 |045| — |0-081
4 (8/1245 |124 |120_ | 10 121 | 0-097 | 0-042 | 0-055
9|125 {1238 {1185/10 | — |0-129| 0058 | 0-071 |J
1|161-°5 | 1605 }131 | 110 /17-2 |0-129 | 0-09 0-039
2/1615 |160-5 {142 | 110/223 |o-161 Case B,
311625 |162 1125 |10 |19°6 |0-177 healthy.
1/155 |154 |1247}10 | — 10-387 | 0-:0978 | 0:2392 C
2/157 |155 |197-4/10 — |0:337 | 0:1578 | 0:1792 a.
3/1545 |184 11184 /10 — |0117 | 0-065 | 0:052 Dien t's
4/156 |154 |1238/10 | — |0-257 | 0-137 | 0-1192 —

* Experiments 6 and 7 madeon the same day:

+ Experiments 8 and 9 made on the same day.

{ The mean renal excretion of nitrogen for three days immediately preceding
was only 14:4 grammes.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 605

2. On a Direct Method for determining the Calorific Power of Alimentary
Substances. By J. A. WanKtyn and W. J. Cooper.

3. On the Aberrant Form of the Sacrum connected with Naegele’s Obliquely
Contracted Pelvis. By AtLEN THomson, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

Dr. Allen Thomson exhibited a well-marked specimen of Naegele’s obliquely
contracted pelvis in a male adult, together with a series of eight sacrums present-
ing different forms and degrees of the abnormal development which is the most
frequent primary cause of the pelvic deformity first described by Naegele.

Naegele’s first description of this deformity was published in 1834 (‘ Heidel-
berg. Klinisch. Annalen,’ vol. x. No. 4, translated in the ‘London Medical and

Surgicai Journal,’ vol. vii. No. 168), but he had already observed a case of it as
early as 1803, and others in 1813 and 1825. In 1850 Naegele published at
Maintz a separate and more extended memoir on the obliquely contracted
pelvis, and some other pelvic deformities, illustrated with full-sized representa-
tions, in which he showed that the oblique deformity in question is not confined
to one sex, but occurs in the male as well as in the female; though, of course, its
presence in the female is more liable to arrest attention from its relation to diffi-
culties in parturition.

Although Naegele had not fully described the nature of the abnormal condition
of the sacrum which accompanies the pelvic deformity, yet he had figured that
condition clearly as it occurred in different instances on the right and on the left

- side, and it may be inferred from his description and drawings that in the majority
of the cases the deformity was of the nature of a congenital malformation. Dr.
Edmund B. Sinclair, of Dublin, had the merit of detecting the existence of a
similar deformity during life in a case which he has described in the ‘ Dublin
Journal of Medical Science.’ In this case Dr. Sinclair was inclined to attribute
‘the origin of the obliquity to morbid degeneration in the vicinity of the sacro-
iliac articulation, and he may have had sufficient reasons for doing so. But the
specimens exhibited to the section by Dr. Thomson fully bear out the view recog-
nised by Rokitansky, that the deformity of oblique pelvis is very frequently if not
always of the nature of an aberrant kind or defect of development occurring in
the first sacral vertebra; and Dr. Thomson’s object was to show more clearly than
had previously been done the nature of this aberration. ;

| The most common form of the malformation may be described as one in which
the first sacral vertebra presents on one side all the usual characters which belong

to it as a constituent part of the sacrum—possessing, therefore, the large lateral
mass which enters into the formation of the upper pelvis, and articulates with the
ilium in the auricular surface; while upon the opposite side there is no sacro-iliac
junction, an entire absence of the lateral mass, and the first sacral vertebra pre-
sents in its transverse and articular processes, its intervertebral foramen, the
form of its body and arch, and in all other respects, the characters of a lower
lumbar vertebra. There is, therefore, half a sacral vertebra on one side and half

a lumbar vertebra on the other; the detachment of the vertebral arch (lamin and

processes), however, generally extending over to the sacral side.

The obliquity of form in the pelvis, and its consequences in other parts of
the vertebral column, are most directly the result of the unequal support given by
the sacro-iliac articulations of opposite sides. The author regards the liga-
mentous synostosis frequently found in these cases at the sacro-iliac articulation
on the abnormal side, not, as has been supposed by some, as a cause of the deformity,
but rather as a consequence of the greater strain thrown upon this joint by the
curvature following upon the shrunken condition of the first sacral vertebra, and
the absence of its connection with the ilium in the nonsymmetrical pelvis.

Of the eight specimens of sacrums exhibited, three presented the lumbar form
in the upper piece on the right side, and four on the left side, while one was nearly
symmetrical in form, but presented a partial retrogression, as it were, from the sacral
to the lumbar form on both sides very nearly in an equal degree.

606 REPORT-—1878.

The specimens illustrated in an interesting way the different degrees in which
the transition between the sacral and lumbar vertebral form might occur; and, in
connection with the examples of symmetrical form, led the author to remark upon
the variations in the number of sacral and lumbar vertebrae which occur not un-
frequently both in man and animals, and, according to some observations which he
has made, very commonly among the anthropoid apes.

With reference to this-subject, the author held that the most common cause of
the occurrence of six component pieces in the human sacrum (more frequent in the
male than in the female) is the increased development and union of the first piece
‘of the coccyx with the fifth sacral vertebra, without there being any actual
increase in the whole number of vertebrae in these two portions of the verte-
bral} column. But he further held it to be.probable that in some instances,
though very rare, an addition may take place to the number of sacral vertebre
by the conversion of the lowest lumbar vertebra into the sacral form; thus
giving rise, in an instance in which there is the usual number of ribs and dorsal
vertebrae, to the existence of only four lumbar vertebre.

It is more certain that in instances of six lumbar vertebre (with twelve
‘developed ribs and dorsal vertebrz), the sixth lumbar vertebra may be regarded
as a transformed sacral vertebra; as in an example of this kind observed by the
author, the sixth lumbar vertebra showed a slight approach to the sacral characters,
while the normal number of five sacral and four coccygeal vertebral pieces was
still present, thus indicating distinctly the interpellation of an additional vertebra,
and the transference, as it were, of one from the coccygeal to the sacral series,
and of one from the sacral to the lumbar series.

Dr. Thomson showed also an example of a sacrum of four pieces, and pointed
out that this might arise either from the conversion of the upper piece into the
lumbar form or from the detachment and retrogression of the lower vertebra into
the coccygeal form.

At the suggestion of Professor Macalister, Dr. Thomson exhibited from the
Museum of Trinity College a skeleton of the wombat (Phascolomys) presenting
the same unilateral retrogression of the upper sacral vertebra into the lumbar
form which is the cause of the oblique pelvis in man, thus showing that the
abnormal form of development which had been described is not confined to the
human species.

4, Note on the Occurrence of a Sacral Dimple and its possible Significance.
By Lawson Tart, F.R.C.S.

The author had noticed casually amongst his hospital patients a curious pit-like
depression or dimple in the skin over the lowest bone of the sacrum, and his atten-
tion had been drawn to a case in which it was present in a marked degree in all
the children of a woman who had it. In one of these the pit was a centimetre in
depth, its apex adherent to the aponeurotic structures, and it expanded outwards
so that its mouth had a diameter of about 13 millimetres. Of the patients sub-
jected to examination (for other and special reasons) he found no trace of it in 55
per cent. ; in 22 per cent. it was faintly marked; and in 25 per cent. it was well
marked. A double pit was noticed in about 6 per cent. of the cases. The average
age of its occurrence was slightly over thirty-two years, and the average age of
those in whom it was entirely absent was nearly forty-five years. In children aver-
aging about five years it was found entirely absent in only 26 per cent., and it was
well marked in 40:7 per cent. of the cases ; so that there is a manifest tendency for
it to disappear with age.

The author further described the appearances of a kitten which he had dissected,
and in which there had been a spina bifida in the lower sacral vertebre ; all, the
vertebral elements below the seat of the malformation had been arrested in deve-
lopment exactly as is found in the coccyges of those animals in which a tail has
been lost—man, the Manx cat, the guinea-pig, &c. The nervous nutrition of the
posterior limbs had not been interfered with in any way.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 607

The author suggested that the origin of such a curious variety as the Manx cat
might have occurred in a sport of this kind, as such cases of spina bifida are known
to live to maturity ; and if it occurred in a male cat in a limited area like the Isle
of Man, the perpetuation of the alteration of structures would be favoured.

He also suggested as a possibility that the pitting over the human sacrum, to
which he had drawn attention, might represent some such process by which the
tail which man undoubtedly had lost at some time or other in the history of his
development, had been suppressed.

608 REPORT— 1878.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.

The following Papers were read :-—
1. The Rate of Cardiac Hypertrophy. By Wiuu1aM H. Srons, M.A., F.R.C.P.

It may be accepted as an axiom that every reduction of physiological or patho-
logical processes to known physical laws, even if only partially and approxi-
mately successful, is a step forward in science, and that if the whole disturbance of
Nature’s equilibrium, from the excessive complexity of the functions involved, be
beyond our power of analysis, there is still some advantage and a gain to precise
observation in cutting off and putting on one side such portions as are susceptible
of accurate treatment. The predominance of vague, though necessary generaliza-
tions, such as that of vital action, is thereby materially diminished, and the direction
is more closely indicated in which future efforts at advance may most judiciously
be directed.

Of all parts of the human organism, there is none, after the simple muscular and
bony framework, which belongs more distinctly to Physics than the apparatus of
circulation, and its central motor, the heart. This organ is obviously nothing more
than a double force-pump, furnished with two reservoirs and two pipes of outflow.
It is true that the valvular apparatus, which is also duplicated, is furnished with
complex muscular and tendinous appendages to regulate the tension and secure the
apposition of the occluding surfaces. But in the main the problem of its action is
hydrodynamical, and many valuable facts may be obtained by regarding it in a
mechanical point of view. The height to which this force-pump is called upon to
raise a given volume of fluid is obviously measured by the height of the animal to
which it belongs, and even as early as 1769 Dr. Hales made experiments on horses,
which showed the height of the column of fluid sustained by the heart's contraction,
as transmitted through the large arteries, to be in horses about 9°14 feet.

Dr. Haughton, in his excellent and suggestive work on ‘The Principles of
Animal Mechanics, has most ingeniously utilized an accidental opportunity afforded
by an operation for computing the force when a large artery is divided in the
human subject, at a vertical column of 2°58 feet; that ascertained to exist in the
horse being 2°53 feet. It would, indeed, seem that the maximum hydrostatical force
is about the same in the two animals, and probably not far different in the sheep
and dog.

Besides (1) the statical pressure of the column equal to the animal’s height,
which has to be sustained, and (2) the force consumed in overcoming the inertia of
the blood-mass, an important element in the work to be done is (3) the resistance
offered by the capillary vessels to the flow of blood. There is reason to believe,
says Dr. Haughton, that in animals similar in bulk the arrangement and ‘structure
of the capillaries are such that the ratio of the squares of their cross-sections to
their total length is practically constant. Supposing the co-efficient of capillary
resistance to be the same in the man as in the horse, we can calculate, on Dr.
Haughton’s method, the hemastatical pressure of blood in the human arteries.
The left ventricle has a capacity of about 3 ozs., or 5-2 cubic inches, and beats about
75 times per minute.

Taking the usual equation of capillarity—

hd.
Q=A x Tm
Where Q = quantity discharged in a given time.
A =a constant.
h=the charge, or hydrostatical pressure.
d=diameter. /=length of tube.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 609

Solving this for A,
hos
4.
Ax .
Substituting for Q the product of capacity and rate of pulse, and for the capillary
resistance, its value found for the horse, we obtain—
52x75 _o.
= ee 100,
39°3
There is a fourth element to be considered in estimating the heart’s work, namely,
the friction of the machine itself. This, in a state of health, is kept at its minimum
by the beautiful contrivance of the smooth lubricated serous membrane of the
3 oo It will be seen that in disease this condition may be completely
tered.

It appears from Dr. Haughton’s calculations, resulting from comparison of
several observations, that the average weight of the heart may be taken as
= 9°39 ozs.

Dr. Peacock’s laborious collection of weights, both in health and disease,* gives
a value not far distant from this: namely, “in persons from twenty to fifty-five years
of age it is,in males, 9 ozs. 8 drachms, and in females 8 ozs. 13 drachms.” But in
disease this is entirely changed. The heart possesses a power of increasing its

‘muscular force in proportion to any extra work that may be thrown uponit. In
extreme cases the hypertrophy thus caused may be very considerable. Even without
valvular disease of the organ a remarkable increase may occur, especially in persons
whose occupation subjects them to sudden muscular strain, accompanied by forcible
holding of the breath, as in the case of paviours working with their rammers. Dr.
Peacock records a case in which the heart weighed 40 ozs. 12 drachms, though
nothing, except some atheromatous change, was detected sufficient to explain the
hypertrophy. In this instance, however, no note was apparently obtained by which
the time during which the compensatory process had been going on could be
ascertained. ;

The object of the present paper is to record briefly some cases in which one only
of the above-named causes of increased strain was at work; and thus, by coupling
together increase of weight with a fairly accurate statement of the time which
had been occupied, to obtain an estimate of the rate at which the hypertrophic pro-
cess proceeds in each instance.

These cases are four in number—

1. Two of valvular disease of the aortic valve, arising from injury, without any
concomitant blood-disease (No. 2).

2. One of adherent pericardium, dating from a known commencement, unac-
companied by valvular or blood-disease, and showing the hypertrophy due to simple
increase of friction in the propelling machine (No. 4).

3. One of congenital or very old atrophy of one kidney, increasing (3) the resist-
ance offered by the capillary circulation, without valvular or pericardial disorder.

Case 1.—A robust man, aged 30, was kicked by a horse on the front of the
chest. The animal lashed out with both hind legs at once, and landed a hoof fairly
on either side of the sternum. This occurred on October 2nd, 1875. The man im-
mediately began to suffer from short breath and other signs of valvular disease of the
heart. In spite of this he managed to keep at his occupation of groom until February
2nd, 1876, On the 27th of the same month he died. On the following day the heart
was found to measure transversely 8} inches, and in circumference 14 inches while
im situ. It weighed-29 ounces. The aorta was laid open in front and the condition
of its valves examined. On allowing a stream of water to run into the vessel, there
was free flow into the ventricle. On looking into the valves from above, a tri-
angular aperture was seen between the flaps, which appeared to be formed in the
following manner. The posterior and the right anterior segment acted well, and
were in contact along a great part of their adjacent borders. The left anterior seg-
ment, however, scarcely acted at all, its free border being widely separated from the

* «On the Weight and Dimensions of the Heart in Health and Disease,’
. RR

610 REPORT—1878.

edges of the other segments, and-turning downwards towards the cavity of the
ventricle. Its edge was puckered and folded, as if an effort had been made to fold
it downwards. The whole of the segments were somewhat rigid and thickened,
free, however, from atheroma and vegetations.

The mitral valve was healthy, and acted well.

The aorta was not materially diseased.

All the other organs were healthy.

From the injury to the day of death, 147 days, or exactly 21 weeks, had
elapsed.

ae 2.—A dock-labourer, zt. 36, also in St. Thomas's Hospital, had been sud-
denly attacked when pulling at a sugar hogshead. His hands slipped, struck hima
severe blow on the left side of the chest, and he fell backwards. He immediately
felt severe pain in the region of the heart, and in the evening his breathing became
difficult. He died 35 months from the injury.

The heart was found to be greatly enlarged, weighing 25 ounces. The left
angle of the posterior semilunar segment at the aortic orifice was found to be torn
from its attachment, so that it was quite loose, and readily admitted of retroversion,
allowing free regurgitation from the artery into the ventricle.

Case 5.—A French waiter, et. 20, came into St. Thomas’s for acute rheumatism.
On January 12,1878, he had a sudden attack of pericarditis, from which he had
been perfectly free before. This proceeded to total adhesion, and after leaving the
hospital for a time he returned and died on July 7, exactly 176 days, or twenty-
weeks and a day, from the commencement of the disease.

All the valves of the heart and all other organs in the body were substantially
healthy. The pericardium was, however, firmly and universally adherent. The heart
itself weighed 19} ounces.

Case 4.—A hoy, 14 years of age, was admitted into St. Thomas’s on August 22,
1876, suffering from obvious hypertrophy of the heart, but without evidence of val-
vular disease. I considered the case to be, like the last, one of adherent pericardium.
It was difficult to obtain any distinct history from so young a person but, from
information tendered by his relations, the following facts were established :

He had been quite well until three months before admission. He then “ caught
a severe cold,” accompanied by cough, pain in the chest, short breath, and prostration.
When first seen he was pale, oedematous in the face, suffering much from spasmodic
cough. The heart was obviously enlarged, as was also the liver. The temperature
was 98°°4. The urine of sp. gr. 1016, containing much albumen. This, however,
disappeared after a fortnight’s rest, and never returned to any appreciable extent.

A sphygmographic tracing of the pulse at the wrist, taken two months after his
admission, showed the remarkable fact that the heart’s pulsation was entirely under
the command of respiration, so that when he held his breath, the tracing was
reduced to a faintly undulated line. On the other hand, when he coughed, a wave
of great force and extent was sent through the artery, somewhat resembling the
healthy pulse tracing. He had occasional slight hemoptysis and increased dyspnea,
under which symptoms he sank on November 20, 1876, The pericardium was found
entirely free from adhesions, the heart weighing 194 ounces, greatly hypertrophied,
but without any valvular lesion.

The aorta and great vessels of the neck were extremely atheromatous, much
thickened in places, but quite pervious.

The left kidney was atrophied, flattened, and of triangular shape, somewhat re-
sembling the suprarenal capsule. Its vessels and the ureter were normal and per-
vious, but the vessels were only about half the size of those on the right side.

The arteries at the base of the brain were extremely atheromatous ; the atheroma
extending throughout their branches as far as the small vessels spreading over the
convexity of the hemispheres.

On comparing the above cases, we obviously have three different causes, all of a
physical character, but producing one and the same result—namely, hypertrophy.
In the first two the permanent obstacle between the heart and the arterial system
was broken down, and the momentum of the blood column was thus permitted to
fall back upon the muscular structure itself, instead of being warded off by the re-

rea a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 61]

tentive tissue of the aortic valves.* The quantity propelled at each stroke can only
have been the difference between what was admitted through the mitral orifice and
what regurgitated through the partially patent aortic orifice. Besides this, there
must have been the constant backward pressure of arterial elasticity bearing on the
cardiac walls, even during the period of rest in the circulatory cycle. In the third
case an impediment was caused to the action of the heart itself by additional friction
due to the destruction of its serous covering, and the additional mass of false mem-
brane as well as adjacent tissues, which it was thus compelled to keep in movement
at every contraction. In the fourth and last case, the only assignable cause for the
great enlargement must be the increase of what Dr. Haughton has named the
capillary coefficient. It here stands for the resistance, not of the capillary system
alone, but of the whole arterial network, from the aorta onwards, which is described
as highly rough and atheromatous. In the transparent structures on the surface of
the brain this condition could be seen to penetrate even into the smallest vessels,
and it may, therefore, be fairly assumed to have been universal. It has been shown
by Dr. Bright that disease of the kidneys, unconnected with valvular disease or .
disease of the aorta, has a tendency to produce enlargement of the heart., Dr.
Peacock proves this statistically by giving the proportion of enlarged hearts as
eleven out of eighteen cases examined. The smaller arterioles in cases of renal dis-
ease have also been demonstrated by Dr. Johnson to possess a largely increased
amount of muscular fibre. Whether the hypertrophy in this case was originally
due to this cause, or went backwards to the insufficient renal excretory surface sup-

plied by the single healthy kidney, it is difficult to say. Placing the cases in a
tabular form :—

Duration of Normal | Actual
illness weight | weight oe
Case I. | 147 days or 21 weeks | 9 ozs. | 29 ozs.| 20 ozs. gained in 21 weeks
Ho 18G 14 weeks Oee. 23 ,, | 1402. ,, in 14 weeks
y LIL. 25 weeks os 193 ,, | 103} ozs. ,, in 25 weeks
ies 26 weeks figeop 193 ,, | 124 0zs. ,, in 26 weeks

The rate of the first two cases due to aortic lesion is very similar, being nearly
an ounce per week; the third, due to pericardial friction, is about half this amount
in the last, though the actual weight gained is not far different from that of the
third, the ratio to the normal size of the organ in a boy of 14 is considerably
greater, and the hypertrophy in proportion to the muscular development of the
patient much more marked. It may be noted that the pregnant uterus increases
by about twenty-four ounces in nine months or thirty-six weeks, or two-thirds of
an ounce per week, a quantity far less than that shown by the heart.

* Dr. Haughton writes on this subject :—“ The chief resistance in the open con-

_ dition of the valve arose from the wis inertie of the blood column, which had to be

set in motion afresh at every heart-stroke.’

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Srecrion E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor Sir C, Wyville Thomson, LL,D,, D.Sc.
F.RB.S., F.RiS.E., F,G.S., F,L.S.,

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Professor Sir C. Wyvinne THoMson gave the following Address :—

In doing me the honour to select me to preside over this Section on the present
occasion, the Council of the British Association have doubtless had in view the part
‘which it has been my privilege to take in contributing to the physical description
of the earth, as director of the civilian scientific staff on board Her Majesty’s ship
Challenger. I will not, therefore, apologise for following the example of several of
‘my more immediate predecessors in leaving to others the subject of topographical
geography, of which I have never made a special study, and directing your atten-
tion for the short time at my disposal to advances which have been made of late
‘years in certain directions in the application of the physical and natural sciences
to the illustration of the general condition of the earth.

Before doing so, however, I must refer to the great geographical event of the
‘year which has passed since the geographical section of the British Association last
met—the return of the African explorer, Henry Moreland Stanley. As the graphic
account which Mr. Stanley has given of his journey “ through the dark continent”
is in all our hands, and as we may hope to have an opportunity during this meeting
‘of hearing something further of his adventures from the great traveller himself, it
will not be necessary for me at present to enter into any details either with regard
to the course taken by his expedition or to the brilliant results which it has
achieved. It is, however, incumbent upon us in this place to acknowledge once
more the flood of light which Stanley nas thrown upon the geography of Central
Africa, and to express our wondering admiration of the iron will and the daring
intrepidity which carried him through these long years of labour and difficulty and
danger. Although, in reading Stanley’s narrative, we may be forced to regret some
of the dark scenes by which his terrible march was chequered, still no one who has
not himself had some dealings with savages can fully understand how entirely the
action of a leader, solely responsible for the lives of his party, must be guided in
‘every emergency by considerations which he alone is in a position to weigh.

During the last few years, a factor, so altered in its proportions that it has
‘appeared almost new, has entered into the calculations of the naval executive
‘departments of all the maritime powers; and in harmony with the rapid advance
‘of natural knowledge and the widening recognition of its practical value, many
opportunities, hitherto too often lost, have been taken advantage of. Latterly
almost all special expeditions, whether despatched avowedly with the object of
extending the boundaries of science, or for hydrographic purposes, or for training
naval cadets, or for drilling the inmates of a penitentiary, or pioneering commercial
enterprise, as in the case of Captain Wiggins’s late excursions to the mouth of the
‘Yenisei, have been supplied more or less fully with the means of scientific obser-

t

614 REPORT—1878.

vation, and haye been in many cases accompanied by observers trained in one
department or another of physical research.

I will simply name among many such equipped and instructed expeditions of
these later days, the splendid circumnavigating voyage of the Austrian frigate
Novara, under the command of Admiral von Wiillerstorf-Urbair (the report of
the scientific results of this expedition has been published by the Austrian Govern—
ment in eighteen beautifully illustrated volumes, and the completion of this work,
after seventeen years of heavy labour, was one of the scientific events of the year
1877); the voyage of the Italian corvette Magenta round the world, so well
chronicled by Professor Enrico Hillyer Giglioli; the very important sounding
voyages of Captain Bellmap, in the American surveying ship Tuscarora; the Hassler
expedition, the last crowning effort with which the elder Agassiz closed a long and
brilliant career devoted to the study and illustration of nature, and the many
scientific explorations undertaken from year to year by the officers of the American
Coast Survey, with the co-operation of the younger Agassiz and Count Pourtales ;
the tentative cruises of the British gunboats Lightning and Porcupine, culminating
in the Challenger expedition ; the scientific voyage round the world of the German
frigate Gazelle; the several expeditions sent out by different Powers to observe the
transit of Venus; the German Arctic expedition, under Captain Koldewey ; the
several Swedish expeditions, so rich in zoological results, to the Spitzbergen Sea,
under the guidance. of Otto Torell, Nordenskjéld, and others; the exhaustive
researches into the conditions, physical and biological, of the North Sea by the North
Sea Commission, under the direction of Dr. H. A. Meyer; the voyage of the
Tegethof, which Lieutenant Payer has rendered ever memorable by his thrilling
story of disaster, success, and heroism; the Arctic voyage of the Alert and the
Discovery, of which Sir George Nares has just published the semi-official narrative,
a simple and charming account of almost superhuman effort and insuperable ob=
struction, which it is impossible to read without a feeling of regret that the devoted
little band had attempted what was so hopeless, and at the same time a conyiction
that if their task had been practicable by human skill and bravery,it must certainly
have been accomplished. But although this’ expedition of necessity failed in its
main object, that of reaching the Pole, the additional information which we gain
from Captain Nares’s volume and from the more popular sketch of the voyage by
Captain Markham on the physical condition of the Arctic Sea, isin the highest
degree valuable. I must also mention the very important cruises in connection
with the Norwegian Department of Fisheries, which, through the skilled labours
of Professor Mohn and Professor G. O. Sars, annually contribute largely to our
knowledge of the distribution of temperature, of the course of the ocean currents,
and of the range of animal life in the North Atlantic. I observe in a letter from
Professor Mohn, dated from Hammerfest on the 10th of last month, that the
expedition of the past year has had a successful cruise to Bear Island, where it
has left letters for the Dutch Arctic schooner, the Willem Barentz, and has made
many important temperature observations. Professor Mohn speaks highly of the
service rendered by Negretti and Zambra’s new reversing thermometer. This is a
most ingenious instrument, so constructed that by a simple mechanical arrangement
the temperature may be registered at any given depth, irrespective of any number
of zones of temperature, hicher or lower, through which the instrument may haye
passed in descending. In the Challenger we felt greatly the want of such a ther-
mometer, for although generally throughout the ocean the temperature of the water
falls steadily from a surface maximum to a minimum at the bottom, in the Arctic
and Antartic seas—where a special interest attaches to the vertical distribution
of temperatures—the coldest layer is frequently, as in Professor Mohn’s observa=-
tions, on the surface; and a warmer belt intervenes between it and a bottom-
stratum, probably, in many cases, of intermediate temperature. With the ordinary
deep-sea registering thermometer, the temperature of the lowest layer cannot be
ascertained with certainty. We had Negretti and Zambyra’s earlier instrument on
the reversing principle on board during the latter part of our cruise, but through
some defect in construction we did not find its indications trustworthy for great
depths. I always believed the plan of construction of this instrument to be ro0d,,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 615

and I am very glad to find from Professor Mohn’s report that this defect has now
been entirely overcome.

It follows from the nature of these many and varied enterprises that the
department of geographical science to whose progress they have most specially
contributed, is the physical geography of the sea; and the special appliances with
which they have been provided have been principally instruments for determining
the temperature of the water at different depths, the depth of the sea and the
nature of the sea-bottom, and, in some few cases, the distribution of the deep-sea
fauna. It is of course impossible for me in so short a time even to sketch their
several lines of investigation, or to attempt to assign to each its share in the general
advance of Inowledge ; I think it may be better that I should give an outline of
some of the conditions of the regions to which they refer by the light of their
combined results. I am aware that in taking this course I shall be forced to face
questions on which there has been some controversy; and I can only say that I
will avoid the controversial aspects of such questions as far as possible, and merely
describe as shortly as I can the condition of things as they appear to me.

The General Ocean Cireulation.—It was pointed out long ago by Sir Charles
Lyell that many of the most marked phenomena of the present physical condition
of the globe depend upon the fact that the surface of the world is divided into two
hemispheres, one of which contains nearly the whole of the dry land of this world,
while the other is almost entirely covered by water. The centre of the land-
hemisphere is somewhere in Great Britain, and the centre of the water-hemisphere,
which includes the southern sea, the South Pacific, whatever antarctic land there
may be, Australia, and the southern point of South America, is in the neighbour-
hood of New Zealand. With a full knowledge of the absolute continuity of the
ocean, we have hitherto been too much in the habit of regarding it as composed of
several oceans, each possibly under special physical conditions. All recent obser-
vations have, however, shown us that the vast expanse of water which has its
centre in the southern hemisphere, is the one great ocean of the world, of which
the Atlantic, with the Arctic Sea and the North Pacific, are merely northward
extending gulfs; and that any physical phenomena affecting obviously one portion
of its area must be regarded as one of an interdependent system of phenomena
affecting the ocean as a whole.

Shallow as the stratum of water forming the ocean is—a mere film in propor-
tion to the radius of the earth—it is very definitely split up into two layers, which,
so far as all questions concerning ocean movements and the distribution of tem-
perature is concerned, are under very different conditions. At a depth varying
in different parts of the world, but averaging perhaps 500 fathoms, we arrive at a
layer of water at a temperature of 40° F., and this may be regarded asa kind of
neutral band separating the two layers. Above this band, the temperature varies
greatly over different areas, the isothermobathic lines being sometimes tolerably
equally distributed, and at other times crowding together towards the surface ;
while beneath it, the temperature almost universally sinks very slowly and with in-
creasing slowness to a minimum at the bottom.

The causes of natural phenomena, such as the movements of great masses of
water, or the existence over large areas of abnormal temperature conditions, are
always more or less complex, but in almost all cases one cause appears to be so
very much the most efficient that in taking a general view all others may be prac-
tically disregarded ; and speaking in this sense it may be said that the trade-winds
and their modifications and counter-currents are the cause of all movements in the
stratum of the ocean above the neutral layer. This system of horizontal circula-
tion, although so enormously important in its influences upon the distribution of
climate, is sufficiently simple. Disregarding minor details, the great equatorial
current driven from east to west across the northerly extensions of the ocean by
the trade-winds, impinges upon the eastern coasts of the continents. A branch
turns northwards and circles round the closed end of the Pacific, tending to curl
back to the North American coast from its excess of initial velocity ; and in the
Atlantic, following a corresponding course, the Gulf Stream bathes the shores of
northern Europe, and a branch of it forces its way into the Arctic basin, and bat-

616 REPORT—1878.

tling against the palzeocrystic ice, keeps imperfectly open the water-way by which
Nordenskjéld hopes to work his course to Behring’s Strait. The southern de-
flections are practically lost, being to a great extent, though not entirely, dissipated
in the great westerly current of the southern anti-trades.

One of the most singular results of these later investigations is the establish-
ment of the fact that all the vast mass of water, often upwards of 2000 fathoms in
thickness, below the neutral band, is moving slowly to the northward ; that in fact
the depths of the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Oceans are occupied by
tongues of the Antartic Sea, preserving in the mainits characteristic temperatures.
The maintenance of a low temperature while the temperature of the floor of the ocean
must be higher, and that of the upper layers of the sea greatly higher, is in itself a
conclusive proof of steady movement of the water from a cold source; and the
fact that the temperature of the lower layers of water, both in the Atlantic and
the Pacific, is slightly but perceptibly raised to the northward, while the continuity
of every layer with a corresponding layer in the southern sea can be clearly traced,
indicates the southern position of that source,

The immediate explanation of this very unexpected phenomenon seems simple.
From some cause or other, as yet not fully understood, evaporation is greatly in
excess of precipitation over the northern portion of the land-hemisphere, while
over the water-hemisphere, and particularly over its southern portion, the reverse
is the case; thus one part of the general circulation of the ocean is carried on
through the atmosphere, the water being raised in vapour in the northern hemi-
sphere, hurried by upper wind currents to the zone of low barometric pressure in
the south, where it is precipitated in the form of snow or rain, and, welling thence
northwards in the deepest channels on account of the high specific gravity depen-
dent on its low temperature, supplies the place of the water which has been re-
moved.

The cold water wells northwards, but it meets with some obstructions on its
way, and these obstructions, while they prove the northward movement, if further
proof were needed, bring out another law by which the distribution of ocean tempe-
rature is regulated. The deeper water sinks slowly to a minimum at the bottom,
so that if we suppose the temperature at a depth of 2000 fathoms to be 36° F.,
the temperature at a depth of 3000 may be, say, 32°. Now, if in this case the
slow current meet on its northward path a continuous barrier in the form of a sub-
marine mountain ridge rising to within 2000 fathoms of the sea-surface, it is clear
that all the water below a temperature of 36° will be arrested, and, however deep
the basin beyond the ridge may be, the water will maintain a minimum of 36° from
a depth of 2000 fathoms to the bottom. In many parts of the ocean we have most
remarkable examples of the effect upon deep-sea temperature of such barriers inter-
secting cold in-draughts, the most marked instance, perhaps, a singular chain of
closed seas at different temperatures among the islands of the Malay Archipelago ;
but we have also a striking instance nearer home. Evaporation is greatly in excess
of precipitation over the area of the Mediterranean, and consequently, in order to
keep up the supply of water to the Mediterranean, there is a constant inward cur-
rent through the Straits of Gibraltar from the Atlantic ; I need not at present refer
to an occasional tidal counter-current. The minimum temperature of the Mediter-
yanean is about 54° F, from a depth of 100 fathoms to the bottom. The tempe-
rature of 54° is reached in the Atlantic at the mouth of the Straits of Gibraltar at
a depth of about 100 fathoms, so that in all probability future soundings will show
that the free water-way through the Straits does not greatly exceed 100 fathoms
in depth.

The Depth of the Sea,and the Nature of Modern Deposits —It seems now to be
thoroughly established by lines of trustworthy soundings which have been run
in all directions, that the average depth of the ocean is a little over 2000 fathoms,
and that in all probability it nowhere exceeds 5000 fathoms. Depths beyond 4000
fathoms are rare and very local, and seem to be usually pits in the neighbourhood
of volcanic islands. In all the ocean basins there are depressions extending over
considerable areas where the-depth reaches 3000 fathoms or a little more, and
these depressions maintain a certain parallelism with the axes of the neighbouring
continents.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 617

Within 300 or 400 miles of the shore, whether in deep or in shallow water,
formations are being laid down, whose materials are derived mainly from the disin-
tegration of shore rocks, and which consequently depend for their structure and
composition upon the nature and composition of the rocks which supply their
materials. These deposits imbed the hard parts of the animals living on their area
of deposition, and they correspond in every way with sedimentary formations with
which we are familiar, of every age. In-water of medium depths down to about
2000 fathoms, we have in most seas a deposit of the now well-known globigerina-

- ooze, formed almost entirely of the shells of Foraminifera living on the sea sur-
face, and which after death have sunk to the bottom. This formation, which
occupies a large part of the bed of the Atlantic and a considerable part of that of
the Pacific and Southern Seas, is very like chalk in most respects, although we are
now satisfied that it is being laid down as a rule in deeper water than the chalk of
the Cretaceous period.

In depths beyond 2500 or 3000 fathoms no such accumulations are taking place.
The shores of continents are usually too distant to supply land detritus, and although
the chalk-building Foraminifera are as abundant on the surface as they are else-
where, not a shell reaches the bottom; the carbonate of lime is entirely dissolved
by the carbonic acid contained in the water during the long descent of the shells
from the surface. It therefore becomes a matter of very great interest to determine
what processes are going on, and what kind of formations are being laid down in
these abyssal regions, which must at present occupy an area of not less than ten
millions of square miles.

The tube of the sounding instrument comes up from such abysses filled with an
extremely fine reddish clay, in great part amorphous, but containing, when exa-
mined under the microscope, a quantity of distinctly recognisable particles, organic
and inorganic. The organic particles are chiefly siliceous, and for the most part the
shells or spines of Radiolarians which are living abundantly on the surface of the
sea, and apparently in more or less abundance at all depths. The inorganic par-
ticles are minute flakes of disintegrated pumice, and small crystalline fragments of
volcanic minerals; the amorphous residue is probably principally due to the de-
composition of volcanic products, and partly to the ultimate inorganic residue of
decomposed organisms. There is ample evidence that this abyssal deposit is taking
place with extreme slowness. Over its whole area, and more particularly in the
deep water of the Pacific, the dredge or trawl brings up in large numbers nodules
very irregular in shape, consisting chiefly of peroxide of iron and peroxide of man-
ganese, deposited in concentric layers in a, matrix of clay, round a nucleus formed
of a shark’s tooth, or a piece of bone, or an ‘otolith, or a piece of siliceous sponge, or
more frequently a fragment of pumice. These nodules are evidently formed in the
clay, and the formation of the larger ones and the segregation of their material
must have taken a very long time. Many of the sharks’ teeth to which I have
alluded as forming the nuclei of the nodules, and which are frequently brought up
uncoated with foreign matter, belong to species which we have every reason’ to
believe to be extinct. Some teeth of a species of Carcharodon are of enormous
size, four inches across the base, and are scarcely distinguishable from the huge
teeth from the tertiary beds of Malta. It is evident that these semi-fossil teeth,
from their being caught up in numbers by the loaded line of the trawl, are covered
by only a very thin layer of clay.

Another element in the red clay has caused great speculation and interest. If
a magnet be drawn through a quantity of the fine clay well diffused in water, it
will be found to have caught on its surface some very minute magnetic spherules,
some apparently of metallic iron in a passive state, and some of metallic nickel.
From the appearance of these particles, and from the circumstance that such
magnetic dust has been already detected in the sediment of snow-water, my col-
league, Mr. Murray, has a very strong opinion that they are of cosmic origin—
excessively minute meteorites. They certainly resemble very closely the fine gra-
nules which frequently roughen the surface of the characteristic skin of metorites,
and from their composition and the circumstances under which they are found,
there is much to be said in favour of this view. I cannot, however, hold it entirely

618 REPORT—1878.

proved ; there can be little doubt, from the universal presence of water-logged and
partially decomposed pumice on the bottom, and from the constant occurrence of
particles of volcanic minerals in the clay, that the red clay is formed in a great
measure by the decomposition of the lighter products of submarine volcanoes drifted.
about by currents, and finally becoming saturated with water and sinking; and it
is well known that both iron and nickel in a metallic state are frequently present in
minute quantities in igneous rocks. I think it is conceivable that the metallic
spherules may be derived from this source.

So far as we can judge, after a most careful comparative examination, the
deposit which is at present being formed at extreme depths in the ocean, does not
correspond either in structure or in chemical composition with any known geolo-
gical formation; and, moreover, we are inclined to believe, from a consideration of
their structure and of their imbedded organic remains, that none of the older forma-
tions were laid down at nearly so great depths—that, in fact, none of these have
anything of an abyssal character. These late researches tend to show that during
past geological changes abyssal beds have never been exposed, and it seems highly
seals that until comparatively recent geological periods such beds have not been
ormed.

It appears now to be a very generally received opinion among geologists—an
opinion which was first brought into prominence by Professor Dana—that the
“massive” eruptions which originated the mountain chains which form the
skeleton of our present continents, and the depressions occupied by our present
seas, date from the secular cooling and contraction of the crust of the earth, from
a period much more remote than the deposition of the earliest of the fossiliferous
rocks; and that during the period chronicled by the successive sedimentary
systeris, with many minor oscillations by which limited areas have been alternately
elevated and depressed, the broad result has been the growth by successive steps
of the original mountain chains and the extension of the continents by their
denudation, and the corresponding deepening of the original grooves. If this view
be correct—and it certainly appears to me that the reasoning in its favour is very
cogent—it is quite possible that until comparatively recent times no part of the
ocean was sufficiently deep for the formation of a characteristic abyssal deposit.

Time will not allow me even to allude to the interesting results which have
been obtained from the determination of the density of sea water from different
localities and different depths, and from the analysis of sea water, and its contained
gases, and perhaps these results have been scarcely sufficiently worked out as yet
to afford safe bases for generalization., I must, however, say a few words as to
certain additions which have been made to our knowledge of the two hitherto
eee strongholds of the frost, the regions round the North and South

oles.

The Arctic Regions.—The question which has of late held the most prominent
place in all discussions about the conditions of the Arctic Regions, particularly
since the voyage of Dr. Hayes, is whether it is possible that there can be at all
times or at any time anything in the form of an open Polar sea. This question
seems now to be virtually settled, and in the most unsatisfactory manner imagin-
able. There can be no doubt that in the year 1871, Count Wilczek in the
schooner Ishjérn found the sea between Novaya Zemlya and Spitzbergen nearly
free from ice, and that the same sea presented to Weyprecht and Payer in the
following year a dangerous stretch of moving and impenetrable pack. There can
be no doubt that in the year 1861 Dr. Hayes gazed over an expanse of open water
where in 1875-6 Captain Nares studied the conditions of palsocrystic ice. It is
evident therefore that the Polar basin, or at all events such portions of it as have
been hitherto reached, is neither open sea nor continuous ice, but a fatal compro-
mise between the two, an enormously heavy pack formed by the piling up and
crushing together of the floe of successive years, in frequent movement, breaking
up and shifting according to the prevailing direction of the wind, and leaving open,
now here and now there, lanes and vistas of deceptive open water, which may be
at any moment closed and converted into a chaotic mass of hurtling floe-bergs by
a hurricane from another direction. It seems, however, that in certain seasons

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 619

there is more open water in the direction of Grinnell’s Land and Smith’s Sound
than in others, and that there are also years comparatively favourable for the
northward route following the lead of Franz-Josef Land; and there seem now to
be only two plans, one nearly as hopeless as the other, to chose between in any
future attempt—either to establish several permanent Polar stations, as proposed
by Lieut. Weyprecht, and already initiated at one point, so far as preliminaries are
concerned, by Captain Tyson and Captain Howgate, and to seize the opportunity
of running north in early autumn from the station where the sea appears most
open ; or to run as far north as possible at enormous expense, with a great force of
men and abundance of provisions and paraffin oil, and push northwards during the
arctic winter by a chain of communicating stations with ice-built refuge huts. It
seems possible that in a cold season, with the pack in the condition in which
Markham found it in 1876, some progress might be made in this way, if it were
conceivable that the end to be gained was worth the expenditure of so much
labour and treasure. ;

The Antarctic Regions.—But little progress has been made during the last
quarter of a century in the actual investigation of the conditions of that vast
region which lies within the parallel of 70° 8S. Some additional knowledge has
been acquired, and the light which recent inquiries have thrown upon the general
plan of ocean circulation and the physical properties of ice, have given a new
direction to what must partake for some time to come of the nature of
speculation.

From information derived from all sources up to the present time, it may be
gathered that the unpenetrated area of about 4,700,000 square miles surrounding
the South Pole is by no means certainly a continuous “ Antarctic continent,” but
that it-consists much more probably partly of comparatively low continental land,
and partly of a congeries of continental (not oceanic) islands, bridged between anc
combined, and covered to the-depth of about 1400 feet, by a continuous ice-cap ; with
here and there somewhat elevated continental chains, such as the groups of land
between 55° and 95° W., including Peter the Great Island and Alexander Land,
discovered by Billingshausen in 1821, Graham Land and Adelaide Island,
discovered by Biscol in 1832, and Louis Philippe Land by D’Urville in 1858, and
at least one majestic modern volcanic range discovered by Ross in 1841 and 1842,

stretching from Balleny Island to a latitude of 78° S., and rising to a height of
15,000 feet. It seems, so far as is at present known, that the whole of the
antarctic land, low and high, as well as the ice-cap of which a portion of the
continuous continent may consist, is bordered to some distance by a fringe of ice,
which is bounded to seaward by a perpendicular ice-cliff, averaging 230 feet in
height above the sea-level. Outside the cliff a floe, which attains near the barrier
a thickness of about 20 feet and in some places, by piling a considerably greater
thickness, extends northwards in winter to a distance varying according to its
position with reference to the’ southward-trending branches of the equatorial
current; and this floe is replaced in summer by a heavy drifting pack with
scattered ice-hergs. Navigating the Antarctic Sea in the southern summer, the
only season when such navigation is possible, it has been the opinion of almost all
explorers, that after forcing a passage through an outer belt of a heavy pack and
ice-bergs, moving as a rule to the north-westward, and thus fanning out from the
ice-cliff in obedience to the prevailing south-easterly winds, a band of compara-
tively clear water is to be found within.

Several considerations appear to me to be in favour of the view that the area
round the South Pole is broken up and not continuous land. For example, if we
look at a general ice-chart we find. that the sea is comparatively free from ice-
bergs, and that the deepest notches occur in the “ Antarctic Continent” at three
points, each a little to the eastward of south of one of the great land masses.
Opposite each of these notches a branch of the equatorial current is deflected south-
wards by the land, and is almost merged in the great drift-current which sweeps
round the world in the Southern Sea before the westerly anti-trades. But while the
greater portion of the Brazilian current, the East Australian current, and the
southern part of the Agulhas current, are thus merged, they are not entirely lost ;.

‘620 REPORT—1878.

for at these points of junction with the drift-current of the westerlies, the
isobathytherms are slightly deflected to the southwards, and it is opposite these
points of junction that we have comparatively open sea and penetrable notches in
the southern pack. But we have not only the presumed effect of this transfer of
warmer water to the southwards, we were able to detect its presence in the
Challenger by the thermometer. Referring to the result of a serial temperature
sounding on the 14th of February 1874, with a surface temperature of 29° F. at
a depth of from 300 to 400 fathoms, there is a band of water at a temperature
more than half a degree above the freezing-point, That this comparatively warm
water is coming from the north there is ample proof. We traced its continuity
with a band at the same depth gradually increasing in warmth to the northward,
.and it is evident that its heat can be derived from no other source, and that it must
be continually receiving new supplies, for it is overlaid by a band of colder water,
tending to mix with it by convection.

It is, of course, possible that these warm currents may by coincidence be
directed towards those notches already existing in a continental mass of land; but
such a coincidence would be remarkable, and there is certainly a suggestion of the
alternative that the “continent” may consist to so great an extent of ice as to be
liable to have its outline affected by warm currents.

In high southern latitudes it seems that all the icebergs are originally tabular,
the surface perfectly level and parallel with the surface of the sea, a cliff about 230
feet high bounding the berg. The top is covered with a layer of the whitest
snow ; now and then a small flock of petrels take up their quarters upon it, and
trample the soil some few square yards, but after their departure one of the frequent
snow showers restores it in a few minutes to its virgin whiteness. The upper part
‘of the cliff is pale blue, which gradually deepens towards the base. When looked
at closely, the face of the cliff is seen to be traversed by a delicate ruling of faint
‘blue lines, the lines being more distant from one another above and becoming
gradually closer. The distance between the well-marked lines near the top of a
berg may be of a foot or even more, while near the surface of the water it is not
more than two or three inches, and the space between the blue lines have lost their
-dead whiteness and have become hyaline or bluish. The blue lines are very
unequal in their strength and in their depth.of colouring; sometimes a group of
very dark lines gives a marked character to a part of a berg. Between the
stronger blue lines near the top of the cliff a system of closer lines may be
observed, marking the division of the ice by still finer planes of lamination ; but
in the narrower spaces near the water-line they are blended and lost. The blue
lines are the sections of sheets of clear ice; the white intervening bands are the
sections of layers of ice where the particles are not in such close contact—ice
probably containing some air.

The stratification in all these icebergs is, I believe, originally horizontal and
conformable, or very nearly so. In many, while melting and beating about in the
sea, the strata become inclined at various angles, or vertical or even reversed; in
many they are traversed by faults, or twisted, or contorted, or displaced; but I
believe that all deviations from a horizontal arrangement are due to changes
taking place in the icebergs themselves.

I think there can be no doubt, from their shape and form, and their remarkable
uniformity of character, that these great table-topped icebergs are prismatic blocks
riven from the edge of the great antarctic ice-sheet. I conclude, therefore, that
the upper part of the iceberg, including by far the greater part of its bulk, and
culminating in the portion exposed above the surface of the sea, was formed by
the piling up of successive layers of snow during the period, amounting perhaps to
centuries, during which the ice-cap was slowly forcing its way over the low-land,
and out to sea over a long extent of gentle slope, until it reached a depth con-
siderably beyond 200 fathoms, when the lower specific weight of the ice caused an
upward strain which at length overcame the cohesion of the mass, and portions
were rent off and floated away. The icebergs when they are first dispersed float
in from 200 to 250 fathoms; when, therefore, they have been drifted to latitudes
of 65° or 64° south, the bottom of the berg, the surface which forced itself glacier-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 621

like over the land, just reaches the layer at which the temperature of the water
distinctly rises; and is rapidly melted, and the pebbles and land débris with which
it is more or less charged are precipitated. That this precipitation takes place all
over the area where the icebergs are breaking up, constantly and to a considerable
extent, is evident from the fact that the matter brought up by the sounding instru-
ment and the dredge is almost entirely composed of such deposits from ice; for
Diatoms, Foraminifera, and Radiolarians are present on the surface in large num--
bers, and unless the deposit from the ice were abundant it would soon be covered
and masked by the skeletons of surface organisms.

The curious question now arises, what is the cause of the uniform height of the-
southern icebergs,—that is to say, what is the cause of the restriction of the
thickness of the free edge of the ice-cap to 1400 feet? I have mentioned thé
gradual diminution in thickness of the strata of ice in a berg from above down-
wards. The regularity of this diminution leaves it almost without a doubt that
the layers observed are in the same category, and that therefore the diminution is
due to subsequent pressure or other action upon a series of beds, which were at the
time of their deposition nearly equally thick. About sixty or eighty feet from the
top of an iceberg, the strata of ice a foot or so in thickness, although of a white
colour, and thus indicating that they contain a considerable quantity of air, are
very hard, and the specific weight of the ice is not much lower than that of layers
three inches thick nearer the water-line of the berg. The upper layers have been
manifestly produced by falls of snow after the berg has been detached.

Now, it seems to me that the reduction in thickness cannot be due to com-
eae alone, but that a portion of the substance of the lower layers must have:

enremoyed. It is not easy to see why the temperature of the earth’s crust,
under a widely extended and practically permanent ice-sheet of great thickness,
should ever fall below the freezing-point ; and it is a matter of observation that at
all seasons of the year vast rivers of muddy water flow into the frozen sea from
beneath the great glaciers which are the issues of the ice-sheet of Greenland. Ice
is a very bad conductor, so that the cold of winter cannot penetrate to any great
depth into the mass. The normal temperature of the surface of the earth’s crust, at
any point where it is uninfluenced by cyclical changes, is at all events above the
freezing-point, so that the temperature of the floor of the ice-sheet would certainly
have no tendency to fall below that of the stream passing over it. The pressure
upon the deeper beds of the ice must be enormous at the bottom of an ice-sheet
1400 teet in thickness—not much less than a quarter of a ton on the square inch.
It seems, therefore, probable that under the pressure to which the body of ice is
subjected, a constant system of melting and regelation is taking place, the water
passing down by gravitation from layer to layer until it reaches the floor of the ice-
sheet, and finally working out channels for itself between the ice and the land,
whether the latter be subaérial or submerged.

I should think it probable that this process, or some modification of it, may be
the provision by which the indefinite accumulation of ice over the antarctic con-
tinent is prevented, and a certain uniformity in the thickness of the ice-sheet
maintained—that in fact ice at the temperature at which it is in contact with the
surface of the earth’s crust within the antarctic regions cannot support a column of
itself more than 1400 feet high without melting. It is suggested to me by Pro-
fessor Tait that the thickness of the ice-sheet very probably depends upon its area,
as the amount of melting through squeezing and the earth’s internal heat will
depend upon the facility of the escape of the water. The problem is, however, an
exceedingly complex one, and we have perhaps scarcely sufficient data for working
it out.

The Fauna of the Deep Sea—I can scarcely regret that it is utterly impossible
for me on this occasion to enter into any details with regard to the relations of the
abyssal fauna, the department of the subject which has naturally had for me the
greatest interest. Recent investigations have shown that there is no depth limit to
the distribution of any group of gill-bearing marine animals. Fishes, which from
their structure and from what we know of the habits of their congeners must
certainly live on the bottom, have come up from all depths, and.at all depths the

§22 REPORT—1878.

whole of the marine invertebrate classes are more or less fully represented. The
abyssal fauna is of asomewhat special character, differing from the fauna of shallower
water in the relative proportions in which the different invertebrate types are
represented. It is very uniform over an enormously extended area, and in this
respect it fully confirms the anticipations of the great Scandinavian naturalist
Lovén, communicated to this Association in the year 1844. It is a rich fauna, in-
cluding many special genera, and an enormous number of special species, of which
we, of course, know as yet only a fraction; but I do not think I am going too far
in saying that from the results of the Challenger expedition alone the number of
known species in certain classes will be doubled. The relations of the abyssal fauna
to the faunze of the older Tertiary and the newer Mesozoic periods are much closer
than are those of the faunz of shallow water; I must admit, however, that these
relations are not so close as I expected them to be,—that hitherto we have found
living only a very few representatives of groups which had been supposed to be
extinct. I feel, however, that until the zoological results of several of these later
voyages, and especially those of the Challenger, shall have been fully worked out, it
would be premature to commit myself to any generalisations.

I have thus attempted to give a brief outline of certain defensible general con-
clusions, based upon the results of recent research. Some years ago, certain
commercial enterprises, involving the laying of telegraph cables over the bed of the
sea, proved that the extreme depths of the ocean were not inaccessible. This some-
what unexpected experience soon resulted in many attempts, on the part of those
interested in the extension of the boundaries of knowledge, to use what machinery
they then possessed to determine the condition of the hitherto unknown region.
This first step was naturally followed by a development of all appliances and
methods bearing upon the special line of research ; and within the last decade the
advance of knowledge on all matters bearing upon the physical geography of the
sea has been confusingly rapid—so much so, that at this moment the accumulation
of new material has far outstripped the power of combining and digesting and
methodising it. This difficulty is greatly increased by the extreme complexity of
the questions, both physical and biological, which have arisen. Steady progress is,

“however, being made in both directions, and I trust that in a few years our ideas
as to the condition of the depth of the sea may be as definite as they are with
regard to regions to which we have long had ready access.

The following Papers were read :—

1. A Journey on Foot through Arabia Petreea. By the Rev. F. W. Houuann,
M.A., F.R.G.S.

The objects of this expedition were—

1. To examine the sandstone district in the Peninsula of Sinai lying between
the ancient Egyptian mining stations of Wady Mugharah and Serabit el Kadim,
with the view of the possible discovery of further Egyptian ruins or in-
scriptions.

2. To trace out the various routes that the children of Israel might have taken
on their journey northwards:from Mount Sinai (Jebel Masa) to Kadesh Barnea, so
as to institute a just comparison between the facilities or difficulties which at-
tended them.

3. To explore Jebel Mugrah and Ain Kadeis, in the hopes of throwing some
additional light upon the disputed questions of the site of Kadesh Barnea and the
boundary of the ancient kingdom of Edom,

4. To follow the road from Wady el Arish by the ancient Lake Serbonis to
Kantara, this having been suggested by Brugsch Bey as the route taken by the
children of Israel when they left Egypt.

__ Starting from Suez on March 31st, attended only by three Arabs of the Jowarah
tribe, Mr, Holland made a walking tour to Jebel Misa, which he believed to be

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 623

the true Mount Sinai; thence northwards by Wadies Telleger and El Atujeh, by
the route followed by Baron Koller in 1840 (‘ R. G. S. Journal,’ 1842) to Wady el
Hessi; thence N.W. to Nakhl, and so on by Wady Muweilah to Wady el Ain.
Leaving his Jowarah Arabs at Wady el Ain, he took an escort of the Haiwat tribe
and made an expedition up Wady Kadeis, and eastwards across Jebel Mucgrah, re-
turning by Wady Lussan. On leaving Wady el Ain, he followed down Wady
Muweilah to Wady el Arith, and passing south of Jebel Helal, and north of Jebel
Yelek, he crossed Jebel Mughérah, and, striking due west, arrived at Ismailia on
May 23rd.

The results of the journey were as follows :—

1. Mr. Holland found extensive turquoise mines worked by the Arabs between
Wady Mugharah and Wady Nusb, but no further Egyptian ruins or inscriptions.
He traced out and mapped the course of Wady Sahone, an important valley, which had

reviously been unexplored, and found that it forms the upper portion of Wady

hellah, which takes its name, ‘the valley of cataracts’ from the water, which
flows down it after rain, falling over a cliff. He also explored the ancient turquoise
mines of Serabit el Kadim, and ascended Jebel Umen Riglain.

2. On leaving Jebel Misa he journeyed north-east to the neighbourhood of Ain
el Huthera, which has been identified with Hazeroth.. Mr. Holland cannot agree
with this identification, nor does he believe it possible for the large host of the
Israelites to have travelled this way. Following up the course of Wady Marah,
he reached Ain el Akhdar. Thence he explored the passes of Jebel Thellah and
the plateau of Zeranik, and afterwards descended Wady Zelleger, Wadies Edeid and

. Biyar, and the pass of El Mirad. He finally came to the conclusion that the only

‘ .ayailable route for the children of Israel to have taken was that by Wadies
Zelleger and El Atiyeh. These valleys afford the most direct, the best watered,
and by far the most easy course from Jebel Masa northwards, and by them one
ascends to the plateau of the desert of Et Tih without any difficult pass. The
want of water and Arab raids compelled him to give up his plan of travelling north-
wards direct to Jebel Mugrah; but he passed over the water-shed of Jebel et Tih,
into the open plateau on the north, and made a route survey of that portion of the
country whick would present the greatest difficulties to the passage of a large host.
In his journey to Nakh] from the head of Wady Atiyeh, he also passed across a
district that had been previously unexplored.

3. Jebel Mugrah had in the author’s belief never before been penetrated by
travellers, and he found that its position on the maps was far from correct. He
carefully explored Wady Kadies, and came to the conclusion that its position
militates strongly against its identification with Kadesh Barnea. Jebel Mugrah

_ belongs to the territory of the Haiw4t Arabs, and not to that of the Azazimeh as
has generally been stated. It shows traces of ancient habitation and cultivation,
and extends eastwards only about as far as lat. 35°: here it ends abruptly in a
steep cliff, and is separated from Jebel Jerafeh by the head of Wady Garaiyeh and
Wady Jerafeh. These valleys he believed to afford the road which was known
as “the way of the spies,” and formed the western boundary of Edom. Kadesh
Barnea he would place at the south-east point of Jebel Mugrah, but he was unable
to descend into the plain.

4. Mr. Holland gave up his intention of following down Wady el Arish to the
coast from Wady Muweilah, both because the bed of the Wady proved a very bad
road for travelling, and also because he heard from the Arabs of a direct road west-
wards to Ismailia, which appeared a very important one to explore. It was not
marked on any map seen, but was described by the Arabs as an easy, direct, and
well-watered route to Egypt, a description found to be perfectly correct. The
course of Wady el Arish has been very inaccurately laid down. It runs to the
east of Jebel Helal, and passes through that mountain by a narrow gorge. Jebel
Yelek has been placed too far to the north. Wady Hasanah, which contains three
wells, and is a very important watering-place, runs to the west of Jebel Helah.
After crossing Wady Hasanah and passing to the north of Jebel Yelek, the road
¢rosses Jebel Mugharah, an important range, where there are wells and ancient

- Tuins, and then, turning due west, runs over a rolling plateau, in places much covered

624 REPORT—1878.

with sand-drifts, to Ismailia. Large numbers of flint flakes and arrow-heads prove
that this road was much used in ancient times, and there can be little doubt that
it was the road followed by Abraham from the Negeb, or south country, to Egypt.
‘Large tracts of land on the west of Jebel Mugharah are cultivated by the Arabs.
The discovery of this road is regarded as one of great importance, and, as far as the
author can learn, it has been previously unknown.

2. Survey of Galilee. Dy Lieut. H. H. Kircuener, R.H., F.R.GS.

This paper contained an account of the operations subsequent to those described
by Major Wilson at the last meeting of the Association.

On the renewal of the survey, Lieut. Kitchener found that the cairns built at
Hattin in 1875 were all destroyed; but after a careful search he found the broad
arrows cut on the rock under where the cairns had been, and was thus able to:
carry on the triangulation from a base of 25 miles, and other calculated lines from
8 to 12 miles long ; subsequently, after carrying the triangulation round the country,
the calculated length of this base was only 60 feet different from the measurement
started with, or a little more than 2 feet of possible error in the mile. On the
scale employed, this error in 25 miles is only the thickness of a pencil line,

The triangulation took eight days from this camp, as the old cairns had to be
rebuilt, and new ones erected in the northern country. By thus doing the trian- _
gulation and survey of the ground from each camp were both kept going together,
and the strength of the party was not sufficient to adopt any other method. While
observing from the top of Mount Tabor, Lieut. Kitchener examined three chapels
recently unearthed by the Roman Catholic monks; they date from crusading
times, when this was supposed to be the Mount of the Transfiguration, and the
three chapels are mentioned in old chronicles of that time,

Immediately above the camp was an extinct volcano, called the Kurn Hattin,
or Horns of Hattin, being two peaks on the top of a steep mountain, having be-
tween them the crater of an extinct volcano, memorable as the scene of the final
struggle of the Crusaders after the fatal battle on the plain below.

On the completion. of the triangulation, the levelling had to be taken up from
the last point on the line. In seven days’ work 16} miles were accomplished, and
the seashore was reached, giving a depression of 682 feet 6 inches below the Medi-
terranean.

The survey of the detail had then to be done. From the fixed triangulation-
points a number of supplementary angles were taken to every village, hill-top,
prominent tree, or important object in view; and, as this was done from every
point, when these lines were plotted, intersections fixing these objects were obtained.
Practically almost every place of importance was fixed in this way. The surveyor
then started with this diagram of fixed points, and by the interpolation of the
angles taken with his prismatic compass was able to fix his own position at any
point on paper; he then sketched in by eye the detail that was in his close vici-
nity, and by going through the same process all over his work, the detail was
obtained with considerable accuracy. The heights of all places of importance were
taken by aneroids, besides the calculated heights of all the triangulation-points.
These aneroids were checked morning and evening with a standard barometer kept
in camp. The slopes of the hills were taken by Abney’s level, and on returning
to camp in the evening a report was made of all ruins, villages, and water-supply
in the work of the day. The nomenclature was written down in Arabic by a well-
educated scribe kept for that purpose. Each surveyor had a guide with him, who
gave the names of the different places. The surveyor wrote them down as near as
he could to the sound, and on returning to camp he repeated them in front of the
guide and the scribe. The guide then pronounced the names correctly, and the
scribe wrote it down from him. Lieut. Kitchener afterwards transliterated the
Arabic in accordance with Robinson’s method, and the proper spelling was thus

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. : 625

obtained, and written on the map. Every possible check on the veracity of the
natives was employed by asking the names of numbers of people independently.

One of the great values of the resulting map is the number of unknown names it
has made public; thus, on this survey, 2770 names were collected, only about 450
of which were to be found on the best formerly existing map of the country.
Another is the accuracy of these names, taken down from the natives in a man-
ner never attempted before; and the result has been to throw a vast light on the
ancient nomenclature of the country, and the origin of the races that inhabit it.

The survey of the detail took five more days, and on the 27th March the camp
was moved to Tiberias, with the assurance of haying no obstacle of a technical
nature to hinder work.

The scenery of the lake is decidedly monotonous, but there is a great charm in
that dry and thirsty land in having a vast expanse of fresh water spread out before
the eyes. During the survey of the shores, a considerable discovery was made,
viz., the site of Sennabris, mentioned by Josephus as the place where Vespasian
et his camp when marching on the insurgents of Tiberias. The name Sinn en

abra still exists, and is well known to the natives; it applies to a ruin situated on
a spur from the hills that close the southern end of the Sea of Galilee ; it formed,
therefore, the defence against an invader from the Jordan plain, and blocked the
great main road in the valley.

Close beside it, there is a large artificially-formed plateau, defended by a water-
ditch on the south, communicating with Jordan, and by the Sea of Galilee on the
north. This is called Kh. el Kerak, and is doubtless the remains of Vespasian’s
camp described by Josephus. It is just like another Roman camp found near
Jenin, where an army was camped. This Kh. el Kerak has been identified with
Tarichzea, but, as Major Wilson has pointed out, that site must be sought to the
north of Tiberias. The finding of Sennabris, the place where the Roman host
encamped before marching on Tiberias and Tarichza, clearly proves that the latter
place could not have been anywhere near the southern end of the lake.

The ruins of ancient Tiberias, with its sea-walls and scattered columns, extend
nearly as far south as these springs, and it may be fairly supposed that the modern
site of the town is situated to the north of the ancient place.

Passing the ruin of Kuneitridh, where, Lieut. Kitchener believes, the ancient
Tarichzea was situated, and the plain beyond, the path leads along the side of the
steep slope of the hills, with rocky cliffs towering above, and the sea almost directly
below ; turning a corner, the Plain of Gennesareth lies spread out, with the cluster
of ruined hovels of the village of Mejdel in the foreground. A fine stream of
water irrigates this portion of the plain from Wady Hamam, the narrow gorge
through which the levelling had been brought down, with cliffs 1000 feet high
on either side. In those on the south, are the caves of the robbers who were sub-
dued by Herod the Great by letting down soldiers on platforms from above on the
defenders, who slew one another sooner than be taken captive. Lieut. Kitchener
explored the caves, which consist of galleries at different heights conducted along
the face of the precipice leading to different-sized chambers ; some appeared natural,
while others were artificial; there were spacious halls, small sleeping-places, and
some enormous stables, all cut out of the solid rock. Water was brought by a
long aqueduct, cut in the face of the precipice, and poured down into cisterns in-
side the fortress. The place has been since occupied by Arab marauders, who have
built walls to defend the outside of the galleries and round towers at different
elevations on the face of the rock, to bring a flanking fire on the entrance, which
was reached by a long flight of basalt steps.

Beyond Mejdel on the Plain of Gennesareth, and round the northern shores of
the lake, are the most interesting sites of all—Capernaum, Chorazin, and Bethsaida.
Lieut. Kitchener does not agree with Major Wilson in the position of Capernaum
at Tell Hum, but would rather place it at Kh. Minia on the plain, believing the
fine remains of Tell Hum to be the relics of the known grandeur of the ancient
Bethsaida.

On the 4th April the camp was moved to Khan Jubb Yusef, situated on the
great Damascus road, and some distance from any inhabited village. The country

1878. $3

626 REPORT—1878.

round is occupied by wandering tribes of Bedouin Arabs with their goat flocks ;
to the east it is a mass of basalt which has flowed over the country, and down to
the shores of the lake ; to the west are the limestone hills of Safed. ;

From the subsequent camp at Meiron, the triangulation required a considerable
amount of attention. The Jebel Jermik, the hichest peak in Galilee, reaching an
altitude of 3930 feet, had been observed from the south, but now it was necessary
to ascend and observe from it ; this was accomplished, and the triangulation thrown
well forward to the north, but the triangulation would not allow of a descent to
the low unhealthy Huleh marshes as early as had been hoped. The village of
Meiron is a famous Jewish place of pilgrimage, for there Rabbi Shamai and Hillel
and the Great Simeon Ben Jochai lie buried. Therocks around are honeycombed
with ancient tombs, and there still remains an almost perfect facade of an
ancient synagogue, dating probably from the second century after Christ. The
principal results of the survey of this district were the discovery of three dolmens.
During the course of the survey, eight dolmens were discovered, and as these are
the first that have been noted in Palestine, it adds a new district to those already
known to possess these rude stone monuments, and may be a connecting link be-
tween the ancient inhabitants of Europe and India.

The remains of two synagogues, unobserved hitherto, were discovered, one at
Sifsif and the other at El Jish. These add considerably to our knowledge of these
interesting buildings, and the discovery of the Roman eagle engraved in relief in
the synagogue of El Jish adds new proof that these buildings are due to Roman
influence over a subjugated people. The eleven specimens that remain of these
buildings were carefully examined and planned during the course of the survey
where it was possible to trace the original work.

The triangulation and survey of the country round Dibl, to which the camp
moved on May 3rd, took twelve days ; a number of curious ruins were visited, and
special plans and photographs were made. The country to the west was rugged
and rocky, covered with brush-wood, and occupied by Arab tribes. Deep ravines
and gorges carried the winter rains down to the sea, and in many parts of this wild
country a European had never before been seen. To the east, the country was
more open and cultivated; there are not many springs, but numbers of rock-cut
cisterns and large pools for collecting the winter rains at almost every village.

On the 16th, camp was moved east to Kades, and from the camp much of the
plain of the Huleh and the low country was surveyed. The ruins of the Temple of
the Sun were planned and photographed.

On the 24th, the party again marched northwards, and, having pitched camp at
Taiyebeh, the triangulation was carried to its most northern point, the great
Crusading castle of Beaufort. From a study of the masonry of the four Crusading
castles that defended the northern frontier of the kingdom, Beaufort, Toron, Hunin,
and Banias, and after comparison with others in different parts of the country,
Lieut. Kitchener is led to suppose that they are none of them older than Crusading
times, except a portion of Banias, which appears to be slightly older work; and,
therefore, that none of them date, as most travellers assert, from Phoenician or even
Roman times.

On the 2nd of June, camp was moved to Banias, the Czsarea Philippi of the
New Testament, and the Panium of Josephus. The triangulation was here suc-
cessfully closed on this side by observing from the Castle. This-was the ancient
acknowledged source of the Jordan springing out of the cave of Pan in the face of
a precipitous rock, and rushing at once in a strong stream through the tangled
groves of luxuriant vegetation to the plain below, there to be joined by its rivals in
modern writings, the Leddan and the Hasbany. The Hasbany, with less: flow of
water than either of the other two streams, and joining them after their junction,
when they form a mighty stream, cannot be followed as a source of the Jordan.
When the other two divide into almost equal streams, the longest course leads to
this fountain of Banias, the true source of the Jordan:

In discussing the great depression of the Jordan valley, which is merely a con-
tinuation of the great valley extending through Syria, dividing the Lebanon from
the Anti-Lebanon, and down which the Leontes and Jordan rivers flow, Lieut.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 627

Kitchener advanced a new theory. There is little doubt that the depression was
caused by a fault, and the sliding down of the strata, and that it was once an
immense lake ; this is proved by the ancient shore lines found at different elevations
along its course. The general supposition is, that it has been a continuation of the
Gulf of Akaba, and that the gentle rising of 130 miles has cut off the Dead Sea
from the ocean. It is curious that on this raised land there is still a well-defined
valley, having a fall, and showing the channel of a water-course, as far as known,
the whole way. In the north, there is considerable evidence of voleanic action, and
a volcano found was exactly in the bed of the valley of the Leontes, at the bend
of the river; it has been mentioned previously by Canon Tristram, who noted the
way the basalt had flowed down the western side of the Hasbany. These volcanic
outbreaks are known to belong to a late period of geological time. Before then,
‘the Leontes, instead of being forcibly turned off at right angles to its course in the
most extraordinary bend which makes it cleave through the rocks to the sea,
would have flowed into the mighty lake which then covered the plain, and over the
southern boundary along the Arraba, which still shows signs of its presence, to the
Gulf of Akaba. The only supposition required in this theory is a more abundant
supply of water, and of that the country gives striking proof. The extraordinary
evidences of the action of glaciers on the rocks, the deep water-courses cut through
hundreds of feet of solid limestone, now dry, speak of a former age of rushing tor-
rents. Thus this voleanic outbreak in the Merj Ayun is the key to the present
formation of the valley; a very slight cutting through it would again turn the
Leontes into its former course down the Jordan valley and into the Dead Sea.
The saltness of the Dead Sea may be accounted for by the great natural cliffs
of rock-salt found at its southern extremity, and by the many salt springs that
are found in that region continually pouring brine into its waters. These cliffs of
rock-salt at the Khashm Usdun are a natural crystalline formation, and cannot,
therefore, have been deposited by an evaporating sea.

On the 22nd, camp was moyed to Nakurah; and from the Ris en Nakurah,
the last round of observation, angles were taken, closing the triangulation of the
whole of Palestine, and joining very well on the base; the check calculations have
proved its accuracy.

On the 11th July, all arrived at Haiffa, after completing the survey of 1000
square miles of country. The whole expenditure was £900, and taking £100 as
the cost of the fair drawing, the party may claim to have produced a l-inch survey
at the cost of £1 a square mile.

After four weeks’ rest in the Lebanon, the field was taken again on the 23rd
August with a reduced party. A long march led to the south country, and 340
Square miles in the desert round Beersheba were surveyed. This completed the
survey of Palestine ; but the early portion required revision, and from 10th October

* to 22nd November 1700 square miles were revised. The party, having completed
all it was sent to perform, then returned to England.

sa2

628 REPORT—1878.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on some Geographical Variations on the Coast of France.
By J. S. Pent, LL.D., F.S.A.

Dr. Phené, having for years past taken careful observations and soundings in
the Morbihan sea, was of opinion that a very large portion of what was now that
inland sea did not exist, in fact nothing that could be so called had existed, in the
time of Cesar. The Ie de Batz, an island near the mouth of the Loire, cele-
brated for strange and ancient rites, mentioned by classical writers, was now a

romontory, and the former littoral line only to be traced with difficulty. Dr.

hené believed that he had discovered the island of Avalon, the reputed place of
King Arthur’s burial, though from the island having been severed into two by the
sea, and the name retained only by the smaller portion, it had been overlooked,
and eyen in the neighbourhood no one knew of it but local fishermen. A dolmen
unlike any other in France or Britain on the larger portion, and the traditions of
the locality, seemed to put the matter out of doubt.

2. On Processes of Map-producing. By Captain J. Warernouse, B.S.C.,
Assistant Surveyor-General of India.

Before the introduction of lithography, about the beginning of the present
century, the only means by which maps could be reproduced was by engraving on
metal plates or on wood, both tedious and expensive methods. With the invention
of lithography, a new impetus was given to cartography. The new art was, how-
ever, scarcely out of its cradle when Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, of Chalons-sur-Sadne,
experimenting unsuccessfully in endeavouring to find a substitute for lithographic
stone,-conceived the happy idea of obtaining images on metal plates by the sole
agency of light upon thin films of asphaltum or bitumen of Judea.

Since these first essays of Niepce, the idea of superseding the slow and laborious —
hand-work of the lithographic draughtsman and engraver by the quicker, cheaper,
and more accurate processes of photography has been steadily kept in view.

The first serious attempt to carry out the method practically appears to have

been made by Sir Henry James, R.E., in 1855. The result proved the great value

of photography for the reproduction of maps, and the enormous saving in time and
money that could be effected by itsuse. In 1860, Captain A. de Courcy Scott, R.E.,
perfected the process of photozincography, which has since been employed with so
much success and advantage at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton, and the
India Survey Offices in Calcutta, Dehra Din, Puna, and Madras.

By a curious coincidence, at the very time when this process was being worked
out in England, Mr. W. Osborne, of Melbourne, Australia, independently perfected
an almost identically similar process of photolithography, which has been exten-
sively used for reproducing the maps of the Australian Colonies.

Little progress was made in the practical working of photolithography or
photozincography in India till 1865, when Mr. J. B..N. Hennessey, of the Great
‘Trigonometrical Survey, fairly established the process at Dehra Dun. ~

The specific advantages to be gained by the use of photography for the repro-
duction of maps are—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 629

(1.) Rapidity of production and multiplication.

(2.) The perfect fidelity with which the most delicately minute and intricate
details are copied.

(3.) The facility with which copies may be obtained on scales larger or smaller
than the original.

(4.) The comparative cheapness of the photographic methods.

Notwithstanding these advantages, the use of photography as a means of repro-
ducing maps for publication has not extended so much as might have been ex-
pected, in great part owing to the difficulty of making draughtsmen fully under-
stand the requirements to be fulfilled when preparing maps for reproduction, in
order to produce satisfactory results, and that they must strictly refrain from
using colour, and draw the map neatly in black and white, so that every line may
be reproduced of its proper strength, according as the map is to be copied on the
same scale as the original, or to be reduced.

Captain Waterbouse described at considerable length the following pro-
cesses :—The production of the negative ; photographic printing on sensitive paper ;
photolithography and photozincography ; photo-Collotype; Woodburytype ; pho-
tographie engraving ; phototypography, and several miscellaneous processes, such
as blue prints, bichromate prints, and polographing on copper.

3. Richthofen, Prejevalsky, and Lake Lob. By E. Detmar Morea, F.R.G.S.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.

This Section did not meet.

630 REPORT——1 878.

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Land of Midian. By Captain R. F. Burton, H.B.M. Consul, Trieste.

The kingdoms of Zibah and Zalmunna have hitherto been vaguely and
erroneously laid down. The wandering tribes still apply the term Arz Madyan
(land of Midian) to the maritime strip, 108 miles long, bounded north by the head of
the’Akabah Gulf, and south by the Wady Surr, the great waterless river-bed upon
which the fort El-Muwaylah is built. But Captain Burton also proposes a South
Midian beginning at the latter point, extending 105 miles, and ending at the Wady
Hamz (N. lat. 25° 55’), where the Egyptian and Ottoman possessions meet.
Thus the latitudinal length of the Midianite seaboard is 213 miles, which the
windings of the coast prolong to 300, The inner depth is determined by the Shafah
line of sub-maritime mountains defining the eastern frontier. Politically speaking,
the country all belongs to the Khediv of Egypt, whose predecessors have gar-
risoned the two forts K]-’Akabah and El-Muwaylah since the days of Sultan Selim
the Conqueror, in 4.D. 1517. Captain Burton assigned to the Jebel El-Tihimah
(mountains of the Lowlands), the ghats or fringing ranges of the Arabian Peninsula,
an altitude of 6000 to 6500 feet, a figure which the hydrographic chart has ex-
ageerated to 9000.

Captain Burton proceeded to outline the movements of the two expeditions
which he commanded in 1877 and 1878, both due to the liberality of the Khediv
of Egypt, Ismail I. The four months of travel which ended 1877 and began 1878
were distributed into three excursions :—

1. The northern march, which visited the copper works established by the
ancient Eeyptians ; the ruined capital, ‘‘ Madiéma,” which Ptolemy places in N.
lat. 28° 15’; the Fort El-’Akabah, where, also, traces of smelting metal were
found ; the sulphur-hill, northernmost of the three discovered, and the great gypsum
formations of Midian and Sinai. This section concluded with a periplus of the
perilous ’Akabah Gulf and a narrow escape from shipwreck and the sharks.

2. The central or eastern march to Middle Midian, the course of which was
arrested by the villanous Ma’azeh tribe, then turned southwards, and explored the
ruins of Shuwak, the Soaka of Ptolemy (N. lat. 27° 15’). This section concluded
with a visit to the turquoise diggings of Zibi; an inspection of the central
sulphur-hill, and the ascent of the mighty Shaérr mountain which lies behind El-
Muwaylah. Geographically speaking, it was the most important, as it brought
back details of the Hisma or sandstone plateau bounding the ghats on the East ;
and of a huge volcanic tract called El-Harrah.

3. The southern march, which began and ended at El-Wijh, covered the region
worked for gold by the ancients, and collected details, sketches, and plans of the
mines open and closed. A third sulphur-hill was explored; the gold mine El-
Marwah of the medieval Arab geographers was satisfactorily identified, and a
classical shrine or temple was found upon the southern bank of the great Wady
Hamz.

The expedition, which landed in Arabia on December 19th, 1877, left it on
April 18th, 1878. By sea and land, it had covered nearly 2500 miles; of these
some 600 were mapped, the crucial stations being determined astronomically. It
had measured and planned fourteen settlements, some large enough to be called
cities, besides nearly thrice that number of ateliers. At least 200 sketches, oil-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 631

colours, water-colours, pencil drawings, and photographs were taken, besides twenty-
fiye tons of rock-specjmens. The explorers brought back to Cairo a small ethno-
logical collection of stone implements, rude and worked; coins of ancient
Midian, mixed with Roman and Kufic; fragments of copper and bronze, glass and
pottery; Nabathzean inscriptions and Arab tribe marks; skulls, spirit specimens
of zoology, shells from the shores of the Red Sea, and a hortus siccus.

Captain Burton ended his paper by noticing that the terms of the Anglo-Turkish
Convention have placed Great Britain, with reference to Arabia, nearly in the
same position as that occupied by Rome after the days of Augustus. He found the
_ land wasted and spoiled, far less civilised than it was in the nineteenth century
B.c. But he cherishes the conviction that Midian is fated to see better days, and
that by the development of her mineral wealth, under the fostering care of Huro-
pean, and especially English companies, this forgotten California, now like Algeria
before 1830, will presently rival the rich and fruitful province of Algiers in 1878.

2. On a Journey to Fez and Mequinez. By A. Lnarep, M.D., F.R.G.S.,
M.R.IA.

Dr. Leared, who, in May, 1877, accompanied the Portuguese Embassy to the
Sultan of Morocco, in addition to many interesting personal and historical details,
gives the following particulars of the country on the route followed from Tangier.
For some three and a half hours’ ride, the land near the city is well cultivated, the
first halt being under a range of hills named Kaa-el-Urmil, near the river M’har.
After advancing close to the sea and crossing a plain, a river fifty yards wide was
forded, and the douar of Garbia reached, two hours from which is a thick grove of
wild olive-trees, abounding in nightingales. A succession of hill and plain, but
little cultivated, then followed, and Klatta de Raissana was reached, after fording
another considerable river. Next day, a great alluvial plain was traversed, through
which runs the small river M’Hassen, the distance from which to Alcassar-el-,
Kebir (historically associated with the destruction of Don Sebastian and his army
by the Moors in 1578) is some ten miles of level, little cultivated land, becoming
an arid plain at two miles from the town. Dr. Leared estimates the inhabitants as
between 5000 and 6000, considering Rohlfs’s number of 30,000 as much exagge-
rated. Beyond Alcassar, two miles of wide and paved footpath were followed,
ending at a ford across the Lucos, here about eighty yards broad. Still further on
the land was better cultivated, and wheat was being cut (May 25th). The encamp-
ment was in the midst of an immense tract, covered with hay going to waste. After
passing the bounds of the province of Larache, the river Guarot was crossed by a
ford about 50 yards wide, and a rolling prairie traversed, grass and flower-covered,
but with no tree or shrub, Ten miles further on, the douar or village of the go-
vernor of the Habassie tribe was reached; the next journey being through an
immense level tract, with a sea-like horizon to the west. Much of this was culti-
vated with wheat and barley, with scattered douars and cattle; but the greater
part was a fertile waste: The Sebou, one of the chief rivers of Morocco, here
120 yards wide and of considerable depth, was then passed in flat-bottomed boats
and by swimming. A flat fertile country followed, with splendid wheat-crops ;
great tracts of a tall white-flowering wild umbelliferous plant were observed ; and
a camp was made, close to the village of Bokhara, on the bank of the river rdrum,
a tributary of the Sebou, on a dead level plain, having to the south a fine amphi-
theatre-like range of distant hills. Four miles from this, after cresting the com-
mencement of a hilly country, and making a short descent, a halt was made at
Zacouta, on flat parched soil, deeply fissured by the summer heat, and abounding
with the lesser bustard, a bird not known near the coast. Leaving Zacouta, the
road lay through a succession of hills, on the slopes of which was much standing
corn ; and after a short journey, the party encamped under the mountain of Zar-
houn, on the south side of which, less than a mile distant, is the town and sanc-
tuary of Muley Edris-el-Keber. To the right, across a stream with deep banks,
and on higher ground, stand the ruins called Cassar Pharaon (Pharaoh’s Castle),

632

REPORT—1878.

12 miles N.E. of Mequinez, and 28 N.W. of Fez, identified by Dr. Leared as the

ancient city of Volubilis.

Date

June

oo

He bo bo He He On

me bo

bo

AoOunnn

or

Time occupied

in travelling

=
B

i=)

40

30

Miles

Temperature in

the shade
ra) > =
be) 3 | &
Scie Ne
| =| <q
Fahr. | Fahr. | Fahr.
74
69 83 71
70 86 72
72 91 (@
69 90 70
71 90 72
69 88 73
70 89 74
72 90 71
74 93 17
72 91 67
74 94 80
74 99 78
74 88 68
68 86 72
69 91 67
94 102
76 80 79
72 84
82 87 84
83 89 86
83 85 81
80 81 80
79 82 79
78 81 Uf
78 80 79
78 81 78
78 82 78
77 79 77
77 79 77
rif 78 77
76 fg 75
75 cee 76
74
7A 74
74 98
72 91 Ch
69 72
70 74
70 82
72 80
74 17
15 77

After crossing some hills and a large plain, and camp-

Names of Stopping Places
and Remarks

Left Tangier; camped at Kaa el
Urmil.

Garbia.

Klatta de Raissana.

Alcassar.

Ben Ouda.

Habassie.

Beni Hassan.

| Bokhara.

J

Zacouta.
A thunderstorm in the evening,
with some rain.

Cassar Pharoun.

Wad Cazar.

Arrived at Mequinez; total time
< spent in travelling, 39" 25™; dis-
i; tance, 157% miles.
|

Thunderstorm.

+ Mequinez.
Thunderstorm.

Left Mequinez; stop beyond Wad
Enga.
{ Fez; time spent in travelling be-
<« tween Mequinez and Fez,-8" 25™;
distance, 33% miles.
Left Fez; camped at Hezana.
Hezana.
Hadcour.
Alcassar.
Larache.
Garbia.
Arrived at Tangier; time spent in
1 travelling from Fez to Tangier,
40" 15™; distance, 161 miles.

=

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 633

ing by the Wad Cazar (river of trees), Mequinez itself was entered. This city
is computed to be 157 miles from Tangier, and is more modern-looking than Fez,
with wider streets. It is surrounded with high walls, with towers and huge
gates, which swarm with hawks, jays, and pigeons, and having an outer circuit of
about five miles. The inhabitants are estimated at 25,000, including many Jews,
who, though, as usual, insulted and badly treated, contrive to prosper.

After sixteen days’ residence in Mequinez and various state ceremonials, the
party started for Fez by the northern gate, near which are fine perennial springs.
Olive plantations of great extent, and an encampment near a small river, the Wad
Jedida, 12 miles from the city, conspicuous for the plenty and beauty of its vegeta-
tion, were the only points noticed on the thirty-four miles’ ride to Fez, which city
seemed to be about two and a half miles long, but narrow. It is surrounded by hills,
those on the south side being so close as to overlook the place, and is divided by the
river into Old and New Fez, a long street, only seven feet wide, running east and
west through the whole of the former division. Its population is estimated at
50,000. There is an extensive palace, Lallah Amina, at two miles’ distance, in
the midst of a large garden. After a short stay of three days, the party left by a
route to the east of that usually followed, commencing with a broad aloe avenue,
and passing a small lake, white with salt after evaporation. A succession of hills
extended to Woled Jemah, the soil in the latter part being very thin and chalky,
but bearing a profusion of flowering caper bushes. Two hours from Woled Jemah
is a ford of the Sebou, 150 yards wide; and after fording the wide river Wurga,
Hadcour was reached, and afterwards Alcassar. Leaving Alcassar, and crossing
the Lucos (a corruption of El Kus), the course lay westward through a country
studded with cork oak-trees until arriving at El Araish or Larache, picturesquely
situated at the mouth of the Lucos, with its treacherous sand-bar. Larache has a
population of about 4000, including one Englishman. After crossing the river in
a fourteen-oared galley, the route lay over sand-hills and elevations covered with
myrtles and other blooming shrubs, until at length the original road was struck at
Resana, and finally Tangier was reached.

On the opposite page is the itinerary, which may be useful to future travellers
in this comparatively unknown country.

3. On the Progress in the Official Report of the “ Challenger” Expedition.
By Sir C. Wrvitte Tuomson, LL.D., F.B.S., Se.

4. On the Characteristic Features of Alaska, as developed by the U. S. Survey.
By W. H. Dat, U.S.C.S.

The territory is divided, topographically, botanically, ethnologically, and in a
meteorological sense, into three regions. ‘hese regions are not, however, abso-
lutely coincident under the respective heads. The topographical regions are the
south-eastern or Sitkan region, remarkable for its rugged and elevated mountains
and numerous islands with bold shores; the Aleutian, comprising the Aleutian
Islands and the peninsula of Aliaska, also partly mountainous, but of a different
character; and lastly, the Yukon region, including the greater part of the area of
the territory and composed of the lowlands north of the Alaskan mountains and
the Arctic tundri, with, for the most part, shallow water along their coasts. The
botanical and meteorological regions are mainly identical with the preceding, but
not absolutely so. The Sitkan region is characterised by dense forests of conifers
and many plants peculiar to the western slope of the continent; the Aleutian
region by an absence of trees, the great development of grasses and herbage,
numerous Evicacee, and amore Arctic physiognomy. The Yukon region is marked
by the presence of birch, spruce, willow, and poplar, often forming large forests, of
a different character from those of Sitka, and, for the rest, by a chiefly Arctic flora.
Meteorologically, the Sitkan (as well as the British Columbian coast) is marked

634 REPORT—1878.

by great precipitation and mild and equable temperature ; the Aleutian region, by
the prevalence of fog, a somewhat colder climate and a diminished rainfall and
the Yukon region by a truly Arctic climate with a small precipitation.

The ethnological divisions comprise those areas inhabited by tribes of Innuit
stock, by the Tinneh or Athabascan tribes, and by the T’linkits or Kaloshians.
The latter inhabit the Sitkan region; the Eskimo or Innuit the shores of the
Yukon and Aleutian regions eastward to Mount St. Elias; and the Tinneh tribes
the interior, reaching the sea coast only at Cook’s Inlet. The native population is
believed to number between 20,000 and 25,000, and the present white population
is very small,

The commercial products of the different regions are also characteristic. The
Sitkan region, beside a small trade in continental furs, offers salmon, timber,
and minerals, the value of which has not yet been fully tested. The Aleutian
region is at present of most commercial importance, affording the sea-otter, fur-
seal, and cod-fish. From the Yukon region, come the ordinary continental furs,
while the adjacent seas support the whale and walrus fisheries.

The Sitkan and Aleutian regions reproduce very nearly the conditions of the
coast of Norway, while the Yukon region may be compared to the Archangel
district of Russia.

The tribes of Innuit stock (including the Aleuts) are generally of a peaceable
and tractable nature; those of Tinneh stock more independent, but still.easily con-
trolled ; while the T’linkits are, of all American natives, the most intractable and
difficult to deal with. :

The T’linkits, while rejecting all attempts to subdue or improve them, have a well-
advanced semi-civilisation of their own, particularly shown in their carvings,
advanced totemic system, mythology, and permanent dwellings. The Innuit,
though of shorter average stature than the whites, are a very different race physically
from their stunted cousins of Greenland, and are intelligent, athletic, and ingenious.
The Aleuts have already adopted many features of civilisation from the Russians,

The Tinneh are nearly all in a condition similar to those of the Hudson Bay
Territory, but are much more amenable to improvement than the T’linkits. Al-
ready several missions have been established, with a tolerable prospect of success.

The results obtained by the explorations of the Coast Survey are in process of
preparation for publication in detail, and will eventually be printed and issued
under the direction of the Superintendent of the Survey by the United States
Government.

5. On the Acquisition by England of Cyprus, and some Observations on the
Islands in the Levant. By J. 8S. Puent, LL.D., F.S.A4.

Dr. Phené described the physical features of the islands of Chios, Mytilene,
Lemnos, Imbros, Thasos, and Samothrace ; the relation of the Cyclades to the great
range of Pindus in lateral offsets, of which the Cyclades appeared to be the sum-
mits of former ranges, now (except as to these summits) submerged. Reference
was made to the great aqueous stratification in Asia Minor and Southern Thrace,
which, being undisturbed, could not (geologically speaking) be remote ; and to a
remarkable tradition given by Diodorus Siculus, that the Euxine had at a far
distant period burst its bounds, and rushed westward to the Mediterranean Sea,
that in this convulsion some of the islands had become submerged, and that the
champaign country of the island of Samothrace was permanently so, and that even
indications of cities by the recovery of parts of buildings from the sea were some-
times found. It was possible that this convulsion represented the sinking down of
the mountain ridges, of which the summits were now represented by the various
islands stretching south from the several headlands of the Peloponnesus. Dr, Phené
ascended Samothrace, and was, so far as he could learn on the island, the only per-
son not being a native who had made the ascent, which was yery difficult. The
height was slightly over 5200 feet, but it was the whole climb of this from the sea

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 635

level. The climates, culture, and salubrity of the different islands were dwelt on;
Mytilene, from its rich gardens, good roads, and delightful air, being, with its
splendid and secluded harbours—the entrance to the larger one only requiring a little
blasting to make it easy of ingress—considered more adapted for British occupation
than Cyprus. Chios had also its advantages. Cyprus had a variety of climate, so
that the debility produced by the heats in the south could be relieved by a retreat
to the northern coast, which is cooled by the breezes coming from the Karamanian
mountains. It was our first acquisition towards the tactics of the ancient commer-
cial nations, both the Phcenicians and the Venetians having occupied Cyprus and
other Levantine islands.

636 REPORT—1878.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20,° 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Best Route to attain a high Northern Latitude, or the Pole itself.
By Joun Raz, M.D., LL.D., F.R.G.S. ;

2. Geographical Significance of North Polar Ice. By BE. L. Moss, M.D.

3. Livingstonia.—The Opening up of the East African Lake District.
By James Srevenson, F.R.G.S.

This paper is in continuation of that read in Section F at the Glasgow Meet-
ing of the British Association.

The intention in founding settlements in South-Eastern Africa was the promo-
tion of the Christian civilization of the natives, especially by the system of
Industrial Missions, tried with success in Southern Africa.

The new mission settlement was placed in the Nyassa region, which is accessible
by the only considerable rivers of Eastern Africa. The immediate results of its
establishment were eminently discouraging, for a hostile tariff was issued, and the
exclusive right of steam navigation on the rivers Zambesi and Shiré was offered to
a Portuguese subject, the concession being for thirty years.

This exclusiveness has gradually passed away. The slave-trade terminated by
treaty in 1877, and the Portuguese Legislature passed a tariff by which they limited
themselves to transit duties of 3 per cent. to countries situated beyond the conflu-
ence of the rivers Zambesi and Shiré, and to other countries outside their provinces.

A steam launch was got ready, and application made to use her for the purposes
of the settlement, which has resulted in the opening of the navigation of both
rivers. The launch, which will carry from 10 to 20 tons, is now on her way
to Quillimane.

The Shiré Junction road past the cataracts of the Shiré is also under construc-
tion by Mr. Stewart, C.E., of which a section exhibited showed no gradients
exceeding 1 in 20. The steamer J/ada takes the traffic on to Livingstonia and the
north end of Lake Nyassa.

To work this trade, the “ Livingstonia Central Africa Company, Limited,”
has recently been formed in Glasgow.

The tribes of Nyassa are of the Kaffir family of races, their languages being of
similar construction, although the tribes vary considerably from each other.

In the Lower Shiré, an industrious but unwarlike people, the Manganja, have as
their chiefs some of Livingstone’s Makololo followers, who are opposed to slavery.

The Upper Shiré and the southern part of Lake Nyassa are surrounded by chiefs
of the Ajawa race, who are still under Arab influence, but the slave trade is
gradually dying out since its prohibition on the coast.

Towards the middle and north end of the lake, on the west side, the pressure
of a race called the Maviti or Mazitu is greatly felt by the inhabitants, who are
being gradually absorbed. These Maviti are Zulus who crossed the Zambesi forty
years ago. They retain the bull-hide shield and spear, and dress their hair in the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 637

Kaffir ring, but are much mixed, and though retaining the tactics, have hardly the
courage of the Zulu race. Towards the north end, they have met with more war-
like races and have more of the characteristics of the Zulu. Their great chief or
Chipatula resides on the highest lands west of Nyassa, about the 11th degree of
latitude.

The dominant power north of the lake is the kingdom of Usanga or Urori, of
which the chiefs are said to have come from Madagascar. The present chief is
Meréré, whose town is on the slope northwards of the Kondi mountains. Between
them and the lake are the Wachunga, belonging to Meréré, without clothing,
but with some aptitude for industry.

East of the lake, behind the Livingstone mountains, are said to be the Gwan-
gwaras, a very warlike people who work in iron.

The people of the neighbourhood have lately grown provisions, sugar-cane, &c.,
much more largely, finding a market at the settlement, and this if extended to
various articles by the action of the new Company will probably cause the
chiefs no longer to sell their people.

The Livingstonia staff have also assisted in forming a settlement on the Shiré
junction road, which will be of use to the people under the Makololo Chief.
There is here a mission station with a school. The rearing of cattle has been
successful here, and also of European grain and vegetables, the site being 3500 feet
above the level of the sea.

The next station is proposed to be near the centre of the west side of the lake,
with the hope of influencing the Maviti, of whom the older persons still speak Zulu.
While retaining Livingstonia as an important station, with a good harbour suitable
for commerce, experience shows that a higher portion should be sought. So far,
relations with the Maviti have been opened very favourably.

Last year, a second circumnavigation of the lake was made by Dr. Stewart, of
Loyedale, and Dr. Laws, of Livingstonia. At the north end they commenced
intercourse with the natives at the Kambwe, about fifty miles, and at the
Rombashi, about fifteeen miles from the north-east termination of the lake.

From the first they found that there was a rather mountainous approach to
Lake Tanganyika, and from the second one more level, but, finding the natives
excited by their sudden appearance, they only paved the way for future exploration.
Near the upper end of the Livingstone Mountains they saw what appeared to be a
gorge, extending towards 8.E. by E. true, which they were informed was the pass
used in visiting the Gwangwaras. They intended to have visited Meréré, whose
capital lies five days to the north of the Rombashi, but were prevented by the
attitude of the Wachungu, who, though cordial at first, threatened a coalition of
the neighbouring chiefs against them, the steamer eventually sailing to the
Kambwe to avoid a collision. :

The maps prepared in anticipation of exploration by the Mission parties were
found useful, the position of the mountain ranges, rivers, towns, and highways
haying been estimated with sufficient accnracy to be a substantial guide. Native
information indicates that the distance between Lakes Tanganyika and Nyassa,
which was a disputed point, is about 200 miles, which would require the accep-
tance of Mr. Stanley’s position of the south end of Tanganyika, which differs from
Livingstone’s, or of a more easterly position of the north end of Lake Nyassa,
according to an observation taken on the Kondi Mountains, by the late Captain
Elton’s party. A

The Eucalyptus has been introduced with success on the low ground at
Livingstonia, and by the kindness of the Governor-General in Council at Madras,
Wardian cases, containing cinchona, tea, and coffee plants, have been sent there
and to Blantyre.

4. Cyprus. By Masor Witsoy, R.E., F.R.S.

638 REPORT—1878,

5. On the Geographical Distribution of the Tea Plant.
By A. Burrext1, F.S.8.

Tea, as a beverage, was known in Europe in the beginning of the sixteenth
century, became a regular article of consumption in the seventeenth, formed one of
the largest imports from China in the eighteenth, and is now the special beverage
of all English-speaking peoples, both in the New World and the Old. The botany,
method of culture, and modes of manipulation were, however, little known here
till about forty years ago. The Jesuit missionaries in China and Japan were our
first informants of the virtues of tea. The Portuguese and the Dutch, who, long
before our Hast India Company was established, traded with these countries,
introduced it commercially to Europe, and there is evidence of its use in Eng-
land in 1610, during the reign of James I. It was in common use during the
Commonwealth, and the first Act of Parliament after the Restoration was passed
to levy a heavy duty on it.

The tea plant first reached Europe in 1763, when Linnzus received a seedling.
The earliest plant that flowered and produced seed was at Zion House, near
London, in 1768. In China, the plant was in common use from the seventh cen-
tury; in Japan, from the eighth. It grows in these countries up to 42° north
latitude, and is capable of being grown as far of south latidude, thouch the best tea
is produced in China between 27° and 30° north latitude. Up to the first quarter
of the present century, all the tea-consumption of the world was supplied from
China, with a very little from Japan. In 1827, the culture was introduced by the
Dutch in Java, and has ever since proved a successful undertaking. In 1834,
immediately after the abolition of the East India Company’s monopoly of trade to
the East, tea was introduced from China into India, then first becoming a profitable
business. Next year, the plant was discovered growing wild in Assam. Tea, both
from the China plant and from this Assam kind, is now grown throughout all
India, and with the result that our great dependency is producing tea which
China, in her more palmy days, and less so than ever now, could not rival. India,
beginning with a production of only four pounds in 1840, now sends into this country
forty millions of pounds—as great a quantity as was consumed in the whole of the
United Kingdom in 1837. In Asia, the tea plant is distributed in the Corea,
Tonquin, Cochin China, Annam, Ava, and Burma, where it is cultivated to some
extent, but only for native consumption. It was introduced to Brazil in 1827.
The French attempted its cultivation in 1841. It is now growing in Mauri-
tius, the Isle of France, St. Helena, at Singapore, in Ceylon, and our Australian
Colonies. In the West India Islands it has also been recently introduced, and a
good account of its condition in Jamaica has been given. Nor have our American
cousins neglected it. They sent to China in 1857 for plants, and tried the
culture near Washington, in Virginia, and Carolina; quite recently they have tried
it in California, and near Baltimore. As to the original home of the tea plant, in
Japan it was admitted on all hands not to be indigenous. In China, it was long
held to be native to the soil, but more recent researches have thrown doubt on this
point, and the balance of evidence seems to point to the Assam Valley of India,
along the course of the Brahmapootra, as its original seat. This is supported by
the fact that, while in China the tea plant is never found thoroughly wild away
from man’s habitation, and is more of a bush than a tree, in Assam, on the other
hand, and in the hill ranges surrounding that valley, it is found everywhere grow-
ing wild, and attaining great height, usually fifteen to twenty feet (and even by a
report just received from India, sixty to eighty feet), and of the girth of three to four
feet, among the secluded Naga hills. A long list of authorities, from Marco Polo
and his learned editor, Colonel Yule, the Jesuit Missionaries, and more recent tra-
vellers, down to the recent works of Richthofen, Margary, Baber, and Gill, all
afford evidence of the tea growing wild throughout the vast stretch of country
intervening between the frontiers of India and China, and on either side, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 639

constantly of smaller dimensions as it approached China, thus supplying ground
for the contention, which is further supported by the legends of China and
Japan, that the tea plant was introduced there by a Buddhist missionary from
India.

6, Influence of the Straits of Dover on the Tides of the British Channel and
North Sea. By Sir Wit11am Tuomsoy, F.R.S.

The conclusions are—

1. The rise and fall of the water surface, and the tidal streams throughout the
North Sea, north of the parallel of 53° (through Cromer in Norfolk and the North
Coast of Holland and Hanover) are not sensibly different from what they would
be if the passage through the Straits of Dover were stopped by a barrier.

2. The main features of the tides (rise and fall and tidal streams) throughout
the British Channel, west of Beachy Head and St. Valéry-en-Caux, do not differ
much from what they would be if the passage through the Straits were stopped
by a barrier between Dover and Cape Grisnez (Calais).

3. A partial effect of the actual current through the Straits is to make the tides .
throughout the Channel, west of a line from Hastings to the mouth of the
Somme, more nearly agree with what they would be were there a barrier along
this line, than what they would be if there were a barrier between Dover and Cape
Grisnez.

4. The chief obviously noticeable effect of the openness of the Straits of Dover
on tides west of Beachy Head is that the rise and fall on the coast between
Christchurch and Portland is not much smaller than it is.

5. The fact that the tidal currents to the westward commence generally an
hour or two before Dover high water, and to the eastward an hour or two before
Dover low water, instead of exactly at the times of Dover high and low water, is
also partially due to the openness of the Straits of Dover.

6. The facts referred to in Nos.4 and 5 are wholly due to two causes—(1)
The openness of the Straits of Dover; (2) fluid friction (in eddies along the bottom
and in tide races). It is certain that (1) and it is probable that (2) is very
sensibly influential. Without farther investigation it would be vain to attempt
to estimate the proportionate contributions of the two causes to the whole effect.

7. It is certain that were the Straits of Dover barred, and were the water
frictionless, there would be a nodal line (or line of no rise and fall) across the
Channel from somewhere near St. Alban’s Head on the English coast to somewhere
near Cape La Hogue’or Cherbourg or Cape Barfleur on the French coast; that
west of this line the time of low water, and east of this line the time of high water,
would be exactly the same as the time of high water at Dover; and that through-
out the Channel the water would be flowing eastwards while the tide is rising at
Dover, and westwards while the tide is falling at Dover.

8. Understanding from Fourier’s ‘Elementary Principles of Harmonic Analysis’
that all deviations from regular simple harmonic rise and fall of the tide within
twelve hours are to be represented by the superposition of simple harmonic oscil-
lations in six-hour period, four-hour period, three-hour period, and so on, like
the “overtones” which give the peculiar characters to different musical sounds of
the same pitch, the six-hourly oscillation which gives the double low water at Port-
land and the protracted duration of the high water at Havre,* is probably due to
the complex harmonic character of the current through the Straits of Dover—that
is to say, definitely, to a six-hour periodic term in the Fourier series representing the

* From Admiralty Tide Tables for 1878, page 159:—“At Havre, on the
French coast, the high water remains stationary for one hour, with a rise and fall of
three or four inches, . . . . and only rises and falls thirteen inches for the space
of three hours; this long period of nearly slack water is very valuable to the traffic
of the port, and allows from fifteen to sixteen vessels to enter or leave the docks on
the same tide.”

640 REPORT—1878.

quantity of water passing through the Straits per unit of time at any instant of the
twelve hours. The double high-water experienced at Southampton and in the
Solent and at Christchurch and Poole, and still further west, which is generally
attributed to the doubleness of the influence experienced from the tidal streams on
the two sides of the Isle of Wight, seems to have a continuity of cause with the
double low water at Portland, which is certainly allied to the protracted high water
of Havre, a phenomenon quite beyond reach of the Solent’s influence. It is pro-
bable, therefore, that the double high water in the Solent and at Christchurch and
Poole is influenced sensibly by the current through the Straits of Dover; even
though the common explanation, attributing them to the Isle of Wight, be in the-
main correct.

.
'
‘

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor J. K. Ingram, LL.D., F.T.C.D., M.R.LA

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Proressor Incram gave the following Address :—

Hap I been called upon at any other time to preside over this Section, I should
have followed the example of most of my predecessors, in selecting as the subject
of the discourse which it is usual to deliver from this chair, some one of the
special economic questions of the day, which my knowledge might have enabled
me most adequately, or, let me rather say, least inadequately to treat. But I have
felt that the matter with which I should deal has been practically determined for
me beforehand. An important crisis in the history of our Section has taken place.
Its claim to form a part of the British Association has been disputed. Some of
the cultivators of the older branches of research but half recognize the right of
Political Economy and Statistics to citizenship in the commonwealth of science ;
and it is not obscurely intimated on their part that these studies would do well to
relinquish pretensions which cannot be sustained, and proceed, with or without
shame, to take the lower room to which alone they are entitled.

How far this sentiment is entertained by those who would be recognized as
the best representatives of the mathematical, physico-chemical and biological
sciences, I am unable to say. But it is natural to suppose that no one clothed
with an official character in the Association could have assumed towards us such
an attitude as I have described, unless supported by a considerable weight of
opinion amongst those within the body who are regarded as competent judges.
Still more—and this is what lends a peculiar gravity to the incident—such a step
could scarcely have been taken if the general mass of the intelligent public enter-
tained strong convictions as to the genuinely scientific character of political
economy, as it is usually professed and understood amongst us. It is, in fact, well

‘known that there is a good deal of scepticism current on this question. There

may be seen in various quarters evidences sometimes of contemptuous rejection of
its claims, sometimes of uneasy distrust as to their validity. And even amongst
those who admit its services in the past, there is a disposition to regard it as
essentially effete, and as having no scientific or practical future before it.

When some of our leading economists met not long ago to celebrate the cen-
tenary of the publication of the ‘ Wealth of Nations,’ it was plain from the tone
of most of the speakers that the present position of their studies, as regards their
general acceptation and public influence, was considered to be far from satis-
factory.

a to those who are interested in economic science,” says a recent writer in

‘Mind,’ “few things are more noticeable than the small hold which it has upon

_ the thoughts of our generation. Legislation has been directly influenced by it in

the past, and the results of the application of its doctrines are manifest in every
department of our laws; yet in spite of its triumph in this region, we find a wide-
spread tendency to look on its teaching with suspicion.”

“T seem’ to observe,” said Professor Cairnes in 1870, “in the literature and

1878. TT

642 REPORT—1878.

social discussions of the day, signs of belief that political economy has ceased to
be a fruitful speculation ; nay, I fear I must go further and admit that it is regarded
‘by some energetic minds in this country as even worse than unfruitful—as obstruc-
tive—a positive hindrance in the path of useful reform. . . . It is not denied that
the science has done some good; only it is thought that its task is pretty well
fulfilled.”

The attitude which the working classes generally take up with respect to
political economy, may be seen from Mr. Howell’s candid and instructive book on
the Conflicts of Capital and Labour.

Professor Jevons has recognized quite recently the state of facts indicated by
these testimonies, though he has no misgiving as to any grounds for it in the
current methods or doctrines of political economy; if the public do not like the
science, so much the worse, he thinks, for the public—“ the fact is,” he says, ‘‘that
just as physical science was formerly hated, so now there isa kind of ignorant dislike
and impatience of political economy.”

It is plain, therefore, that the low estimate of the studies of our Section which
is entertained by some members of the Association, is no isolated phenomenon, but
is related to a mass of opinion outside the body—that, in fact, the crisis which, as I
have said, has shown itself in the Association with respect to our Section, is only
the counterpart,*in a more limited sphere, of a crisis in the history of economic
science, which is apparent.on the face of English—and, as I shall point out by and
by, not of English only, but of European—thought. It is important to understand
the origin and significance of this state of things; and to that subject, accordingly,
I purpose to direct your attention. .

We must take care to distinguish, at the outset, between two views which are
sometimes confounded—namely, between the opinion that economic facts do not
admit of scientific investigation, and the quite different opinion that the hitherto
prevailing mode of studying those facts is unsatisfactory, and many of the current
generalizations respecting them unsound. That economic phenomena are capable
of scientific treatment is a proposition which I do not intend to spend time in
demonstrating. It is comprehended in the more general question of the possibility
of a scientific Sociology ; and any one who disputes it will have enough to do in
combating the arguments by which Comte, and Mill, and Herbert Spencer have
established that possibility. Nor do I intend to waste words in showing that, if
there be a science of society, no other branch of investigation can compete with it
in importance or in dignity. It has the most momentous influence of all on human
welfare. It receives contributions from all other departments of research—
whether in the ascertainment of results to be used for its purposes, or in the
elaboration of methods to be applied in its inquiries. It presides, in fact, over the
whole intellectual system—an office which some, mistaking the foundation for the
crown of the edifice, have claimed for Mathematics. It is the most difficult of all
the sciences, because it is that in which the phenomena dealt with are most com-
plex and dependent on the greatest variety of conditions, and in which, accordingly,
appearances are most deceitful, and error takes the most plausible forms. That the
professors of the more stably—hecause earlier—constituted branches of knowledge
should ignore the claims of this great department of inquiry would be doubly
disastrous—first, by leaving the scientific system without its necessary com-
pletion in a true theory of the highest and most important class of phenomena
accessible to our researches ; and secondly, by tending, so far as prejudice and mis-
conception can temporarily produce such an effect, to hand over to minds of insuffi-
cient power, and destitute of the necessary preparation, studies which, more than
any others, require a strong intelligence, disciplined in the methods and furnished
with the results of the sciences of inorganic and organic nature. There is, in my
judgment, no duty more incumbent in our day on the professors of these last, than
that of recognizing the claims of Sociology, whilst at the some time enforcing on
its cultivators the necessity of conforming to the genuine scientific type. Yet it is
now sought to expel from this Association, which ought to represent the har-
monious union of all positive research, the very limited and inadequate portion of
the science of society which has ever found recognition in its scheme.

I assume, then, that economic phenomena are proper subjects for scientific

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 643

treatment. This I imagine the public at large are not disposed to doubt,
though they may not repose much confidence in the methods actually followed.
But, strangely enough, a professor of political economy has recently disputed the

ossibility, or at least the utility, of a scientific handling of economic questions.
DeaBeios Bonamy Price, of the University of Oxford, who has published a volume
in which several of those questions are handled with much ability and freshness of
treatment, not only repudiates a scientific character for his own inquiries, but
alleges the scientific method to be a mistake. According to him, ordinary people
are right in believing that they can arrive at truth on these questions by the aid of
their natural lights, by their untrained sagacity,—that they can take a shorter
and far clearer path through their own observations, than through what he calls
“the tangled jungle of scientific refinements.” In plain terms, he is in favour
of relegating the study of economic phenomena to the domain of empiricism—to
what is called the common sense of practical men.

A more fatal suggestion could not, in my judgment, be made. I shall have to
express the opinion, that the prevalent methods of economic research and exposition
-are open to grave criticism; but how can this be remedied by throwing ourselves on
the undisciplined and random inspirations of so-called common sense ? It was “ com-
mon sense ” that long upheld the mercantile system; and indeed there is scarcely
-any error that it has not, at different times, accepted and propagated. What
security can there be in this as in other branches of inquiry against endless aberra-
tions and confusions, but systematic observation and analysis of the phenomena,
resulting in a body of ascertained and reasoned truth; and what is this but science ?
I am forced to say that Professor Price seems to me to labour under radical mis-
conception as to the nature and conditions of science. Because the facts of the
‘production and distribution of wealth have always gone on spontaneously amongst
mankind, and definite modes of social action with respect to them have progres-
sively established themselves, economic investigation, he argues, adding nothing to
what men have with more or less sagacity and intelligence always practised, can-
not be regarded as having the nature of a science. But it might be similarly shown
that there is no science of human nature, for the intellectual processes, the feelings,
sand the practical tendencies of man have always been similar; they have not
waited for science to develop themselves and pass into action; rather their long
continued spontaneous action was the necessary condition of the science that studies
them. So, too, with respect to all human action on external nature—practice
always must precede theory ; art, more or less intelligent, must precede science.
Science is simply the ascertainment and co-ordination of laws; a law is the state-
ment of a general fact; we explain a peeewar fact by showing that it is a case of
‘a more general fact. Now, from the beginning to the end of his own book, Pro-
fessor Price is endeavouring to ascertain such general facts, and to explain particular
facts by means of them—in other words, he is busied upon science without knowing
it. He rests much of the importance of economic studies, which he regards as
essentially practical, on their efficacy for uprooting the evil weed of false theory ;
but theory of some sort will always be necessary. On ne détruit que ce qu'on rem-
place; and the only way of extinguishing false theory is to establish the true.

I therefore repudiate the doctrine of Professor Price, and I hold by the truth,
which has indeed now become a philosophic commonplace, that social phenomena
generally, and amongst them the economic phenomena of society, do admit of
scientific treatment. But I believe, though on different grounds from his, that the
mode in which the study of these phenomena has been conceived and prosecuted in
the hitherto reigning school, is open to serious objections; and the decline in the

-eredit and influence of political economy, of which I have spoken, appears to me
to be in a large measure due to the vicious methods followed by its teachers. The
distrust of its doctrines manifested by the working classes is no doubt in a great
degree owing to the not altogether unfounded belief, that it has tended to justify too
-absolutely existing social arranrements, and that its study is often recommended with
the real, though disguised, object of repressing popular aspirations after a better
order of things, And it is doubtless true that some of the opposition which political
eeconomy encounters, is founded on the hostility of selfish interests, marshalled
TT 2

644 REPORT—1878.

against the principles of free-trade, of which it is regarded as the representative.
But it is not with manifestations of this kind, which belong to politics rather
than philosophy, that I am now chiefly concerned. It is more appropriate to this
place to point to the growing coldness or distrust exhibited by the higher intellects
towards political economy—a fact which lies on the surface of things, and shows
itself everywhere in contemporary literature. The egoistic spirit in which it is
steeped may explain the continued protest which Carlyle and Ruskin have, mainly
as moral preachers, maintained against it—though that very spirit is, as I shall
show, closely connected with vicious method. But what are we to say of Miss
Martineau’s final judgment? Speaking in her ‘ Autobiography’ of that part of
her career in which, as Professor Jevons says, “she successfully popularized the
truths of political economy in her admirable tales,” she tells us that what she then
took to be the science of political economy as elaborated by the economists of our
time, she had come to regard as being no science at all, strictly speaking.—‘ So
many of its parts,” she adds, “ must undergo essential change, that it may be a
question whether future generations will owe much more to it than the benefit
(incalculable to be sure) of establishing the grand truth, that social affairs proceed
according to great general laws, no less than natural phenomena of every kind.”
Here is a conclusion resting essentially on intellectual, not moral, grounds; and [
presume Professor Jevons will not explain it as a result of ignorant impatience.

But it is no longer necessary to consider scattered indications of the feeling of
eminent individualities on this matter, fur of late years the growing dissatisfaction
has risen to the dimensions of a European revolt, whose organs have appeared not
in the ranks of general literature, but within the sphere of economic investigation
itself. It is a characteristic result of the narrowness and spirit of routine which
have too much prevailed in the dominant English school of economists, that they
are either unacquainted with, or have chosen to ignore, this remarkable movement.

The largest and most combined manifestation of the revolt has been in Germany,
all whose ablest economic writers are in opposition to the methods and doctrines of
the school of Ricardo. Roscher, Knies, Hildebrand, Nasse, Brentano, Held,
Schmoller, Schifle, Schénberg, Samter, and others, have taken up this attitude.
In Italy a group of distinguished writers, amongst whom are named Luzzatti,
Forti, and Lampertico, follow the same direction, and have a special organ in
which they advocate their views. In Denmark a similar scientific evolution is in

rogress, chiefly under the leading of Frederiksen. The eminent Belgian publicist,

. de Laveleye, has done much to call attention to these new tendencies of
economic doctrine, in which he himself participates. In England a corresponding
moyement, by no means imitative, but on the contrary, highly original in character,
is represented by Mr. Oliffe Leslie, whom I mention with pride as an alumnus of
this University. In France, the new direction is not so marked in the economic
world, strictly so called, though in that country it really first appeared. For the
vices of the old school, which have led to the developmént of the new, were power-
fully stated more than forty years ago by a French thinker, who is too little studied
by the mass of his countrymen, Auguste Comte, the greatest master who has ever
treated of sociological method. How far the Germans may have been led by
national prejudice to ignore his influence in the formation of their views, I will not
undertake to say ; but there is no doubt of the fact that the tendencies they have-
sought to impress on economic studies are largely in accordance with the teaching
on that subject contained in his ‘ Philosophie Positive.’

In the admirable chapters of that work, in which he described the normal con-
ditions and method of social science, whilst paying a warm tribute to the merits of
Adam Smith, he criticized what he considered the aberrations of later political
economists. The late Professor Cairnes, of whom, as a member of this University,
we are justly proud, and whom, even when I differ from him, I name with all the
respect due to an able and earnest searcher after truth, attempted an answer to
some of these strictures of Comte, which again elicited a reply from Mr. Frederic
Harrison. Considering the criticisms of the great Frenchman to have been per-
fectly just when he wrote them, and only requiring a certain correction now in
view of the healthier tendencies apparent in several quarters since his work was

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 645

published, I shall dwell at some length on the several grounds of his censures,
stating and illustrating them in my own way, which will differ considerably from
the mode of treatment which they received in the controversy to which I have
referred. Those grounds, though nowhere by him formally enumerated, are essen-
tially reducible to four, having relation—first, to the attempt to isolate the study
of the facts of wealth from that of the other social phenomena; secondly, to the
metaphysical or viciously abstract character of many of the conceptions of the
economists ; thirdly, to the abusive preponderance of deduction in their processes
of research; and fourthly, to the too absolute way in which their conclusions are
conceived and enunciated. It will be found that these heads cannot be kept strictly
apart, but run into each other at several points. The separation of them will,
however, serve to give distinctness and order to the discussion.

I. The first objection is, as I have stated, to the pretension of the econoinists to
isolate the special phenomena they study, the economic phenomena of society, from
all the rest—its material aspect from its intellectual, moral, and political aspects,
and to constitute an independent science, dealing with the former alone, to the
exclusion of the latter. This question as to the relation of economic studies to the
general body of human knowledge, is really the most radical and vital that can be
raised respecting them, and on it more than on any other depends, in my opinion,
the future of these studies.

It is sometimes sought to get rid of this question in a very summary manner,
and to represent those who raise it erther as weakly sentimental persons, who shrink
from studying the conditions of wealth apart, because there are better and higher
things than wealth; or as persons of confused intellect, who wish to mix together
things which are essentially different in their nature. On the former of these im-
putations it is unnecessary to dwell. Iam far from undervaluing sentiment in its
proper sphere; but I take up no sentimental ground on the present question. In
denying the propriety of isolating economic investigation, I appeal to considerations
derived from the philosophy of science. The second allegation is, therefore, the only
one with which I am now concerned.

In a recent elementary treatise on political economy, by a well-known writer,
it is argued:—“ We must do one thing at a time; we cannot learn the social
sciences all at the same time. No one objects to astronomy that it treats only of
the stars, or to mathematics that it treats only of numbers and quantities. . . There
must be many physical sciences, and there must be also many social sciences, and
each of these sciences must treat of its own proper subject, and not of things in
general.

But a little consideration will show that these remarks touch only the outside
of the question. Of course we must do only one thing at atime. Only one out of
several branches of a subject can be considered ata time; but they are yet branches
of a single subject, and the relations of the branches may be precisely the most
important thing to be kept in view respecting them. It might be said: “It is
important, no doubt, that plant life and animal life should both be understood;
but zoology and botany are different sciences; let them be studied apart; let a
separate class of savants he appropriated to each, and every essential end is secured.”
But what says Professor Huxley, in unison with all the most competent opinion on
the subject ?—“ The study of living bodies is really one discipline, which is divided
into zoology and botany simply asa matter of convenience.” They are, in fact,
branches from the common stem of Biology, and neither can be rightly conceived
without bearing this in mind. Now I maintain that for still stronger reasons the
several branches of social science must be kept in the closest relation.

Another biological analogy will place these reasons in the clearest light. When
we pass from the study of the inorganic world to that of the organic, which pre-
upposes and succeeds to the former, we come upon the new idea of a living whole,
with definite structures appropriated to special actions, but all influencing one
another, and co-operating to one result—the healthy life of the organism. Here,
then, it is plain that we cannot isolate the study of one organ from that of the rest,
or of the whole. We cannot break up the study of the human body into a number
of different sciences, dealing respectively with the different organs and functions,

646 REPORT—1878.

and, instead of a human anatomy and physiology, construct a cardiology, a hepat-
ology, an enterology. It is not of course meant that special studies of particular
organs and functions may not be undertaken—that they may not be temporarily
and provisionally separated from each other in our researches; but the fact insisted
on is, that it is essential to keep in view their relations and interactions, and that
therefore they must be treated as ‘forming part of the subject-matter of one and
the same science. And what is thus true of theory is also true of practice—the
physician who had studied only one organ and its function would be very untrust- —
worthy even in the therapeutics of that organ. He who treats every disease as
purely local, without regard to the general constitution, is a quack; and he who
ignores the mutual action of the physique and the moral in disease, is not properly
a physician, but a veterinary.

These considerations are just as applicable, mutatis mutandis, to the study of
society, which is in so many respects kindred to biology. The most characteristic
fact about what is well called the social system, is the consensus of its different
functions ; and the treatment of these functions as independent is sure to land us
in theoretic and practical error. ‘ There is one great science of Sociology; its
several chapters study the several faces of social existence. One of these faces is
that of the material well-being of society, its industrial constitution and develop-
ment. The study of these phenomena is one chapter of Sociology, a chapter which
must be kept in close relation with the rest.

The justice of this view is clearly seen when we consider the two-fold aspect of
Sociology as statical and dynamical—that is, as dealing on the one hand with
laws of coexistence, and on the other with laws of succession. As in biology we
have, alongside of the theory of the constitution and actions of an organism, the
further theory of its development in time ; so in Sociology we have, beside the doc-
trine of the constitution and actions of society, the doctrine of its evolution from a
primitive to a higher condition. Now nothing is plainer than that in the course of
the human evolution the several social elements did not follow separate and in--
dependent processes of growth. The present economic state, for example, of the
nations of western Europe, as a group, or of any individual one amongst them,.
is the result of a great variety of conditions, many of them not in their own nature
economical at all. Scientific, moral, religious, political ideas and institutions have
all concurred in determining it. But if they worked in this manner in the past, it
follows that they are working so in the present. It is therefore impossible ration-
ally to conceive or explain the fualusiriat economy of society without taking into:
account the other coexisting social factors.

In nothing is the eminent superiority of Adam Smith more clearly seen than in
his tendency to comprehend and combine in his investigations all the different
aspects of social phenomena. Before the term “social science” had been spoken
or written, it could not be expected that he should have conceived adequately the
nature and conditions of that branch of inquiry, much less founded it on definitive
bases—a task which was to be achieved more than fifty years later by the genius
of Comte. But he proceeded as far in this direction as it was possible to do under
the intellectual conditions of his time. In his ‘Theory of Moral Sentiments’ he
promises to give in another discourse “ an account of the general principles of law
and government, and of the different revolutions they have undergone in the dif-
ferent ages and periods of society, not only in what concerns justice, but in what
concerns police, revenue, and arms, and whatever else is the subject of law.”
Here is no separation of politics, jurisprudence, and political economy, but rather:
an anticipation, wonderful for his period, of general sociology, both statical and
dynamical—an anticipation which becomes more extraordinary still, when we
learn from his literary executors that he had formed the plan of a connected his
tory of the liberal sciences and elegant arts, which would have supplied, in addition
to the social aspects already mentioned, a view of the intellectual progress of
society. Of this last undertaking there remains to us only the remarkable essay
on the history of astronomy, which is evidence at once of his thorough acquaint--
ance with that branch of science, and of his profound philosophical conceptions on:
the nature of scientific inquiry in general. The other project too was never fully

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 647

carried out; it may well be thought because it was essentially premature. The
‘Wealth of Nations’ is in fact a part of that larger design; and though in this
work he has for his main subject the economic phenomena of society, he has in-
corporated into it so much that relates to the other social aspects that he has on
this very ground been censured by some of the later economists. Mill, however,
who of all his English successors was the most large-minded and the best equipped
in respect of general culture, has recognised it as the great characteristic excel-
lence of Smith that “in his applications of political economy, he perpetually
peg to other and often far larger considerations than pure political economy
affords.” In consequence of this admirable breadth of view, the study of the work
of Adam Smith is, I believe, more fitted than that of the writings of any other
economist, to cultivate in theorists a philosophic, and in practical men a statesman-
like, habit of mind.

In striking contrast with this spirit of the master is the affectation, habitual in
his followers, of ignoring all considerations except the strictly economic, though
in doing so they often pass over agencies which have important effects on material
well-being. Thus, when Senior is led to make some observations of the utmost
importance and interest, on the very doubtful advantage to a labouring family of
the employment of the mother and the children in non-domestic work, he thinks
it necessary to apologise for having introduced such remarks, as not, perhaps,
strictly within the province of political economy. And when he finds himself
similarly induced to observe on the evils of severe and incessant labour, and the
benefits of a certain degree of leisure—subjects so momentous to working men,
and closely connected with their material as well as moral condition—he pauses
and corrects himself, admitting that he should not only be justified in omitting,
but perhaps was bound to omit, all considerations which have no influence on
wealth. This is the very pedantry of purism; and the purism is not merely ex-
aggerated, it is really altogether out of place. Mill, though, as I believe, he did
not occupy firm ground in relation to the constitution of social science, is free from
any such narrowness as this:—“For practical purposes,” he says, “political
economy is inseparably intertwined with many other branches of social philosophy.
Except on matters of mere detail, there are perhaps no practical questions, even
among those which approach nearest to the character of purely economical ques-
tions, which admit of being decided on economical premises alone.” This is true;
but it is only part of the truth. For purposes of theory as well as of practice, the
several branches of social inquiry are inseparably intertwined; and this larger
proposition Mill in another place has stated with all the desirable fulness of enun-
ciation, declaring that “ we can never understand in theory or command in practice
the condition of a society in any one respect, without taking into consideration its
condition in all other respects.”

Yet, notwithstanding this ample admission, he appears to exhibit some uncer-
tainty of view with respect to the relation of economic studies to general sociology;
at least after repeated careful examination of all that he has written on the subject,
I confess myself unable to understand exactly the position he occupies. Sometimes
he speaks of political economy as being a department “carved” (to use his own
expression) ‘fout of the general body of the science of society ;” and again he
poet of it as belonging to a subordinate order of speculation to that with which
the science of society is conversant—proposing to itself a quite different sort of
question, and supplying only a sort of knowledge sufficient for the more common
exigencies of daily political practice. The latter view is apparently reflected in
the title of his economical treatise, which is called ‘ Principles of Political Economy,
with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy,’ a phrase which seems to
imply that political economy is not a part of social philosophy at all, but is pre-
paratory and ancillary to it. And it is interesting to observe that it was from this
point of view of: the study, as preliminary only and intended to prepare the way
and provide materials for a true science of society, that Comte, in his correspond-
ence with Mill, encouraged the latter in his project of a special treatise on political
economy,

The ground which the economists commonly take up in justifying their one-

648 REPORT—1878.

sided attitude, is this: they announce that their treatment of every question 1s
partial and incomplete, and that for a real solution all the other elements involved
must be taken into account. Political economy, Professor Cairnes tells us, is ab-
solutely neutral as between all particular schemes and systems of social or indus-
trial life. It furnishes, he tells us, certain data that go towards the formation of a
sound opinion, but can never determine our final judgment on any social question.
Now this systematic indifferentism amounts to an entire paralysis of political
economy as a social power capable of producing or confirming in the mass of the
community just convictions on the most important of all subjects. How, it may
well be asked, are sufficiently fixed and convergent opinions on such matters to be
generated in the public mind? How are the scattered lights, supplied by the
several partial and one-sided studies of human affairs, to be combined, so as to
convey social truth to the understanding, and impress its practical consequences on
men’s consciences? These queries bring into the clearest light the doctrine I wish
to commend to your attention—namely, that what is wanted for this purpose is a
study of social questions from all the points of view that really belong to them, so
as to attain definite and matured conclusions respecting them—in other words, a
scientific sociology, comprehending true economic doctrine, but comprehending also
a great deal more,

Even on the special subjects in which purely economic considerations go for
most, it will not do to take into account those considerations only. Professor
Faweett, in his recent timely and useful treatise on Free-trade and Protection, finds
that he cannot restrict himself, in the treatment of that question, to the economic
point of view. ‘ As complaints,” he says, “ are constantly made by protectionists
that their opponents persistently ignore all the results of protection which are
not economic, I will be careful to consider those results.” And he goes on to
maintain the proposition, in which I entirely concur, that protection may produce
social and political consequences even far more mischievous than the economic
loss it causes to a country. I believe that the most effective weapons against
this and other economic errors will often be found in reasons not based on
material interests, but derived from a consideration of the higher ends of society,
and the ideal of the collective life of the race. And, @ fortior?, when we have to
deal with the larger economic subjects, now rapidly increasing in urgency, which
are more immediately in contact with moral conceptions, these questions of the
ultimate ends of the social union cannot be left out of sight. This was recognised
by Mill, who was open to all noble ideas, and saw that the practical life of man-
ind cannot be governed by material egoism. In discussing the claims of Cori-
munism, he says:—“ Assuming all the success which is claimed for this state of
society by its partisans, it remains to be considered how much would be really
gained for mankind, and whether the form that would be given to life, and the
character which would be impressed on human nature, can satisfy any but a very
low estimate of the capabilities of the species.” Here, you observe, is raised the
entire question of the ends of social life; and economic progress is subordinated,
as it ought to be, to the intellectual and moral development of humanity.

Mx. Lowe, at the Adam Smith celebration, declared himself not to be sanguine
as to the future of political economy ; he believes that its great work, which he
justly remarks has been rather a negative than a constructive one, has been already
accomplished, and that not much more remains to be achieved. Such, indeed, as
we have seen, Professor Cairnes declared to be the prevalent idea of the great
majority of educated people—that political economy has fulfilled its task by
removing impediments to industry ; and that it cannot help us—is rather likely to
be an obstruction—in the social work which now lies before us. I will not use
language so strong; but it does appear to me that either as a fruitful branch of
Speculation, or as an important source of practical guidance, it will cease to command,
or rather will fail to regain attention, unless it be linked in close connection with
the general science of society—unless it be, in fact, subsumed under and absorbed
into Sociology.

IL. The second common error of the political economists since the time of Adam
Smith, consists in this, that, mainly by the influence of Ricardo, they have been led to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 649

conceive and present, in a viciously abstract way, the conceptions with which they
deal.

Abstraction is, indeed, necessary to all science, being implied in the search after
unity amidst variety. The criterion of true or false science lies precisely in the
right or wrong institution of the relation between the abstract and the concrete.
Now, in matters of human life especially, we have only to carry abstraction far
enough in order to lose all hold on realities, and present things quite other than they
in fact are; and, if we use these abstractions in the premises of our reasonings, we
shall arrive at conclusions, either positively false, or useless for any practical purpose.
As Comte remarked, the most fundamental economic notions have been subtilized in
the ordinary treatises, till the discussions about them often wander away from any
relation to fact, and lose themselves in a region of nebulous metaphysics; so that
exact thinkers have felt themselves obliged to abandon the use of some of the most
necessary terms, such as value, utility, production, and to express the ideas they
attach to them by circuitous phrases. I am far from condemning the effort after
accuracy of language and well-defined terms; but the endless fluctuations of
economists in the use of words (of which numerous examples are given in Senior’s
Appendix to Whately’s ‘ Logic,’ and in Professor Price’s recent work) certainly indi-
pa a very general failure to apprehend and keep steadily in view the corresponding
realities.

A vicious abstraction meets us on the very threshold of political economy. The
entire body of its doctrines, as usually taught, rests on the hypothesis that the sole
human passion or motive which has economic effects, is the desire of wealth. “It
aims,” says Mill, “at showing what is the course of action into which mankind
living in a state of society would be impelled if that motive”—except so far as it is
checked by aversion to labour, and desire of present indulgence—“ were absolute
master of all their actions.” “So strictly is this its object,” he adds, “that even
the introduction of the principle of population interferes with the strictness of
scientific arrangement.” But what is the desire of wealth? It is, as Mr. Leslie
says in an article in ‘Hermathena,’ in which he urges the necessity for a new
method in political economy—it is a general name for a great variety of wants,
desires, and sentiments, widely differing in their economic character and effect, and
undergoing fundamental changes in some respects in the successive periods of
society. As moralists, viewing the same abstraction, not as a condition of well-
being, but us the root of all evil, “have denounced under the common name of love
of wealth, not only sensuality, avarice, and vanity, but the love of life, health,
cleanliness, decency, and art, so all the needs, appetites, tastes, aims and ideas
which the various things comprehended in the word ‘ wealth’ satisfy, are lumped
together in political economy as a principle of human nature, which is the source
of industry and the moving principle of the economic world.” The motives
summed up in the phrase vary in differentindividuals, different classes, different
nations, different sexes, and especially in different states of society; in these last,
indeed, the several desires comprehended under the general name follow definite
laws of succession. The point Mr. Leslie here insists on is, be it observed, not
merely—though that is also true—that the phrase desire of wealth represents a coarse
and crude generalization in the natural history of man; but that the several im-
pulses comprised under the name assume altered forms and vary in their relative
strength, and so produce different economic consequences, in different states of
society ; and therefore that the abstraction embodied in the phrase is too vague and
unreal for use in economic investigations of a really scientific character. The special
desire for accumulation, apart from the immediate or particular uses of wealth, is
no doubt a principle of social growth which must not be overlooked ; but this, too,
takes different directions and works to different ends in different stages of social
development. All these economic motors require to be made the subjects of careful
and extensive observation ; and their several forms, instead of being rudely massed
together under a common name, should be discriminated as they in fact exist. The
consumption, or more correctly the use, of wealth, until lately neglected by econo-
mists, and declared by Mill to have no place in their science, must, as Professor
Jevons and others now see, be systematically studied in its relations to production

650 REPORT—1878.

and to the general material well-being of communities. And none of these things
can be really understood without correct views of the structure and evolution of
society-in all its aspects; in other words, we are led back to the conclusion, that
they cannot be fruitfully treated apart from general sociology. I have not been
able to do more than indicate the leading features of a criticism which I recommend
all who are interested in the subject to pursue in its full development in Mr. Leslie’s
admirable essay.

There is a common economic abstraction, which, by the unsympathetic colour it
has given to political economy, has tended, perhaps more than anything else, to
repel the working classes from its study. By habitually regarding labour from the
abstract point of view, and overlooking the personality of the labourer, economists
are led to leave out of account some of the considerations which most seriously
affect the condition of the working man. He comes to be regarded exclusively as
an agent—I might almost say, an instrument of production. It is too often for-
gotten that he is before all things a man and a member of society—that he is
usually the head of a household, and that the conditions of his life should be such
as to admit of his maintaining the due relations with his family—that he is also a
citizen, and requires for the intelligent appreciation of the social and political
system to which he belongs a certain amount of leisure and opportunity for mental
culture. Even when a higher education is now sought for him, it is often con-
ceived as exclusively designed to adapt him for the effective exercise of his functions
as a producer, and so is reduced to technical instruction; whereas moral and social
ideas are for him, as for all of us, by far the most important, because most directly
related to conduct. Labour, again, is viewed as a commodity for sale, like any
other commodity ; though it is plain that, even if it could be properly so called at
all, yet in some particulars, as in the difficulty of local transfer (a family having to
be considered), and in the frequent impossibility of waiting for a market, it is quite
exceptional amongst commodities. By a further abstraction, the difference of the
social vocations of the sexes is made to disappear, in economic as in political rea-
soning, by means of the simple expedient of substituting for man in every proposi-
tion person or human being; and so, by little else than a trick of phraseology, self-sup-
port is made as much an obligation of the woman as ofthe man. It is true that un-
generous sentiment has much to do with the prevalence of these modes of thought ;
but what it is most suitable to insist on here, is that the science on which they
rest, or in which they find justification, is false science. By merely keeping close
to facts and not hiding realities under lax generalizations, we shall be led to more
humane, as well as truer, conceptions of the proper conditions of industrial life.

It is a characteristic feature of the metaphysical habit of mind (using that
phrase in the sense with which Comte has familiarized us) to mistake creations of
the speculative imagination for objective realities. Examples of this tendency
have not been wanting in the dominant system of political economy. The most
remarkable is perhaps furnished by the ‘ Theory of the Wages Fund.’ The history
of that doctrine is instructive, but I cannot here enlarge upon it; it may suffice to
say that though the so-called wages fund is simply a scientific figment, the only
legitimate use of which would be to facilitate the expression of certain relations, it
has been habitually regarded as an actual entity, possessing a determinate magni-
tude at any assigned instant. It is true that Mill gave up this theory, when Mr.
Thornton had convinced him of its unsubstantial nature; but, strange to say,
even when relinquished by the master, some of the disciples continued to cling
to it. Professor Cairnes in his latest work insisted that Mill was mistaken in
abandoning it, and it is still taught in some of the elementary manuals —not, I am
glad to observe, in that of Professor Jevons, who indeed never adopted it. There
are, in my opinion, other quite as illusory economic conceptions which haye met
with a good deal of acceptance, and have even obtained the sanction of dis-
tinguished names. If I do not now enter on an examination of them, it is
because I am unwilling that the general views I am desirous of presenting should
be lost in a series of special discussions, for which a more suitable opportunity can
easily be found.

III. The third prevailing error of the economists—and, with the exception of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 651

the isolation of their study, this is the most serious of all—is that of exag-
gerating immensely the office of deduction in their investigations.

Deduction has indisputably a real and not inconsiderable place in Sociology.
We can sometimes follow the method which Mill calls the direct deductive, that
is, we can, from what we Imow of the nature of man and the laws of the external
world, see beforehand what social phenomena will result from their joint action.
But, though the economists of the so-called orthodox school recognize no other
method, we cannot really proceed far in this way, which is available only in simple
cases. Social phenomena are in general too complex, and depend on too manifold
conditions, to be capable of such a priori determination. In so far as the method can
be used, the vital condition of its legitimate employment is the ascertainment of
the consilience of the results of deduction with those of observation ; and yet such
verification from fact of the conclusions of theory, though essential to the admissi-
bility of this process of inquiry, is too often entirely overlooked.

Much more commonly the function of deduction is different from what has just
been described, and its relation to observation is inverted. The laws of the
economic constitution and movement of society are first obtained by observation,
whether directed to contemporary life or to the history of the past. The office of
deduction is then to verify and control the inductions which have been arrived
at, using for this purpose considerations founded on the qualities of human nature:
and the external conditions to which society is subjected. Results which could
not have been elicited by @ priori reasoning from the latter data, may, when in-
ductively obtained, be in this way checked and rationalized. The pretension of
the economists, formally set forth in Senior’s treatise, to deduce all the phenomena
of the industrial life of communities from four propositions, is one that cannot be
sustained. But conclusions derived from observation. may be placed in relation
with the laws of the world and of human uature, so far at least as to show that
they contradict nothing we know respecting those laws. This method, in which
inductive research preponderates, and deduction takes a secondary place as means
of verification, is the really normal and fruitful method of sociological inquiry.

But the method of Sociology must be not only inductive, but historical ; and by
the latter name it may best be characterised. By this is meant, not merely that it
finds the materials for its studies in the general field of human history :.we mean
further that it institutes a comparison of the successive states of society in order
to discover the laws of social filiation—a process similar in principle to the biological
comparison of organisms of different degrees of development. If we followed exclu-
sively the @ priori method, in (for example) economic research, and sought to infer
the economic facts of life from the nature of the world and man, we could arrive
only at one determinate order of things, whilst we know that in reality the economic
organization and functions of society vary in time according to definite laws of suc-
cession. Mr. Lowe, indeed, will have it that “ political economy is founded.on the
attributes of the human mind, and nothing can change it ;” which means, I suppose,
that its formulas must always correspond with the phenomena. But how can this.
view be reconciled with the now ascertained fact, that society has passed through
states in which the modern economic constitution was so far from existing, that
property did not belong to the individual, but to the community? The @ priort
method, in fact, overlooks what is the main agency in the social movement—namely,
the accumulated influence of anterior on subsequent generations of mankind; an
influence too complex to be estimated deductively. Every department of social life,
and amongst the rest the industrial system, undergoes transformation—not arbi-
trarily indeed, but im accordance with law; and if we wish to understand any of
those departments, we must study its transformations, considering each successive
form in relation to all the preceding and contemporary conditions.

There is, indeed, no more important philosophical theorem than this: that the
nature, of a social fact of any degree of complexity cannot be understood apart from
its history. “Only when its genesis has been’ traced,” says Mr. Herbert Spencer,
“ only when its antecedents of all orders have been observed in their co-operation,
generation after generation, through past social states—is there reached that inter-
pretation of a fact which makes it a part of sociological science.” To understand,

652 REPORT—187 8. F

for example, the true meaning of the trade societies of modern times, so important an
object of economic study, ‘ we must,” he says, “ go back to the older periods when
analogous causes produced analogous results.” And facts of this order, he adds,
“must be studied not merely in their own successive forms, but in relation to the
other phenomena of their time—the political institutions, the class distinctions, the
family arrangements, the modes of distribution and degree of intercourse between
localities, the amounts of knowledge, the religious beliefs, the morals, the senti-
ments, the customs.” These considerations all point to the historical method, and,
I may add, they all confirm what I have already urged, that the economic pheno-
mena of society cannot be isolated from its other aspects. When our object is not
the explanation of any past or present fact, but the prevision (within possible limits)
of the future, and the adoption of a policy in relation to that future, our guide must
still be the historic method, conceived as indicating, from the comparison of succes-
sive states, the general tendency of society with respect to the phenomenon consi-
dered, and the agencies which are in course of modifying existing systems.
“Legislative action of no kind,’ again says Mr. Spencer, “can be taken that is
not either in agreement with or at variance with the processes of national growth
and development as naturally going on.” We can by judicious action modify in their
special mode of accomplishment or in the rate of their development, but cannot alter
in their fundamental nature, the changes which result from the spontaneous tenden-
cies of humanity. An attempt to introduce any social factor which is not essen-
tially conformable to the contemporary civilization, will result, if not in serious
disturbance, at least in a mere waste of effort. Any proposal of social action, there-
fore, should repose on a previous analysis of those spontaneous tendencies, and this
is possible only by the historic method. Let me give an example from an economic
subject which happens just at present to offer a special interest. Attention has
been called by Sir Henry Maine to the general law that property in land originally
belongs, not to individuals, nor even to families in the modern sense, but to larger
societies, and that in the progress of mankind there is a natural movement from
common to separate ownership. This historical result has been elaborated by a
number of independent inquirers; and M. de Laveleye in a work of great research
has brought together a vast mass of evidence, both establishing the main fact, and
exhibiting the varied features which the common evolution has assumed in different
countries. There is much that is attractive in particular sides of this early organi-
zation of territorial property, and M. de Laveleye has yielded to the charm, so far
as to regret its disappearance in the developed communities of the West, though he
stops short of recommending what others have suggested—namely, a return to
the primitive constitution, by replacing the commune in the possession of the soil.
Indeed, he himself, by establishing the progressive spontaneous tendency of society
towards individual property, shows such a project to be a dream, and banishes it
from the field of practical economic policy. From the general appearance of this
collective ownership in an early stage of society, it is sometimes argued that it is
a natural system; but the historic method shows that it is just as natural that it
should disappear at a more advanced stage. Serving useful ends in the former
period, it becomes in the latter an obstruction to progress by stereotyping agricul-
tural art, and impeding that individual initiative which is an indispensable condition
of socialimprovement. The safe prediction is that the Swiss Allmend, the Russian
Mir, and other forms of collective ownership will disappear, and that personal ap-
propriation will become the universal rule. The social destination of property in
land, as of every species of wealth, will be increasingly acknowledged and realized
in the future; but that result will be brought about, not through legal institutions,
but by the establishment and diffusion of moral convictions.

There have been great differences of opinion as to the method of economic in-
quiry pursued by Adam Smith. Mr. Lowe insists that his method was de-
ductive—that he had the unique merit of having raised the study of a branch of
human transactions to the dignity of a deductive science. At the same celebration
at which this opinion was put forward, Professor Thorold Rogers expressed his
surprise that anyone should entertain such a view. It seemed to him clear that
Adam Smith was pre-eminently an inductive philosopher. Mr. Rogers has edited

P TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 653
the ‘ Wealth of Nations,’ and in doing so has verified all the references; and what
strikes him is the extraordinary wideness of the reading from which Smith drew
his inferences. The work, he says, is full of facts. It is interesting to observe
that David Hume made just the same remark on the book at the time of its
publication:—“TIt has depth,” he said, “and solidity, and acuteness, and is so
much illustrated with curious facts, that it must take the public attention.”

Of the two views thus advanced by Mr. Lowe and Mr. Rogers, the latter
seems to me much the more correct. That the master tendency of Smith's
intellect was the deductive, or that it is at the deductive point of ‘View that he
habitually places himself, seems to me plainly at variance with fact. Open his
book anywhere, and read a few pages; then do the same with Ricardo’s principal
work, and observe the difference of the impression produced. Under the guidance
of Ricardo you are constantly, not without misgivings, following certain abstract
assumptions to their logical results. In Smith you feel yourself in contact with
real life, observing human acts and their consequences by the light of experience.
Of course deduction is not wanting; but it is in the way of explanation; the facts
are interpreted from the nature and circumstances of men in general, or particular
groups of men. Sagacious observation and shrewd comment go hand in hand.

Adam Smith, besides giving generally a large place to induction, opened
several lines of interesting historical investigation, as notably in his Third Book,
which contains a view of the economic progress of modern Europe as shaped by
political causes. But historic inquiry was neglected by his successors, with
a partial exception in the case of Malthus, and the @ priori method became
dominant chiefly by the influence of Ricardo. Professor Price objects to
this method as too scientific; but, as Mr. Leslie has said, what ought to be
alleged respecting it is that it is unscientific, because ill adapted for the successful
investigation of the class of phenomena with which it deals. Setting out from
propositions involving the loose abstractions of which I have spoken, it arrives at
conclusions which are seldom corrected by the consideration of conditions which
were at first, for simplicity, omitted in the premises. And these conclusions can in
general not be directly confronted with experience for the purpose of verification,
for they are hypothetical only; they give us, not the resultant phenomenon, but
only a tendency of a certain character, which will be one component of the
resultant,

I am not concerned nor disposed to deny that useful general indications have
been gathered by inference of this kind. But it is evidently a very unsafe process,
even in purely economic matters, especially when consequences are pushed into
any degree of detail. Careful thinkers have a profound distrust of lengthened
deductions in economic inquiries. When it is argued that A must lead to B, and
B again to C, and so on through a long chain of results, they assume in self-
defence a sceptical attitude of mind, and often feel more than half convinced that
what is going on is a feat of logical sleight of hand. And this suspiciousness is, T
think, reasonable; for we are not here on the same ground as in mathematics,
where protracted deductions are always safe, because we can be sure that we have
before us at every step all the determining data, and each proposition successively
used is universally true. But as the most that the economist can affirm is a set
of tendencies, the certainty of his conclusions is plainly weakened in a rapidly
increasing ratio by the multiplication of links, there being always a possibility that
the theorems applied in the course of the demonstration may be subject to special
counteractions or limitations in the case we are considering.

I observed before that Mill betrayed some uncertainty of view as to the precise
relation of economic inquiries to general sociology. As to the proper method
of the social science also, he appears to me not strictly consistent with him-
self. That method he declares, in so many words, to be the direct deductive.
Yet elsewhere he as plainly agrees with Comte, that in the general science of
society, as distinguished from its separate departments, nothing of a scientific
character is possible except by the inverse deductive—as he chooses to call the his-
torical—method. In one place he seems to assert that the general course of
economic evolution could be predicted from the single consideration of the desire

654 REPORT—1878.
,

of wealth. Yet again he admits that no one could determine @ priori from the
principles of human nature and the general circumstances of the race the order in
which human development takes place. Now this involves the conclusion, that the
laws of economic progress—like all dynamic laws of Sociology—must be ascertained
by observation on the large scale, and only verified by appeal to the laws of the
external world and human nature; in other words, that the right method for their
study is the historical.

I hope it is not inconsistent with a profound respect for the eminent powers and
high aims of Mill, to say that he appears to me never to have extricated himself
completely from the vicious habits m regard to sociological method impressed on
him by his education. His father had the principal part in the formation of his
mind in his early years. Now whatever were the intellectual merits of James
Mill, his mode of thinking on social subjects was essentially metaphysical, as
opposed to positive. Through him, as well as directly, John Mill came under the
influence of Bentham, of whom, whilst fully recognizing his services, we may truly
say that he was one of the most unhistorical of writers, building most, I mean, on
assumed @ priori principles, and sympathizing least with the social past, in which
he saw little except errors and abuses. It is strong evidence of the natural force
of Mill’s intellect that he more and more, as he advanced towards maturity, shook
himself loose of the prejudices of his early entowrage. On every side, not even
excluding the esthetic, he grew in comprehensiveness, and his social and historic
ideas in particular become wider and more sympathetic. The publication of the
letters addressed to him by Auguste Comte has revealed more fully, what could
already be gathered from his writings, that the study of that eminent thinker’s first
great work happily concurred with and aided his spontaneous tendencies. Hence
in his economic studies he broke away in many respects from the narrow traditions
of the reigning English school, and by opening larger horizons and discrediting
rigid formulas, did much to prepare the public mind for a more complete as well as
truly scientific handling of these subjects. But though the interval between his
father ‘and himself represents an immense advance, yet never in regard to method
did he, in my opinion, attain a perfectly normal attitude. Whilst in his ‘Logic’ he
criticized with Just severity what he, not very happily, calls the geometrical mode
of philosophizing practised by the Benthamites in political research, he approves
what is essentially the same course of proceeding in economic inquiry; and, whilst
protesting against the attempt to construct a special science of the political pheno-
mena of society apart from general sociology, he yet, with whatever restrictions
and qualifications, accepts the separate construction of a science of its industrial
phenomena. His ambition in his work on paltncal economy was, as may be seen
from the preface, to replace the ‘ Wealth of Nations’ by a treatise which, whilst
more uniformly correct on points of detail, should be in harmony with contemporary
social speculation in the widest sense. Admitting fully the great merits of the book,
I yet must hold that, chiefly from the absence of any systematic application of the
historic method, he has not succeeded in attaining this end. The presentation of
what is solid and permanent in the work of the economists, in relation with the
largest and truest views of general sociology, is, in my judgment, a task which still
remains to be accomplished.

The tendencies of the new school with respect to method are sufficiently indi-
cated by the names of the Realistic and the Historical by which it designates
itself. It declares, in the words of Brentano, the description of political economy
by the so-called orthodox writers as a hypothetic science, to be only a device to
cloak its dissonance with reality ; and affirms that much of the current doctrine
is made up of hasty generalizations from insufficient and arbitrary premises, It
sets out, says Held, from observed facts, and not from definitions, which often
serve only to mask foregone conclusions. It aims at describing objectively existing
economic relations, not as immutable necessities, but as products of a gradual
historical development in the past, and susceptible of gradual modification in
the future. “Its philosophical method,” says Mr. Leslie, “must be historical,
and must trace the connection between the economical and the other phases of
national history.” In these tendencies the rising school seems to me to be in har-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 655

mony with all that is best in the spirit of the most advanced contemporary
thought.

IV. Lastly has to be noticed the too absolute character of the theoretic and practi-
eal conclusions of the political economists. It follows (as I have already indicated)
from their @ priori and unhistoric method that they arrive at results which purport
to apply equally to all states of society. Neglecting the study of the social develop-
ment, they tend too much to conceive the economic structure of society as fixed
in type, instead of as undergoing a regular modification in process of time, in rela-
tion to the other changing elements of human condition. Similar consequences
arose in other branches of sociological inquiry from the prevalence of unhistoric
methods. But reforms have been largely carried into effect from the increasing
recognition of the principle, that the treatment of any particular aspect of society
must be dominated by the consideration of the general contemporary state of
civilization. Thus, in jurisprudence there is a marked tendency to substitute for
the @ priori method of the Benthamites a historical method, the leading idea of
which is to connect the whole juristic system of any epoch with the corresponding
state of society; and this new method has already borne admirable fruits, especially
in the hands of Sir Henry Maine. Again, the old search after the best government,
which used to be the main element of political inquiry, is now seen to have been
radically irrational, because the form of government must be essentially related to
the stage of social development and to historic antecedents, and the question, what
is the best? admits of no absolute answer.

Mill admits that there can be no separate science of government; in other
words, that the study of the political phenomena of society cannot be conducted
apart, but must, in his own words, stand part of the general science of society, not
oF any separate branch of it. And why? Because those phenomena are so closely
mixed up, both as cause and effect, with the qualities of the particular people, or
of the particular age. Particular age must here mean the state of general social
development. But are not economic phenomena very closely bound up with the
particular state of development of the society which is under consideration? Mr.
Bagehot, indeed, took up the ground that political economy is “ restricted to a
single kind of society, a society of competitive commerce, such as we have in
England.” And Mill himself, whilst stating that only through the principle of
competition, as the exclusive regulator of economic phenomena, has political
economy any claim to the character of a science, admits that competition has, only
at a comparatively modern period, become in any considerable degree the governing
principle of contracts; that in early periods transactions and engagements were
regulated by custom, and that to this day in several countries of Europe, in large
departments of human transactions, custom, not competition, is the arbiter,

The truth is, that in most enunciations of economic theorems by the English
school, the practice is tacitly to presuppose the state of social development, and
the general history of social conditions, to be similar to that of modern England ;
and when this supposition is not realised, those theorems will often be found to fail.

The absolute character of the current political economy is shown, not only by
this neglect of the influence of the general social state, but in the much too
unlimited and unconditional form which is given to most of its conclusions. Mr.
Fawcett has, in his latest publication, animadverted on this practice; thus, he
points to the allegation often met with, that the introduction of machines must im-
prove the position of the workman, the element of time being left out of account ;
and the assertion that the abolition of protection in the United States could not
injure the American manufacturer. But this lax habit cannot, I believe, be really
corrected apart from a thorough change of economic method. As long as conclu-
sions are deduced from abstract assumptions, such as the perfectly free flow of
labour and capital from one employment to another, propositions which only affirm
tendencies will be taken to represent facts, and theorems which would hold under
certain conditions will be announced as universally true.

The most marked example the economists have afforded of a too absolute con-
ception and presentation of principle, both theoretical and practical, is found in
the doctrine of laissez faire. It might be interesting, if time permitted, to follow

656 REPORT—1878.

its history in detail. First inspired by @ piort optimistic prepossessions, it long
served a useful purpose as an instrument of combat against the systematic restric-
tions with which a mistaken policy had everywhere fettered European industry.
But, from the absolute manner in which it was understood and expressed, it tended
more and more to annul all governmental intervention in the industrial world, even
when intended not to alter the spontaneous course of industry, but only to prevent
or remedy the social injustices and other mischiefs arising from the uncontrolled
play of private interests. Experience and reflection, however, gradually surmounted
the exaggerations of theory. The community at large became impatient of daissez
faire as an impediment and a nuisance; statesmen pushed it aside, and the econo-
mists, after long repeating it as a sacred formula, themselves at last revolted against
it. So far has the reaction proceeded, that Professor Cairnes has declared the
doctrine implied in the phrase—namely, that the economic phenomena of society
will always spontaneously arrange themselves in the way which is most for the
common good—to be a pretentious sophism, destitute of scientific authority, and
having no foundation in nature or fact.

Let me now recapitulate the philosophical conclusions which I have been en-
deavouring to enforce. They are the following :—

(1) That the study of the economic phenomena of society ought to be syste-
matically combined with that of the other aspects of social existence; (2) That
the excessive tendency to abstraction and to unreal simplifications should be
checked; (3) That the @ priori deductive method should be changed for the
historical; and (4) That economic laws and the practical prescriptions founded on
those laws should be conceived and expressed in a less absolute form. These are,
in my opinion, the great reforms which are required both in the conduct of econo-
mic research, and in the exposition of its conclusions.

I am far from thinking that the results arrived at by the hitherto dominant
economic school ought to be thrown away as valueless. They have shed important
partial lights on human affairs, and afforded salutary partial guidance in public
action, The task incumbent on sociologists in general, or such of them as specially
devote themselves to economic inquiries, is to incorporate the truths already elicited
into a more satisfactory body of doctrine, in which they will be brought into
relation with the general theory of social existence—to recast the first draughts of
theory, which, however incomplete, in most cases indicate real elements of the
question considered—and to utilize the valuable materials of all kinds which their
predecessors have accumulated. Viewed as provisional and preparatory, the cur-
rent political economy deserves an approbation and an acceptance to which I
think it is not entitled, if regarded as a final systematization of the industrial laws
of society.

Returning now from our examination of the condition and prospects of eco-
nomic study in the general field of human knowledge to the consideration of its

osition in this Association, what seems to follow from all I have been saying ?

do not take into account at all the suggestion that that study should be removed
from what professes to be a confederation of the sciences. As has been well said,
the omission from the objects of this body of the whole subject of the life of man
in communities, although there is a scientific order traceable in that life, would be
a degradation of the Association. If the proper study of mankind is man, the
work of the Association, after the extrusion of our Section, would be like the play
with the part of the protagonist left out. What appears to be the reasonable
suggestion, is that the field of the Section should be enlarged, so as to comprehend
the whole of Sociology. The economic facts of society, as I have endeavoured to
show, cannot be scientifically considered apart; and there is no reason why the
researches of Sir Henry Maine, or those of Mr, Spencer, should not be as much at
home here as those of Mr. Fawcett or Professor Price. Many of the subjects, too,
at present included in the artificial assemblage of heterogeneous inquiries known
by the name of Anthropology, really connect themselves with the laws of social |
development ; and if our Section bore the title of the Sociological, studies like those
of Mr. Tylor and Sir John Lubbock concerning the early history of civilization
would find in it their most appropriate place. I prefer the name Sociology to that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 657

of Social Science, which has been at once rendered indefinite and vulgarized in
common use, and has come to be regarded as denoting a congeries of incoherent
details respecting every practical matter bearing directly or remotely on public
interests, which happens for the moment to engage attention. There are other
Societies in which an opportunity is afforded for discussing such current questions
in a comparatively popular arena. But if we are to be associated here with the
students of the other sciences, it is our duty, as well as our interest, to aim at a
genuinely scientific character in our work, Our main object should be to assist in
fixing theoretic ideas on the structure, functions, and development of society.
Some may regard this view of the subject with impatience, as proposing to us
investigations not bearing on the great and real needs of contemporary social life.
But that would be a very mistaken notion. Luciferous research, in the words
of Bacon, must come before fructiferous, “ Effectual practice,” says Mr.
Spencer, “ depends on superiority of ideas; methods that answer are preceded by
thoughts that are true.” And in human affairs, it is in general impossible to solve
special questions correctly without just conceptions of ensemble—all particular
problems of government, of education, of social action of whatever kind, connect
themselves with the largest ideas concerning the fundamental constitution of
society, its spontaneous tendencies, and its moral ideal.

I have as yet said nothing of Statistics, with which the name of this Section at
first exclusively connected it, and which are still recognized as forming one of its
objects. But it is plain that though Statistics may be combined with Sociology
in the title of the Section, the two cannot occupy a co-ordinate position. For it is
impossible to vindicate for Statistics the character of a science ; they constitute only
one of the aids or adminicula of science. The ascertainment and systematic
arrangement of numerical facts is useful in many branches of research, but, till law
emerges, there is no science; and the law, when it does emerge, takes its place
in the science whose function it is to deal with the particular class of phenomena
to which the facts belong. We may arrange meteorological facts in this way as
well as sociological; and, if doing so helps us to the discovery of a law, the law
belongs to meteorology: and, in the same manner, a law discovered by the aid of
statistics would belong to sociology.

But though the character of a science cannot be claimed for Statistics, it is
obvious that if the views I have advocated as to the true nature and conditions of
economic study should prevail, the importance of statistical inquiries will rise, as
the abstract and deductive method declines in estimation. Senior objected to the
saying that political economy is avide de faits, because, according to him and the
school of Ricardo in general, its work was mainly one of inference from a few
primary assumptions. But if the latter notion is given up, every form of careful
and conscientious search after the realities of the material life of society, in the
present as in the past, will regain its normal importance. This search must, of
course, be regulated by definite principles, and must not degenerate into a purpose-
less and fortuitous accumulation of facts; for here, as in every branch of inquiry,
it is true that “ Prudens interrogatio est dimidium scientie.”

I do not expect that the views [ have put forward as to the necessity of a
reform of economic studies will be immediately adopted either in this Section or
elsewhere. They may, I am aware, whilst afObably in some quarters meeting
with at least partial sympathy, in others encounter determined hostility. And it
is possible that I may be accused of presumption in venturing to criticize methods
used in practice, and justified in principle, by many distinguished men. I should
scarcely have undertaken such an office, however profoundly convinced of the
urgency of a reform, had I not been supported by what seemed to me the
unanswered arguments of an illustrious thinker, and by the knowledge that the
growing movement of philosophic Europe is in the direction he recommended as
the right one. No one can feel more strongly than myself the inadequacy of my
treatment of the subject. But my object has not been so much to produce
conviction as to awaken attention. Our economists have undeniably been slow
in observing the currents of European thought. Whilst such foreign writers as
echo the doctrines of the so-called orthodox school are read and quoted in

1878. UU

658 REPORT—1878.

England, the names of those who assume a different and more independent
attitude are seldom heard, and their works appear to be almost entirely unknown.
But the fence of: self-satisfied routine within which in these countries we formerly
too often entrenched ourselves is being broken down at every point; and no really
vital body of opinion can now exist abroad without speedily disturbing our insular
tranquillity. The controversy, therefore, as to the methods of economic research
and its relations to Sociology as a whole, cannot long be postponed amongst us.
Tt has, in fact, been already opened from different sides by Mr. Leslie and
Mr. Harrison, and it is desirable that it should arrive as promptly as possible
at a definitive issue. If I have done anything to-day to assist in launching this
ereat question on the field of general English discussion, the purpose I have set
before me will have been abundantly fulfilled.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Report of Anthropometric Committee. See Reports, p. 152.

2. On Canadian Statistics.** By A. BE. Bateman, F.S.S.

The author said that these were very much less widely known than those of our
Australian colonies. In the province of Quebec, or as it was called New France,
the population in 1665 was 3,215; in 1695, 13,695; in 1726, 29,396; in 1736,
39,000. The census of Ontario and Quebec, taken in 1861, was very much in
excess of the real numbers, chiefly on account of the double entry of persons not
sleeping at home on the night of the census. One result was that the census of
1871 failed to show the increase that had been expected. The rate of mortality was
said to be 14 per 1,000, considered to be much below the truth; but, taking the
death rate at 21 and the birth rate at 35 per 1,000, and allowing for the increase
by recorded immigration, the estimated population of the Dominion of Canada was
now something over four millions and a quarter. In the ten years since the
Dominion was formed, the imports had increased from fifteen millions to more than
twenty millions sterling; the exports from twelve to sixteen millions sterling. In
the last two or three years there had been a falling off, but when the present com-
mercial depression had passed away, he believed there would be a large develop-
ment of the meat trade to this country. The total tonnage of seagoing vessels was
six millions. This did not include the coasting traffic between the several provinces.
There were, in 1871, 180,000 persons employed in manufacturing industries, in
receipt of wages to the amount of eight millions sterling. The capital invested
was 16.millions, and the value of last year’s produce was 46 millions. As to the
deposits in Government Savings Banks, these, which ten years ago were little over
a quarter of a million, were now a million and a half. The railways were not
prosperous, owing to the great competition between railways and canals. They had
cost 68 millions. Their income was four millions, and their expenditure about
three and a quarter millions, leaving three-quarters of a million—sufficient to pay
four or five per cent. on the bonded debt, but leaving little for the ordinary or
preference shareholder, or the Government or municipal advances.

3. How to meet the Requirements of Population displaced by Artizans’
Dwellings Act.{| By Sir James Watson.

As the question must occur to every local authority proposing to put this Actin
force ‘How are we to provide for the population displaced by the pulling down of old

* The full text of this paper will be published in the ‘Statistical Society’s
Journal’ for December 1878.
} Published in extenso for a few private friends.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 659

houses ’"—the author thought that a sufficient answerhad been given to this question
by the proceedings which took place at Glasgow, where the Corporation obtained an
Act in 1866 for the same purposes as that for which the Artizans Dwelling Act
was many years afterwards procured. This Act led to large purchases of property
by the Corporation, under the name of City Improvement Trustees. As soon as it
became known that these large purchases of blocks of houses had been made for
the purpose of clearing them away, and that there would consequently be a great
demand for house accommodation, builders immediately commenced the erection of
worlmen’s houses, and to such an extent has this been carried, that at December
last, while no less than 31,057 persons have been displaced by the removal of old
buildings during the ten years the improvement trust had been in operation, houses
have been erected, not only sufficient to accommodate those displaced, but greatly
beyond it. These trustees were in no hurry in pulling down the houses they had
purchased, and did not begin such operations for about two and a half or three
years from the commencement of their proceedings, so that sufficient time was
given for the erection of new buildings. It may, therefore, be reasonably
assumed that a like result will follow to all local authorities in similar
circumstances. Altogether, however, these operations have been effected with
great benefit to the public, and to all who could afford to pay a small increase of
rent for a better house ; yet it is not to be concealed that it has been attended with
considerable hardship to such as are too poor to pay an increased rent in an im-
proved locality. In Glasgow a considerable amount of accommodation has been
procured for this class in consequence of a number of tradesmen, with their
families, removing from houses in localities not of the poorest kind to those
newly erected and better situated, and thus leaving those from which they have
removed to this poorer class. These two outlets, though important, have not
in Glasgow been found sufficient to meet all the requirements, and accordingly re-
course has been had by the Corporation to the erection of medel lodging-houses.
The peculiar construction of these is worthy of attention. The accommodgtion
given to each lodger is a comfortable bed, separate from others. There is apparatus
necessary for washing, &c., a bath-room, a comfortable large sitting-room, to which
all the lodgers are admitted, cooking apparatus, and fire and gas. The charge is
33d. and 43d. per night, or 1s, 9d. or 2s. 3d. per week. Games of various kinds are
allowed in the evening, and there are newspapers and a library for the use of the
inmates; a chaplain is attached to each house, and Divine worship is performed
every Sabbath. The success which has attended the houses already opened is very
gratifying; for although they have been erected at a time when ground and
building was at an inflated price, and when time was required to make them
known, so as to procure adequate numbers, they have yielded a fair return on the
money spent upon them, viz., 5} per cent. per annum.

4. On the Boarding-out of Pauper Children. By Miss Isapetna M. Top.

The most conspicuous opponent of the boarding-out system repeatedly and
earnestly deplores the mischiefs of all kinds to which children are exposed in work-
houses. The discontent and even alarm which such a conviction created led to the
establishment of the English District Schools. Undeniably the scheme had certain
advantages. But after many years’ experience, the opinion of most of those who
have watched it minutely is that this plan also has failed, and has failed precisely
because, with all possible external advantages, it has inherited the wholesale work-
house mode of treatment, and, therefore, has reproduced its effects upon the children.
Various charitable associations in England had always been in the habit of finding
rural homes for some of their children, but the existence of the district schools
(although even they are only available for a minority of the pauper children),
probably prevented philanthropists from quickly perceiving their need of similar
care. The present movement in that direction may be said to have begun with the
exertions of Mrs. Archer, Miss Boucherett, the Misses Hill, and other ladies, about

uv 2

660 REPORT—1878.

fifteen years ago. In Scotland boarding out has, in one form or another, been
practised for a century or more as a mode of relief. In Ireland, as the Poor-law
itself is a very modern affair, it is not, in the early stages, to anything done by the
authorities, but to the action of voluntary charities, that we have to look for ex-
perience. Warned by the errors of the old Charter Schools, which had just been
closed, the Protestant Orphan Society from the first eschewed large buildings and
mechanical arrangements, and placed the children in families in the country. The
success of this institution is beyond dispute, and as it deals with hundreds at a
time, the scale is sufficiently large to be an excellent test of efficiency. In a similar
manner many Roman Catholic orphanages and institutes—such as those of St.
Joseph and St. Bridget—have constantly boarded out the children in their care
among farmers and others in the country with the best results. The Presbyterian
Orphan Society, with the working of which I am best acquainted, has been about ten
years in operation, and it, also, makes the placing of the children in suitable fami-
lies its central object. Not till 1862 were Irish guardians empowered to board
young children out, and that only up to the age of five years, except in special
cases. Power was afterwards obtained to board out the children until ten years of
age. At this point it remained until 1876, when a bill was introduced and carried
by Mr. O’Shaughnessy, M.P. for Limerick, to extend the age to thirteen; and those
unions—decidedly the majority, and also the most important—which had already
adopted the system, gladly availed themselves of the permission. It was evident,
however, that if boarding out was to be substituted on a large scale for the false
system which had grown up care would have to be taken that the supervision by
educated people, which was connected with it when set in operation by charitable
associations, should be continued in a satisfactory and permanent manner when set
in operation by the guardians. It needs sound good sense and experience, as well
as good will, to select the right foster-parents in each case and to meet with advice,
encouragement, or warning the emergencies which arise from time to time. This
is the proper work of the ladies who undertake to assist in boarding out. The
State is composed of men and women, and has both masculine and feminine duties.
The forgetting of this truth led to hideous results for thousands of unhappy
children; and now that attention is directed to it, it is not a matter of choice
whether ladies will offer to help, or guardians accept their offer, but a matter of
plain duty. It isa cause of congratulation that such a committee has just been
formed in Dublin to look after children boarded out from the metropolitan unions.
' The boarding-out system rescues children from artificial conditions under which
nothing living could thrive, and secures for its clients a home—friends, parents,
brothers, and sisters ; school teaching—which becomes a pride and a pleasure, in-
stead of a meaningless drudgery—and religious instruction which is blended with
tenderness, instead of a dry form which might inspire awe, but could not inspire
love. This surely is work in which the place of women is evident and essential.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 661

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Condition of Small Farmers, and their Position with reference to
the Land Question.* By MurroucH O’Brien.

Ireland is a country of large estates and small farms. There are 300,000 farms
the annual value of which is less than 10/. each; and the average size of farms of
all kinds is under thirty acres.

Thirty-three per cent. of the population are engaged in agriculture, while in
England the percentage of agriculturists is thirteen.

Peasant farming in Ireland differs from peasant farming in other parts of
Europe, in that the occupiers hold almost universally as tenants from year to year.
They are thus subjected to continually increasing rents, the demand for which
causes discontent and bad farming, and discourages improvement.

Tenants in Ireland usually supply all buildings, and make whatever improve-
ments are necessary; yet they frequently have to pay increased rent on account of
the additional value they have given to their farms. This system tends to make
the interests of landlord and tenant more antagonistic than in England.

Rents have always been high in Ireland, and the tendency in settling them is
steadily against the tenant; although the increase in the value of land is seldom
due to any expenditure of capital by the landlord.

As a consequence, largely affecting for evil the whole nation, the house accom-
modation of the labouring classes is exceedingly bad. In rural districts there are
148,200 cabins with only one room each. On small farms it does not pay the
landlord to build, and yearly tenants can scarcely be expected to build and improve
as they would if they were owners.

On small plots purchased under the Bright clauses of the Church and Land
Acts remarkable improvements have been noticed. Farmers have built or perma-
nently improved their homesteads; labourers have built themselves substantial
cottages ; industry has been increased. This points to the settlement of the land
question that has universally been recommended by economists, viz., free trade in
land, and facilitating occupiersin becoming owners, but,“ not by means coercive or
unjust.” Every other solution has involved litigation between landlord and tenant,
and has failed to give protection for improvements. It is impossible to reconcile
the interests of landlords and tenants; and as long as ownership and occupation
are dissevered it is impossible that the land can be cultivated as it should be and
the condition of the people be really improved.

There are millions of acres to be reclaimed in Ireland, and a want of, and a

_ desire for, better houses throughout the whole country, yet there is a general com-
plaint that there is no employment. The wages of ordinary labourers are very low,
and insufficiently supply the necessaries of life. The want of employment still exist-
ing is largely due to the tenure of land, which is such that the landowner cannot
make the necessary improvements, and the tenant, if he makes them, is liable at any
time to have the fruit of his expenditure wholly or in part appropriated by an
increase of his rent. The position with regard to the land question is this: It
is the general custom that small farmers should build and maintain their own
houses, make and preserve all improvements. Practically the landlord cannot enter

* This paper is published tn extenso in the ‘ Jovvnal of the Statistical and Social
Inquiry Society of Ireland,’

662 REPORT— 1878.

on the land to do it even if he wished. If the landlord were to provide the
buildings which are needed on the small farms, the general value of his estate
would not be increased ; for the land would not be rendered more directly produc-
tive, and he would obtain no return for his outlay. The tenant builds because a
house is as necessary to him as clothes or food ; it adds to his health and comfort,
and in proportion to his comfort and ease is the strength and wealth of the nation
increased. The expenditure by tenants on small farms often exceeds the value of
the fee-simple. Improvements and reclamation on small farms is necessarily done
little by little. A record of such improvements cannot be kept by farmers, and to
file them under the sixth section of the Land Act is impracticable. The Land Act
(section 4) implies that after the lapse of an uncertain time the improvements
made by the tenant should become landlord’s property. This is contrary to the
natural dictates of justice. The Land Act places no limit to the rent that may
be demanded of a tenant. In revaluation of estates the value of the tenant’s im-
provements cannot be satisfactorily eliminated, and the occupier is always liable to
a rent placed on his own improvements. Great complaints and discontent exist on
this ground—not without reason, as appears from the evidence of the senior judge
of the Landed Estates Court. This liability to continually increasing rents checks
improvements, and operates as an uncertain and capricious tax on the tenants’
capital. No law can fix or limit rents without committing an injustice, and if
such a law were passed it might be evaded. The scheme recommended in 1866
by Mr. Bright is the only economical solution of the land question. The partial
trial it has had has been most satisfactory ; its extension has been recommended by
‘a Select Committee of the House of Commons; and accompanied by a simple system
of land transfer, the best results may be expected from a scheme such as this.

2. The Creation of a Public Commission to purchase Land for Resale to
Occupiers in Ireland. By Francis Nowan.

3. Suggestions for a Bill to regulate Sales of Property.
By James H. Monauay, Q.C.

There is no legal topic more closely connected with economic science than sales
of property. Certainly, there is no other single legal subject where the materials
for rational legislation are more rich and abundant, nor where a systematic arrange-
ment of these materials is more urgently needed ; for the great work of reducing
our chaotic corpus juristo order. The Judicature Acts constitute a stride in advance
towards this desirable achievement. The introduction and reception of Sir J. F.
Stephens’ Criminal Code is also a most important step gained. And the debate
and the division on Mr. Potter’s Real Estate and Intestacy Bill is also encouraging
to those who desire the substitution of rational and intelligible rules for the sur-
vival of feudalism, still permitted to continue to exist in our law. The introduc-
tion of Sir J, F. Stephens’ Bill has naturally evoked the usual objections from those
who do not believe in codification ; but I should think that most honest litigants
who have had practical experience of protracted litigation will be inclined to
believe Mr. Carlyle when he says—“ Unfortunate mortals do want to have their
bits of lawsuits settled and have on trial found even the ignorant Code Napoleon a
mighty benefit in comparison with none.” And we have again heard recently, as
we have often heard before, that “you can codify rules, but it is impossible to
codify principles.” One asks, naturally, what then is meant by “a principle,”
when it is said that “you cannot codify principles?” If the expression “a legal
principle” means anything intelligible, surely a legal principle can be stated in
plain English, and nothing more is wanted to fit a legal principle for its proper
place in a code. In truth, the statement of a legal principle is no more than a
compendious description of a general characteristic of the conduct of persons who
act in conformity with legal rules. And there is certainly no insuperable difficulty
in the way of shaping such descriptions, once legal rules: are known.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 663

Sales of property depend upon the branch of the general principle of ownership
conversant with powers of disposing of property, and the branch of the general
principle of veracity dealing with contracts. I haye elsewhere described these
general principles fully,* and there is vo difficulty in the way of stating in a mode-
rate compass the applications of these principles to sales. This has been already
partly accomplished by the Indian Contract Act of 1872; but it is to be wished
that the framers of that Act had confined the meaning of the term “ property ”
to “the thing owned,” and not also, as in sec. 78, employed “ property” to
signify “ ownership.”

4. On the Application of Copyhold Enfranchisement to long Leases in
Ireland, the assimilation of Chattel and Freehold Succession, and the
simplification of Transfer of Land. By J. H. Ener.

The report of the Committee of the House of Commons on the working of
the Bright clauses of the Irish Land Act of 1870, has brought out in a glaring
manner some anomalies and defects in the tenure of land in Ireland. The ‘com-
mittee, in fact, attribute the break down in the working of these clauses in a great
measure to the expense and delay attending the transfer of land from one individual
to another, or from the State to a private purchaser; and the report evidently
shows forebodings of difficulties to arise hereafter from the same source. What-
ever diversity of opinion may exist on such questions as the expediency of creating
a peasant proprietary, or the necessity of giving fixity of tenure to the farming class,
I think all people will agree with me that if one individual chooses to contract with
another to sell him an estate, the costs of transfer ought to be reduced to a
minimum. How to do so, and to what extent it can be done, are the problems to

“solve. The great end to which the public would strive, if they only knew how,
would be to make the transfer of land as cheap and speedy as that of ordinary
personal property, and it has been powerfully urged that this can be done. It has
been asserted that if you can establish a complete registry for shares of ships, you can
do the same for shares in Jand, and that by an easy method transfers in a registry office
can be accomplished. I do not think that the question can be pushed to this limit.
I think there are essential differences between land and every other marketable
commodity, which would prevent its accomplishment, as in every settled country
the very nature of land necessitates a division of interests which does not exist in
other property. In addition to what I may call the inevitable complication
attached to the title of land, family pride and sentimental feelings have in all old
countries, and in Ireland more than any other I am aware of, added complications
to its title, by imposing what may be called fanciful conditions on its tenure. I
searcely think it would be right to attempt to interfere with the owners in these
matters. Even if it was otherwise inexpedient to extend to this country Lord
Cairns’s Act for the Sale and Transfer of Land, so much of its provisions might be
adopted as would necessitate the registration in one office of all claims of land in
Treland of every description, and whether by the Crown or subject. The present
state of things might be learned from a paper by Dr. Neilson Hancock, read before
the Dublin Statistical Society. Another reform I would suggest would be a sup-
plement to Lord St. Leonards’ and Lord Cranworth’s Acts for shortening deeds.
Lord St. Leonards found in every well-drawn will and settlement common form
clauses, for the protection of trustees, known to lawyers as the indemnity and re-
imbursement clauses; and he introduced and carried an Act through Parliament,
to the effect that all deeds and wills should be construed as if they contained these
clauses, unless their application was expressly negatived by the instrument. Lord
Cranworth afterwards ‘carried a similar Act; by which various powers are em-
ployed in mortgages, settlements, and wills, thereby greatly shortening their length,
I then would suggest further legislation in this practical direction. At present, in
an ordinary conveyance or assignment of land by way of sale or mortgage, there are
inserted certain stereotyped covenants for title, which the purchaser or mortgagee

* ¢The Method of Law,’ chapters vi. and vii.

664 REPORT—1878.

has a right to insist on without any express agreement on the subject. There is no
yeason, then, why their existence should not be implied in every such deed, leaving
it open to the parties to make any agreement they please with respect to qualifying
or extending their effect, or negativing their application altogether. This would
shorten many deeds by at least one-third their length. And similar covenants
against incumbrances by trustees might be implied, and, where only part of an
estate is sold, covenants for the production of title deeds by the vendor. I shall
now strive to go a little deeper to the root of the evil, by trying to show how the
title to the land itself might, in my judgment, be simplified more than it is, with-
out interfering unjustly with existing rights or restricting freedom of contract.
The remedies I suggest are the abolition of the middleman tenure, and the assimi-
lation of the law of succession in the different varieties of tenure. I propose that
the middleman should be enabled to purchase, by compulsory sale, his landlord’s
rights, in analogy to the English Acts enabling copyholders to compel their lords
of the manor to enfranchise their holdings. I do not think it would be any more
violent interference with the landlord’s rights to force him to sell them to the
middleman, than it was to force a lord of the manor in England to enfranchise a
copyhold.

It is scarcely possible that anyone will dispute the question that the assimila-
tion of the law of succession, in freehold and chattel real property, would simplify
titles, and therefore facilitate the transfer of land, as there are numerous instances
in which the one farm, or even a portion of the same house, is held under both
tenures, and even the one lease through one portion of its duration is freehold and
another chattel. I cannot discover any valid reason why there should be the two
kinds of tenure; nor were the two even deliberately or purposely created, but
merely are remnants of the old feudal period, when leaseholds for years were not
regarded as constituting any estate in land, and were allowed to go like cattle to
the executor. The popular view is to assimilate the succession of freeholds to
leaseholds. It would appear to me that a fair settlement of the question would be
to recognise the eldest son’s right to inheritance, to restrict the widow’s right to
dower, or one-third of the annual profits for her widowhood only, as exists in lands
held in gayelkind, and to allot a third portion to the younger children during
their minorities—leaving the remaining third to the heir, who would get the whole
on his mother’s death or second marriage, and on his brothers and sisters attaining
fullage. This, which would remedy the great hardship of the present law as regards
freeholds, would, I think, make a useful alteration in the law of chattels real.

5. On Impediments to the prompt carrying out of the principles conceded by
Parliament on the Irish Land Question. By W. Netson Hancock,
LL.D.*

*In this paper I do not propose to deal with any principles as applied to the
Trish Land Question, except those which have already es conceded by Parliament.
With respect to one branch of the land question—the encouragement and facilities
for the creation of peasant proprietors—a very elaborate inquiry has been made by
Mr. Shaw Lefevre’s committee, to ascertain the impediments to the successful working
of what are called the Bright clauses. I propose to state the results of a scientific in-
vestigation on principles of economic science and jurisprudence of the impediments to
the working of some of the other clauses of the Land Act. The British Govern-
ment has to deal in India with the most eastern branch of the Aryan races, and in
Ireland with the descendants of what was, before the discovery of America, the
most western branch of the race. The reform of 1860, substituting contract for
tenure in the relation of landlord and tenant, and the Act of 1870 recognising
tenant right, reversing the presumption as to improvements and favouring small

* Published in ‘Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland,’
pt. liv. vol. vii. p. 343.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 665

ownerships—the legislation of 1877, giving a preference to equitable over legal
rules, and favouring compensation and restraint in lieu of forfeiture, have effected
such large changes, that the whole law as to land requires to be reviewed with a
view to its simplification. The effect of the Land Act of 1870, in recognising
tenant right, and the property of agricultural tenants in their improvements, has
been to bring within the domain of law property worth some millions of money
belonging to several hundreds of thousands of people, that before, owing to its
want of recognition, required no legal machinery for its management and disposal.
If this, as in every other case of concessions made by Parliament are to produce
contentment, and lead to good government, they should be promptly and cordially
accepted in all their consequences, and, above all, the legal and official arrange-
ments should be as completely and as effectually as possible organised, so that the
parties intended to be benefited may really get the benefit conferred on them by

arliament. Again, when English or Scotch institutions are extended to Ireland,
the latest and most improved form which is adopted in either of the sister countries
is the one that should be extended. The suggestions I haye ventured to make all
fall within these principles:—(1) That the eleven district registrars of the Court
of Probate should be consolidated with the county officers, as under a recent
reform the commissaries have been consolidated with sheriff’s officers in Scotland.
(2) That the office of sub-sheriff should, on the Scotch model, be made permanent,
and consolidated with the county officers. (8) That the entire jurisdiction in
bankruptcy should be entrusted either directly or by remission to the local courts as
in Scotland. (4) That to enable poor people to prove their wills, and take out
administration as cheaply and as locally as possible, the recent Scotch Acts for this
purpose should be followed. (5) That taking the 150 towns in which County Court
Judges sit, as the established convenient limit for exercise of local administrative
jurisdiction, the petty sessions clerks of these towns should be the officers to carry
out the cheap local proof of wills. (6) That to make the petty sessions clerks in
these towns suitable for this and other duties that would devolve on them as sub-
ordinate officers of justice, the principle of the English Justices’ Clerk’s Act, 1877,
should be extended to Ireland. (7) That the great principle of union rating
carried for England in 1856, and extended in principle to the whole of London in
1867 and 1870, should be followed in Ireland: the commencement made in 1876
being completed by the full adoption of the English system. (8) That this reform
would diminish the stimulus to interfere with the distribution of population pro-
duced by the 3,438 electoral divisions in Ireland, with an average population of
1,600, as compared with the 35,000 average population of the English area of
charge. (9) That the English principle of valuation for taxation according to
letting value should be substituted for the old Irish principle, still retained, of
valuing according to scales. of prices of agricultural produce. That the Irish
principle conflicts with live and let live tenant-right. (10) That the adoption of a
uniform basis of valuation for the purposes of taxation through the United King-
dom, besides its natural justice and equity, is of importance as a recognition as far
as possible of the principle of maximum identical legislation. (11) That the
principle of simplifying and codifying the law which in recent years has been so
successfully carried out in India, should be applied to Irish law, and especially to
the whole of the laws relating to land in Ireland.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.

The Section did not meet.

666 REPORT—-1878.

MONDAY, AUGUS1 19, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Report of Committee on Conumon Measure of Value in Direct Taxation.
See Reports, p. 220.

2. The Periodicity of Commercial Crises, and its Physical Explanation.
By Professor W. Staniry Jevons, FBS.

In this paper the author took up again the inquiry into the relation between
the solar spot period and commercial phenomena, which he had previously treated,
but, as he now believes, unsuccessfully, at the Bristol Meé¢ting of the British Asso-
ciation (see Report for 1875, Transactions of Sections, p. 217). Observing that
commercial collapses have occurred in 1866, 1857, 1847, 1837 (in United States),
1825, and 1815, the author adopts the opinion of Dr. Hyde Clarke and others,
that such phenomena tend to recur in q period of about ten years.

He then points out that the series, although apparently broken (a crisis occur-
ring in 1809-10, rather than in 1805, when there was no great increase of bank-
ruptcy), may probably be traced back through the 18th century. There were
great crises in the years 1793 and 1763, and very distinct ones also in 1772-8 and
1783. The principal part of the paper was occupied with an attempt to show that
the great crisis of 1721, which followed the South Sea Bubble, falls into the series,
as it was preceded by “ stock jobbing” manias about the years 1701 & 1711, and was
followed by one in 1752-33. There remains, in order to complete the whole series,
two periods, 1742 and 1752, when there were certainly no great manias, or crises,
But the author adduces evidence of a certain weight to show that in those years
there were remarkable rises in the price of wool, and about 1752-53, there was a
marked rise in the price of tin, which forms one of the best indications of commercial
activity and good credit. He believes, then, that trade reached maxima of activit
in or about the years 1701, 1711, 1721, 1732, 1742, 1758, 1768, 1772, 1783, 1793
(1805 ?), 1815, 1825, 1837, 1847, 1857, 1866. The intervals vary from 9 to
12 years; the average interval is 10°3 years. But, as the earlier dates, 170] and
1711, are not well established, and the panic of 1866 was probably premature, as
shown by comparison with the three preceding panics, the author prefers to com-
pare the undoubted collapse of 1721 with that of 1857, giving a mean interval of
10°46 years. If we take the year 1763, which was also a year of well marked
crisis, and compare it with 1857, we obtain 10°444. The mean length of the com-
mercial period is thus almost identical with Mr. J. A. Broun’s estimate of the
sunspot period, namely, 10°45 years, which again is almost exactly the same as
Lamont’s earlier estimate,

The author infers that the phenomena are probably connected ; but, as he and
other inquirers have failed in discovering a like cycle in the price of corn, he
believes that the connection must be sought rather in the varying produce of the
crops in the tropical or other countries, where the meteorological influence of the
solar period has already been detected. In corroboration of this opinion he points
out that the exports of goods from England to India, when graphically represented,
display a certain appearance of decennial variation, especially in the earlier part
of the 18th century.

In conclusion he alludes to the contemporary state of trade, quoting a statement

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 667

of the numbers of bankruptcies in England and the United States, to show that
the latest crisis must be assigned either to 1877, or, it may be, to 1878, In
either case the theory of decennial variation will be verified as closely as can be
expected.

e

3. The Definitions of Political Economy. By Professor Macuire.

4. Some Statistical Researches into the Poor Removal Question, with special
reference to the Removal of Persons of Irish Birth from Scotland. By
W. Nettson Hancock, DL.D.*

There were 774,310 persons of Irish birth in Great Britain in 1871, of whom
no less than 682,000 were of twenty years of age and upwards. As there were
only 2,900,000 persons of Irish birth of twenty years of age and upwards in
Treland, those in Great Britain are about one-fifth of the whole—without counting
migratory labourers. The number in Scotland of this age, 184,000, is one-tenth of
the whole population of that age in Scvtland, 1,788,000; while the number in London,
82,900, is only a twentieth of the corresponding figure, 1,789,000. Dr. Alison, in
a paper read at the British Association in Belfast in 1852, ascribed mortality of
persons of Irish birth in Scotland in part to operation of Scotch poor-law. Dr.
Lyon Playfair noticed unhealthiness of persons of Irish birth in Scotland. Amongst
the defects in Scotch poor-law noticed = Dr, Alison were the period of residence
to protect against removal, still five years, though ‘reduced to one year in England
in 1865. The defects in the law as to acquiring and losing a settlement, noticed
by Dr. Alison, were remedied in England in 1876, but not yet in Scotland. Scotch
poor law is in advance of English in allowing questions of chargeability to be
adjusted between different localities in Scotland, without a removal, and so con-
tains germs of total abolition of removal. In conclusion, I would repeat what I
said on this question some seven years ago, in a paper before the Statistical Society
of Iveland,—The prestige of our legislation would be strengthened, if we were able
to have laws, like those relating to poor removals that affect the labouring classes
in the whole three kingdoms, assimilated and reduced to an enlightened and bene-
ficent code, by collecting what is best out of each of our laws in England, Scot-
land, and Ireland. A large cause of discontent would be removed if we were able
to say to the migratory labourers of these kingdoms—“ No matter what is your
race or place of birth—no matter where you labour—your relations to the State
in any calamity that overtakes you will be the same at Belfast, at Glasgow, and at
Liverpool—in Dublin, in Edinburgh, and in London.”

5. On the Education and Training of the Insane. By Josrrn Lator, M.D.,
Resident Medical Superintendent, Richmond District Lunatic Asylum,
Dublin.

I propose to consider‘in this paper some of the general principles on which the
education and training of the insane can be dealt with most advantageously ;
starting with the proposition that education and training form the basis of the
moral treatment of all classes of the insane. Commencing with criminal lunatics,
I adopt the division of criminal lunatics into two classes proposed by Dr. Orange,
‘of the Broadmoor Asylum :—(1) Those whose offences have been the direct result
of their insane state, and who up to the time of the outbreak of insanity have in
many cases led honest and industrious lives ; and (2) those who have been certified
to be insane whilst undergoing penal servitude in convict prisons, and who consist
chiefly of habitual criminals whose offences against law and order are part of their
every-day life, their habitual actions being anti-social. ‘The first class may, I think,

* Published in ‘Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland,’
pt. liv. vol. vii. p. 356.

668 REPORT—1878.

be very properly treated in district lunatic asylums, and not dealt with as a distinct
class. As regards the second class, there are unquestionably great disadvantages
in mixing them with the general inmates of a lunatic asylum. But systematic and
skilled education and training are obviously called for in the case of all the patients
in lunatic asylums, all of whom are prone to breaches of the moral laws. In the
district lunatic asylums of Ireland the great insufficiency of the means of educating
and training are obvious.

The Charity Organisation Society of London, after very prolonged inquiry,
conducted with peculiar advantages for obtaining information, have come to the
conclusion that voluntary charity has not proved equal to providing a remedial
machinery for the training of imbeciles and idiots coextensive with the evil, and
that such provision cannot be made without the intervention of the State. The
society recommends that the administration of such provision should be conducted
by governing bodies composed of representatives of the local magistrates, repre-
sentatives of the guardians, and persons appointed by the Crown, and that its cost
should be met partly out of local rates and partly out of the public revenue. I
think municipal bodies should be represented on the governing boards; and whilst
I concur in the other views above set forth by the Charity Organisation Society, I
dissent entirely from an opinion which they have expressed, that idiots and imbeciles
should be treated distinctively from other classes, and that they ought not to be
associated with lunatics in asylums. Indeed, I would disapprove of the introduc-
tion of any system that would make provision for the care and training of idiots
and imbeciles of the poorer classes distinct in the organisation of its administra-
tion and mode of support from that for the insane afflicted with other forms of
insanity.

It is much to be wished that some system may be devised by which the due
care and treatment of the insane poor, labouring under the different forms of
insanity, may be dealt with so that they should be recognised in law as belonging
to one abnormal family or group; and that their interests, as well as those of the
public at large, should obtain that increased and much-needed advancement which
might be expected from the combination of existing diverse systems into one con-
sistent and homogeneous whole, working with the full power which such union
would confer.

Assuming that educational training is a powerful, improving, and ameliorating
agent with all classes of the insane, it is important to bear in mind that it does not
produce its full results, in many cases, until after the lapse of a very long period ;
and it has led, in the Richmond Asylum, in my experience, to most unexpected
improvement, and even cure, only after its continuance for years. Hence I venture
most earnestly to deprecate any such interference, by legislative enactment or other-
wise, as would make its trial short and insufficient.

In the year 1857, on my appointment to the Richmond Asylum, I found with
much pleasure that a schoolmistress was a member of the staff, having been
appointed in 1854. At the time of my appointment she had a class of about twelve
patients, and also gave elementary instruction to such of the nurses as required and
wished for it. I have endeavoured to develop, extend, and strengthen systematic
education and training as part of the moral treatment of all forms of insanity in
this asylum, and I trust my efforts have been attended with some success.

In reference to the education or training of the insane, no matter of what class
or age, I wish to state that I try to have the patients engaged in the same pursuit
for not more than from one to one hour and a half consecutively. Monotony,
whether of work, education, or recreation, appears to me to be injurious to the
insane of all classes and ages. I consider the alternation of literary, zsthetical,
moral, and physical education, with industrial employment and recreation (so as to
produce variety of occupation), to be of great advantage in the treatment of the
insane, whether the particular form of the insanity be mania, melancholia, mono-
mania, dementia, idiocy, or imbecility.

The great want of further and better provision for the cure of recent and
curable cases, and for the training of idiots and imbeciles in Ireland, has, for
several years, received some attention, and the latter subject has been brought into

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 669

still more prominent notice by the investigations and reports of the Charity Organi-
sation Society of London. The most approved system of training juvenile idiots
and imbeciles is founded, as appears to me, on the same general principles, and
includes nearly the same details, as those on which the educational system in the
Richmond has been founded and carried out, until it has reached its present
development.

By comparatively cheap structural changes, and the removal of a large number
of quiet and incurable cases at present in district asylums in Ireland, who might be
eared for sufficiently well in one or more workhouses selected and appropriated to
such a purpose, and at less cost than in the present district asplinaet believe that
accommodation might be made for some hundreds of juvenile idiots and imbeciles,
and means presented for their receiving that education and training of which they
are admittedly in urgent want.

In the district lunatic asylums of Ireland the number of single rooms is, I
believe, much larger than is called for by what I consider to be the most advanced
opinions on the use of seclusion. In some of the best managed asylums of England
seclusion is very rare, and my own experience leads me to use it very sparingly.
In fact, a very large proportion of the single rooms in the Richmond Asylum are
occupied by the quietest patients in the house, with the view of putting into asso-
ciated dormitories the class of patients often called refractory, for whom single
rooms were formerly considered necessary. In my opinion, single rooms would not
be wanted in a larger proportion than one for every twenty patients. From the
thirty-fourth table of the Inspector’s Report for 1872, which is the last return
giving the number of associated and single rooms in the district lunatic asylums of
Treland, there appears to have been at that time about one single room on the
average for every four patients, making about 2000 single rooms in institutions with
a total number of patients amounting to 8000. The space occupied by single
rooms and the connecting corridor, if converted into large rooms, would accommo-
date two for every one accommodated according to present construction, and a gain
of 1600 beds would thus be available for the accommodation of large classes of the
insane at present in much need of suitable provision for their proper care and treat-
ment. I am confident that the means of treating the patients in a way more
conducive to their comfort and improvement would thus be obtained at a cost
which I would estimate not to exceed 20/. per head, or about one-fourth of what it
would cost to build new asylums. The removal of quiet and incurable cases, and
the conversion of single rooms and corridors into large rooms, would in this asylum
alone give means for the education and training of several hundreds of the insane
who at present are deprived of such an opportunity. The present statf would,
without increase of numbers or of expense, be sufficient, and the advantages thus
offered on the score of experience and economy of time and money are obvious.

Preconceptions founded on insufficient data would, I think, be removed by an
impartial examination of the system carried out in the Richmond Asylum, and it
will always give me great pleasure to afford persons anxious to judge it by personal
observation the opportunity of doing so; but I would suggest that such persons
should visit during our school hours, viz. :—From nine to one o’clock, from April 1
to October 1, and ten to two o’clock from October 1 to April 1 (vacations at
Christmas, Easter, and Midsummer excepted).

Summarising what I consider some very important items of our system here, I
note that out of 479 male patients in the house on May 17, 400 were employed
either at school or industrially, or both combined, and only 79 were wholly unem-
ployed; 45 of the unemployed were so in consequence of being under medical
treatment, leaving only 34 men unemployed purely owing to their state of mind.
Of 553 female patients in the house on the same day, 448 were employed either at
school or industrially, or both combined, and 105 were wholly unemployed ; 89 of
the unemployed were so in consequence of being under medical treatment, leaving
only 50 unemployed purely from the state of their mind. In the management of
the insane, it is of the first importance to keep them from mischief and harm;
and with them, as with the sane, there is no means of doing this so reliable or so
good as healthful employment of mind and body. Morning and evening prayers

670 REPORT—1878.

are said in all the divisions of the Richmond Asylum, the Protestants and Roman
Catholics being in separate rooms, and in care of an attendant of their own reli-
gious belief (being a school attendant, when possible). The average number
attending morning and evening prayers is 322 males and 486 females, making 808
of both sexes.

In reference to the employment or occupation of the insane in this asylum, I
consider that one of the advantages of the school system is, that it provides an
occupation for some, and leads to the occupation of others who would otherwise be
wholly unoccupied. In reference to industrial employment, I wish to observe that
I try to provide such as is most suited to the tastes or antecedents of the patients,
and at the same time such as, with certain limitations, is most useful to the insti-
tution.

The total disuse of restraint, and the very infrequent use of seclusion—the
freedom allowed to all our patients to exercise and have various sorts of games on
the open grounds, in place of enclosed yards—are very gratifying features. The
number and cost of our staff, estimated per head on the daily average number of
patients, is less in this than in the other district lunatic asylums of Ireland ; and
this fact, taken in connection with our large teaching and training power, shows
that education and industrial employment carried out, as they are here, systema-
tically, by skilled hands, do not necessarily increase expense. The cost per head
for salaries and wages here, estimated on the average number in the house, was for
1876 41. Os. 5d., compared with 4/. 19s. Gd., the average cost per head of the staff in
all the other district lunatic asylums in Ireland in the same year. Our staff of
officers and servants was at the rate of one for every 8°8 patients—the staff of all
other district asylums in Ireland was one to every 6:6 patients.

Tn the number of the Journal of Mental Scvence for October 1860 I published a
paper in which I advocated large in preference to small asylums, and any person
desirous of doing so can there see the reasons on which I grounded my preference.
The experience which I have since had in the education and training of lunatics
makes me still more in favour of large asylums than I was in 160, particularly in
view of this question of education; and as the same general principles and
machinery are applicable in their case, so far as training is concerned, as in that of
idiots and imbeciles, it may be presumed that if the result of experience and
reasoning has led to a decided preference for large over small training institutions,
in the case of the latter, it should favoar a similar preference in the case of the
former. The Earlswood Asylum, which had 184 idiots and imbeciles in training in
1857, and 599 in 1877, appears to have advanced in efficiency and public estimation
as it has enlarged in size. The Charity Organisation Society and the Metro-
politan Asylum Board appear to think 500 a favourable size for a training
school for imbecile children. The Charity Organisation Society also states that :—
“Training schools and adult asylums, however they may differ in their internal
arrangements, have mutual relations which often make it desirable that they should
be in each other’s neighbourhood, and under the same general superintendence.”
I coincide in this opinion, and I think it is from a wise forethought that a site has
been selected at Darenth, sufficiently large for an asylum for adults, in addition to
the training school for 500 children now near completion. It is probable that such
an asylum, with accommodation for 2000 adults, will be built at Darenth, and
ample evidence is thus afforded that extended experience and consideration is found
to favour large and combined in preference to small and distinct asylums.

Ever since physical repression and fear have ceased to be the principles relied
on for maintainiag even tolerable security, order, and quiet, and promoting recovery
or improvement amongst the insane in confinement, medical and moral treatment
have been brought more and more into requisition. Moral treatment is only
another name for education and training. But the great defect in carrying out the
recognised principles of moral treatment has been that the agents employed have
not been sufficiently adapted to the object in view. It is absurd to expect that
moral treatment can be efficiently carried out by a few resident medical and other
officers, however intelligent and well-intentioned, through their direct and personal
exertions, which are necessarily desultory. There must be an organisation in con-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 671

nection with the object, analogous to that which is found essential for the educa-
tion and training of the sane. In the case of the insane, it is further obviously
desirable that the educational agency, which has been found so efficacious in school
hours, should not wholly cease after school hours are over. It would be contrary
to sound principles to remit the moral treatment of the insane after school hours to
the sole charge of attendants not prepared by their antecedents for the discharge of
such a duty. Everyone with extended practical experience of the subject knows
that a very large proportion of the attendants in lunatic asylums have not received
that instruction calculated to make them skilled agents in fulfilling the requirements
called for in the moral treatment of the insane.

In each division there should be at least one such attendant, whilst at present I
fear that there are many asylums without even one such attendant ia the whole
asylum. To carry out individual moral training in asylums, even of small size,
appears impossible, even if it were desirable. Direct individual training is too
likely to degenerate into argumentation, not calculated to influence an insane person
beneficially. The problem to be solved is to break the habit of abnormal feeling
and acting as much as possible, and this can be better done by indirect and class
training than by direct individual training. In classes, the influence of the example
of the large mass of the quiet and orderly on their more disorderly inmates multiplies
the good result.

In instructing sane adult classes, whether in morality, in science, or in literature,
the advantage of teaching in class becomes every day more fully appreciated and
established. Singing, music, and amusements for the million are every day more
called for by the public voice, and the opinion is, I believe, gaining ground that
religious instruction carries more influence when addressed to large than to small
congregations. What reason is there for supposing that the powerful mental and
moral lever of example should not be applied on the same principles to the insane
as to the sane mind? Be this as it may, I think it will be admitted that any
influence which is good should be as continuous as possible. To keep the mind
free from insane or immoral impressions is an obvious desideratum. This result is
to be sedulously sought for ; and even in a negative form it opens the door for the
introduction of normal thought. Normal action follows normal thought. To keep
the insane from mischief, to themselves or others, is a chief reason for placing them
in asylums, and I know of nothing more conducive to this end than healthful
occupation of mind and body ; and such occupation can only be efficiently conducted
by trained and skilled hands.

It is generally admitted at the present day that, to be qualified to teach, literary
knowledge alone is not sufficient, but that the teacher should also be trained to teach ;
and I believe that the same principle should be kept in view in selecting those who
are to educate and train the insane, whether in or out of school. Those who have
been trained as monitors and monitresses in normal schools and public establish-
ments are a class from whom persons well fitted to act as attendants may be
obtained, who, with a little additional special instruction, would become admirably
suited to carry out the moral training of the insane in asylums, whether in schooil-
classes or otherwise. In Ireland there are a number of such persons suited and
willing to take the situation of attendants on the insane in asylums, moderate as is
the remuneration attached thereto. Their education—the habits and skill in
teaching and influencing to good ends which they have acquired, the knowledge of
singing and music and of directing industrial occupations, whether for males or
females, which they often possess, present obvious advantages ; and it is much to be
regretted that many of this class (if 1 am rightly informed) take situations in their
own country lower in value and position than that of an asylum attendant, or emi-
grate to our colonies or other countries. It is from this class that I have selected
what are called school attendants in the Richmond Asylum; and my experience of
them gives me no room for hesitation or doubt in recommending the example of
this asylum in this respect for general imitation. The want of school-rooms is a
difficulty sometimes alleged as standing in the way of establishing schools in
asylums. But school-rooms are not necessary, and we have none here. Schools
are alleged by some, who admit their practicability and value in the Richmond

672 REPORT—1878.

Asylum, to be impracticable in most other asylums, particularly where the patients
are of a rude, illiterate, and agricultural class. But it is to be borne in mind that
the education and training of the insane is chiefly of use, not for the literary and
industrial knowledge imparted, but as supplying the best means of restoring the
mind to a healthy state, of teaching habits of good order and self-control, and of
relieving the tedium of idleness, and so promoting contentment and even happiness.
The ignorant, as well as the educated, present subjects capable of deriving benefit
from that moral treatment which skilled education and training alone can adequately
supply. Amongst the causes which lead to insanity as well as to crime, I believe
ignorance to be one; and it should be noted that out of 8183 patients in the
district lunatic asylums of Ireland, only 1899 are set down as well educated and
capable of reading and writing well, whilst there are 5516 who can only read and
write indifferently, read only, or neither read nor write. Whilst the insane in
lunatic asylums are in general so deficient in education, it is noteworthy that 125
were students or teachers before they became insane. Here is a body amongst
whom several are by no means incapacitated from teaching by their mental con-
dition. In this asylum, out of fifteen of this class, several give valuable aid in
carrying out our school system. Twelve patients who were learning to read and
write in this asylum in 1837 were taught, I should suppose, by a fellow-patient, as
there was then no paid teacher in the asylum; and in 1852 a few of the female
patients in this asylum received school instruction for some time under the direction
of one of the patients, who had been a schoolmistress, and the result was satis-
factory. The circumstances in the public asylums in England and Scotland are, I
believe, at least equally favourable to the introduction of education and training of
the insane of all classes ‘as they are in Ireland; and the advantages would, I feel
confident, be equally great.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 673

TUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1, Some Remarks on the Desirability of Simultaneous and Identicai Legisla-
tion for England and Ireland.* By H. L. Jepson.

The Act of Union is very far from being complete. First of all, though it
declared Her Majesty’s subjects of Great Britain and Ireland to be on the same
footing generally in respect of trade and navigation, it left both countries with
separate customs department and tariffs, and thus left them in this matter
virtually separate countries. Next, it left each country with its separate exchequer,
its different coinage. Next, it directed that all laws then in force, and all the
courts of civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction within the respective kingdoms, should
yemain as then by law established within the same, subject, however, to “such
alterations and regulations from time to time as circumstances might appear to the
Parliament of the United Kingdom to require.” It left Ireland also with a sepa-
rate peerage, a separate Privy Council, and finally, and perhaps the most important
of all, as being the ever fruitful cause of separate legislation—it left Ireland with a
separate Executive. Seventeen years elapsed before any material progress was
made, the union of the exchequers then had taken place. The next step of im-
portance was not taken until 1825, when the two countries were commercially
united, and in the following year the currencies were assimilated; but it was not
until so yery recently as 1858 (just twenty years ago) that the fiscal systems of the
two countries were finally assimilated. The very striking fact, however, remains
that after a lapse of now very close on 80 years, many of the defects of the Act of
Union exist in full vigour. About the close of the first quarter of the century a
system of legislation crept in, and gradually gained ground, which resulted in the
creation of a vast number of differences. Reforms in the administration of justice
naturally became necessary, but instead of their being carried simultaneously for
both countries, as ought to have been done, each country was dealt with separately.
It might reasonably be expected that in the matter of sanitary legislation the two
countries should be treated as one. Such an opinion, however, if it prevailed, was
not acted on. In 1855 a Sanitary Act was passed for England only. In 1866
when an invasion of cholera was anticipated in Ireland, the only precautions which
the Irish Privy Council could take against the introduction of that disease into
Ireland were under the condemned Acts of 1848 and 1849 which were still in force
there. The emergency, however, became so great that the Sanitary Act had to be
passed for Ireland, and the law was then assimilated to the English law. Another
difference created since the Union, and one which entailed a number of others, was
as regards the valuation of property. In England and Scotland the valuation of
property was based upon rent; in Ireland it was based on the prices of agricultural
produce. Furthermore, in Great Britain the valuation is annually revised, whereas
in Ireland no revision as to the value of land as distinct from buildings had taken
place during the last 25 years. The result was that the valuation of property in
Great Britain and Ireland was far from being approximate. Besides those which the
author had alluded to, there were differences in the laws relating to the representation
of minorities, relating to the legal status of women, in the pawnbroking laws, in the

* The paper has been published in eatenso by William McGee, Nassau Street,
Dublin.
1878. x x

674 REPORT—11 878.

licensing laws, in the poor laws, and in a host of other minor subjects. The prin- .
ciple which should regulate all legislation for Ireland might be thus stated:
Firstly,—In all legislation regarding matters which affect equally the people of
both countries no differences whatever should be permitted. In the next place
where similar results could not be obtained by identical means, the difference of
means should be as far as possible minimised ; and the absolute condition should be
insisted on that legislation should be simultaneous. And lastly, where special
legislation was a necessity, it should aim at bringing the matters that formed the
subject of such legislation as far as possible into harmony in the two countries.
The rules which should be followed to give effect to these principles might be thus
stated :—No measure that came under the first of these principles should be intro-
duced into either House of Parliament for England only, but should be made to
extend to both countries. When special clauses were required to adapt a measure
to the institutions of Ireland, the necessary clauses, instead of being postponed to a
future period, and then made a separate Act, as now so often happens, should be
tacked on to the principal Act. The Ballot Act showed how, even in a large and
very complicated subject, simultaneous legislation was possible. Certain cases re-
mained where the subject would be of such a nature or extent that a separate Act
for Ireland would be required. Under this class would come all the legislation
which would have to be effected to assimilate Irish to English institutions,
and to bring Irish laws into harmony with English laws. In these cases the
English precedent should be followed as closely as possible, and every unnecessary
difference avoided. If the principles here stated were kept steadily in view and
systematically acted on, a considerably increased degree of legislative uniformity
would soon be attained; and what was also very important, a guarantee would be
afforded that such uniformity would be lasting.

2. On the Importance of raising Ireland to the Level of England and Scot-
land in the matter of Industrial Schools and Compulsory Education.
By W. Nettson Hancock., LD.D.* :

The official statistics of children committed to reformatories in Ireland show
that only 10 per cent. of the boys and none of the girls were properly educated.
More than half the girls and three-fifths of the boys were totally ignorant. To
remedy the state of ignorance disclosed, the following suggestions as to industrial
schools were recommended for adoption:—The suggestions of the Recorder of
Dublin (Mr. Falkiner) that Lord Sandon’s clause in the Act of 1876, for estahlish-
ing day industrial schools, should be extended to Ireland. The suggestion of Mr.
Lentaigne, Inspector of Reformatory Schools, that the full benefit of English law
as to industrial boarding schools should be extended to Ireland. As to compulsory
education, it is proposed to follow the Scotch Act of 1872, only substituting in the
details Irish existing centralized official machinery for the Scotch local machinery.
Elementary education of children between five and thirteen to be obligatory on
parents. Guardians to be enabled, in case of poverty, to pay school fees. Trish
police to collect information as to neglect of parents, as officers of local boards do
in Scotland, and to prosecute—unless medical officer, as to health, clergyman, as to
family reasons, or inspector of National schools, as to want of school accommoda-
tion, certified that parent might be excused. Where National School inspector
reported school accommodation deficient, or justices refused to convict for that
reason, reports to be referred to Commissioners of Donations and Bequests, to see
if any unused endowments were applicable, and the inspector of industrial schools
to see if want could be met by industrial day schools and other voluntary effort.
From such reports could be collected, as to whether assistance for industrial and
primary education would be necessary, like that afforded to intermediate education
by the Irish Intermediate Education Act of 1878.

* Published in ‘ Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland,’
part liv., vol. vii., p. 348.

s
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 675

3. On some Economic Fallacies of Trades Unionists.
By Professor J. J. Saw.

The theory of the Unions on the subject of wages was that they might be
raised without either increasing capital or diminishing the supply of labour by
lowering the rate of profits, and, on the other hand, they might be lowered
without either diminishing capital or increasing the supply of labour by raising
the rate of profits; that the most obvious way to increase the reward of the
labourer was to diminish that of the capitalist, and the direct way to diminish
the labourer’s reward was to increase the share that fell to the capitalist. This
reasoning overlooked the fact that there was in every community a certain rate of
profit which was the minimum that any capitalist would be content to accept ;
that if his profits were permanently forced below that minimum he would with
draw his capital, and in the end there would result a fall of wages even below the
point at which they stood when the artificial rise commenced. The idea enter-
tained by the organisers of trades unions of effecting by their action a permanent
rise in the ayerage rate of wages, independently of any change in the general pro-
ductiveness of industry, was one that could never be realised. This could be done
only by lowering the rate of profit, and in these countries the rate of profit was
always on the verge of the minimum. To lower the rate of profit, therefore, was
to check accumulation, and thereby to diminish the fund out of which labour was
paid. Labourers, by combination, could do much to alter the rate of wages tem-
porarily, and in particular trades. But it was evident that the high wages were
obtained at the expense of the consumers, and if the commodities they produced
was one consumed by their own class they reduced the wages of their fellow-
workmen as much as they raised their own. To the important economic question
whether the wage-earning classes could by combination permanently raise the
average rate of wages, he was obliged to answer “ No.” What the working classes
most of all needed to be taught was that their destiny was in their own hands,
that their happiness was not made or marred by the by-laws of their unions or the
tyranny of their masters, but depended wholly and solely on their own prudence,
foresight, and self-control.

xx2

676 REPORT—1878.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.

The following Papers were read :— ’
1. On the Social Aspects of Trades Unionism. By J. H. M. Camppett.

The Trades Unions are advantageous to the working classes, as benefit and
insurance societies, and centres of combined legitimate action. It is, moreover, to
the persistent agitation of these unions, aided by the efforts of philanthropists,
that are to be ascribed the many legislative enactments of modern times against
the employment of women or children in unhealthy or too-protracted labour,
against the use of defective and dangerous machinery, and affording facilities for
the erection of comfortable and well-aired dwellings. But Trades’ Unions assumed
a very different aspect when examined with regard to that which is avowed to be
their primary object, and to which all others are ancillary and subservient, that of
controlling the labour market, and regulating the amount of their wages. The
author then reviewed the economic conditions regulating the rise and fall of wages,
with which he contended Trades Unions could not attempt to interfere without
injury to their members and the country. Respecting strikes, nothing could be
more suicidal than the policy sometimes pursued of going out on strike to avoid a
reduction of wages in times of depressed trade. The year 1877 affords a striking
illustration of the truth of this statement, for, while the country was suffering
from acute commercial depression, I find that in that year no less than 191 strikes
occurred, the majority of which were intended, not to secure a rise of wages, but
to prevent the reduction rendered inevitable by the state of trade, and were conse-
quently disastrous failures. Little less injurious was the consequence of a strike,
nor the plan at present in favour with the working classes for retrieving their
position under the prevalent depression by shortened hours of labour. Every
reduction in the hours of labour, unless compensated for by superior efficiency, is
equivalent in its effect to a rise of wages, and, consequently must either raise prices
or lower profits. The effect of the latter result we have already seen, while
increased prices arising from such a cause would drive out the English manufac-
turer, and enable foreign competitors to undersell him in all those industries in
which the advantage possessed by England is trifling in extent. The most disas-
trous and fallacious form which this claim for shortened hours of labour assumes is
when it is urged as a means of bringing in unemployed workmen. Why, it is
asked, should not the workmen limit the supply of their labour by working less
hours, and thereby give others a chance of sharing in the amount of work, and
consequently in the wages offered by employers? To this, as to all those regula-
tions of trades unions which, like their restrictions on apprenticeship, are for the
avowed object of making work, the simple answer is, that it is never work that is
deficient, but capital to give employment, and that the greater the total produce is
the greater will be the amount saved and devoted to the subsequent employment of
labour; so that it would seem to be a self-evident proposition that if workmen
combine to do only half the amount of work they are capable of performing, there
will be only half the amount of wealth in the country that it is possible there
should be, and, consequently, only half the amount to devote to the purchase of
fresh labour.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 677

2. On Adan Sinith’s Theory of Rent. By W. D, HENDERSON.

I purpose confining my paper to one aspect of the subject, viz., the effect of the
payment of rent upon the productiveness of the ground, and this, it will be seen,
includes at least one aspect of the great question—is it for the benefit of the com-
munity that land should be owned by persons who let it out for cultivation
rather than by the cultivators themselves? Again, my investigation will not
answer the question—would it be worth while to destroy the present system upon
which land is owned, and substitute for it some form of ownership by peasant
proprietorsP It was the well-known opinion of Smith that land which would
grow almost anything would afford a rent. His reason for this opinion was, that
agriculture was more profitable than any other mode of employing capital. The
question may fairly be asked, why should not the same rule be applied to agricul-
tural rents as Smith applies to rents of mines, and why should not the landlords
refuse to let lands which would yield them no rent, either on account of the natural
barrenness of soil or the expense of working it? Now, the reply given by modern
political economists is this, They admit that in fact there are large tracts of land
which would be cultivated by peasant proprietors, but which will not be cultivated
by mere tenants. So far we are all agreed, and this admission furnishes a per-
fectly solid economic basis for the demand of which we often hear in Ireland, that
the waste lands should be dealt with by the State. I shall endeavour to point out
what are the landlords’ motives to prevent the increased cultivation of the soil, and
what are the means taken to attain his end, it being assumed that his only motive
is to obtain the largest possible rent for himself. His first motive will be to keep
down the poor rates. He has constantly before his eyes the risk of the labourers
and their families coming on the poor rates in bad seasons, or through sickness or
ill health. The burden of supporting them properly falls on the land; and it isa
source of incessant watchfulness on the part of the landlord that it should not be
in any way excessive. So strong has this motive been found in practice that it has
been necessary in England to extend the area of rating for the poor rates. His
second motive is his desire to have a steady and certain income. He is, in fact,
like other men in his position, disposed to take the world very easily indeed ; he
prefers large farms to small. He would rather deal with one man of capital than
with a dozen men who might, and probably would at times give him trouble.
From this, again, arises another important result. The landlord is most anxious
that he should be absolute’owner of his land, and this for various reasons, political,
social, and economic. And all these motives combine to dictate his conduct as to
having large farms. Now, a system of small farms, such as we have in Ulster,
almost necessitates that the tenants shall make the improvements, both permanent
and otherwise. The desire also of the landlord to get an addition to his income in
the shape of an increased rent will tend in the same direction. He does not
care to be met with the argument that so many labourers have been employed.
Such seem to be the chief determining motives of the landlords. The mode in which
they attain their ends are very simple. In the first place the landlords absolutely
refuse to allow of the sub-division of farms. No matter how large may have been
the farmer’s holding, or what his tenure, the landlord reserves the power, and ex-
ercises it, of compelling the farmers to cultivate it themselves, and he forbids after
their death any sub-division of their interest. The peasant proprietor, or the semi-
peasant proprietor, who would sub-divide within reasonable limits, and cultivate
carefully, has no chance on the estate. Not merely does he prevent sub-division,
but he is disposed to pursue a system of consolidation of farms. F

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Section G.i—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Edward Easton, Esq., C.E.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1878.

Mx, Haston gave the following Address :—

At the commencement of each Annual Report it is stated that one of the objects of
the British Association is “to give a stronger impulse and a more systematic
direction to scientific inquiry,” and its division into Sections was made with the
view of concentrating such inquiry upon the several departments of Science.
I propose to endeavour to further that object by making the Address, which I
have the honour to deliver as President of Section G, a preface as it were to the
fuller consideration of a subject of the highest interest to all the inhabitants of the
United Kingdom, and not least to those who have so freely extended their hospitality
to us on this occasion. That subject is the Conservancy of Rivers and Streams in
the widest sense of the term.

It is worthy of remark that it was on the occasion of the first visit of the
British Association to this city in the year 1835, that the Mechanical Section was
virtually instituted. Previous to that meeting the Section of Mathematics and
Physics had undertaken the discussion of questions having reference to the prac-
tical application of physical science, but at the Dublin meeting a subsection
was specially appointed, which in 1836 became Section G. The late Mr. George
Rennie, that distinguished son of one of our greatest engineers, presided on the
occasion. His report on Hydraulics presented to the Association in 1884 is full
of research, and should be studied by every one interested in the question of rivers.

Iam glad to be able to announce that my Address will be followed by a series
of Papers on, the same subject, the authors of which are certainly very well
qualified to elucidate its details; and I trust that many of the other eminent men
who are attending this meeting of the British Association will join in the discussion
of these Papers.

By the Conservancy of Rivers and Streams I mean the treatment and regulation
of all the water that falls on these islands from its first arrival in the shape of rain
and dew to its final disappearance in the ocean.

Thad at first, in my ignorance, contemplated treating the subject ‘in a still
wider manner by referring to the rivers and streams of other countries; but I soon
found that the vast extent of the field to be traversed would make it extremely
unlikely that I could, with any satisfactory result, attempt the more restricted task
which I have now before me. Indeed, without the promised aid which I have re-
ferred to, I should have shrunk from attempting it at all.

The question of the Conservancy of Rivers and Streams involves the consideration
of their regulation for the following principal purposes :—

Ist. For the supply of pure and wholesome water for the domestic and sanitary
wants of the population.

2nd. For the supply of water of proper quality and sufficient quantity for
industrial purposes. '

680 REPORT—1878.

3rd. For the proper development of water power.

4th. For the drainage and irrigation of land.

5th. For navigation and commerce.

Gth. For the preservation of fish.

In the early days of the world’s history there were attempts to regulate and
control the waters of rivers—some of them devoted to military and dynastic
objects, but the majority to generally useful ends. Herodotus, speaking of Semira-~
mis, who lived some 2000 years B.c., tells us that she raised certain embankments,
well worthy of inspection, in the plain near Babylon to control the river Euphrates,
which till then used to overflow and flood the whole country round about. He
also mentions a lady, who lived at a still earlier period, who altered the course of
the same river, as a defence against the Medes, to such an extent that, “whereas
the river Euphrates ran formerly with a straight course to Babylon, Nitocris, by
certain excavations which she made at some distance up the stream, rendered it so
winding that it comes three several times within sight of the same village”
(Ardericca, in Assyria). “She also made an embankment along each side of the
Euphrates wonderful both for breadth and height, and dug a basin for a lake a
great way above Babylon, close alongside of the stream, which basin was sunk
everywhere to the point at which they came to water, and was of such breadth
that its whole circuit measured 420 stadia (more than 50 miles). ,The soil dug
out of this basin was used in the embankments along the water side. When the
excavation was finished she had stones brought, and bordered with them the entire
margin of the reservoir, These two things were dune—the river made to wind,
and the lake excavated—that the stream might be slacker by reason of the number
of curves and the voyage rendered circuitous, and that at the end of the journey it
might be necessary to skirt the lake, and so make a long round. All these works
were on the side of Babylon where the passes lay, and the roads into Media were
the straightest ; and the aim of Nitocris in making them was to prevent the Medes
from holding intercourse with the Babylonians, and so to keep them in ignorance
of her affairs.” The same energetic princess made brick embankments and quays,
and a bridge over the Euphrates, and to do this she turned the entire stream of the
river into an artificial cutting, the natural channel being left temporarily dry until
the bridge was finished, when the Euphrates was allowed to flow into its ancient
bed. It was into this very cutting that Cyrus directed the course of the Euphrates
when he took Babylon, 538 B.c. In the time of Herodotus himself, about B.c. 450,
there were embankments to the river at Babylon; for he says, “The city wall
is brought down on both sides to the edge of the stream; thence from the
corners of the wall there is carried along each bank of the river a fence of burnt
bricks, with low brazen gates opening on the water.”

The same historian, in his second book, describes the hydraulic works of the
first king of Egypt, Men or Menes, which were not only gigantic in themselves,
but productive of the most important results to the inhabitants of his kingdom.
“Before his time,” Herodotus says, “the river flowed entirely along the sandy:
range of hills which skirt Egypt on the west side. He, however, by banking up
the river at the bend which it forms about 100 furlongs south of Memphis, laid the
ancient channel dry, and dug a new course for the stream halfway between the two
_ lines of hills.”

Passing to Greece, perhaps the most wonderful instance of the successful regu-
lation of water is to be found in the subterranean channels (the modern Greek
Katabathra), by which the waters of the river Cephisus are carried through Lake
Topolias (the ancient Copais) into the sea. These tunnels, which are partly natural
and partly artificial, have always seryed to prevent the lake overflowing the
adjoining country.

The well-known tunnel, or emissarium, from the Alban Lake is an example of
Roman work. This tunnel, of a man’s height, and cut through 6,000 feet of lava,
is said to have been begun in obedience to the Delphic oracle in the sixth year ot
the siege of Veii, B.c. 8398, By it, the overflow of the lake which used periodically
to flood the Campagna was prevented, and the waters were conducted through it
in an even flow for the irrigation of the fields which it had formerly laid waste.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 681

Three vertical shafts and one made in an oblique direction still remain ; the marks
on the hard rock show that the chisels employed in the cutting were an ‘inch in
width. Another Roman work of still greater importance was the emissarium
at Lake Fucinus, planned by Julius Cesar and carried into execution by Claudius.
This was a tunnel three miles in length, extending from the lake to the river Liris
(the modern Garigliano), one mile of it being driven through a mountain of cor-
nelian rising 3,000 feet above the lake. It employed 30,000 men for eleven years.
There are many perpendicular shafts for raising the rock to the surface and lateral

_ galleries for disposing of the spoil, so as to enable this large number of men to work
without interfering with each other.

The supply of water to different cities of the ancients has been the motive for
the execution of the most stupendous works, which are almost numberless. It
will be sufficient for me to allude to the works constructed for the supply of the
city of Samos, about the time of Polycrates, B.c. 530, in which case a tunnel was
driven through a hill 150 fathoms high, for a length of seven furlongs. Its height
and width were each eight feet, and it conveyed the water from the river Ampelus
into the city. Herodotus tell us that the architect was Eupalinus, the son of
Naustrophus, a Megarian. Sir George Wilkinson, ina note on the text, mentions
the fact that a French traveller, M. Guérin, discovered one mouth of this tunnel to
the N.W. of the harbour of Samos, and cleared it from sand and stones to a dis-
tance of 540 paces.

It is sometimes asserted that the ancients were ignorant of the hydrostatic law
that water finds its own level. Thisis not the case. Frontinus, who preceded
Agricola, the father-in-law of Tacitus, as Governor of Britain, and who was
Curator Aquarum in Rome under Nerva and Trajan, mentions in his book, ‘ De
Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae,’ that in case of the fracture of an aqueduct, the
water could be dammed up at each side of the point of fracture, and carried over the
intervening space in leaden pipes. A great deal of the internal distribution of the
water in Rome was managed by leaden pipes under pressure.

The aqueduct which Herod is said to have constructed for the supply of Jeru-
salem crossed a deep valley—near Rachel’s Tomb—by means of a stone pipe
working under pressure. This work has been fully described by Mr. Telford
Macneill in the Report made by Sir John Macneill to the Committee for supplying
Jerusalem with water. The construction of this pipe is so remarkable that I shall
give Mr. Macneill’s description in detail. It consists of great blocks of stone
through which holes 15 inches in diameter have been cut. One end of each block
has been hollowed out to a depth of 44 inches, with a diameter of 24 inches;
thus leaving a recess 43} inches wide to form the socket of the pipe. The
other end has a projection of a size to fit a similar socket in the pipe which lies
next to it. This answers to the spigot of a modern cast-iron water-pipe. Both
socket and spigot are ground, so as to fit with great accuracy, and the joint is
made with cement, which has set as hard as the stone itself. The whole line of
these stone pipes is surrounded with rubble masonry. The pressure on the centre
of this very remarkable inverted syphon is not less than 70 lbs. per square inch.

The Arabs at a later period not only knew of this law, but also understood
the operation of what we engineers call the “hydraulic mean gradient.” The
aqueducts constructed by them for supplying Constantinople with water have been
very fully described in those most interesting ‘ Letters from Turkey,’ written by
Field-Marshal yon Moltke in the years 1835 to 1839. He says that the Arabs
knew that water under pressure reaches its own level (sich gleich stellt), for they
conveyed the water across the valleys in leaden pipes. They had found by expe-
rience that the friction through the aqueduct was lessened if openings were made
in the course of the line of pipes; and along hill-sides and in places where the
pipes were not in deep cuttings, funnel-shaped shafts or wells were made, which
acted as air-holes. But in crossing deep valleys, where, of course, no such holes
could be made, they built stone pyramids, called “Suterasi,” or water-balances, on
the top of which they placed small basins, into and out'of which the water was
conducted by a leaden pipe laid up one side of the pyramid and down the other.
The level of these basins was so arranged that they were at an inclination rather

682 REPORT—1878.

greater than the average fall of the aqueduct; and thus they allowed the water to
take the hydraulic mean gradient due to the head necessary for the delivery of the
water. It is probable that these “suterasi” were made about 1000 a.p.

For 400 or 500 years after the last date very little was done in the way of great
public works of this description; and it was not until the beginning of the sixteenth
century that the state of the rivers in Italy commanded the attention of the great
landowners and scientific men of that country. At that time, chiefly in consequence
of the appointment of a Commission in 1516 by Francis I., works for remedy-
ing existing evils were seriously thought of; and for a long series of years the most
eminent mathematicians and engineers were engaged in investigating the subject
and in designing and carrying out works of greater or less magnitude. A very full
collection, both of the writings of these Italian engineers and of descriptions of
their works, is contained in a book of thirteen volumes, published at Bologna, in
1821-24, entitled ‘Raccolta d’Autori Italiani che trattano del Moto dell’Acque.’
It would seem that about the same time the question began to excite interest in
England, for it was in the reign of Henry VIII. that a public statute first
dealt with river conservancy. But it is to be remarked that neither in Italy nor
in England was the question treated in anything like an exhaustive manner. The
great hydraulic works of Italy relate almost exclusively to irrigation and naviga-
tion, whilst the drainage of lands and the prevention of floods were the objects of
legislation in England. During the same period the Dutch were of course con-
structing many important hydraulic works; but these, from the special cireum-
stances of the country, were not such as to have much bearing on the general
question of the conservancy of rivers.

After the drainage of the Fens, the next great works in England were the
canals, which, in a very few years, extended over the whole of England, and
formed a complete system for the conveyance of traffic. It is superfluous to say
that their construction and maintenance had a strong bearing upon the regulation
of rivers. The well-known saying of Brindley that rivers were “ principally valu-
able for feeding canals” sufficiently indicates the subserviency of the other in-
terests involved. Next, the introduction of railways and steamboats, and the
increase in the size of ships, turned the attention of those interested in rivers to
the improvement of the tidal harbours and channels; and from that time to the
present the greatest hydraulic works of our time have been connected with navi-
gation. The concurrent increase in manufactures necessitated the employment of
water in ways apparently antagonistic to other interests, and introduced the new
element of pollution of our rivers and streams, whilst the demands of sanitary
legislation consequent on the great increase of population made it imperatively
necessary that their purity should be maintained. Indeed, we may say that the
present high state of civilization in which we live has involved greater complica-
tions in this as in other departments of life, and requires special arrangements
to meet them.

Legal enactments for the regulation of rivers, and for defining the rights of pro-
perty in water, have existed from very early times. Solon laid down that to inter-
cept the supply or to corrupt the quality of water isa crime. He also enacted that
if any one dug a well to a depth of ten fathoms (dpyviav) without finding water, he
should be permitted to take from his neighbour's well a pitcher of six ydes (about 18
quarts) twice a day. Plato, in his Laws, mentions an analogous provision, but con-
fines it to drinking water only. Another law quoted by him is more to the point: it
runs as follows: “If after heavy rains any of the lower riparian proprietors should
injure a neighbour who lives above them, by stopping the downward flow of the
water, or in case, on the other hand, the proprietor living higher up shall injure his
neighbour below, by negligently allowing the water to run down upon him, either
of them may call in the magistrates and obtain a decision for the guidance of both
parties. If either party fail to abide by such decision, he shall be punished for
the enviousness and peevishness of his spirit, and shall pay double damages to the
injured person.”

The Pandects of Justinian, which are a collection of all the old legal authorities
of Roman Law, analogous to our own Reported Cases, contain a variety of leading

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 683

rinciples which govern the administration of the law of running water : principles
identical mainly with that of our own Common Law. Some of these related to
fishing, watering cattle, to the interruption of navigation of lakes, canals, and ponds,
to the preservation of the water supply, to the repairs of river banks, and to the
regulation of the summer and winter flow of what were termed public rivers. It
was enacted among other things, that nothing should be done to the stream or banks
of a public river, whereby the flow should be altered from its state in the preceding
summer.

The earliest record in our own Statute Law of any enactment relating to rivers
is that contained in 25 Edward III. c. 4, which legalised all “ gorces, mills, wears,
stanks, stakes, and kiddles” of a date previous to “the reign of his grandfather
Edward I. by which the common passage de neefs et batelx en les grantz rivers
d’Engleterre be oftentimes annoyed,” and ordered the immediate pulling down of
all such erections which were of a later date. ;

From that time, until the enactment of Henry VIII., there were various laws
passed, chiefly relating to the navigations and rights of mills, and occasionally to
the preservation of fish. After Henry VIII. very many private Acts and Charters
granting powers for the drainage and reclamation of lands, for improvement of
navigation, and matters of a similar kind, were passed from time to time. A great
number also of Royal Commissions and Select Committees have conducted
enquiries, and made reports upon most of the various branches of the subject, e.g.
the pollution of rivers, the water supply, arterial drainage, navigation, fisheries,
&e., but, until the appointment last year of the Select Committee presided
over by the Duke of Richmond, no attempt, as far as I am aware, has been made
to grapple with the question as a whole, and the Report made by them to the
House of Lords omitted to deal with, at least, two of the objects I have indicated
as being necessary to the proper consideration of the subject.

The recommendations made in the Report of that Committee were most im-

ortant, and they will, if carried out, remove many of the difficulties which stand
in the way of a complete system of conservancy of our rivers.

So much has been written on the engineering details of this subject, by
men far better qualified than I am to deal with them, that I shall confine myself to
the simple statement of the principles which have been recognised by the chief
authorities as essential, and to a few suggestions, which my own experience leads
me to think may be of some value. Almost all the great engineers of former
generations, who have paid attention to this question, Smeaton, Telford, Rennie,
Golborne, Mylne, Walker, Rendel, Stephenson, Jessop, Chapman, Beardmore, and
without mentioning names, many of the most eminent now living, have agreed to
the following general propositions :

That the freer the admission of the tidal water, the better adapted is the river
for all purposes, whether of navigation, drainage, or fisheries.

That its sectional area and inclination should be made to suit the required
carrying power of the river throughout its entire length, both for the ordinary flow
of the water, and for floods.

That the downward flow of the upland water should be equalised as much as
possible throughout the entire year; and |

That all abnormal contaminations should be remoyed from the streams.

In carrying out these principles, it is perhaps superfluous to say, that modifica-
tions must be introduced to suit the particular phenomena of each river. In some
watershed areas, it would be easy to construct reservoirs, which would to a great
extent equalise the flow and reduce floods. In others it might be better to con-
trol the floods by means of embankments. In others, to have weirs, and sluices,
delivering into side channels, parallel to the main stream, with the same object.
Sometimes reservoirs, or receptacles, must be made for catching the débris brought
down by the streams. In fact, every river must be treated as a separate entity.
It is therefore, necessary that a systematic collection of data, relating to rainfall,
the geological character of the gathering ground, and the volume of each separate
stream, should be made for each watershed area; and this should be carried on for
a sufficient length of time to enable a fairly correct estimate to be formed of the

684 REPORT—1878. :

behaviour of the river both in time of flood and in time of drought. The estab-
lishment of self-acting tide-registering gauges at several points of every outfall
should be insisted on. By these means the whole of the phenomena of a watershed
area could be ascertained and recorded, and safe and trustworthy knowledge could
be obtained, which would contribute towards the determination, not only of the
works which ought to be executed, but of the incidence of the taxation by which
the necessary funds should be raised. For instance, it is obvious that where the
geological character of a watershed is variable, one portion of it consisting of a
permeable stratum, such as chalk or red sandstone, and another portion of an
impervious stratum, such as the tertiary clays or the shales of the millstone grit, the
same works would not be adapted to each section of the river, nor would it be fair
to charge all with the expense according to the same scale of contribution. The
former, that is the permeable stratum, is not only, from its absorbent nature, not
the cause of floods, but is, by reason of that characteristic, absolutely constituted
by nature one of the very works which must be devised by art to mitigate the
effects of rainfall on the latter, or impervious stratum. ;

Bearing this in mind, I have often thought that nature might be usefully imi-
tated in this operation, by passing the surplus rainfall into the permeable
strata of the earth by means of wells, or shafts, sunk through the impermeable
strata overlying them, This has been done in isolated cases for the drainage of
lands, but not for the deliberate purpose of preventing floods and equalising the
flow of rivers.

I also wish to remark that artificial compensating reservoirs may be much more
frequently made use of than is generally supposed to be possible, when it is con-
sidered that, so long as the dams are constructed in situations where there is
no danger of their giving way, it is by no means necessary that they should be
water-tight, and that, therefore, they can be constructed at a very much smaller
outlay. In fact, the purpose would be answered by a series of open weirs, which
would collect the water in times of flood and discharge it gradually down the
stream.

The example of our French neighbours in the more general use they make of
moveable weirs—barrages—of various constructions could, I am satisfied, be
followed by us with very great advantage in many cases.

The question of water power is one which I think deserves more consideration
than it has lately received. It has been the fashion to consider that small water-
mills are of little or no value, and, in the present state of most rivers and streams,
this is toa very great extent true, but only because the supply of water to work
them is so variable and uncertain. Sufficient attention has never yet been given to
the subject of the amount of compensation water which should be given for the use
of riparian proprietors when the watershed areas are dealt with for purposes of
water supply. There is a kind of empirical rule acknowledged by most of the
eminent water engineers, that one-third of the average flow of three consecutive
dry years is a fair equivalent for the abstraction of the water falling on a gathering
ground. Iam strongly of opinion that, looking to imperial interests, advantage
should be taken of every opportunity of dealing with a gathering ground to provide
for a much larger proportion of its available water being sent down the streams, so
that the natura] water power of the country may be properly developed. The extra
cost of the necessary works must, as a matter of course, be borne rateably by the
interests benefited. It is certain that with the progress of invention many more
ways of utilising this power will be discovered. At present, through the medium
of compressed air, of hydraulic pressure, and of electro-motors, the great disadvantage
of its being only available at the spot where the water runs is overcome, and the
power can be transmitted to any distance, and used wherever it may be most con-
veniently applied.

Sir Robert Kane, in his most valuable and exhaustive work on the ‘ Industrial
Resources of Ireland,’ has given an estimate of the value of the power allowed to
escape every year in the shape of floods, and the same calculation might be applied
to the sister kingdom. It is probably no exaggeration to say that where run-

: . . 5 . .
ning streams exist the power required for estate purposes, on the majority of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 685

properties in the United Kingdom, might be obtained by a proper conservation of
the natural water resources of those streams.

The consideration I have been able to give to this subject has helped to convince
me that, although a vast amount of labour and research has been devoted to it, it
is nevertheless one in which “a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry” is
urgently needed.

A vast collection of scientific facts exists, but they require arrangement and
collation, and future observations should be more strictly classified, so that the
bearing of each one, both on the others and on the subject at large, may be properly
appreciated with a view to a practical result.

In France this is being done to a very large extent, and an excellent Map
showing the phenomena of the rivers and streams of that country is now in course
of preparation. For many years also very accurate observations of the phenomena of
the whole of the basin of the Seine have been taken, and bave been centralised
(centralisées) by that eminent engineer, whose loss all who had the privilege of
knowing him either in his work or in private intercourse are deploring, M. Belgrand,
late Inspector-General of the Ponts et Chaussées, and by his able coadjutor,
M. M. G. Lemoine. These observations have been published in the form of
diagrams, admirable in their simplicity of design, which show at a glance the
bearing of every one of those phenomena on the general character of that river.

In Italy also, where there exists a distinct department having control of the
hydraulic works of that country, the same exhaustive system of collation and record
has been followed, and the results have been published in a series of tables. In
Germany, although the same complete system is not in vogue, its chief river has
been the subject of most thorough investigation, the results of which have been
published in a beautiful map of the Rhine and its regulating works.

In our own country, as might be expected from the number of engineering
' works which have been executed, there probably exists an amount of detailed
information on special and often minute points which is unsurpassed, and probably
unequalled in the world.

But, although as I have said before, a great number of eminent men have treated
in an exhaustive manner the phenomena relating to many of the principal rivers of
Great Britain and Ireland; yet, as far as I am aware, there has been no attempt
to collect and combine these most valuable, though detached fragments of know-
ledge, so that their relation to one another might be seen, and a general conclusion
arrived at. This can only be done by the establishment of a public department
analogous to those described as already existing in France and Italy.

I do not wish it to be understood that in suggesting the collection of additional
data relating to the phenomena of rivers, I am advocating delay in dealing with the
existing state of things until the facts have all been ascertained. On the contrary, I
believe that the first step ought to be the establishment of a distinct Water Department,
which should at once address itself to the remedying of the evils which are found
to be most pressing. - The time has long since arrived when the present neglected
state of many of our most important streams should be dealt with, and that this was
also the conviction of Parliament and of the Government is evident, from the
appointment of so influential a Committee as that presided over by the Duke of
Richmond last session.

Even the imperfect sketch which I have been able to place before you
will have made manifest, I think, the enormous importance of the subject
and of the interests involved—interests subject to periodical losses arising
from the present imperfect organisation, or, I may say, the present entire
want of organisation ;—-losses which are not only monetary, and therefore to
a certain extent capable of being estimated, but which affect health and
imperil life, and on that account, as is the unhappy experience of the highest
as well as the lowest of the community, utterly incapable of appreciation. How,
for instance, can we estimate the loss sustained by the country at large by the
ot death of that noble-minded and accomplished gentleman, the Prince

onsort, whose life and energies were devoted to the encouragement of all the
objects which this Association is established to foster and promote, and who showed

686 REPORT— 1878.

his strong sense of its usefulness by presiding at one of its most brilliant
meetings.

When it is considered that many lives are annually sacrificed, either directly by the
action of floods, or by the indirect but no less fatal influence of imperfect drainage,
—when it is remembered that a heavy flood, such as that of last year, or that of the
summer of 1875, entailed a monetary loss of several millions sterling in the three
kingdoms,—that during every year a quantity of water flows to waste, representing
an available motive power worth certainly not less than some hundreds of thousands
of pounds,—that there is a constant annual expenditure of enormous amount for
removing débris from navigable channels, the accumulation of which could be
mainly, if not entirely prevented,—that the supply of food to our rapidly growing
a sale dependent, as it is at present, upon sources outside the country, would

enormously increased by an adequate protection of the fisheries,—that the same
supply would be further greatly increased by the extra production of the land when
inereased facilities for drainage are afforded,—that, above all, the problem of our
national water supply, to which public attention has of late been drawn by
H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, requires for its solution investigations of the widest
possible nature, I believe it will be allowed that the question, as a whole, of the
management of rivers is of sufficient importance to make it worthy of being dealt
with by new laws to be framed in its exclusive behalf.

A new department should be created—one not only endowed with powers
analogous to those of the Local Government Board, but charged with the duty of
collecting and digesting for use all the facts and knowledge necessary for a due
comprehension and satisfactory dealing with every river-basin, or watershed area
in the United Kingdom—a department which should be presided over, if not by a
Cabinet Minister, at all events by a member of the Government who can be appealed
to in Parliament.

The department should have entire charge of, and control over, all estuaries and
navigable channels, both because these are used by foreign vessels, and therefore
the responsibilities attaching to their preservation are international, and because
they must be protected from hostile attack, and on these accounts are essentially
Imperial pepe: For the same reason the cost of amending and maintaining
them should be defrayed out of the Imperial exchequer.

As regards the regulation of the remainder of the watershed area, the con-
clusions arrived at in the Report of the Duke of Richmond’s Select Committee
seem to me entirely satisfactory. I cannot do better than give a few extracts from
that Report. The Committee say—“ That in order to secure uniformity and com-
pleteness of action, each catchment area should, as a general rule, be placed under
a single body of Conservators, who should be responsible for maizitaining the river
from its source to its outfall in an efficient state. With regard, however, to
tributary streams, the care of these might be entrusted to District Committees,
acting under the general direction of the Conseryators, but near the point of
junction with the principal stream they should be under the direct management of
the Conservators of the main channel, who should be a representative body con-
stituted of residents and owners of property within the whole area of the water-
shed.” The Committee go on to say that ‘‘ means should be taken to ensure the
appointment of a Conservancy Board for each watershed area,” but that applica-
tion should first be made by persons interested in the district, and that then the
departmental authorities should send inspectors to make local inquiries and to re-
port upon the “ necessities awd capacities of the district, and suggest the area and
proportions of taxation.”

The scheme with such modifications as may be deemed necessary is then to be
embodied in a provisional order to be submitted to Parliament for confirmation.
It will be seen that this mode of procedure is precisely analogous to that of the
Local Government Board in relation to public health—a procedure which, as I
am able to state from practical knowledge, works admirably in most cases, The
Committee further recommend that the provisions in any local or other Acts which
would interfere with the proposed scheme, should be repealed. They are also of
opinion that “the Conservancy Boards should be anapied to execute the powers

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 687

conferred on local authorities by the Rivers Pollution and Prevention Act.” It
will also be necessary that their powers should extend to the carrying out of any
Acts passed or to be passed for the protection of the fisheries.

ith regard to what is probably the most important point of all, the finding
of the money necessary to carry out these recommendations, the Committee advo-
eate the introduction of a new principle of taxation, the soundness of which cannot
*be questioned. Instead of the principle first introduced by the statute of Henry the
Eighth, and observed ever since, of levying taxes in proportion to the direct benefit
conferred, the Committee propose that the rates should be distributed over the whole
area of a watershed, including not only the lands, but the towns and houses and
all other property situate within that area. This is in fact no more than a general
application of the law of highways, which in the time of the Romans, according
to Justinian, applied equally to waterways. It is perfectly just that every acre,
the drainage of which contributes to the flow of the streams and rivers of every
watershed area, should, in some proportion or other, contribute also to the cost of
maintaining the channels of those streams and rivers in an efficient state. The
incidence of the taxation must of course, as has been pointed out, be determined
by the circumstances of each particular case, but there is no doubt that the con-
clusion of the Dyke of Richmond’s Committee, that “ the taxation should be levied
on the basis of rateable value,” is the only sound, and at the same time practical,
way of dealing with this difficulty.

The word “ taxation ” is not, I fear, generally connected with any idea of profit to
the individual taxpayer. But in this case, as I hope in the course of this address
I have made clear, it is probable that the prevention of large present losses, and the
advantages gained by an improved system, will give not only a fair but an ample
return on the capital expended.

It is my firm belief that an intelligent management of watershed areas would
be compatible with an absolute profit to every interest affected ; that we have here
no question of give and take, but that in this, as in every other case, the laws
of Nature, under proper and scientific regulation, can be made subservient to the
needs of the highest civilisation.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On River Control. By J. Ctarke Hawxsuaw.

The author, after alluding to the growing importance of the question of river
control, pointed out the difficulties with which engineers have to contend when
called upon to deal with rivers piecemeal, owing to the divided jurisdiction to which
the rivers of this country are subject, and to the want of systematic observations on
them. The different jurisdictions to which the river Witham is subject were given as
anexample. He then endeavoured to show that the works required for the purpose
of land drainage, navigation, and water supply were so connected that they should
be carried out under one authority. In conclusion, he advocated the appointment
of a commission for each river basin, with powers to carry out works, and to rate
all the land in the drainage area for that purpose; the rate to be an equal rate
levied on all the land, whether covered by buildings or not, according to its annual
value, with the exception of lands liable to floods, which should be rated at a higher
rate until the works for prevention of the floods were carried out.

2. On the Effect of River or Arterial Drainage Works upon River Floods.
By James Ditton, Mem. Inst. C.E.I.

In this paper the author pointed out the large amount of damage done to pro-
perties in different countries by river floods overflowing their -banks, such as the
Thames, Shannon, and other large rivers, and although much had been done
throughout the country to prevent flooding, still much remained to be done. It
was shown that year by year the applications for loans of money to carry out river

688 REPORT—1 878.

or arterial drainage works in Ireland were becoming fewer in number, until last
year there was only one application received by the Commissioners of Public
Works, although previous to 1863 the Drainage Commission (Ireland) relieved
266,736 statute acres from floods at a cost of £2,390,612 under the Act 5 and 6
Vict., and since 1863 down to July 1878 over 71,000 statute acres were drained by a
further expenditure of £389,000 oy Drainage Boards formed under the Act 26 and
27 Vict., c. 88; the total number of drainage districts amounting to 157, of which
37 were carried out under the last-named Act.

The author stated that it frequently happened that when a number of lowland
proprietors promoted a scheme for the improvement of their larger, and consequently
more costly sections, they generally tried to tax the upland proprietors for some of
the additional outlay, and the latter then resist the attempt; while if the upland
proprietors try to improve their smaller and less costly rivers, they are opposed by
the lowland proprietors, who contend that such works, by the drainage of the up-
lands, would increase their lowland floods. This kind of opposition renders it very
difficult to obtain assent to the execution of works from the owners of two-thirds
of the injured land.

The author stated his belief that such objections should not be allowed to have
weight, because, from experiments made by him on flood discharges before and
after the execution of extensive river or arterial drainage works, he found that such
works had not the effect of increasing the river floods either above or below the
termination of the works. The reasons given for this result are as follows.

It has been proved that the area of land actually covered by flood water (with
scarcely an exception) seldom exceeds seven per cent. of the entire catchment-
basin, or area of land unwatered by rivers, and in 120 districts completed by the Irish
Drainage Commissioners the flooded land did not amount to seven per cent. of the
total area of the catchment-basins, and that this seven per cent. of flooded land was
generally to be found along the river banks or shores of lakes affected by the rivers.

It also happens that this three, four, or seven per cent., as the case may be, is
always more or less saturated with water, particularly in winter, and that when so
saturated any additional flood waters coming on it will rise and flow over its surface.

It is believed by many that the waters covering a river valley in flood times
are stationary. This might be so if the river valley had no fallor inclination in the
direction of its length ; but without some such fall the flood waters of former times
could not have scooped out, as it were, a river, however insufficient and imperfect
it may have been ; therefore it is a fact that, unless in very exceptional cases, the floods
in river valleys continue to move towards the natural outfall for each valley.

It is also known that every flooded river valley has its fixed maximum flood
marks, beyond which the floods never rise, and if, when the floods reach this level,
rain should still continue to fall, then the whole of the floods due to this additional
rain must reach the river valley, passing away as quickly as they arrive, or the
flood levels would rise in the valley.

If, then, the whole maximum flood due to continuous rain passes from an upper
to a lower division of a district, in the natural flooded state of a district before
arterial drainage works are carried out, then it would be impossible that the deepen-
ing or enlargement of so many miles of a river could increase the floods or rainfall
either above or below the improved section of the river.

It should be remembered that, before the execution of such works, just in pro-
portion as the rainfall ceases, so would the floods subside, were it not that towards
the termination of the rainfall they are largely increased in volume by the escape
of the flood-waters that previously overflowed the river banks.

It may be said, if the effect of arterial drainage works is to prevent the accumu-
lation of large sheets of fluod waters in a river valley, then the floods must be in-
creased by the passing away of these waters.

This the author believes to be a mistake. For ah to the present time he has ex-

ended on main and tributary river works (sanctioned by Government)of an aggregate
leneth of 150 miles, nearly half of the whole amounti expended on such works in
Treland since 1863. As all these works proved successful, both from a scientific and
‘financial point of view, he was afforded opportunities of observing the flood dis-
charges before and after the execution of such works as the Inny River Works,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 689

where the flood waters were collected from 273 square miles, It has been already
stated, that the flooded ground seldom averages seven per cent. of the catchment-
basins, and in the Inny District, above referred to, it equalled an average breadth
of 1237 feet, or seven per cent. If, then, a number of tributary rivers, with catch-
ment-basins some two miles in breadth and some eight or ten miles in length, branch
off at nearly right angles to the mainriver along which this seven per cent. flooded land
exists, then if you divide these lateral catchment-basins each into 100 parts, allowing
the seven parts near the river to be flooded, it will be evident that the maximum
flood due to the maximum rainfall on the seven parts or seven per cent. at the
junction of the tributaries with the main river will have passed away into the
main river before the maximum floods from the second, third, or tenth miles,
&c., could reach the last-named junction, provided the rivers were not dammed up
with shoals, &c.

So that the time required to allow of the river valleys being covered with
water before the execution of the works would, if properly utilized, be more than
Sufficient to allow of the water passing down a properly constructed river-channel
before the maximum floods could reach the main river from the second, third, or
tenth mile back from the main river.

If this holds good in narrow tributary catchment-basins, so will it be applicable
to all forms of catchment-basins, no matter what their direction with regard to the
main channel.

The author believes, then, that the effect of arterial drainage works is to enable
the floods from the fractional 4, 7 or 8 per cent. flooded lands, near the main arteries,
to pass off after the execution of the works many hours or days sooner, according to the
magnitude and length of the rainfall and district, than before the execution of the
works ; and that, by securing a longer interval of time for the discharge of a flood of
given magnitude, arterial drainage works cannot increase the maximum flood-
discharges of a district.

As this view of the case is confirmed by the author's observations, he invites
discussion in order to test its accuracy.

When once it is established that the floods in a river valley are not increased by
the enlargement or improvement of either an upper or lower section of the river
passing through the valley, the author believes that the public and the Govern-
ment would find it more practical to deal with the improvement of rivers in the
following way.

Whenever any considerable portion of a country is flooded by the overflow of
a river or its tributaries, and the parties injuriously affected are desirous of apply-
ing to Government, through the Commissioners of Public Works in England, Ire-
land, orelsewhere, for a loan to improve their land, they should be required to
furnish a section of the rivers to be improved, taking care to extend the sections
down the river whether 1 or 100 miles in length until a sufficient outfall is ob-
tained for the successful carrying out of the proposed works.

Should the Board of Works report in favour of the project, the Treasury could,
after the usual formality, advance the necessary funds, thus enabling useful works to
be carried out under the superintendence of Drainage Boards acquainted with the
localities with which their interests are connected, instead of losing many years in
endeavouring to embrace all the tributary districts in one large, costly, and un-
manageable scheme. By this method the works could be commenced in divisions
corresponding to the natural sub-outfalls of the country, commencing at the fall
nearest to or furthest from the sea.

Should this method be sanctioned by Government on any large scale, now that
it is proposed to grant loans for river works on a moiety of the proprietors assenting
to the project, instead of requiring two-thirds as formerly, a great impetus would be
‘given to the extension of such works, conferring great benefits upon the country by
increasing the value of land, and giving at the same time additional employment,
and circulating large sums of money among the working classes in agricultural
districts.

Although the facts thus briefly set forth in this paper are now publicly brought
forward by the author for the first time, still in the case of the Great Barrow
pare ay which embraces a country of 625 square miles, he has succeeded in

. Dip 4

690 REPORT—1878.

overcoming hostile opposition (based upon increased flooding) to its being executed
in divisions instead of inone unmanageable whole. Of this work two divisions have
already been sanctioned by Parliament and are now nearly completed. The object
of the author in bringing forward these facts is that the practicability of dealing
with large river systems in divisions, instead of in one whole, may become more
universally known and acted upon.

3. On the Control of Rivers.* By W. Suetrorp, M. Inst. C.H., F.G.S.

== The author divided the subject under two heads—I. Tidal Rivers. After
showing that the importance of British rivers was due to tidal water, and that the
tidal portions of them had been subject to the care of the Government as early as
Charles II., he gave instances of the divided control which existed down to 1867
between the several departments of the Government itself.

He alluded to the Thatves as a case where the controlling bodies—the Thames
Conservancy and the Metropolitan Board—were now divided even as to the fact of
the existence of sewage pollution; and he referred to Smeaton’s Grand Sluice on
the Witham as an example of injury undoubtedly done a century ago, and still
felt, through the divided control exercised by the land and navigation interests.

Passing on to the Fen rivers, he gave in considerable detail the results of an
attempt to improve the Nene on sound engineering principles, which was rendered
abortive by its failing to combine sufficiently the various interests, and drew there-
from the conclusions :—

1st. That’ such works should be undertaken on a financial basis which will
secure their completion, and

2nd. That the taxable area should be as extensive as possible.

TI. Rivers not tidal. He denied that fresh-water rivers could be compared
with tidal rivers, and instanced the difference between the floods of the Tiber and
the Thames. -

He illustrated the present condition of the fresh-water portions of our rivers by
details of the Upper Nene, where the ratio of flood to dry weather flow was 430
to 1; of the Cray and Darent (tributaries of the Thames), where the flow was in
the former nearly uniform, and in the latter the ratio of flood to drought was 16 to 1,
thus showing the different treatment required in each case; and after giving reasons
for stating that, in the absence of a comprehensive conservancy, the jealousy of
the mill-owners and other riparian proprietors had led on the Nene to a scramble
for fresh water, and on the Cray to the use of excellent water chiefly as a carrier
of refuse; and that the Darent presented a unique example of a valley in which
the watershed had been adopted as the boundary of the rateable area, he classed
the several functions of a stream passing through a highly civilised community
(though the order of merit varied) as—Ist, water-power ; 2nd, water supply; 3rd,
carriage of refuse; 4th, navigation ; 5th, purity equal to at least the preservation
of fish, and stated that each of them was now guarded independently and without
any comprehensive plan or control. His general conclusions were :

1st. That each river or tributary must be treated asa whole within the boundary
of its watershed.

2nd. That all public works within the watershed should be under one undivided
control.

8rd. That the rateable area for these purposes should be conterminous with
the watershed.

4th. That the minimum flow of streams liable to floods should be increased by
storage. f

Bih, That the separation of good from foul water, the collection and distribu-
tion of wholesome water, the discharge of sewage, the improvement of the channel
both for conserving the dry weather flow and for dispersion of floods, the main-
tenance and improvement of tidal reservoirs and navigable channels, the removal

* This paper was published in eatenso in ‘ Engineering,’ November, 1878.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 691

of shoals and the erection of piers, and the working of Acts of Parliament, must all
come within the scope of the undivided control which he advocated.

He considered such an undertaking the more worthy of Government attention,
Yecause the requisite knowledge and experience would rarely be found in one man
or one body of men, and was possessed by few even in the profession of civil
engineers, who would necessarily have to occupy the most prominent positions
and take the heaviest responsibility.

4. On Movable and Fixed Weirs, with reference to the Improvement of the
Navigation, Mill Power, and Drainage of Flood Waters of Ltivers,
with especial Notice of the River Shannon.* By J. Neyrtwz, C.L.,
M.R.ILA., Dundalk.

Most rivers in their natural state, even within tidal influence, are but a succession
of pools and shallows of different lengths, the conditions of each, or its regimen,
depending on the varying inclinations of the bed, its natural formation, the maxi-
mum, minimum, and average flow from the catchment-basin and tributaries at
different seasons, the scouring of the bed and banks, and the formation of shoals
or deposits. The steepest or shallowest portions, at rapids, are but the accelerated
flow over natural submerged weirs of rock or coarse gravel cewented with clay
and sand, and the pools between, long or short, or extending into lakes (those
natural regulators of flood waters), constitute the deeper stretches of the river.
Where the river alone has to be improved for a limited navigation, a sufficient
depth at the shallows is sometimes obtained by running out spur weirs, thereby
narrowing and deepening the water-way; or, by making a part of a continuous
weir movable or removable, damming up the water at times of least flow, and
passing down the craft employed, on flushes through the open movable portions of
the weir which is again raised to retain the head. As, however, the application of
this.system of flush navigation is limited and only available for craft of suitable
build, for down-stream traffic, the necessity arises for constructing locks with some-
times lateral navigable passes, or canals, along the shallows to connect the deeper
portions of the navigable river channel above and below. The gates of such locks,
with their sluices for working, are only movable weirs maintaining a fixed depth
above at seasons when the fléw is limited. In some states of the regimen I have
occasionally seen lock-gates left open for-a free navigation, the head being entirely
maintained by the natural obstruction of adjacent submerged weirs at the shallows,
and by back water from below.

The author, after classing the sluices and gates of movable weirs into those
which lift in a plane, those which turn on a vertical axis, those which turn on a
horizontal axis, and those that act on the principle of the American hear-trap
sluice, used in 1818 on the Lehigh descending navigation, and having given diffe-
vent examples from French and Indian rivers, concluded with reference to fixed
long weirs as follows:—Mill weirs are generally fixed and solid. When the
water supply is limited and in dry seasons, a larger quantity can be stored by ex-
tending the weir basin or pond and lengthening the weir, at the same time the
head for a variable supply is better regulated for a water-engine. To pass the
same quantity of water over the crest, the head there can be reduced to one-half
by trebling the length, and reduced in the ratio of two to three by doubling it.
These advantages with reference to mills must have led to the misapplication of
long solid weirs without even a sluice on the drainage and navigation works of the
Shannon. Long solid weirs sloping or curved two or three times the width can
have no practical advantage over those of the ordinary mean width from bank to
bank, on long upper stretches of a river, without proportionately extending the
width and depth the whole way. On the Shannon the upper obstructions in the
bed between weir and weir were only partially removed, and the works remain in
every way a sad monument for the riparian proprietors of an engineering failure.
a paw paper has been printed in extenso in ‘ Engineering,’ for Friday, August

: 7
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692 REPORT—1878.

If for, large rivers, where navigation only, without drainage, had to be con-
sidered, the necessary weirs to obtain sufficient sailing depth were made movable
down to the bed even when locks were provided, as in France and India, with far
greater reason should they have been made movable down to the bed on the Shan-
non, where the drainage of the Callows and low riparian lands was a part of the
original design.

5. The Rainfall of Ireland. By G. J. Symons, F.R.S.

The author mentioned that the Irish hills do not appear to exhaust the rain-
clouds so much as the English hills do. With the exception of a dry central area
round Dublin, the rainfall all over Ireland may be taken to be almost the same. At
present, instead of the greatest rainfall being in the south-west, or in Galway,
we had the wettest spot of all (with one exception) under the shadow of Slieve
Donard, in the south of the county Down, the very place which, theoretically,
might be expected to be almost the driest part of Ireland. That showed that
it is really more a question of the elevation of hills than of geographical position.
He exhibited a map showing the number of stations established for the observa-
tion of the rainfall, and the averages at many stations. From 1866 to 1876
there were thirty stations established, at which the rainfall was regularly re-
corded, and at those stations the fall in the ten years was not very different from
that in the five years 1872-76. It was, therefore, a fair conclusion that the
average from 1872 to 1876 was not far wrong. It might probably be wrong
3 or 4 per cent.

He had succeeded since the meeting of the Association in Belfast in obtaining
the services of a large number of gentlemen volunteers throughout Ireland, who
had taken charge of the rain gauges supplied to them, and had engaged to
register their observations. There were still large districts, however, in which he
had not been able to establish rain gauges, and the observations were, therefore,
necessarily defective as to the average rainfall. There was a large district in the
neighbourhood of Longford without a single station, and another in the south-
west of Cork, where it was essential that observations should be taken. If he
could induce some gentlemen having property in those neighbourhoods to take
charge of rain gauges, Ireland, instead of having to depend upon ten stations, as
it did not many years ago, would be fairly represented, both geographically and
physically.

6. On the Hydrogeological Survey of England.* By Josnpu Lucas, £.G.8.

The need of a National Hydrogeological Survey having been admitted at the
Congress on National Water Supply at the Society of Arts, the author passes on to
the consideration of how the information collected by the survey may be brought to
bear so as to produce the result aimed at, viz., the improvement of the water supply
of the country generally.

The product of the survey isa map, on which the necessities as well as the capa-
bilities of each river basin are made to appear. The author proposes that on the
completion of the map of the first (and each subsequent) river basin the Government
should invite the competition of engineers to frame comprehensive schemes of a dis-
tributary character, based on the watershed area, and should appoint a special com-
mission to examine and report upon such schemes. When this commission had
rendered its report, a Central Board, consisting of members of the Local Goyern-
ment Board, assisted by members elected from the various County Boards within
the basin, should be created for the purpose of dealing with the water supply of
each river basin. This Board should have rating powers over the whole basin, and
the conservancy of the rivers,and would contain the elements for dealing with cases.
in which the requirements exceed the resources of the basin, and vice versd.

* Published in extenso by the Committee of Section G.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 693

FRIDAY, AUGUST 16, 1878.

The following Papers were read :

1. On the Drainage of the Fenland considered in relation to the Conservancy
of the Rivers of Great Britain.* By W. H. Wuee.er, M. Inst. C.E.

The contention of the writer of this paper is that in the Fenland is to be found
the type on which the future administration for the conservancy of the rivers of
this country should be founded ; that as in this large tract of land on the east
coast of England the science of drainage has received more attention than in any
other part of the kingdom; that as’ here various forms of administration for the
management of four important rivers have been on their trial for long periods;
that as by private enterprise alone immense sums of money have been sunk with
a result that has placed this district in the very first rank as yielding corn, cattle,
and agricultural produce of all kinds, so here our legislators may turn in order to
learn what to copy and what to avoid; that the meeting of the British Associa-
tion affords a fitting opportunity for bringing together the results of local expe-
rience and placing them before those interested in the subject with a fulness and
freedom of expression which no Parliamentary inquiry can bring forth.

The great lesson the “ History of Fenland Drainage” teaches is, that no scheme
of improvement can be effectual unless the rivers are dealt with as a whole, and
placed under one governing body from their source to their outfall ; that the organi-
sation of the administration for this purpose can only be effected by imperial legisla-
tion, and must not be of a voluntary nature. The whole government of the Fen-
land drainage is made up of piecemeal legislation ; and although the administration
of the several districts is thoroughly efficient, and the aggregate result superb, yet
as each has sought only its own interest, all, more or less, are suffering from the
defective condition of the common outfalls, large areas above the Fens being left
without protection, and year by year subject to greater flooding. Had each river
been originally treated as a whole from the source to the outfall, better results
would have been secured, thousands of pounds have been saved, and much future
legislation and outlay avoided.

The subject is treated in the paper under the three heads of Engineering,
Administration, and Finance.

Under the first head it is sought to be shown that the object of all future legis-
lation should not be drainage only, but the regulation of the water supply. The
circumstances of our rivers having been altered by the modern system of drainage,
it becomes necessary to adapt their channels to carry a vastly increased quantity of
flood water at uncertain and distant intervals, and during the intervening period
to discharge the diminished regular supply in such a way that the channel may
not become choked by weeds and shoals, yet be made available for storing a supply
of water in lieu of that which formerly percolated slowly through the soil. To
effect this, a modification of the plan of wash-lands adopted by the old Fen en-
gineers is suggested ; the river proper being adapted for the ordinary summer and
winter flow, the flood-banks to be set back sufficiently distant from the channel to
leave a cess or margin to receive the flow of the greatest floods. The space
‘thus left between the ordinary channel and the banks being only covered by water
occasionally, would, like the wash-lands, afford valuable pasturage. The rapid
voidance of the rainfall by the modern system of drainage leaving a diminished

* The paper, of which this is an abstract, has been printed in extenso by the
Committee of Section G, together with the President’s Address and the other papers
on the same subject.

694 REPORT— 1878.

quantity to feed springs and afford a supply to brooks and watercourses, droughts-
have become more frequent. Fen experience here again suggests the remedy.. In
all the main watercourses and large arterial drains means are provided for holding
up the water during the summer and periods of drought, and the streams thus
become both carriers and reservoirs. The level of the water throughout the
whole of the divisional ditches in the Fenland, and consequently of the soil itself,
is always maintained at a fixed level, the loss by evaporation, &c., being supplied
from the highland streams. Moisture is thus always within reach of the roots of
the plants, even in the greatest droughts, and lands which would otherwise only
be regarded as medium soils yield large and abundant crops. The writer is of
opinion that the use of water in the cultivation of soil, and its value for purposes
of irrigation is not sufficiently esteemed, and thinks that mills have received a
great deal of undeserved blame for holding up the water, the effect of which is of
the greatest benefit to the surrounding soil, when subject to proper regulations
as to floods. The objection on sanitary grounds to the storage of stagnant water
in the watercourses of the country is met by referring to the result in the Fens, the-
health and physique of the inhabitants of which compares favourably with every
other part of the kingdom. By the erection of flood-gates, or properly constructed
weirs across the rivers, a constant supply would be maintained to compensate for-
the excess carried off in floods, and to provide water for domestic, agricultural,.
and economic purposes. The value of water asa motive power in farm work is
also contended for, and the saving of human labour and coals by this means
pointed out.

To carry out the necessary improvements for regulating the channels of the-
rivers, and their future conservancy, a plan of administration adopted in certain
Fen districts is proposed. Each watershed of a main river to be subject to one-
Conservancy Board, the whole watershed being divided into districts, the area
of which is to be determined by the watersheds of tributary streams or other phy-
sical causes ; the sub-districts to be placed under the jurisdiction of commissioners
elected by the occupiers of the land in proportion to their rateable value, and who
shall have the charge of all local interests; the general Conservancy Board to be-
elected from amongst the members of the District Boards, each sending one or
more according to the area they represent, and to have control only over the main
stream from its source to its outfall, and of all banks, sluices, and other works affecting
it. Where districts are already in existence they would continue to exercise their
rights and powers, except so far as they interfered with the main stream, and have
their representative on the General Board. By this means the due care of local
wants and interests, and unity of action throughout would be secured, and exist-
ing interests conserved so far as would be compatible with the general good.

The means for carrying out improvements required, and for future administra-
tion and maintenance, in the writer's opinion, should be provided by a tax on the
rateable value of the whole area of land within the watershed, whether rural or
urban. As every acre of land receives and contributes its quota of the rain-fall,
so it should fairly provide its share of the cost of maintaining the channels for
carrying this off. The objection that high lands can never be injured, and are so
far away from the flooded districts that they do not require any improvement of
the river, is met by the answer, that it is owing to the drainage carried out on
these very lands that water is now poured so rapidly into the rivers as to cause the
floods, and they ought, therefore, fairly to contribute towards the remedy for the
evil they have caused. As to their distance from the outfall—the greater the dis-
tance, the greater use they make of the river, the water from the under drains of
high lands at the head of a river having, perhaps, to travel a hundred times the
length along its channel as compared to land within the area suffering from the
floods. The objection that these lands have a prescriptive right to drain, and that
to impose a new tax upon them would be an unjust burden, is met by the reply
that the altered circumstances of the country necessitate fresh burdens, and the
rates for police, education, and sanitary purposes are adduced as instances of novel
burdens brought about by higher civilisation. ‘Towns, it is contended, should bear
also their share of taxation. Thorough drainage is a first essential for health, and
this cannot be effected without a good outfall. By sewering the streets and bring-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 695

ing a water supply from distant parts, towns have materially altered the normal
condition of the discharge of the rainfall off the area they occupy, and during
heavy rains send a large body of water into an already overcharged stream, and
thus in a great measure contribute towards the flooding, while the withdrawal of
the water necessary for the town takes away the supply from the springs which
feed the upper part of the rivers.

2.,On the Discharge of Sewage in Tidal Rivers.* By Hunry Law, M. Inst. O.E.
A tidal river may be looked upon as a reservoir of a very elongated form, sub-

ject to the following conditions, namely :—

Ist. That it is supplied with water of three different qualities from three dif-

ferent sources, that is to say—

The water constantly draining off the surface of the basin forming the water-
shed of the river, and that derived from the land springs which find yent in its bed ;
this we will designate river water.

The water entering the mouth of the river from the sea under tidal influence,
which we will distinguish as sea water.

The polluted water discharged from the sewers, which we will term sewage.

2nd. That the actual and relative quantities of these are not constant, but vary
within certain limits.

3rd. That the supply of sea water is not constant, but intermittent, being poured
into the reservoir for a certain number of hours; and then for a certain period the
reservoir being allowed to discharge a proportion of its contents.

Now the subject of our inquiry is, what, under the conditions assumed above,
will be the mean or average composition of the water contained in the reservoir or
Tiver P

In order to obtain a practical result, let us investigate this question, adopting
the mean yalues for the several quantities which apply in the case of the river
Thames.

First, then, as to the extent and capacity of the reservoir. The tidal portion of
the river Thames extends from Yantlet Creek to Teddington Lock, a total distance
of about 60} miles; its breadth varies from about 200 feet to 22,800 feet, or about
41 miles, at its mouth; its superficial area at high water is 720,594,410 square
feet, or nearly 26 square miles,

The mean range of the tide at the mouth—that is, at Yantlet Creek—is 14 feet,
at London Bridge 17 feet 4 inches, and at Teddington Lock 3 feet.

The mean tidal capacity of the river, that is to say, the difference in the
quantity of the water which is contained by the river at high water and at low
water, with the above-stated mean range of tide, is 14,179,538,300 cubic feet.

Now, as has been already stated, this body of water is derived from three sources—
namely, the sea, the land drainage, and the sewage ; and it is necessary in the next
place to ascertain the relative quantities furnished from each of these sources.

The downward flow of the Thames, or, in other words, the mean daily dis-
charge from the drainage of the Thames Valley, may be estimated at 1,923,626,000
ay a quantity which, we may incidentally remark, is about one-third of the
rainfall.

From the above, however, must be deducted 100,000,000 gallons which is daily
abstracted from the river above Teddington Weir for the supply of water to the
metropolis; leaving a total quantity of 1,823,626,000 gallons, or 291,780,160 cubic
feet, for the mean daily discharge, being 145,890,080 cubic feet as the mean quan-
tity of vive water contributed each tide.

The mean quantity of the sewage discharged into the Thames from the two
outfalls at Barking and Crossness may be taken at 120,000,000 gallons daily, equiva-
lent to 9,600,000 cubic feet every tide, making with the river water a total of
155,490,080 cubic feet, which being deducted from the mean quantity already

* This paper was published in ewtensv in ‘ Engineering,’ for August 30, and in
the ‘ Journal of Gas Lighting,’ for September 3, 1878.

;

696 REPORT—1878.

stated as that which enters the river every tide, we have 14,024,048,220 cubic feet
as the mean quantity of sea water which enters the Thames every tide.

It is difficult to form a true idea of the relative values of such large numbers,
and therefore it is better to reduce them to a percentage, when we obtain the result,
that the mean composition of the Thames water is as follows, namely :—

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IRV OP ew ALOE; 2h’zc..1/ 22 Sadweviwvemnndenens ok esesseeenaeees 1:02

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100-00

That is to say, the actual mean quantity of sewage in the tidal portion of the
river Thames, extending from Teddington to Yantlet Creek, is only 0-07 per cent.,
or otherwise expressed, only one 1477th part of its whole bulk.

Furthermore, it must be borne in mind that, owing to the circumstance of the
river water always being delivered at the upper end of the elongated reservoir, no
less than 60 miles in length, while the ultimate discharge is wholly from the lower
extremity, the composition of the water varies greatly, being always much freer
from sea water and sewage in the upper portion than the lower. In point of fact,
it must be evident that, in the case of a stream which has a certain quantity of
river water, that is, as we have already defined it, water derived from the rainfall
and discharged into the river by surface drainage and land springs, there must
always be a point, even in the tidal portion, above which no contamination can
exist from sea water or other matters which enter the river near the lower portion
of its course. bes

The foregoing is a statement of the average result; the actual amount of con-
tamination by sewage at any given time and place must depend upon the recent past
rainfall, and upon the state and condition of the tides, but at no time, and under
no circumstances, can the amount of the sewage contained in the Thames water be
raised sufficiently above its average value of one 1477th part to produce any ap-
preciable pollution, far less to afford any ground for the statements to which pre-
vious allusion has been made.

3. Recent Improvements in the Port of Dublin. By B. B. Stoney.

This communication was ordered by the General Committee to be printed
in extenso among the Reports.—See above, p. 167.

PaA. ~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. j 697

SATURDAY, AUGUST 17, 1878.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, AUGUST 19, 1878.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on the Patent Laws.
See Reports, p. 157.

2. Report of the Committee on the use of Steel for Structural Purposes.
See Reports, p. 157.

3. Report of the Committee on the Steering of Screw Steamers.
: See Reports, p. 419.

4. On the Steering of Screw Steamers.
By Professor Osporne Reynotps, F.R.S.
Incorporated in the Report of the Committee on the same subject.

5. General Results of some recent Experiments upon the Co-efficient of Fric-

tion between Surfaces moving at High Velocities. By Captain Dovctas
Gatton, O.B., F.R.S.

See above, p. 438.

6. Recent Improvements in Telegraphic Apparatus. By W. H. Preece.

7. The Filtration of Salt from Sea Water into Wells in the Trias Sandstone.
By I. Roserts.
See above, p. 532.

8. Description of a new Lift Bridge for the Midland Great Western Railway,

over the Royal Canal at Newcomen Bridge, Dublin. By Brnvon B,
Stonry, M.A., M. Inst. C.E.

This bridge carries a short branch of the Midland Great Western Railway of
Treland across the Royal Canal immediately below Newcomen Bridge, at the very

698 ; _» REPORT—1878.

oblique angle of 25 degrees and, though the canal is only 15 feet wide, the
bridge carrying the railway requires to be nearly 40 feet long on the skew.

The trains run over this bridge at about two feet over ordinary water level, and
whenever a boat is passing along the canal the bridge is lifted from 8 to 13-
feet, according to the height of the deck load, so as to permit the boat to pass.
beneath. The bridge is formed of two strong single-plate girders of the usual type,
which lie underneath the rails, with cross girders and side brackets over which the
platform is laid. This bridge is lifted by means ofa lever 40 feet long, formed of two
plate girders braced together horizontally, and attached rigidly at right angles to the-
centre of the bridge, and this-lever is itself balanced at its centre on blunt steel
knife edges like the beam of a pair of scales. The weight of the bridge at one end
of the lever is counterpoised by an equal weight of metal attached to the other end,.
so that the whole structure turns freely on the knife edges, which work in steel

_pillow blocks on the top of metal standards, one on either side of the lever. The:
opening and closing motions are regulated by a small crab-winch and chain worked
by hand ; the ends of this chain are attached to the lever at several feet on either
side of the knife edges, and its centre is wound on or off from the barrel of the
winch, which is itself bolted down to a mass of concrete extending beneath the
metal standards.

The man in charge works this arrangement with the greatest ease, and it is so-
regulated that the bridge is opened or closed in about one minute. It might be
moved much faster than this, as the friction is reduced to a mere trifle by the knife
edges, but it is not convenient to put so large a mass in rapid motion when there is
nothing to be gained by so doing. It was essential that the bridge should be
erected speedily and so as to interrupt the traffic as little as possible, and the first
engine passed over it in about twelve weeks after the contractors, Messrs. Courtney,
Stephens and Bailey, of Dublin, got instructions to proceed with the work and the
traffic. was interrupted for only about one week during erection. The lever sloping

upwards has a somewhat singular appearance when the bridge is in position for:

trains to pass over and, on the other hand, the bridge itself has a singular effect

when it is tilted up into the air for canal boats to pass beneath ; but the author has.

successfully obtained what he aimed at—namely, simplicity of design, strength,
ease of working, little aptitude to go out of order and last, but not least, very
moderate cost.

9. The Irish Siren Fog Signal. By J.R. WicHamM.—See Section A, p. 437.

10. A New Form of Mining Lamp. By Dr. Caartes Batu.

i i ee,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 699

LUESDAY, AUGUST 20, 1878.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships.
See Reports, p. 219.

2. Report of the Committee on the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey.
‘ See Reports, p. 219.

3. Report i the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Bek §c..
See Reports, p. 217.

4. The River Shannon: its present State, and the Means of Improving the
Navigation and the Drainage. By James Lynam.

The flood drainage of the River Shannon district has been sought for and ex-
pected during the last fifty-seven years. On April 5, 1821, the first Mr. Rennie
wrote the following letter to his assistant, John Grantham :—

“ London, April 5, 1821.

“Srr,—His Excellency the Loid Lieutenant of Ireland having through the
Right Honourable Charles Grant directed me in his letter of November 8 last to
get a survey made of the River Shannon, as to its levels between Killaloe and
Roosky, with a view to lower its surface, in order that the water from the bogs
lying on each side of it may be more effectually got off, I request, in the name of the
Trish Government, that you will set out for that. place to ascertain the practicability
of carrying the above wish into execution.

“T am, Sir, &e.,
s “JoHN RENNIE.
“To John Grantham, Ksq.”

Since 1821 three select committees of Parliament have sat inquiring into the-
Shannon improvement projects. Three Acts of Parliament have been passed for it.
Ten engineers have been employed by the Government to plan for it; £11,000 were-
formerly paid for plans and reports; £557,016 were expended on works, &e., in it;

_ £22,000 have been expended in maintaining it; £10,000 have been recently spent
in inquiries about the results,

‘700 REPORT-—1878,

The results are : The floods do not now rise so high, nor cover so much land, nor
last so long, as they formerly did; but all the good land that was formerly flooded
is still flooded. The difference between the former high floods and the recent,
covered generally poor margins, or gravelly and shrubby beaches.

Twenty-four thousand acres of low lands are still damaged by floods. The out-
lets of seventeen rivers are obstructed. Several public roads are flooded. A swamp
150 miles long is maintained. Many dwelling houses are flooded. On one occasion
I counted thirteen of those flooded houses. I went into some of them. The water
was a foot deep on the floors. They had the fireplaces raised over the water. They
had stools and chairs as steps from the fire to the beds ; they slept in their beds with

‘6 in. to 18 in. of water under them on the floor.

I was able to measure accurately the greatest height the flood had been by the
marks it had left on legs of the tables.

Near Athlone the people abandon their houses when the floods rise high, and go
into lodgings in the town. When the flood falls they go back and clean out the
houses; but it sometimes happens that another flood comes and drives them out
again. These great floods never occur in spring, summer, or autumn, but in
December, January, or February. During spring the low lands, when not flooded,
are saturated to a very injurious extent.

Near Oarrick it often happens that the water is low and the lands dry in March.
The farmers then put down crops in the low lands, and in April a flood may come, a
small flood which rises merely to the level of the land surface for ten or twelve days,
but it rots the seed. A small amount of sluice in the weir would prevent this.

These are the sad results of the expenditure of more than half a million pounds
under Goyernment control. How is this great evil to be remedied, and at what cost ?
This is what I am going to explain. During eighteen years, since 1860, I have been
studying the subject, surveying, sounding, calculating, and writing to promote the
much-needed improvement. May I hope it is now to be really forwarded ?

The Shannon Commissioners reported to the Lords Commissioners of Her

Majesty’s Treasury, in 1850, that “It is probable that at some future period it may
become necessary to make additional excavations at some comparatively confined
‘channels of the Shannon at and below Shannon Bridge, and immediately above the
weir at Meelick.” These are all the works the Shannon Commissioners who knew
the river so very well considered necessary to make a completely effective flood drain-
age of the Shannon district. They then reported, “ Fortunately such works, though
probably indispensable, will not be very expensive.” (Eleventh Report, pages 8 and
“9, March, 1850.)

A very eminent engineer employed by the Government in 1862 to 1867 made a
minute engineering survey of the whole river and reported. His estimate for works
is £290,000 to improve 24,000 acres, being £12 an acre English. This was for
seven divisions or levels of the river. Subsequently an Act of Parliament was passed
for works to drain 17,500 acres in three and a half out of the seven divisions, at a
cost of £300,000, being £17 an acre English. At this rate the regulating of the
whole river would cost £435,000 now, in addition to the £557,000 before, making
£992,000. To many minds it must occur that this large estimate is probably founded
-on mistaken views of the requirements of the case.

The Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, by their minute dated May
21, 1866, appointed me the tenth engineer to make an engineering survey of the
Shannon, and to design and estimate for all works “necessary for securing the low
lands from summer and autumn floods, and from ordinary winter floods.” I did so,
and the Parliamentary paper I hold in my hand is my report dated April, 1867, and
printed by order of the House of Commons, May 15, 1867. My estimate is £144,000
for 24,000 acres, or £6 per acre.

My object in coming before you is to prove that this smaller estimate is much
nearer the truth than any of the others. I will not trouble you with any mathe-
matical or engineering calculation. I will accomplish my object by describing and
-explaining the facts and circumstances of the river.

The Erne and Shannon rivers have three features which render it peculiarly easy
to regulate their floods and prevent the inundations. First, they have large super-
ficial areas of lakes; second, their channels between the lakes are wide and deep—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 701

80 capacious as to carry their floods with an inclination of less than an inch a mile;
third, their floods rise slowly, 4 in. to 8 in. in twenty-four hours, very rarely a foot
in twenty-four hours. The Shannon has a fourth feature very valuable. All the
mill weirs and fish weirs have been purchased and removed, and all the shoals have-
been deepened at a cost of £557,050 7s. 64d. (See Eleventh Report of Commissioners, .
dated March, 1851.) Its rain basin contains 87,000 acres of lakes.

In the length from Battle Bridge, above Carrick-on-Shannon, to Killaloe Bridge
of 118 miles, .

Miles.
The lakes occupy . . : H ‘ : : : 503
», broad, deep channels extend for . : : "i 61
,, confined portions of the channel occupy merely .. 5

The portions of the channel so confined asto be visibly obstructions are but two,.
each half a mile long. Neither mill weir nor fish weir stands in the way of the cur-
rent. The floods scarcely ever rise a foot in twenty-four hours. The great floods
are but 34 ft. where deepest on the land, and generally but 2 feet deep, and merely
18 inches deep over large areas. Itis clearly the most easily regulated river in the
world. Surely less than £400,000 might do it.

The Shannon river is accurately shown in plan on the Ordnance 1-inch map. It
rises in a rather desolate valley inthe Leitrim Mountains, in latitude 54 deg 14 min.
3 sec., and longitude 7 deg. 55 min. 7 sec. Its source is a circular basin locally
called the “Shannon Pot,” 55 feet in diameter, and about 20 feet deep. The water
is a fine clear bluish colour. When I saw it, in 1875, its surface was 5 feet under
' the land, and the stream from it was but 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep. In wet
weather it rises over the surface of the land, its centre appears to be higher than its
circumference, and an immense quantity of water issues from it and rushes down
114 miles to enter Lough Allen, which is seven miles long.

From Lough Allen to the tide of the Atlantic Ocean at Limerick, a length of
140 miles by the sinuosities of the river, the Shannon has been made navigable with
a depth of 6 feet of water. It lies naturally in eight separate levels ; but the lowest
at Limerick is very small and detached from the others by a length of five miles and
a fall of 90 feet. The upper level at the outlet from Lough Allen has a fall of 20:
feet in six miles, and affords no matter for discussion here. Therefore, we will con-
sider only the six levels from Carrick-on-Shannon down to Castle Connel.

The lowest of these levels between Castle Connel and Killaloe is but small, con-
taining only 641 acres of low land, liable to be flooded in summer or autumn, and
rarely covered with more than from 1 foot to 13 foot of water. In twenty years
they were flooded as follows: In the month of August once ; in September once ; in
October five times. The owners have not asked for any improvement of the Shannon
river, they have never joined any of the deputations, signed petitions, nor subscribed
money. Would it not be very wise to leave them out of consideration? The works
proposed for the upper divisions will do them some good; let them hayeit. The
exempting of this division from a general measure of improvement will appear the
more judicious when I tell you that the Government estimate for freeing the 641
acres of meadow from being flooded is £37,200, being at the rate of nearly £60 an
English, or £100 an Irish aore. This would reduce the Government estimate from
£300,000 to £263,000 for 16,700 acres, and reduces the cost on the lesser area from
£17 an acre to 15 guineas.

The Shannon floods may be well studied in three classes—namely, small floods,
great autumn floods, and great winter floods.

: The small floods have occurred every year and inevery month. They have kept
_ the land saturated and cold during March, April, and May, which has prevented the
growth of good grass, and promoted the growth of sedge and weeds. This herbage
‘grows only late in the season, and is late coming to maturity. The mowing of the
crop is thrown back into the rainy season, and the saving of it is laborious and ex-
‘pensive and often impossible. In the Shannon large flat meadows there are three
qualities of hay, viz. sedge mixed with tall soft weeds, varieties of carex, lets at £2
‘to £3 an acre Irish ; second, brown bent grass with some natural rye-grass, and great
‘quantities of meadow sweet, lets at £4 to £5 an Irish acre; third, Timothy grass,

702 ' REPORT—1878.

phleum nodosum, excellent hay ‘for hunting horses, and lets for £6 to£8an acre. I~
have dug up and examined the soils of the three qualities of meadow, and failed to
discover any difference. The difference in the values of the meadows results froma
difference of the levels of the lands. The Timothy grass (such good horse hay)
meadow lands are 9 inches to 15 inches higher than the others, and are consequently
above water a month earlier in spring, when they shine forth beautiful bright green
islands. The sedgy, weedy meadows are the lowest by some inches, and are satu-
rated longer than the others. The kindness of the soil of these is evinced in many
places by the following interesting fact : on examining the surfaces closely numerous
plants of clovers and some fine species of grass are to be seen, healthy, but small and
distant. Of course if these lands were freed from saturation during spring, summer,
and autumn, the clover and fine species of grass would flourish and extend in a
material degree, and in a few years these meadows would become much increased
in yalue,

The aggregate amount of injury to the crops from small floods in thirty years far
exceeds the amount of damages that have actually occurred from the one great
autumn flood that has occurred in that period,

The quantity of water flowing off in the river at Killaloe from a rain basin of
4,000 square miles, 2,560,000 acres, in all those small floods is under 300,000 cubic
feet per minute. The present river channel is fully broad and deep enough to carry
off that quantity and more at a moderate velocity. The only obstructions are the
weir mounds. “While all the low land for 120 miles lies scarcely flooded, but
steeped in water, the weir ‘mounds, with a fall of several feet at each, but without
any sluice or flood-gate, act as permanent artificial barriers to the flow of the river.
Fifty lineal feet of open sluice in each weir would relieve all the low land in the
Shannon valley from saturation.

The Great Autumn Floods.—One great autumn flood has occurred in the Shan-
non during the last thirty years. It destroyed the whole of the crops on 16,300 acres,
and injured 3,000 acres more. It began to go out on the ground at Portumna on
August 13, 1861, and rose 1 foot 3 inches in five days. It remained at that height
for five days more, wher it began to fall. The very lowest lots of land were covered
with water 1 foot 9 inches deep. The large areas of meadow were covered merely
1 foot 6 inches deep. The flood began to fall on August 24, and continued to fall at
the average rate of an inch a day till September 9, then there was no water on the
meadows, and so it remained till September 23, fifteen days; but the water in the
river and the drains was even with the surface of the land. In working at the hay,
men’s feet sank into the ground. The muddy water rose after them, The hay lay
there under the owners’ eyes rotting, scarcely covered, but wholly saturated, for
fourteen days, There was during all that time a fall of 3 feet over the Killaloe

“weir mound,

It is important to note well here two things—how slowly the flood rose on the
land, merely 22 inches in six days, or 3% inches average in twenty-four hours;
second, what a small depth of flood water there was on the land, viz., 19 inches
depth of water for five days, 13 inches depth for ten days, 10 inches depth of water
for twelve days. Saturation merely then for fifteen days more up till September 24,
yet it rotted the whole crop; but it must be easy to prevent such small inundation.

Another very important fact to note; there is no obstruction whatever in the
Shannon at or near Portumna to prevent the free flow of its flood waters into Lough
Derg, which is a wide and deep lake of 30,000 acres, 22} miles long. This wide
deep water, having no appreciable fall in the surface, goes to within 800 feet of the
ereat weir mound at Killaloe. This channel for 800 feet length is 470 feet wide,
with 8 feet depth of running water, and an inclination of 14 foot per mile down
to the weir. Over the weir mound there is a sudden fall of the water of 2 feet
2 inches.

This diagram section annexed represents accurately the relative levels and incli-
nations of that flood above, at, and below Killaloe weir. It is drawn from levels
sep by myself there with a spirit level in August, 1861, when that flood was at
its highest.

There was, as measured by me in the height of that greatest of autumn floods,
on August 21, 1861, a cataract, a clear fall of 2 feet 2 inches over the weir. The

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 703

iver channel thence downwards to Killaloe Bridge was more than 470 feet wide by
6} feet deep, with a surface inclination of 3} feet per mile. From the bridge down-
wards there is a fall of 4 feet in one-quarter of a mile, as shown on the diagram
‘section. :

Task, Was not that weir mound on that occasion a great obstruction ? Evidently
it was.

If that weir mound had not been there on that occasion, where would have been
‘the levels of the flood surface from its site upwards to Portumna and Meelick? I
submit for your consideration that they would have been as I now point out on the
diagram.

oat a line be drawn from the surface of the water just below the weir, upwards
‘to the broad deep water, and parallel to the surfac2 of the flood river, as it was on
August 21. Had the weir not been there the water a few feet above the site of the
‘weir would have been a fraction of an inch higher than that line, and 800 feet up-
‘wards, which is above the head of the shoal, and in Lough Derg the surface of the
flood water would have been 6 inches above that line.

The flood water would be running in a channel 6 feet deep instead of 8 feet deep,
and must run faster, and must have a greaterinclination. The velocity in the 8 feet
‘deep channel was 281 feet ; in the 6 feet channel it would be 375 feet per minute.

An increase of 6 inches in the surface fall from the broad deep water to the site
of the supposed removed weir mound would suffice to increase the velocity so as to
carry off the same quantity of flood water in the same time with 2 feet less depth as
required. Of the 2 feet 2 inches that would be gained just above the site of the
supposed removed weir, 6 inches would be lost in generating the required greater
velocity for the shallowed channel, and 20 inches would be gained in Lough Derg;
and by that lough the same would be gained at Portumna, that is, the flood water
would be 20 inches lower, while the meadows werecovered only by 20 inches of flood
water, and that for merely five days. Therefore, if the weir mound had not been
at Killaloe in August, 1861, the low lands above it.at Portumna would not have
been covered at all by flood water. They would have been merely saturated.
Instead of being flooded for twenty-seven days, the lands would have been merely
saturated for ten days, and thenceforward all the lands would have been quite dry
for twenty-eight days, and the crops might have been saved.

If the Killaloe weir mound were removed and replaced by a movable regulating
Weir, another important element would come into favourable action. 'The immense
capacity of Lough Derg as a storage reservoir, hitherto valueless, would be utilised.
The lake contains 30,000 acres = 1,306,800,000 square feet. The proper level for
steamboat navigation proposed and recommended by the Shannon Commissioners
and legalised by the Shannon Act is 24 feet under the surface of the meadow land.
The capacity of that reservoir is 3,200 millions cubic feet. When the great rainfall
occurred on August 13, none of it was available. It had been filled up gradually
during the previous month by ordinary wet weather and small floods. It might
have been all available that time to store animmense quantity of flood water, while
the rest would be flowing off gradually to the sea. The quantity of water in the
river during the previous month was under 400,000 cubic feet per minute. The
channel was fully capable of carrying off that quantity at the legal navigation level,
and keeping the surface of the Shannon river and of Lough Derg down to the legal
23 feet under the surface of the low land. Had it been so, the rise of 21 inches
caused by the rainfall of August would have left that water surface, when highest,
some inches under the low lands.

Fifty wholly removable regulating weirs were constructed in the Seine several
years ago. When quite closed up in summer they maintain the required depth of
water for an immense steamboat navigation. When wholly open in floods there is
no fall in the river surface. They occupy no part of the natural fall of the river
surface. A remarkable one of these has been in excellent action for several years at
a place called Port-a-l’Anglais, above Paris, and above the junction of the Seine
and Marne. I saw it when all open. There was not a ripple on the river flowi
by. I saw it raised and lowered with ease and facility. I have here a letter from
M. Cambuzat, the chief engineer of the River Seine, in which he informs me that
all those wholly removable regulating weirs in the Seine are remarkably effective and
suitable for regulating that great commercial river,

704. REPORT— 1878.

Let me now put forward the following proposition :

If, in July, 1861, a month previous to the great flood, the Killaloe weir mound
had been wholly removed, and a removable weir constructed at a proper level, and
subsequently properly manceuvred, during the month of August none of the crops.
in the level of the Shannon aboye that weir would have been materially injured.

No other flood of so great a quantity of water as that of August, 1861, has.
occurred during the last thirty years. It has been estimated to be 900,000 cubic feet

per minute from a rain basin of 2,600,000 acres, being one-third cubic foot of flood
water from each acre of land per minute.

To prevent all floods of that magnitude—all summer and harvest floods from
going on these lands—all that is necessary is, to make a channel that will let off that
quantity of water at a level of 1 foot 9 inches lower than it was in August, 1861
The removal of the weir mound and constructing a movable weir would accomplish
that.

To have the crops quite safe from saturation the flood should pass off at a foot
lower level. That must be done by excavation 210 feet wide, 3 feet deep, and 2,400
feet long; 56,000 cubic yards, at 4s. = £11,200, will accomplish that. : /

The Navigation.—From Limerick to Portumna, Meelick, Banagher, and Shannon
Harbour at the gr eetion of the Grand Canal from Dublin, there was a good naviga-
tion before the Shannon works were planned. There was a large trade, and many
passengers travelled in the steamboats. I was myself a passenger many times, and a
very pleasant passage it was. é

"The parties then using the navigation were the Grand Canal Company and the
City of Dublin Steam Packet Company. When the Shannon improyement project
went before a Select Committee of the House of Commons those parties were repre-
sented by the Chairman of the Canal Company and the Manager of the Steam Packet
Company, Charles Wye Williams, They gave very strong evidence that the boats
then on those waters were sufficient, and that great new locks and canals were not
necessary. The Commissioners thinking they knew what was wanted better than
the navization companies, built new canals and locks at great expense.*

The results are: The state of the navigation at Killaloe and Meelick is now a
little better in summer and low-water times than it was before. But in floods it is
worse at Killaloe, and at Meelick in the new sailing channel. In high floods at
Meelick the current is too strong for the steamboats in the new channel ; they cannot
go against it, they go up through the old canal and the old lock. Of course where

_ they go up with ease they may come down. Therefore the great new lock may be
left unused during floods. Therefore the great weir mound by it is then doing no
good for navigation. It might be all out of the river during floods. Therefore a
movable weir there open more or less to keep sufficient depth of water in the old
canal would cause no injury to the navigation. It might be wholly shut in summer
without injuring the land. The weir mound stops 6 feet of water in floods, Of
course if these 5 feet of fall were distributed along the surface of the river, the
velocity would be increased and more water would pass off much quicker. i

The Killaloe Rapid.At Killaloe the old navigation channel was a canal, pro-
tected from the rapid river by a strong permanent embankment, which was one of
the public walks there.

The Commissioners cut away a large portion of that embankment, and let the
river run‘ into and along the old canal, which made it a very dangerous rapid in
mid floods, and in high floods it stops the navigation for weeks. No steamboat
could go against it, nor with it.

I saw steamboats going up it with several men and horses hauling in aid of the
steam power. if

In going down the boats go stern first, with cables from the stem to great posts
which the Commissioners fixed in the bank. One rope is wrapped round a post
eased off to let the boat go down opposite another post, round which another rope
is wrapped, and so on.

T have read in the annual reports of the Canal Company’s directors that the

.

* See evidence reported by Select Committee of the House of Commons, Pri
by order of Parliament, July 29, 1834. Questions 409, 419, 422, 423. ernnneeg

t=

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 705

navigation at Killaloe was stopped by the floods for an unusually long time that
season. Such has been the state of the Shannon navigation during the last thirty
ears,
Improvement of the Navigation.—The necessary works for improving this navi-
gation are :—To replace the protecting embankment at Killaloe by a concrete wall.
Fortunately they did not cut it all away. A length of 800 feet is enough to build.
When that wall would be built the proposed movable weir could be operated with-
out injury to navigation. It would be well to dredge a foot deep of dredgable
clay from Derry Shoal and White’s Ford. A jetty 20 feet wide might be built
at the pier head. The Meelick Canal, two miles long, should be cleaned. The
obnoxious corner called the Devil’s Elbow above the canal should be cut off. °
These are all that are required for the navigation in order to improve the drainage.

Upwards to Athlone and Carrick-on-Shannon, the state of the navigation is
quite good enough; but it is almostewholly useless for want of trade above Athlone.
The tolls received at the eight landing quays amount to but £100 a year, which is
£12 10s, a year to pay each lock-keeper or receiver. The four weir mounds there
are firmly maintained for the destruction of crops, and the disgrace of the govern-
ing power. Is it an enemy who maintains them so ?

The Storage Capacity of the Lakes.—Taking the: area in square feet of the
Shannon lakes, and the depth in feet of the legal navigation level under the surface
of the land, there results 6,000,000,000 cubic feet.. If at the beginning of great
rain-falls the lakes were all down to the navigation level, which they will be with
removable weirs, there would be a storage reservoir of 6,000,000,000 cubic feet.
This would store 300,000 cubic feet of flood water per minute for fifteen days, while
the rest would be passing off to the sea through the open weirs.

The greatest autumn flood lasted but seven days, and then fell regularly for and
remained low for twenty-six days. The lakes would store 500,000 cubic feet per
minute for eight days. Would these storage reservoirs have failed just when
wanted on that very important occasion? Surely not.

The Injurious Effects of the Weir Mounds.—In ordinary wet weather, during all
seasons, they keep the water so high as to saturate the lands, which is a great evil
to the crops and to the agricultural and sanitary state of the country. In medium
wet weather, as no opening can be made to let off ordinary surplus water, they
cause the lakes to be filled to the brim, which is 2} feet over the legal navigation
level. When that occurs there is a natural fall from Carrick-on-Shannon Bridge
to Killaloe Bridge of 37 feet, and out of that 37 feet no less than 21 feet fall are
wasted by the weir mounds, leaving only 16 feet fall in the surface of the river
to propel the stream. In the highest autumn floods 16 feet are so wasted.*

Mitchell Henry, M.P. for Galway, and I boated over many miles of meadows
where the hay lay, part in grass, cocks half covered, part in swarths wholly covered,
between Athlone and Meelick. When we got to Meelick there was a cataract over
the oo mound of 5 feet. There was but 1 foot to 2 feet of flood water rotting
the hay.

Tf in planning for the improvement of the drainage of a river we begin by
robbing the surface of the stream of half of its natural fall, of course we must
estimate for very large excavations. Take, again, the channel at Killaloe as an
instance. The natural actual fall there in great autumn floods will be from the
deep wide water of Lough Derg down to the bridge 1 foot 3 inches in 2000 feet, or
3% feet per mile. The present channel is 470 feet wide, and with this fall and a
depth of 6 feet of running river it would as it is carry off 900,000 cubic feet of
flood water at a level that would keep Lough Derg and the river at Portumna
under the low lands. ;

Now I beg your careful attention to a fact. The Government engineer, after
building the protection wall which would protect the navigation channel from
the river, proposes to construct a weir across the river that will of itself occnpy
2 feet of the natural fall, and deprive the river surface of it. Of course he must

* See Report to the Lords of the Treasury, by J. Lynam, C.E., printed by order of
the House «f Commons, May 15, 1867.

1878. ZZ

706 REPORT—-1878.

estimate for a very large quantity of excavation to make a sufficient channel with
only the remainder of the fall; so he does.

£
177,778 cubic yards of rock at 3s. she ae .-- 29,900
BOO00 Goa or 3 clay at ls. a ie soo 4,000
QELTIB. ‘gy bh =. ae 5 ... 82,900

One more curious fact is the place he excavates the rock; that mass of rock on
the side of the river which is 20 feet over the river. There he has to excavate hard
rock 20 feet deep before getting to the river surface; he then cuts down 6 feet
deep in the river: he cuts 26 feet of hard rock to get 6 feet of new waterway to
carry off 6 feet of water. Six feet excavated from the bed of the river will in-
crease the waterway to carry off as much wateras 26 feet excavation on the high
side, and it may be done for less cost per foot, because the bed on the other side is
not rock. Below the weir it is dry in dry summers, and may be easily made dry
_ in any summer. Above the weir may be dredzed. Is this good river engineering ?

It isan example of his principle all the way up the Shannon. His proposed weirs
at Killaloe, Meelick, Athlone, Tarmon, Roosky, Jamestown, each occupy during
floods 2 feet or 2 feet 2 inches of fall, thus taking from the river surface nearly half
its natural fall. He has acted on mistaken principles in other points, which, added
to those explained, have made him estimate for three times more excavation, par-
ticularly in rock, than is necessary.

The estimate-of 1867 for the whole river is £290,600. The sum which the
Government estimates for works in three and a half out of the seven divisions of
the Shannon is £300,000, which is one-half added to the estimate of 1867. At this
rate this revised estimate for the seven divisions would be £426,000, I submit for
consideration the following propositions :— :

1. The circumstances of the Shannon render it very easy tu regulate its waters
and prevent injurious floods.

2. The navigation and the drainage of the Shannon district may be improved
to the full extent necessary or desired for a third part of the sum which the
Government has been advised to insist on as necessary. This may be effected by
means of simple and: safe removable regulating weirs, which may be all built in
one season, and by dynamite blasting and steam dredging.

Ihave all the details to prove this for each division of the river. I have minute
accurate large scale maps, sections, and cross-sections of every strait and shoal,
with the régime tabulated for the present and for the proposed state of the river in
floods.

5. On the Present State of Electric Lighting. By James N. SHOOLBRED,
B.A., M. Inst. CE.

Electric lighting has only attained to its present development by certain marked
stages of progress.

Though the electric light was first produced at the commencement of the
century as a chemical experiment, yet its first stage of practical application did
not take place till towards 1849, when, on the recommendation of Professor
Nollet of Brussels, the large cumbrous magneto-electric machines of Holmes of
London, and of the Alliance Company of Paris, were constructed to produce a
current alternating in direction for the supply of a single light of considerable
intensity. Machines of this kind were erected at the South Foreland Lighthouse
in this country, in France at those of Cape Grisnez and of Cape La Héve, and at a
few other lighthouses in the North of Europe. With these exceptions, these
machines may now be considered as obsolete.

The next stage of progress in electric machines was the result of the important
discovery in 1867, almost simultaneously by Sir Charles Wheatstone, Dr. Siemens,
and by Mr. S. R. Varley, of the principle of “ reaction ” between the currents created
by the rotation of one electro-magnet in front of another fixed one, whereby

Phot

- TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 707

these currents, on being passed backwards and forwards between them, are
gradually augmented to a very considerable degree, the result being a small,
economical, and much more powerful machine, termed “ dynamo-electric ” (electro
magnets being used) than are the previously described: “ magneto-electric” ones
(where permanent magnets were employed). The best known machines of this
class are the “Siemens” and the “ Gramme” in this country, and in the United
States the “ Brush” and the “ Wallace-Farmer.”

The third and present stage of electric lighting is that of the divisibility of the
light, ¢.e., the production of a number of lights from one machine. This has been
effected in practical use by Lontin with his double-machine, and the double-Gramme
feeding the well-known Jablochkoff candles. With these last,an Alliance machine
was at first used, but latterly M. Gramme devised his second machine, and which
has the appearance of the already existing Lontin.

In the double machine (of Lontin, and also in that of Gramme), the current
is created in a small one, termed the “generating” one, and passed on in one con-
tinuous direction current to the larger or “dividing” one; on the outer envelope of
which it is received divided into a number of distinct circuits, which may be
coupled together at will. The Lontin machines, so far, have produced twelve
circuits from such a machine with a maximum, in lengthened use, of thirty lights ;
tis the Gramme generally works with four circuits and feeds sixteen Jablochkoff
candles,

Of the lamps or regulators, those most in use for single lights are the Serrin and
the Siemens ; while, where many lights are produc2d, the Jablochkotf “ candles” and
the divers forms of Lontin regulators are available. The Jablochkoff candle con-
sists of the two carbons placed vertically side by side, with an insulating layer of
plaster of Paris between them; which is an attempt to dispense with the delicate
mechanism of the regulating apparatus, and attended with only very moderate success.
The arrangements of the Lontin regulators are very ingenious, and very sensitive ;
some of the forms may be placed in any position whatever and be used with
currents, either continuous or alternating in direction.

The very careful preparation of the carbon-sticks hetween which the electric
light is produced is at present receiving attention, so as to render their composi-
tion as Saige as possible, and thereby to reduce the flickerings in the light

roduced.

3 The motor power to cause the necessary rate of motion to the revolving electro-
magnet or induction coil (generally between 400 and 1000 revolutions per minute)
may be either hydraulic power in the form of a turbine or otherwise, or a gas
engine, or a steam-engine. But, whichever of the three is used, extreme regularity
of motion is an absolute necessity; otherwise any want of steadiness in running
is productive of flickering in the electric light. Therefore, where possible, the
engine performing this duty should be special for the purpose, and not have other
work to do at the same time.

A most important consideration in connection with electric lighting is, apart from
the prime cost of the machines, motor, lamps, &c., the amount of the working expenses

thereof, and chiefly the proportion and cost of the motor power to the amount of
light produced. A rough estimate of this is given by the designers of these
machines as one indicated horse power for each light of 1000 standard candles.
Where the number of lights is considerable, this may hold good ; but for a few, or for

single lights, a larger allowance for engine power should be made, even when running
ordinarily, and without the sudden and severe strains to which they are exposed.
Many manufacturers at and near Paris, at Rouen, and at other places in France,
have made use of electric lighting in spinning and weaving sheds, in iron works,
&c., for the last two years, and they generally consider that they have been sup-
plied with a vastly augmented amount of illumination at considerably less than
one-half the cost of the previous, and much poorer one, by means of gas.

Though electricity may replace gas lighting to some extent in the illumination
of large areas, and in certain manufactures, yet it cannot pretend to trench upon
the special, and the most extensive field for the use of gas, the lighting of private

ZZ2

708 ; REPORT—1878.

houses, until some permanent indestructible light-producing points very different
from the present carbon sticks be discovered.

Nor should the sanitary advantages of electric illumination in buildings over
that by gas be overlooked.

6. On a Process for Cutting through Sand-bars in Rivers and Harbour
Entrances. By C. Berceron, C.E.

The process requires the prolongation of one of the piers or jetties at the end of
which the sand-bar is formed. The new pier is to be made on iron piles, in the same
style as the numerous jetties or piers at watering places, such as Brighton, South-
port, Llandudno, &c. They offer no resistance either to the waves or to the currents
of the sea.

The pier is to support a pipe of 8 or 10 inches diameter, into which water, coming
from pumping-engines on the shore, is forced at a pressure of 10, 20, 40, even 50
atmospheres. The pressure is in proportion of the resistance of the sand or shingle
of which the bar is formed.

At every forty metres there is a branch pipe which carries down the water to
another pipe of the same length of forty metres. This pipe is to be put horizon-
tally between the piles of the pier and supported by them.

That horizontal pipe, which is at the level of the water at low tide, and which
it is easy to reach every fortnight at the epoch of spring tides, has twenty outlets
of one inch diameter at two feet distance from each other.

India-rubber flexible pipes of a sufficient length are tied to those twenty out-
lets; they are exactly like fire-engine hose; they are tied two and two to a plank
lying at the bottom, which forces the jet of water to strike the sand at a con-
venient acute angle.

The jetties are prolonged as far as the total length or width of the sand-bar.

When the cross-section of the sand-bar has been properly measured, the highest
parts, which correspond to a certain section of the feeding pipe on the jetty, are
removed by the jets of water of that section, working only during a few minutes.

Every sectional pipe is connected with the main feeding longitudinal pipe by
means of a yalve. It is only four inches in side diameter, which is quite sufficient
to feed twenty india-rubber flexible pipes of four-fifths of an inch diameter. The
valves are to be opened one after the other.

The operation of cutting the sand-bar must take place at the moment of high
tide, when the tide begins to recede. It is at that moment that the current of the
flood tide is most rapid, and when all the water accumulated in the harbours or
rivers begins to run into the sea, At that moment, all the sand removed by the
jets of water is carried away. A very large ditch or furrow is formed at the end
of the jets of water, and ships are no longer prevented entering the harbour.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 709

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 21, 1878.

°

The following Papers were read:—

1. On the Use of Wind Power for Raising Water, Disposal of Sewage, and

Drainage, with special reference to Ireland. By James Price, M. Inst.
C.H., M.A.I.

The power of the wind, though so immense, as shown by its action on the
surface of the ocean, and by its effects in conveying such an enormous weight of
water in the form of rain clouds at so great a velocity, is yet but sparingly used by
mankind : still it always has been, and will be, used at sea for ships, and saves an
immeasurable ‘quantity of coal which would be otherwise expended if steam
entirely replaced sails.

The crude wind power measured for a height of 70 feet constantly acting over
Treland amounts to 360 millions of horse power. The convenience of steam power
has led to the disregard of the common forces of nature. Wind power being
almost without limit, it becomes unnecessary to complicate the machine for
utilising, it so as to save waste, as in the case of water power; the only necessity
being to have the fans or sails self-adjustable, according to the force of the wind
to guard against injury by storms,

Wind power is vot suitable for constant work except as an assistant to steam
to save fuel, taken alone it is adapted to intermittent work, only such as—

1. Water supplies for small towns.

2. Disposal of sewage in rural districts.

3. Drainage of marshes and peat bogs.

1. Deep springs are generally easily found in the ne‘ghbourhood of small
towns, affording sufficient supply. Conducting water from a distance may in some
cases be too costly, whereas a wind engine of 20 feet in diameter with proper
pumps, costing not more than £200, might be relied upon for supplying a town of
1000 inhabitants with water at high pressure, even allowing for considerable cessa-
tion of wind; fair-sized reservoirs being necessary to provide for calms; or else
arrangements for using animal power.

2. The infiltration process to purify sewage is advocated by the author; to be
applied by pumping out the under water of porous ground, and thus causing the
liquid part of the sewage deposited on the surface to soak down, and be pumped
out after having passed through a great thickness of earth. To carry this out, it is
proposed to form an annular cesspool with porous bottom, with a deep well sunk
in the middle of the island to be kept constantly pumped out by wind power, the
surface sludge being occasionally removed by scraping, new clay being substituted.
Long calms would not affect this process, as the cone of earth once dried would
hold a vast quantity of liquid before being saturated; from experiments of the
author, say from 30 to 40 per cent. of bulk of earth.

3. The advantages of drainage in Ireland are much greater than the value of the
land saved from floods. The climate of Ireland would be improved ; its chief defect
is a want of summer heat, which is from 2° to 3° lower than it ought to be, as the
swamps and grass lands act as the envelope of a wet-bulb thermometer, which on
an average of two summers wasfound by the author to reduce the temperature
of the mercury 3°'68.

The undrained land in the basins of the River Shannon and River Erne,
containing 5,000,000 acres, very much affect the heat required for ripening of
cereals ; a few degrees in the British Isles being of vast importance, as the average

710 REPORT— 1878.

summer temperature is about 58°, which is just the lowest at which cereals will
ripen. Jor draining bogs wind power is specially applicable, from the fact that
the bog, once dried, becomes like a dry sponge; so that if wind ceased even for
weeks, the surface waters would not appear, but be at once absorbed ; as to drain-
age by pumping, even when steam is used, the cost is not formidable. Mr. J.
Woodward Stanford owns a property of 2200 acres of slob land south of Wex-
ford Harbour, now drained by steam power, averaging one horse power for every
244 acres. It may be safely taken, allowing for intermittent work, that a one horse
power wind engine would drain 100 acres from the natural rainfall, There are
numerous sites for wind engines in Ireland, the interior being flat and free from
trees; the velocity of the wind is high, averaging fourteen miles per hour.

Very portable wind engines and others of large dimensions, having all necessary
improvements, are manufactured by Messrs. John Warner and Sons, of Crescent
Foundry, Cripplegate, who also fur nish all pumps and appliances for raising water,
their noria or chain of tumbling buckets being very suitable for drainage ; also their
Archimedean screw suits wind- -power well. ‘American wind engines of very simple
construction were exhibited by Messrs. McKenzie and Sons, of Dawson Street, in
Dublin, at the last Agricultural Show held in this city; they were made by ‘the
United States W ind-engine and Pump Company of Batavia, Illinois. These range
from 8 to 60 feet in diameter, and are of an annular form, somewhat like Messrs.
Warner's ; they are much used in America for farm purposes and lifting water.

2. A System of Ventilation by Means of Fans and Punkahs worked by Com-
pressed Air for use in Hospitals and Barracks in India and other
Tropical Climates. By the Hon. R, C. Parsons.

Many here are no doubt aware how extensively the punkah is used in India, and
that among the European inhabitants it is characterised as essential to the pre-
servation of health. The form of punkah which (especially among the medical
authorities) is considered the most effective is that known as the “ Pole Punkah.”
This consists of a heavy wooden pole about 10 feet long from which a curtain of
coarse canyas covered with calico is attached. This pole, swith its curtain, which is
about three feet deep, is then suspended {rom the ceiling of the apartment in which
it is required, and it is ready for use.

‘In the case uf hospital wards the punkahs are generally worked in sets of from
four to six in a row placed parallel to each other. The coolie whose duty it is to
pull the set of punkahs is placed at the end of the row, and by means of light
cords which attach the punkahs to each other keeps up a swinging motion through-
out the line.

Working in spells of two hours at a time, two or three relays of coolies main-
tain more or less a constant swinging in a set of punkahs throughout the hot
season, which, on an average, extends from the months of March to October in-
clusive.

But the great difficulty which has always been experienced is the very natural
offence of the coolie going to sleep at night, when most needed. The great evils
arising from this offence are the chills which are produced-by an intermittent action
of the punkahs, which, after they have been repeated upon Europeans several times,
frequently terminate in attacks of fever.

The cooling action of the punkah depends entirely upon the agitation of the air
in its vicinity, and also, as a matter of course, upon the evaporation of the perspi-
ration from the bodies of the human beings situated near it; consequently its cool-
ing action ceases whenever the surrounding air is charged with moisture, which is
often the case at particular seasons. In order that the punkah shall produce its
full effect, it is absolutely necessary that the pole from which the curtain hangs
shall receive a sudden jerk at the commencement of the swing, so as to raise the

‘curtain more or less into a horizontal position; the punkah should then move on
to the end of its swing at a regular speed, during which time the curtain flaps

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Tawi

downwards, carrying with it a current of air which strikes the persons seated
beneath it.

This flap of the curtain with punkahs pulled by coolies is only produced on the
ae swing, and consequently the backward swing is almost devoid of cooling
effect.

Having briefly sketched the punkah system as at present carried out in India, the
author proceeds to indicate how, in course of time, it may be replaced by machinery.
The system which the author proposes to describe is that which has been advocated
for some years by Captain Palliser.

In this system the coolie is replaced by a small machine actuated by com-
pressed air.

The machine is attached to the wall of the room in which a row of punkahs
are required, and connected to them by means of light bamboo canes.

Immediately upon the compressed air being admitted to the machine, the pun-
kahs begin to oscillate, and a jerk is imparted to them both on the forward and
backward swing.*

In this system, as applied to large barracks, cantonments, or other large buildings
in India, the air is to be compressed at a central station by means of a steam-engine,
and transmitted through cast-iron pipes to the various buildings where punkahs are
required.

The author now proposes to pass on to consider a few points connected with the
proper ventilation of buildings in hot climates.

In hot climates where there happens to be no breeze and a broiling sun, the
temperature of the houses becomes the same as that of the external air, and when
this is the case the air within becomes exceedingly foul, in consequence of no cir-
culation being maintained.

In order to remedy this def+ct, fans, termed in India “Thermantidotes,” are
worked at the present time by coolies. These fans, which are generally situated
within the houses, draw in the external air through mats made of “ Khus Khus,”
called in India “ Tattees.” The great disadvantage of the ‘Thermantidote” is the
chilling draught which it very often produces.

After much consultation with Captain Palliser the author has designed a venti-
lator which is also actuated by compressed air, and which is intended to be placed
in the ceilings of buildings where a thorough system of ventilation is required,
whether in India or other countries where the climate is more temperate.

This ventilator consists of a fan revolving on a vertical axis. Attached to this
axis is a small engine of very peculiar construction, into which is admitted high-
pressure air, similar to that used for working the punkah machines. Immediately
upon the air being admitted, the ventilator begins to rotate, and the foul air is
removed from the ceiling where it had collected.

This system of ventilation is similar in principle to that now in use in the
Houses of Parliament in London, where no expense has been spared to ensure
success.

This last system of ventilation whieh the author has described could be applied
with much advantage to buildings such as law and police courts, where the atmo-
sphere is usually exceedingly unpleasant.

The author has carefully gone into the cost of working punkahs by the method
already explained, and it seems perfectly clear to him that, where a system similar
to that already described is carried out upon a tolerably large scale, it will prove a
decided financial success.

This question is a very important one, both in a sanitary, and also in a financial
point of view to the Indian Government, inasmuch as last year it cost them £47,000

_ in coolie hire to supply the hospitals and barracks with punkah power.

The author is glad to be able to state that the Indian Government are fully
alive to the importance of the question, and have recommended a trial of the above
system to the Government in India. *

* For a full description of the machine employed, and of the. details of the
pneumatic punkah system, vide pamphlet by the Hon. R. C. Parsons, published by
Messrs. E. & F. N. Spon, London.

712 REPORT— 1878.

3. On the Dublin Waterworks. By Parke Nevitue.

4. The Design and Use of Boilers.* By F. J. Rowan, M. Inst. ME.

The close relation between the engineer and the physical philosopher, though
obvious and often pointed out, has not been fully admitted. Yet the fact necessitates
the possession of accurate scientific knowledge in dealing with engineering problems,
and none demands it more strenuously than does that of the designing and working
steam boilers, and especially marine boilers, for various reasons. The proper genera-
tion of steam and circulation of heated water and gases are now attracting more
general attention than hitherto, and this is hopeful, because attention to principles
of thermo-dynamics has led to vast improvement in the steam-engine. On these
principles we must decide what is the best pressure of steam to work with, and
then we must study scientifically the characteristics of a good boiler.

Professor Osborne Reynolds's table of pressures of steam in relation to economy
and development of power is quoted, und also one compiled from Regnault and
other authorities to show the weight of water raised from 0° C. to the state of
vapour at various temperatures by 1 Ib. carbon.

It being proved that high pressures of steam, say 150 to 200 Ibs. per square inch,
are most economical, we need to find in a good boiler—

1. The most economical and efficient means of generating steam of that pressure.

2. Strength to carry it with safety under all the exigencies of practical working.

3. Facility of construction and repair.

1. Under the first head (a) combustion is first considered, and the theoretical
effect of the perfect combustion of 1 Ib. carbon being known, we haye a standard to
go by.

But varying qualities of eoal and unvarying defects in the mode of mixing the
coal and air produce bad results.

Suction draught by jet blast is no real improvement. Mechanical stoking meets
imperfectly—more or less—only one evil; and a combination of mechanical stoking
with forced combustion, or combustion under pressure, is needed for all the difli-
culties of the case.

A plan which the author proposes is illustrated and described.

(b) Circulation of the heated gases necessarily comes in as an important ele-
ment under this head. The elements of quality of heating surface and time of
contact require to be taken into consideration, and show that the speed of trayel of
the hot gases must be under control; while surface is valuable in proportion as it

can deal with the heat brought to it by quickly transmitting it to a medium which _

will convey it away.

The plan of turning the gases downwards before they escape to the funnel prac-
tised by the author’s late father, in conjunction with the plan of forcing in the pro-
ducts of combustion just proposed, allows the time of contact to be quite under
control, and only the heaviest, 7 e., the coolest, gases escape— not the hottest first, as
in up-draught arrangements. An interesting instance of saving in heat by giving
gases a downward current is quoted in a note.

(c) Heating surface is then considered; and the laws of thermal conductivity
are referred.to. Formule by Wiedmann and Franz, and by Clerk Maxwell, express-
ing the quantity of heat which can be passed through the metal of boilers ina given
time, are quoted; and also the results of Angstrom’s investigations of the same
subject. These show that the relative values of different kinds of heating surface
must be determined by the facility of access which they afford to the heated gases
on the one hand and to fresh portions of the water on the other, and not by any
arbitrary rule as to their being in a horizontal or vertical position.

(d) Circulation of water thus appears as one of the most important, though it is
one of the most generally neglected points in boiler design and working.

The specific heat of water and that of steam being so different, it is necessary to

* Published by E & F. N. Spon, London.

a s 7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Wille:

have a proper supply of the former to the surfaces through which the heat of com-
bustion is passed. The fallacy of making steam by “ foaming” or “ vapour circula-
tion” for boilers is pointed out, and Mr. C. Wye Williams's table of the relative
effects of water, steam, and air in contact with the plates of a boiler which are
heated, is quoted.

The natural action of circulation in boiling is well known to consist, first, in the
directly upward motion of the heated portions of water, and the vertical escape of
the steam, and second, in the colder portions of the water seeking the coolest means
of descent, when possible, undisturbed by opposing currents.

A correctly designed boiler will provide for the free action of these simple prin-
ciples, which are contravened more or less by boilers of the ordinary marine type, and
by all those having horizontal or horizontally inclined water tubes, of which several
examples are named. None but a boiler of vertical water tube design satisfies indis-
pensable conditions.

2. The form of the boiler introduces the question of strength, in which there are
two important factors, viz. (a) the best form for resisting pressure. and (4) equal
distribution of the strains due to expansion by heat. (a) High pressures demand
diminished areas, with of course an absence of flat or large-rending surfaces or large
diameters, and thus boilers of water tube design are required. Boilers of ordinary
marine type, which have large external diameters, also are defective in exposing
large surfaces to loss of heat “by radiation, and so increasing the strains caused by
unequal expansion. (b) The force exer ted by expansion is considerable, and is
enough to prove that the even distribution of heat by proper circulation and design
has a large influence upon the strength and wear of boilers. Cases of boilers
which suffered damage from expansion unequally distributed are quoted, and the
author refers to various measurements of this force given by Professor W. Allen
Miller (‘Chem. Phys.,’ 4th ed., p. 261), and by J . Milton (‘Strength of Boilers,
Proce. I.N.A.)

3. In considering facility of construction and repair, the author refers to the
drawings illustrating his paper, and recapitulates the defective points of various de-
signs, which have come up in the preceding remarks, and he contends for simple
oe in making, and for the minimum of different kinds of parts composing a

oiler

It is being generally understood and admitted that boilers ought to be worked
exclusively with fresh water, and with precautions against corrosion such as are
suggested in the Report of the Admivalty Committee on Boilers or in the author’s
paper on ‘ Boiler Corrosion’ (British Assoc., September, 1876), it becomes unneces-
sary to provide for access to all the internal parts. Facility of removal of parts for
repair is therefore all that is necessary under these circumstances.

5. On the System of Dredging usually employed in the United States.
By Rosert Briaes.

’ 6. On a New Ship-raising Machine. By Tuomas A. Ditton.

An oval-shaped floating canvas mattress larger and wider than the ship to be
raised, and haying a deep curtain of strongly netted and roped canvas brailed up
all round, is lowered fore and aft over the wreck, when masts are supposed to have
been cut way, down below low water as far as convenient. The canvas curtain,
well weighted and chained, is by suitable means allowed to fall so that when it
reaches the bottom tie ship lies in the centre of an oval bell-tent. An ordinary
suction pump is put in action at first; the result is that the vacuum created in the
upper portion of the bell-tent induces the water on the bottom to try and fill it.
This it cannot do; it merely compels the bottom of the tent or flexible diving-bell
to grasp the wreck. A running rope or wire cable running string which had been
rove round the mouth of the bag i is hauled taut.

The suction pump now ceases, and the air pump is worked. The water is
driven out of the bell by air pressure, and when an amount of water equal to the
weight of the ship is expelled, the ship rises in the grasp of this octopus,

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INDEX.

[An asterish (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given.]

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
real
Places and times of meeting, with names
ot officers from commencement, xxviii.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
- of the Sections, xxxv.
List of evening lectures, xvii.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, xlix.
Table showing the attendance and
receipts at the Annual Meetings, 1.

Treasurer’s account, lii.

Officers of Sectional Committees present
at Dublin, liii. ;

Officers and Council for 1878-79, lv.

Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Dublin, lvii.

liecommendations adopted by the
General Committee at Dublin :—In-
volving grants of money, lviii; appli-
cations tor reports and researches not
involving grants of money, Ixi; com-
munications ordered to be printed in
extenso, \xiii; resolutions referred to
the Council by the General Com-
mittee, ]xiii.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientitic purposes, lxiv.

Places of meeting for 1879 and 1880, lxv.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, lxvi.

General meetings, xxv.

Address by the President, William
Spottiswoode, Esq. M.A. D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 1.

Abel (Prof. F. J.) on patent legislation,
157; on the use of steel for structural
purposes, 157.

Aberdare (Lord) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 152.

_ Aborigines, tropical, some tribes of, T. J.
Hutchinson on, 589.

Absorption spectrum of chlorochromic
anhydride, G. J. Stoney and Prot. J. E.
Reynolds on the, 434.

Adam Smith’s theory of rent, W. D.
Henderson on, 677.

Adams (Prof. Leith) on the exploration
of the Fermanagh Caves, 183.

Adams (Prof. W. G.) on a new form of
polariscope, 486.

Adulteration Act, the, in so far as it
relates to the prosecution of milk
sellers, E. H. Cook on, 506.

Alaska, the characteristic features of, as
developed by the U.S. Survey, W. H.
Dall on, 633.

Alkalimetry, a new method of, by L.
Siebold, 509.

Alkaloids, report on the chemistry of
some of the lesser-known, especially
veratria and bebeerine, 105.

Allen (J. R.) on the prehistoric sculptures
of Ilkley, Yorkshire, 580.

Aluminium alcohols, Dr. Gladstone and
A. Tribe on, 508.

Anatomy and Physiology, Address by Dr.
McDonnell to the Department of, 593.

*Anderson (Dr. A. F.) on a case of com-
mensalism in the holothuria, 559.

*Anderson (R.) on lightning conductors,
457.

*Annual parallax of stars, researches
made at Dunsink on the, by Prof. R.
S. Ball, 482.

Ansted (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 178.

Anthropology, Address by Prof. Huxley
to the Department of, 573.

Anthropometric Committee, report of
the, 152.

*Ants, the habits of, Sir J. Lubbock on,
559.

Arabia Petreea, a journey on foot through,
by Rev. F. W. Holland, 622.

Arctic Expedition, the late British, Capt.
Feilden and Mr. De Rance on the geo-
logical results of, 548.

Artizans’ Dwellings Act, population dis-
placed by, how to meet the require-
ments of, by Sir J. Watson, 658.

Atmosphere, the geological relations of
the, T. S. Hunt on, 544.

Atmospheric electricity at Madeira, re-
port on arrangements for taking obser-
vations of, 103,

716

*Atmospheric gas machine, a new, by
J. R. Wigham, 437.

Ayrton (Prof. W. HE.) and Prof. J. Perry,
a new determination of the number of
electrostatic units in the electro-mag-
netic unit, 487 ; og the electrical pro-
perties of bees’ wax and lead chloride,
497.

Babbage’s analytical machine, report of
the Committee appointed to consider
the advisability and to estimate the
expense of constructing, and of print-
ing tables by its means, 92.

*Baeyer’s synthesis of indigo, a short
account of, by Prof. J. E. Reynolds,
Lie

Baily (W.H.) on some additional laby-
yinthodont amphibia and fish from the
coal of Jarrow colliery, near Castle-
comer, county of Kilkenny, Ireland,
630; on some new species of Irish
fossils, 535.

Bain (Dr. W.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 152.

Balfour (F. M.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 149.

Balfour (Dr. I. B.) on some rare Scottish
Alpine plants,570; *on Naiadacee, 570.

*Ball (Dr. C.) on a new form of mining
lamp, 698.

Ball (Prof. R. 8.) *on the principal
screws of inertia of a free or con-
strained rigid body, 463; *researches
made at Dunsink on the annual paral-
lax of stars, 482.

Ball (V.) on the new geological map of
India, 5382; on some objects of ethno-
logical interest collected in India and
its islands, 588.

Barlow (W. H.) on the use of steel for
structural purposes, 157.

Barnes-Lawrence (Rev. H. F.) on the
possibility of establishing a “close
time ” for indigenous animals, 146.

Barrett (Prof.) on the exploration of the
Fermanagh Caves, 183; *on a new
form of trap-door electrometer, 495.

Bate (C. 8.) on the possibility of estab-
lishing a “close time ” for indigenous
animals, 146; on the present state of
our knowledge of the Crustacea: Part
IV., On development, 193; on the W%i-
lemesia group of Crustacea, 561.

Bateman (A. E.) on Canadian statistics,
658.

Beddoe (Dr.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 152.

Bebeerine, report on the chemistry of,
105.

Bees’ wax and lead chloride, the electrical
properties of, Profs. J. Perry and W. E.
Ayrton on, 497.

REPORT—1878.

*Beighton (T. D.) on an expiring race |

on the Bhutan frontier, 591.

Bergeron (C.), on a process for cutting
through sand-bars in rivers and harbour
entrances, 708.

Berthon (Rev. E. L.), on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 219.

Bessemer (H.) on the use of steel for
structural purposes, 157.

*Bhutan frontier, an expiring race on the,
T. D. Beighton on, 591.

Bicircular quartics, the geometrical treat-
ment of, F. Purser on, 465.

Binaural audition, the phenomena of,
Prof. 8. P. Thompson on, 601.

Biological Section, Address by Prof. W.
H. Flower to the, 549.

Boarding-out of pauper children, Miss
I. M. Tod on the, 659.

Boilers, the design and use of, F. J.
Rowan on, 712.

Bottomley (J. T.) on the elasticity of
wires, 103; on the effect of propellers
on the steering of vessels, 419.

Bourne (S.) on a common measure of
value in direct taxation, 220.

Brabrook (E. W.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 152; ona
colour scale, 582.

Bramwell (F. J.) on the elasticity of
wires, 103; on patent legislation, 157 ;
on the use of steel for structural pur-
poses, 157; on instruments for mea-
suring the speed of ships, 219.

*Briges (R.) on the system of dredging
usually employed in the United States,
713.

Brooke (C.) on observations of luminous
meteors during the years 1877-78, 258.

*Brooke (Sir V.) on certain osteological
characters in the Cervidx, and their
probable bearings on the past history
of the group, 559.

Brown (J.) on the theory of voltaic
action, 498.

Brunel (H. M.) on instruments for mea-
suring the speed of ships, 219.

Buckland (Miss A. W.) on the prehistoric
monuments of Cornwall as compared
with those of Ireland, 578.

Burrell (A.) on the geographical distri-
bution of the tea plant, 638.

Burton (Capt. R. F.) on the land of
Midian, 630.

Busk (Prof. G.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 124; on the examination
of two caves near Tenby, 209; on the
exploration of the settle Caves (Vic-
toria Cave), 377.

Byrne’s compound plate pneumatic bat-
tery, W. Ladd on, 448.

Caird (M.) on a common measure of
value in direct taxation, 220.

INDEX.

*Calorific power of alimentary substances,
a direct method for determining the,
J. A. Wanklyn and W. J. Cooper on,
605.

Campbell (Sir G.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 152; on a
common measure of value in direct
taxation, 220.

Campbell (J. H. M.) on the social aspects
of trades unionism, 676.

Canadian statistics, A. E. Bateman on,
658.

Carbutt (E. H.) on patent legislation,
157; on the use of steel for structural
purposes, 157.

* Cardamine pratensis, exhibition of ger-
minating specimens of,.by Dr. J. Price,
572.

Cardiac hypertrophy, the rate of, W. H.
Stone on, 608.

Carpenter (Dr.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 149.

Carpenter (W. L.) on water from the
Severn Tunnel springs, 511.

Casey ( Prof.) on a new form of tangential
equation, 457. :
Cayley (Prof.) on Babbage’s analytical
machine, 92; on mathematical tables,

172.

Cephalotus, the six-celled glands of, and
their similarity to the glands of Sar-
racenia purpurea, Prof. A. Dickson on,
569.

*Cervide, certain osteological characters
in the, and their probable bearings on
the past history of the group, Sir V.
Brooke on, 559.

“Cervus Megaceros,” W. Williams on,
537.

Chadwick (Mr.) on a common measure
of value in direct taxation, 220.

*« Challenger ” Expedition, the progress
of the official report of the, Sir C.
Wyville Thomson on, 633. i

Chasles’s theorem on systems of conics
satisfying four conditions, Halphen’s
new form of, Dr. T. A. Hirst on, 464.

Chemical Section, Prof. M. Simpson’s
Address to the, 501.

Chiroptera, report on the geographical dis-
tribution of the, by G. E. Dobson, 158.

Chlorine, the action of, upon the nitro-
prussides, Prof. E. W. Davy on, 505.

Chlorochromic anhydride, the absorption
spectrum of, G. J. Stoney and Prof. J.
EH. Reynolds .on, 434.

Circulating decimals, J. W. L. Glaisher
on, 471.

Circulation of the underground waters
in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone, and

- Permian formations of England, and
the quantity and character of the
waters supplied to various towns and

717

districts from these formations, fourth
report on the, with appendix, by I.
Roberts, on the filtration of water
through Triassic Sandstone, 382.

Clarke (Hyde) on the prehistoric rela-
tions of the Babylonian, Egyptian,
and Chinese characters and culture,
590.

Clifford (Prof.) on Babbage’s analytical
machine, 92.

Climate of the British Islands, Prof. H.
Hennessy on the, 485.

Clock with detached train, Prof. G.
Forbes on a, 449.

Close (Rev. M. H.) on the extent of geo-
logical time, 548.

“Close time” for indigenous animals,
report on the possibility of establish-
ing a, 146.

Coal-gas of different qualities, report on
the best means for the development of
light from: Part I., 108.

Co-efficient of friction between surfaces
moving at high velocities, general re-
sults of some recent experiments upon
the, by Capt. D. Galton, 438.

*Colorado, the Saurians of the Dakota
cretaceous rocks of, Prof. E. D. Cope
on, 545.

Colour scale, E. W. Brabrook on a, 582.

*Commensalism in the holothuria, Dr. A.
F. Anderson on a case of, 559,

Commerce, the courses of migration and,
traced by art relics and religious
emblems, Dr. J. S. Phené on, 583.

Commercial crises, the periodicity of, and
its physical explanation, by Prof. W. S.
Jevons, 666.

Common measure of value in direct tax-
ation, report on a, 220.

Conic in space, the eighteen co-ordinates
of a, W. Spottiswoode on, 462.

Control of rivers, W. Shelford on the, 690.

Cook (E. H.) on the Adulteration Act in
so far as it relates to the prosecution
of milk sellers, 506.

Cooper (W. J.) and Prof. Wanklyn *on a
method of elementary organic analysis
by a moist process, 517; *on a direct
method for determining the calorific
power of alimentary substances, 605.

Cope (Prof. E. D.) *on the Saurians of
the Dakota cretaceous rocks of
Colorado, 545; *on the vertebrata of
the Permian formation of Texas, 571.

Copyhold enfranchisement, the applica-
tion of, to long leases in Ireland, J. H.
Edge on, 663. ;

Correlation of lines of direction on the
globe, and particularly of coast lines,
Prof. J. R. O’Reilly on the, 547.

Crania, human, methods and results of
measurements of the capacity of, by
Prof. W. H. Flower, 581.

718

*Creation of a public commission to pur-
chase land for resale to occupiers in
Treland, F. Nolan on the, 622.

Crookes’s force, apparatus employed in
researches on, R. J. Moss on, 489.

Cross-fertilisation off plants by insects,
some mechanical arrangements sub-
serving, A. S. Wilson on, 568.

Crosskey (Rev. H. W.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
185; on the exploration of the Settie
Caves (Victoria Cave), 377; on the
circulation of underground waters,
382.

Crustacea, report on the present state of
our knowledge of the: Part IV., On
Development, by C. 8. Bate, 193.

——, the Willemesia group of the, C. 5.
Bate on, 561.

*Crystalline rocks, the origin of,, T. S.
Hunt on, 536.

a of Donegal, the age of the, Prof.
W. King on, 547.

*Ctenodus (Agassiz), the genus, Dr. R.
H. Traquair on, 571.

Cubic surface referred to a pentad of

+ co-tangential points, H. M. Jeffery on
a, 491.

Cunningham (Dr. D. J.) on the intrinsic
muscles of the mammalian foot, 599.

*Cyprus,, Major Wilson on, 637.

the acquisition by England of, Dr.

J. S. Phené on, 634.

Dall (W. H.) on the characteristic
features of the Alaska, as developed
by the U.S. Survey, 633. — +

Darwin (G. H.) on the precession of a
viscous spheroid, 482.

Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of
Great Britain, second report of the
Committee appointed to consider the,
with a view to its establishment on a
surer foundation than hitherto, and to
tabulate and compare other datum-
marks, 219.

Davidson (Mr.) on the Kentish boring
exploration, 380.

Davis (J. W.) on the occurrence of certain
fish remains in the coal measures, and
the evidence they afford of their fresh-
water origin, 539.

Davy (Prof. E. W.) on the action of
chlorine upon the nitroprussides, 505 ;
on the action of heat on the selenate
of ammonium, 509.

Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the ex-
ploration of Kent’s Cavern, 124; on
the erratic blocks of England, Wales,
and Ireland, 185; on the examination
of two caves near Tenby, 209; on the
exploration of the Settle Caves (Victo-
ria Cave), 377.

REPORT— 1878.

Day (St. J. V.) on patent legislation,
157

Deacon (J. F.) on the datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, and .
the tabulation and comparison of other
datum-marks, 219.

Deane (Dr.) on the erratic blocks of!
England, Wales, and Ireland, 185.

De La Rue (Dr.) on the oscillation-fre-
quencies of solar rays, 37.

De Rance (Mr.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 382.

and Capt. Feilden on the geological
results of the late British Arctic Ex-
pedition, 548.

Desirability of simultaneous and iden-
tical legislation for England and Ire-
land, H. L. Jephson on the, 673.

*Dewar (Prof. J.) on the condensation
of the gases hitherto called permanent,
517.

Dew-Smith (Mr.) on the occupation of
a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 149.

Diagonal eyepiece for certain optical
experiments, Prof. G. Forbes on a, 449.

Diatoms, the supposed radiolarians and,
of the carboniferous rocks, Prof. W.
C. Williamson on, 534.

Dickinson (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 178.

Dickson (Prof. A.) on the stipules of
Spergularia marina, 568; on the in-
florescence of Senebiera didyma, 569;
on the six-celled glands of Cephalotus,
and their similarity to the glands of
Sarracenia purpurea, 569; exhibition
of specimens of Jsvetes echinospora, 570.

Dillon (Capt.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 152.

Dillon(J.) on the effect of river or arterial
drainage works upon river floods, 687.

Dillon (T. A.) on a new ship-raising ma-
chine, 713.

Dimensional equations, Prof. J. Thomson
on, 451.

Dimorphic plants, A. 8. Wilson on some,
568.

Disruptive discharge in air, the effect of
variation of pressure on the length of,
J. E..H. Gordon on, 433.

Distant (Mr.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 152.

Dittmar (Prof.) on the best means for
the development of light from coal-
gas, 108.

Dobson (G. E.) on the geographical dis-
tribution of the Chiroptera, 158.

*Donegal, the age of the crystalline
rocks of, Prof. W. King on, 547.

Drainage of the fenland,the, considered in
relation to the conservancy of the rivers
of Great Britain, W. H. Wheeler on,
603.

INDEX.

*Dredging, the system of, usually em-
ployed in the United States, R. Briggs
on, 713.

Dresser (H. E.) on the possibility of
establishing a “close time” for indi-
genous animals, 146.

*Dublin, the environs of, sketch of the
geology of, by Prof. E. Hull, 527.

~, the port of, recent improvements in,
B. B. Stoney on, 167.

*___ Waterworks, P. Neville on the, 712.

Ducie (the Earl of) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 152.

*Harth’s axis, Rev. Prof. Haughton on
the, 548.

*Karthworks Committee, report of the,
580.

Easton (E.), Address by, to the Mechani-
cal Section, 679.

Kclipse totale et la couronne, Dr. J.
Janssen sur l’, 445.

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
by Prof. J. K. Ingram to the Section of,
641.

Edge (J. H.) on the application of copy-
hold enfranchisement to long Jeases in
Treland, the assimilation of chattel and
freehold succession, and the simplifi-
cation of transfer of land, 663.

Edmunds’ electrical phonoscope, W.
Ladd on, 448.

Elasticity of wires, secular experiments
upon the, report of the Committee for
commencing, 103.

Electric lighting, the present state of,
J. N. Shoolbred on, 706.

Electrical properties of bees’ wax and
lead clloride, Profs. J. Perry and W. E.
Ayrton on the, 497.

Electro-magnetic unit, a new determina-
tion of the number of electrostatic
units in the, by Profs. W. E. Ayrton
and J. Perry, 487.

*Electrometer, a new form of trapdoor,
Prof. Barrett on, 495. ;

Electro registering apparatus, a new
form of, D. Lane on, 454.

Electrostatic units in the electro-mag-
netic unit, a new determination of the
number of, by Profs. W. E. Ayrton
and J. Perry, 487.

*Elementary organic analysis by a moist
process, a method of, Prof. Wanklyn
and W. J. Cooper on, 517.

Elliot (Sir W.) on the habits of the field-

vole (Arvicola agrestis, L.), 559.

*Equatorial mounting for a three-foot
reflector, the Earl of Rosse on an, 477.

Eribollia Mackayi, a new fossil from the
Assynt quartzite in the North-Western
Highlands of Scotland, Prof. J. Nicol
on, 545.

719

Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Treland, sixth report on the, 185.

Etheridge (Mr.) on the Kentish boring
exploration, 380.

Ethnological interest, some objects of,
collected in India and its islands, V.
Ball on, 588.

Evans (Capt.) and Sir Wm. Thomson on
the tides of the southern hemisphere
and of the Mediterranean, 477.

Evans (Dr.J.)on the exploration of Kent's
Cavern, 124; on the examination of
two caves near Tenby, 209; Address
by, to the Geological Section, 519; on
some fossils from the Northampton
Sands, 534.

Everett (Prof.) on arrangements for
taking certain observations in India,
and observations on atmospheric elec-
tricity at Madeira, 103; on under-
ground temperature, 178.

Excretion of nitrogen, the: Part II., By
the skin, J. B. Power on, 602.

Factor table for the fourth million, ac-
count of the calculation of the, 172.
Falk (M.), elementary demonstration of
the theorem of multiplication of deter-

minants, 473.

Farmers, small, the condition of, and
their position with reference to the
land question, M. O’Brien on, 661.

Farr (Dr.) on Babbage’s analytical ma-
chine, 92; on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 152; on acommon
measure of value in direct taxation,
220.

Feilden (Capt.) and Mr. De Rance on
the geological results of the late British
Arctic Expedition, 548.

Fellows (F. P.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 152.

Fermanagh Caves, report on the explora-
tion of the, 183.

Fez and Mequinez, a journey to, Dr. A.
Leared on, 631.

Field (R.) on the datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, and’
the tabulation and comparison of other
datum-marks, 219.

Field-vole (Arvicola agrestis, L.), the
habits of the, Sir W. Elliot on, 559.
Filtration of water through Triassic

sandstone, I. Roberts on the, 397.

Fire-damp in mines, an instrument for
indicating and measuring the, Prof. G.
Forbes on, 449.

Fish remains in the coal-measures, the
occurrence of certain, and the evidence
they afford of their fresh-water origin,
J. W. Davis on, 539.

FitzGerald (G. F.) on surface tension,
436; on the theory of muscular con-
traction, 601.

720

FitzGerald (G. F.) G. J. Stoney, and R.
J. Moss on the support of spheroidal
drops and allied phenomena, 441.

Fletcher (A. E.) on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 219.

Flight (W.) on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1877-78,
258.

Flint factories at Portstewart and else-
where in the North of Ireland, W. J.
Knowles on, 579.

Flood waters of rivers, on movable and
fixed weirs, with reference to the im-
provement of the navigation, mill
power, and drainage of, with especial
notice of the River Shannon, by J.
Neville, 691.

Flow of water in uniform régime in
rivers and in open channels generally,
Prof. J. Thomson on the, 434.

Flower (Prof.) on the work of the An-

' thropometric Committee, 152; Address
by, to the Biological Section, 549 ;
methods and results of measurements

of the capacity of the human crania, ~

581.

Fog signals, a short description of two
kinds of, by J. R. Wigham, 437.

Forbes (Prof. G.) on arrangements for
taking certain observations in India,
and observations on atmospheric elec-
tricity at Madeira, 103; on observa-
tions of luminous meteors during the
year 1877-78, 258; on a diagonal eye-
piece for certain optical experiments,
449; on a clock with detached train,
449; on an instrument for indicating
and measuring the fire-damp in mines,
449; on the mutual action of vortex
atoms and ultramundane corpuscles,
498.

Fossils from the Northampton Sands, J.
Evans on some, 534.

in the North-West Highlands of

Scotland, report on the, 130.

, Irish, some new species of, W. H.
Baily on, 535.

Foster (Dr. C. Le Neve) on underground
temperature, 178.

Foster (Dr. M.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 149.

Fox (Major-Gen. Lane) on the work of
the Anthropometric Committee, 152 ;
on the examination of two caves near
Tenby, 209; *on excavations at Mount
Caburn, Lewes, Sussex, 580.

Froude (W.) on the elasticity of wires,
103; ou the phenomena of the sta-
tionary tides in the English Channel
and the North Sea, and the value of
tidal observations in the North Atlantic
Ocean, 217; on instruments for mea-
suring the speed of ships, 219; on the

REPORT—1878.

effect of propellers on the steering of
vessels, 419.

Fuller (Prof.) on Babbage’s analytical
machine, 92.

Furfurol, some of the derivatives of, Dr.
W. Ramsay on, 512.

Gages (A.) on the influence that micro-
scopic vegetable organisms have had
on the production of some hydrated
iron ores, 545.

Galilee, the survey of, Lieut. H. H.
Kitchener on, 622.

Galloway (Mr.) on underground tempe-
rature, 178. ‘

Galton (Capt. D.) on patent legislation,
157 ; on the use of steel-for structural
purposes, 157 ; on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the
North Atlantic Ocean, 217; on the
datum-level of the Ordnance Survey
of Great Britain, and the tabulation
and comparison of other datum-marks,
219; on the circulation of underground
waters, 382; general results of some
recent experiments upon the co-eflicient
of friction between surfaces moving
at high velocities, 438.

Galton (F.) on the work of the Anthropo-
metric Committee, 152.

Gas for lighthouses, a new application
of, by J. R. Wigham, 436.

*Gases hitherto called permanent, the
condensation of, Prof. J. Dewar on,
517.

Gaussin’s warning regarding the slug-
cishness of ships’ magnetism, Sir Wm.
Thomson on, 496.

Geikie (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 178.

Geographical distribution of the Chi-
roptera, G. E. Dobson on the, 158.

distribution and migrations of birds,

&e., on the northern shores and lands

of Hudson’s Bay, Dr. J. Rae on the,

558.

distribution of the tea plant, A.
Burrell on the, 638.

— Section, Address by Prof. Sir C.
Wyville Thomson to the, 613.

—— significance of North Polar ice, Dr.
E. L. Moss on the 636.

variations on the coast of France,
Dr. J. S. Phené on some, 628.

Geological map of India, the new, V.
Ball on, 532.

relations of the atmosphere, T. 3.

Hunt on the, 544.

results of the late British Arctic

Expedition, Capt. Feilden and Mr. De

Rance on the, 548.

it

INDEX.

Geological Section, J. Evans’s Address to
the, 519.

— Survey of Ireland, the progress of
the, Prof. E. Hull on, 543.

—— time, the extent of, Rev. M. H.
Close on, 548.

*Geology of the environs of Dublin,
sketch of the, by Prof. E. Hull. 527.
*Gill (D.) on a new method of maintain-
ing the motion of a free pendulum in

vacuo, 486.

Gill skeleton of. Selache maxima, Dr. A.
Macalister on the, 600.

Glaciation of Ireland, and the tradition
of Lough Lurgan, W. M. Williams on
the, 528.

Gladstone (Dr.) and A. Tribe on alumi-
nium alcohols, 508.

Glaisher (J.) on mathematical tables,
172; on underground temperature,
178; on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1877-78, 258;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 382.

Glaisher (J.W. L.) on Babbage’s analytical
machine, 92; on mathematical tables,
172; on the law of force to any point
when the orbit is a conic, 464; on the
solution of a differential equation
allied to Riccati’s, 469; on certain spe-
cial enumerations of primes, 470; on
circulating decimals, 471.

Godwin-Austen (Mr.) on the Kentish
boring exploration, 380.

Gordon (J. E. H.), *some experiments
on specific inductive capacity, 433 ; on
the effect of variation of pressure on
the length of disruptive discharge in
air, 433.

Gorilla skeleton, an infantile, some
points in the osteology of, Dr, A.
Thomson on, 597.

Graphic formule, a simplification of, Dr,
O J. Lodge on, 516.

Greg (R. P.) on observations of lumi-
nous meteors during the year 1877-78,
258.

Giinther (Dr. A.) on the possibility of
establishing a “close time” for indi-
‘genous animals, 146.

Hallett (P.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 152; on a com-
mon measure of value in direct taxa-
tion, 220.

Halphen’s new form of Chasles’s theorem
on systems of conics satisfying four
conditions, Dr. T. A. Hirst on, 464.

Hancock (Dr. W. N.) on patent legisla-
tion, 157; on impediments to the
prompt carrying out of the principles

_ conceded by Parliament on the Irish

. land question, 664; some statistical |

3A

1878,

721

researches into the poor removal ques-
tion, with special reference to the
removal of persons of Irish birth from
Scotland, 667; on the importance of
raising Ireland to the level of England
and Scotland in the matter of indus-
trial schools and compulsory education,
674.

Hardman (E. T.) on the exploration of
the Fermanagh Caves, 183; on lead
and platinised lead as a substitute for
carbon and platinised silver in Le-
clanché, bichromate, and Smee’s bat-
teries, 453; on the influence of
“strike”? on the physical features of
Treland, 541; on Hullite, a hitherto un-
described mineral: with notes on the
microscopic appearances, by Prof. E.
Hull, 542.

Harkness (Prof.) on the fossils in the
North-West Highlands of Scotland,
130; on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 185.

Harley (Rey. R.) *on the Stanhope “ de-
monstrator” or logical machine, 442 ;
on certain linear differential equations,
466.

Harrison (J. P.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 152; on
inscribed bone implements, 591.

Harting (J. E.) on the possibility of
establishing a ‘“‘close time ” for indi-
genous animals, 146.

Haughton (Rev, Prof.) on the exploration
of the Fermanagh Caves, 183; *on the
sun-heat received at the severalelati-
tudes of the earth, taking account of
the absorption of heat by the atmo-
sphere, with conclusions as to the
absolute radiation of earth-heat into
space, and the minimum duration of
geological time, 482; *on the earth’s
axis, 548. :

Hawkshaw (Sir J.) on the use of steel
for structural purposes, 157.

Hawkshaw (J. C.) on river control, 687.

Heat, the mechanical equivalent of, third
report of the Committee appointed to
determine, 102.

Henderson (W. D.) on Adam Smith’s
theory of rent, 677.

Hennessy (Prof. H.) on the limits of
hypotheses regarding the physical pro-
perties of the matter of the interior
of the earth, 485; on the climate of
the British Islands, 485.

Herschel (Prof. A. 8.) on experiments to
determine the thermal conductivities
of certain rocks, 133 ; on underground
temperature, 178; on observations of
luminous .meteors during the year
1877-78, 258. ;

Heywood (J.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 152; on a com-

722

mon measure of value in direct taxa-
tion, 220.

Hicks (Dr. H.) on some new areas of pre-
Cambrian rocks in North Wales, 536.

Hicks (W. M.) on the mation of two
cylinders in a fluid, 475.

*Hinton (B. H.) on space numbers: an
extension of arithmetic, 486.

Hirst (Dr. T. A.) on Halphen’s new form
of Chasles’s theorem on systems of
conics satisfying four conditions,
464.

Holland (Rey. F. W.), a journey on foot
through Arabia Petrea, 622.

*Holopus, the genus, Sir Wyville Thom-
son on, 571.

*Holothuria, a case of commensalism in
the, Dr. A. F. Anderson on, 559.

Howell (H. H.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 382.

Howorth (H. H.) on the mammoth in
Siberia, 571; *on the spread of the
Sclavs, 590. :

Hubbard (Rt. Hon. J. G.) on a common
measure of value in direct taxation,
220.

Huggins (Dr.) on the oscillation-fre-
quencies of solar rays, 37.

Hughes (Prof. T. McK.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
185; on the exploration of the Settle
Caves (Victoria Cave), 377.

Hull (Prof. E.) on underground tempera-
ture, 178; on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 382; *sketch of the
geology of the environs of Dublin,
527; on the microscopic appearances
of Hullite, a hitherto undescribed
mineral, 542; on the progress of the
Geological Survey of Ireland, 543.

Hullite, a hitherto undescribed mineral,
E. T. Hardman on: with notes on the
microscopic appearances, by Prof. E.
Hull, 542.

Hunt (T. 8.) *on the origin of crystalline
rocks, 536; on the geological rela-
tions of the atmosphere, 544.

Hutchinson (T. J.) on some tribes of
tropical aborigines, 589.

Huxley (Prof.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 149; Address by, to the De-
partment of Anthropology, 573.

Hydrated iron ores, the influence that
microscopic vegetable organisms have
had on the production of, A. Gages on,
545.

Hydrogeological survey of England, J.
Lucas on the, 692.

Importance of raising Ireland to the
level of England and Scotland in the
matter of industrial schools and com-

REPORT— 1878.

pulsory education, Dr. W. N. Hancock
on the, 674.

India, observations in, report on arrange-
ments for the taking of, 103.

——, the new geological map of, V. Ball
on, 532.

*Indigo, Baeyer’s synthesis of, a short
account of, by Prof. J. EH. Reynolds,
517.

Ingram (Prof. J. K.), Address by, to the
Section of Economic Science and Sta-
tistics, 641.

Insane, the education and training of
the, Dr. J. Lalor on, 667.

Inscribed bone implements, J. P. Harri-
son on, 591. .

Insect-fertilised flowers, the association
of an inconspicuous corolla with pro-
terogynous dichogamy in, A.S. Wilson
on, 564,

Instruments for measuring the speed of
ships, report on, 219. .

Interior of the earth, the limits of hypo-
theses regarding the physical proper-
ties of the matter of the, Prof. H.
Hennessy on. 485.

Intrinsic muscles of the mammalian foot,
Dr. D. J. Cunningham on the, 599.

Ireland, the Geological Survey of, Prof.

E. Hull on the progress of, 543.

—._, the glaciation of, and the tradition
of Lough Lurgan, W. M. Williams on
the, 528.

——,, the influence of “strike ’’ on the
physical features of, E. T. Hardman
on, 541,

—_—., the rainfall of, G. J. Symons on,
692.

Trish fossils, some new species of, W. H.
Baily on, 535. 5

land question, impediments to the
prompt carrying out of the principles
conceded by Parliament on the, Dr.
W. N. Hancock on, 664.

Trlande, les races anciennes de 1’, par H.
Martin, 585.

Isochronic pendulum, D. Lane on an,
455.

Tsoetes echinospura, exhibition of speci-
mens of, by Prof. A. Dickson, 570.

*Jacob (A. E.), exhibition of a wryneck
obtained in Ireland, 572.

Janssen (Dr. J.) sur une nouvelle méthode
de photographie solaire et les décou-
vertes qu’elle donne touchant la vérit-
able nature de la photosphére, 443; sur
la constitution des spectres photogra-
phiques quand l’action lumineuse est
extrémement courte, 445; sur l’éclipse
totale et la couronne, 445.

Jeffery (H. M.) on the spherical class-

ee

cubic with three single foci, 490; ona —

_— question, the condition of small

:

INDEX.

cubic surface referred to a pentad of
co-tangential points, 491.

Jeffreys (Dr. Gwyn) on the possibility of
establishing a “ close time ” for indi-
genous animals, 146; on the occupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 149.

Jephson (H. L.) on the desirability. of
simultaneous and identical legislation
for England and Ireland, 673.

Jevons (Prof.) on a common measure of
value in direct taxation, 220; on the
pedetic action of soap, 435 ; the perio-
dicity of commercial crises, and its
physical explanation, 666.

Jolly (W.) on the fossils in the North-
West Highlands of Scotland, 130.

Joule (Dr.) on the mechanical equivalent
of heat, 102.

Kennedy (Prof. A. B. W.) on Babbage’s
analytical machine, 92. ;

Kentish boring exploration, report on
the, 380.

Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, fourteenth
report of the Committee for exploring,
124,

*King (Prof. W.) on the age of the
crystalline rocks of Donegal, 547.

Kitchener (Lieut. H. H.) on the survey
of Galilee, 624.

Knowles (W. J.) on flint factories at
Portstewart and elsewhere in the North
of Ireland, 579.

Labyrinthodont amphibia and fish found
in the coal of Jarrow colliery, near
Castlecomer, county of Kilkenny, Ire-
land, W. H. Baily on some additional,
530.

Ladd (W.) on Edmunds’ electrical phono-
scope, 448 ; on Byrne’s compound plate
pneumatic battery, 448.

Lagrange’s determinental equation of
small oscillations, the occurrence of
equal roots in, F. Purser on, 463.

*___ equations, the applicability of, to
certain problems of fluid motion, Prof.
J. Purser on, 463.

*Lake Lob, Richthofen, Prejevalsky, and,
E. D. Morgan on, 629.

Lalor (Dr. J.) on the education and
training of the insane, 667.

*Land, the creation of a public commis-
sion to purchase, for resale to occupiers
in Ireland, F. Nolan on, 662.

—, the simplification of transfer of,
J. H. Edge on, 663.

farmers, and their position with re-
ference to the, M. O’Brien on, 661.
Lane (D.), on a new form of electro re-

723

gistering apparatus, 454; on an iso-
chronic pendulum, 455.

Lankester (Prof. Ray) on the occupa-
tion of'atable at the zoological station
at Naples, 149.

Law (H.) on the discharge of sewage in
tidal rivers, 695. °

Law of force to any point when the orbi
is a conic, J. W. L. Glaisher on the,
464.

Lawson (Inspector-Gen.) on the work of
the Anthropometric Committee, 152.
Lead and platinised lead as a substitute
for carbon and platinised silver in
Leclanché, bichromate, and Smee’s
batteries, H. T. Hardman on, 453.

chloride, the electrical properties
of bees’ wax and, Profs. J. Perry and
W. E. Ayrton on, 497.

Leared (Dr. A.) on a journey to Fez and
Mequinez, 631.

Lebour (G. A.) on experiments to deter-
mine the thermal conductivities of
certain rocks, 133; on underground
temperature, 178; on the circulation
of underground waters, 382; on the
discovery of marine shells in the
Gannister beds of Northumberland,
539.

Lee (J. E.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 124; on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 185.

Lefevre (G. Shaw) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 152.

Left-handedness, Dr. H. Muirhead on,
582.

*Lepidoptera, Irish, recent additions to
the list of, by R. H. Sinclair, 572.

Letts (Prof. EH. A.) on the thetines, 511.

Levant, the islands in the, Dr. J. §.
Phené on, 634.

Levi (Prof. L.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 152; on a
common measure of value in direct
taxation, 220.

Lewis (A. L.) on the evils arising from
the use of historical national names as
scientific terms, 583.

Lewis (Dr. W.)on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 152.

Lift-bridge, a new, for the Midland
Great Western Railway, over the
Royal Canal at Newcomen Bridge,
Dublin, description of, by B. B.
Stoney, 697. 4

*Lightning conductors, R. Anderson on,
457.

Linear differential equations, Rev. R.
Harley on certain, 466.

Livingstonia: the opening up of the
East African lake district, by J. Ste-
venson, 636.

Lockyer (J. N.) on the oscillation-fre-
quencies of solar rays, 37,

342

724

Lodge (Dr. O. J.) on a simplification of
graphic formule, 516.

and Prof. S. P. Thompson on uni-
lateral conductivity in tourmaline
crystals, 495.

Lough Lurgan, the tradition of, W. M.

« Williams on, 528.

Lubbock (Sir J.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 124; on the exploration
of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave),
377; *on the habits of ants, 559.

Lucas (J.) on the hydrogeological survey
of England, 692.

Luff (A. P.) on the chemistry of some of
the lesser-known alkaloids, especially
veratria and bebeerine, 105.

Luminous meteors, report on observations
of, during the year 1877-78, 258.

Lynam (J.) on the River Shannon: its
present’ state, and the means of im-
proving the navigation and the drain-
age, 699.

Macalister (Dr. A.) on the exploration of
the Fermanagh Caves, 183; on the gill
skeleton of Selache maxima, 600.

McDonnell (Dr. R.), Address by, to the
Department of Anatomy and Physio-
logy, 593.

Mackintosh (D.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 185,

Macrory (Mr.) on patent legislation, 157.

Madeira, observations on atmospheric
electricity at, report on arrangements
for the taking of, 103.

Magnetic figures, new, Prof. S, P. Thomp-
son on, 450,

Magnetism, ships’, Gaussin’s warning re-
garding the sluggishness of, Sir Wm.
Thomson on, 496.

*Maguire (Prof.) on the definitions of
political economy, 667.

Mammalian foot, the intrinsic muscles
of the, Dr. D. J. Cunningham on,
599.

Mammoth in Siberia, H, H. Howorth on
the, 571.

*Man, new varieties of, Prof. D. Wilson
on some American illustrations of,
583.

Map-producing, processes of, Capt. J.
Waterhouse on, 628.

Marine shells, the discovery of, in the
Gannister beds of Northumberland, G.
A. Lebour on, 539.

Martin (H.), les races anciennes de
l’Irlande, 585.

Mathematical tables, report on, 172.

Maxwell (Prof. J. C.) on the mechanical
equivalent of heat, 102; on the elas-
ticity of wires, 103; on underground
temperature, 178.

Mechanical equivalent of heat, third

REPORT—1878.

report of the Committee appointed to
determine the, 102.

Mechanical Section, Address by E. Easton
to the, 679.

*Medusz, the nervous system of the, G.
J. Romanes on, 601.

Meldrum, (C.), report on sunspots and
rainfall, 230.

Mequinez, a journey to Fez and, Dr. A.
Leared on, 631.

Merrifield (C. W.) on Babbage’s analytical
machine, 92; on patent legislation,
157; on instruments for measuring
the speed of ships, 219.

Metamorphic and intrusive rocks of
Tyrone, J. Nolan on the, 536.

*Meyer’s (Victor) apparatus for taking
vapour densities of substances with
high boiling points, exhibition of, by
Dr. Ramsay, 517.

Miall (Prof. L. C.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 185 ;
on the exploration of the Settle Caves
(Victoria Cave), 377.

Microphone, a new form of receiving in-
strument for, W. J. Millar on, 446.

Midian, the land of, Capt. R. F. Burton
on, 630.

Migration and commerce, the courses of,
traced by art relics and religious em-
blems, Dr. J. 8S. Phené on, 583.

Millar (W. J.) ona new form of receiving
instrument for microphone, 446.

Mineral oil or paraffin wax, the estima-
tion of, when mixed with other oils or
fats, W. Thomson on, 508.

—— white pigment, a new, Dr. T. L.
Phipson on, 514.

*Mining lamp, a new form of, Dr. C. Ball
on, 698,

*Modular curves, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith on
the, 463.

Molloy (B. C.) on nitric acid: its repro-
duction from the lower oxides of nitro-
gen, 512.

Molyneux (W.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 185; on
the circulation of underground waters,
382.

Monahan (J. H.), suggestions for a Bill
to regulate sales of property, 662.

*Morgan (E. D.) on Richthofen, Preje-
valsky, and Lake Lob, 629.

Morley (Mr.) on a common measure of
value in direct taxation, 220.

Morris (W.) on the temperature of the
earth within, 456.

Morton (G. H.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 185; on
the circulation of underground waters,
382. =

*Moss (Dr. E. L.) on the geographi-
cal significance of North Polar ice,
636,

/
/ :

INDEX.

Moss (R. J.) on apparatus employed in
researches on Crookes’s force, 489; on
spheroidal drops, 489.

—, G. J. Stoney, and G. F. Fitzgerald
on the support of spheroidal drops and
allied phenomena, 441.

*Motion of a free pendulum in vacuo, a
new method of maintaining the, D. Gill
on, 486.

— of two cylinders in a fluid, W. M.
Hicks on the, 475.

Motions produced by dilute acids on
some amalgam surfaces, R. Sabine on,
435.

Mouat (Dr.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 152.

*Mount Caburn, Lewes, Sussex, exca-
vations at, Maj.-Gen. Lane Fox on,
580.

Muirhead (Dr. H.) on left-handedness,
582.

Multiplication of determinants, elemen-
tary demonstration of the theorem of,
by M. Falk, 473.

Muscular contraction, the theory of, G. F.
Fitzgerald on, 601.

Naegele’s obliquely contracted pelvis, the
aberrant form of the sacrum:connected
with, Dr. A. Thomson on, 605.

* Naiadacee, Dr. I. B. Balfour on, 570.

Napier (J. R.) on patent legislation, 157;
on instruments for measuring the speed
of ships, 219; on the effect of pro-
pellers on the steering of vessels,
419.

Nectar of flowers, A. 8. Wilson on the,
567.

*Nervous system of the Meduse, G. J.
Romanes on the, 601.

Neville (J.) on movable and fixed weirs,
with reference to the improvement of
the navigation, mill power, and drain-
age of flood waters of rivers, with
especial notice of the River Shannon,
691.

*Neville (P.) on the Dublin Waterworks,
712.

Newmarch (Mr.) on patent legislation,
157; on a common measure of value
in direct taxation, 220.

Newton (Prof.) on the possibility of es-
tablishing a “close time” for indige-
nous animals, 146.

Nicol (Prof. J.) on Eribollia Mavkayi, a
new fossil from the Assynt quartzite in
the North-Western Highlands of Seot-
land, 545.

Nitric acid: its reproduction from the
lower oxides of nitrogen, B. C. Molloy
on, 512.

Nitrogen, the excretion of: Part II., By
the skin, J. B. Power on, 602.

725

Nitroprussides, the action of chlorine
upon the, Prof. E. W. Davy on, 505.
*Nolan (F.) on the creation of a public
commission to purchase land for resale

to occupiers in Ireland, 662.

Nolan (J.) on the ancient voleanic dis-
trict of Slieve Gullion, 527; on the
metamorphic and intrusive rocks of
Tyrone, 536.

*North Polar ice, the geographical sig-
nificance of, Dr. E. L. Moss on, 636.
Wales, some new areas of pre-Cam-
brian rocks in, Dr. H. Hicks on, 536.
Northampton Sands, some fossils from

the, J. Evans on, 534.

Numerical science, some verbal expres-

sions in, Prof. J. Thomson on, 451.

O’Brien (M.) on the condition of small
farmers, and their position with re-
ference to the land question, 661.

Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, second
report of the Committee appointed to
consider the datum level of the, with
a view to its establishment on a surer
foundation than hitherto, and to tabu-
late and compare other datum-marks,
219.

O’Reilly (Prof. J. P.) on the correlation
of lines of direction on the globe, and
particularly of coast lines, 547.

Oscillation-frequencies of solar rays, ca-
talogne of the, 37.

Osteology of an infantile gorilla skeleton,
Dr. A. Thomson on some points in the,
597.

Paraffin wax, the estimation of mineral
oil or, when mixed with other oils or
fats, W. Thomson on, 508.

Parsons (Hon. R. C.), a system of venti-
lation by means of fans and punkahs
worked by compressed air, for use in
hospitals and barracks in India and
other tropical climates, 710.

Patent legislation, report of the Com-
mittee appointed to watch and report
to the Council on, 157.

Pauper children, the boarding-out of,
Miss I. M. Tod on, 659.

Pedetic action of soap, Prof. W.8. Jevons
on the, 435.

Pengelly (W.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 124; on underground
temperature, 178; on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 185 ;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 382; on the relative ages of
the raised beaches and submerged
forests of Torbay, 531.

Periodicity of commercial crises, the, and
its physical explanation, by Prof. W. S.
Jevons, 666.

726

Perry (Prof. J.) and Prof. W. E. Ayrton, a
new determination of the number of
electrostatic units in the electro-
magnetic unit, 487; on the electrical
properties of bees’ wax and lead chlo-
ride, 497.

Phené (Dr. J. 8.) on the courses of mi-
gration and commerce, traced by art
relics and religious emblems, 583; on
some geographical variations on the
coast of France, 628; on the acquisi-
tion by England of Cyprus, and some
observations on the islands in the
Levant, 634.

Phipson (Dr. T. L.) on some substances
obtained from the root of the straw-
berry, 514; on @ new mineral white
pigment, 514,

Phonoscope, Hdmunds’
Ladd on, 448.

*Photo-chemical printing in metallic
platinum, a new process of, W. Willis,
jun., on, 518.

Photographie solaire, une nouvelle mé-
thode de, et les découvertes qu'elle
donne touchant la véritable nature
de la photosphere, Dr. J. Janssen
sur, 443.

Physieal properties of the:matter of the
interior of the earth, the limits of
hypotheses regarding the, Prof. H.
Hennessy on, 485.

Physiology, Anatcmy and, Address by
Dr. McDonnell to the Department of,
593.

Plant (J.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 185; on the
circulation of underground waters, 382.

Plunkett (T.) on the exploration of the
Fermanagh Caves, 183.

Pneumatic battery, Byrne’s compound
plate, W. Ladd on, 448.

Polariscope, a new form of, by Prof. W.
G. Adams, 486.

Pole (Dr.) on Babbage’s analytical ma-
chine, 92.

*Political economy, the definitions of,
Prof. Maguire on, 667.

Poor removal question, some statistical
researches into the, with special refer-
ence to the removal of persons of Irish
birth from Scotland, by Dr. W. N.
Hancock, 667.

Power (J. B.) on the excretion of nitro-
gen: Part II., By the skin, 602.

‘Pre-Cambrian rocks in North Wales, some
new areas of, Dr. H. Hieks on, 536.

-Precession of a viscous spheroid, G. H.
Darwin on the, 482.

*Preece (W. H.) on recent improvements
in telegraphic apparatus, 697.

Prehistoric monuments of Cornwall as
compared with those of Jreland, Miss
A. W. Buckland on the, 578.

electrical, W.

REPORT—1878.

Prehistoric relations of the Babylonian,
Egyptian, and Chinese characters and
culture, Hyde Clarke on the, 590.

— sculptures of Ilkley, Yorkshire, J. R.
Allen on the, 580.

*Prejevalsky, Richthofen, and Lake Lob,
EK. D. Morgan on, 629.

Prestwich (Prof.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 185 ;
on the exploration of the Settle Caves
(Victoria Cave), 377; on the Kentish
boring exploration, 380; on the cireu-
lation of underground waters, 382.

Price (F. G. H.) on the examination of
two caves near Tenby, 209.

*Price (Dr. J.), exhibition of germinating
specimens of Cardamine pratensis, 572.

Price (J.) on the use of wind power for
raising water, disposal of sewage, and
drainage, with special reference to
Treland, 709.

Primes, certain special enumerations of,
J. W. L. Glaisher on, 470.

Primitive human family, C. 8. Wake on
the, 592.

Propellers, the effect of, on the steering
of vessels, report on, 419.

Purser (F.) on the occurrence of equal
roots in Lagrange’s determinental
equation of small oscillations, 463 ; on
the geometrical treatment of bicircular
quartics, 465.

*Purser (Prof. J.) on the applicability of
Lagrange’s equations to certain pro-
blems of fluid motion, 463. F

Pyridine series, summary of investiga-
tions on the, by Dr. W. Ramsay, 511.

*Quadric transformation, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith on, 465.

”

Races anciennes de 1’Irlande, les, par H.
Martin, 585.

*Radiolarians, some deep sea, Sir Wyville
Thomson on, 571.

— and diatoms of the carboniferous
rocks, the supposed, Prof. W. C. William-
son on, 534.

Rae (Dr. J.) on the geographical distri-
bution and migrations of birds, &c., on
the northern shores and lands of
Hudson’s Bay, 558; *on the best route
to attain a high northern latitude, or
the Pole itself, 636.

Rainbows, certain phenomena accom:
panying, Prof. 8. P. Thompson on, 45Q.

Rainfall, sunspots and, report on, by C.
Meldrum, 230.

—— of Ireland, G. J. Symons on the,
692.

Ramsay (Dr. W.), summary of investiga-
tions on the pyridine series, 511; on

a a

INDEX.

some of the derivatives of furfurol,
512; *exhibition of Victor Meyer’s
apparatus for taking vapour densities
of substances with high boiling points,
517.

Ramsay (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 178.

Rawson (Sir R.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 152.

Reade (M.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 382.

Redgrave (A.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 152.

Rent, Adam Smith’s theory of, W. D.
Henderson on, 677.

Reynolds (Prof. J.‘E.) on the oscillation-
frequencies of solar rays, 37; *a short
account of Baeyer’s synthesis of indigo,
517.

and G. J. Stoney on the absorption
spectrum of chlorochromic anhydride,
434.

—— (Prof. 0.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tidesin the English Chan-
nel and the North Sea, and the value of
tidal observations in the North Atlantic
Ocean, 217; on the effect of propellers
on the steering of vessels, 419; on the
steering of screw steamers, 697.

Riccati’s equation, the solution of a dif-
ferential equation allied to, J. W. L.
Glaisher on, 469.

*Richthofen, Prejevalsky, and Lake Lob,
E. D. Morgan on, 629,

River control, J. C. Hawkshaw on, 687.

— floods, the effect of river or arterial
drainage works upon, J. Dillon ors
687.

Rivers, the control of, W. Shelford on,
690.

Roberts (E.) on the datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, and
the tabulation and comparison of other
datum-marks, 219.

Roberts (1.) on the filtration of water
through Triassic sandstone, 397.

Roberts (W. C.) on the chemistry of some
of the lesser-known alkaloids,especially
veratria and bebeerine, 105; on the
detection by means of the microphone
of sounds which accompany the diffu-
sion of gases through a thin septum,
517.

Rocks of Ulster as a source of water-
supply, W. A. Traill on the, 537.
Rolleston (Prof.) on the work of the

_ . Anthropometric Committee, 152; on
the examination of two caves near
Tenby, 209.

*Romanes (G. J.) on the nervous system
of the Medusz, 601.

*Roscoe (Prof. H. E.) on some fluor com-
pounds of vanadium, 507.

*Rosse (the Earl of) on an equatorial

727

mounting for a three-foot reflector,
477.

*Route, the best, to attain a high
northern latitude, or the Pole itself,
Dr. J. Rae on, 636.

Rowan (FI. J.) on the design and use of
boilers, 712.

Sabine (R.) on motions produced by
dilute acids on some amalgam sur-
faces, 435.

Sacral dimple, the occurrence of, and its
possible significance, Dr. L. Tait on,
606.

Sacrum, the aberrant form of the, con-
nected with Naegele’s obliquely con-
tracted pelvis, Dr, A. Thomson on,
605.

Sales of property, suggestions for a Bill
to regulate, by J. H. Monahan, 662.
Sand bars in rivers and harbour en-
trances, a process for cutting through,

C. Bergeron on, 708.

Sanford (W. A.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 124.

*Saurians of the Dakota cretaceous rocks
of Colorado, Prof. E. D. Cope on the,
545.

Scientific terms, the evils arising from
the use of historical national names
as, A. L. Lewis on, 583.

Sclater (Mr.) on the occupation of a table
at the zoological station at Naples,
149. 4

*Sclavs, the spread of the, H. H. Howorth
on, 590.

Scotland, the fossils in the North-West
Highlands of, report on, 130.

Scottish Alpine plants, some rare, Dr. I.
B. Bayley on, 570.

Screw steamers, the steering of, Prof. O.
Reynolds on, 697.

*Screws of inertiaof a free or constrained
rigid body, the principal, Prof. R. 8.
Ball on, 463.

Selache maxima, the gill skeleton of,
Dr. A. Macalister on, 600.

Selenate of ammonium, the action of
heat on the, Prof. E. W. Davy on, 509.

Senebiera didyma, the inflorescence of,
Prof. A. Dickson on, 569.

Settle Caves (Victoria Cave), sixth re-
port on the exploration of the, 377.

Severn Tunnel springs, water from the,
W. L. Carpenter on, 511.

Sewage, the discharge of, in tidal rivers,
H. Law on, 695.

Shaen (Mr.) on a common measure of
value in direct taxation, 220.

Shannon, the River: its present state,
and the means of improving the navi-
gation and the drainage, J. Lynam on,
699.

728

Shannon, the improvement of the navi-
gation, &c., of, J. Neville on, 691.

Shaw (Prof. J. J.) on some economic
fallacies of trades unionists, 675.

Shelford (W.) on the control of rivers,
690.

Ship-raising machine, a new, T. A. Dillon
on, 713.

Shoolbred (J. N.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 217; on the datum-
level of the Ordnance Survey of Great
Britain, and the tabulation and com-
parison of other datum-marks, 219 ; on
instruments for measuring the speed
of ships, 219; on the present state of
electric lighting, 706.

Siberia, the mammoth in, H. H. Howorth
on, 571.

Siebold (L.), a new method of alkali-
metry, 509.

Siemens (Dr. C. W.) on the elasticity
of wires, 103; on patent legislation,
157; on the use of steel for struc-
tural purposes, 157; on instruments
for measuring the speed of ships,
219.

Simpson (Prof. M.), Address by, to the
Chemical Section, 501.

*Sinclair (R. W.), recent additions to the
list of Irish Lepidoptera, 572.

Slieve Gullion, the ancient volcanic dis-
trict of, J. Nolan on, 527.

Smith (Prof. H. J. 8.) on mathematical
tables, 172; *on the modular curves,
463; *on quadric transformation,
465.

Soap, the pedetic action of, Prof. W. S.
Jevons on the, 435.

Solar rays, catalogue of the oscillation-
frequencies of, 37.

Sorby (H. C.) on the exploration of the
Settle Caves (Victoria Cave), 377.

Sounds which accompany the diffusion of
gases through a thin septum, the de-
tection by means of the microphone of,
W. C. Roberts on, 517.

*Space numbers: an extension of arith-
metic, B. H. Hinton on, 486.

*Specific inductive capacity, an account
of some experiments on, by J. E. H.
Gordon, 433.

Spectres photographiques, la constitution
des, quand l’action lumineuse est ex-
trémement courte, Dr. J. Janssen sur,
445,

*Spectroscope of unusually large aper-
ture, G. J. Stoney on a, 441.

Spergularia marina, the stipules of Prof.
A. Dickson on the, 568.

Spherical class-cubic with three single
foci, H. M. Jeffery on the, 490. .

REPORT—1878.

Spheroidal drops, R. J. Moss on, 489.

——, the cause of travelling motion of,
G. J. Stoney on, 442.

——, the support of, and allied pheno-
mena, G. J. Stoney, G. F. Fitzgerald,
and R. J. Moss on, 441.

Spottiswoode (W.) on the oscillation-
frequencies of solar rays, 37; on the
eighteen co-ordinates of a conic in
space, 462.

Stanhope ‘demonstrator ” or logical ma-
chine, Rev. R. Harley on the, 442.

Stationary tides in the English Channel
and the North Sea, report on the pheno-
mena of the, 217.

Statistics, Economic Science and, Address
by Prof. J. K. Ingram to the Section of,
641.

Steel for structural purposes, report on
the use of, 157.

Steering of screw steamers, Prof. O.
Reynolds on the, 697.

—— of vessels, the effect of propellers
on the, report on, 419.

Stevenson (J.), Livingstonia: the opening
up of the East African lake district,
636.

Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on the mechani-
cal equivalent of heat, 102.

Stokes (Prof. G. G.) on mathematical
tables, 172.

Stone (W. H.) on the rate of cardiac
hypertrophy, 608.,

Stoney (B. B.) on recent improvements
in the port of Dublin, 167; description
of a new lift-bridge for the Midland
Great Western Railway, over the Royal
Canal at Newcomen Bridge, Dublin,
697.

Stoney (G.J.) on the oscillation-frequen-
cies of solar rays, 37 ; *on a spectroscope
of unusually large aperture, 441; on
the cause of travelling motion of
spheroidal drops, 442.

—— and Prof. J. E. Reynolds on the
absorption spectrum of chlorochromic
anhydride, 434.

—,, G. F. Fitzgerald, and R. J. Moss on
the support of spheroidal drops and
allied phenomena, 441.

Strachey (Maj.-Gen.) on the datum-
level of the Ordnance Survey of
Great Britain, and the tabulation and
comparison of other datum-marks,
219.

Strawberry, some substances obtained
from the root of the, Dr. T. L. Phip-
son on, 514.

“ Strike,” the influence of, on the physical
features of Ireland, E. T. Hardman on,
541.

Succession, chattel and freehold, the
assimilation of, J. H. Edge on, 663.

Sugar contained in the nectar of various

.

INDEX.

flowers, the amounts of, A. S. Wilson
on, 504.

*Sun-heat received at the several lati-
tudes of the earth, taking account of
the absorption of heat by the atmos-
phere, with conclusions as to the abso-
lute radiation of earth-heat into space,
and the minimum duration of geo-
logical time, Prof. Haughton on the,
482.

Sunspots and rainfall, report on, by C.
Meldrum, 230.

Surface tension, G. F. Fitzgerald on,
436.

Survey of Galilee, Lieut. H. H. Kitchener
on the, 622.

Symons (G. J.) on underground tem-
perature 178; on the rainfall of Ire-
land, 692.

Tait (Dr. L.) on the occurrence of a
sacral dimple and its possible signifi-
cance, 606.

Tait (Prof.) on the mechanical equiva-
lent of heat, 102; on the elasticity of
wires, 103.

Tangential equation, a new form of, Prof.
Casey on 457.

Taxation, direct, a common measure of
value in, report on, 220.

Tea plant, the geographical distribution
of the, A. Burrell on, 638.

*Telegraphic apparatus, recent improve-
ments in, W. H. Preece on, 697.

Temperature of the earth within, W.
Morris on the, 456.

—, underground, eleventh report on
the rate of increase of, downwards in
various localities of dry land and
under water, 178.

Tenby, report on the examination of two
caves containing human remains in
the neighbourhood of, 209.

Thermal conductivities of certain rocks,
fifth report on experiments to deter-
mine the, showing especially the geo-
logical aspects of the investigation,
133.

Thetines, Prof. E. A. Letts on the, 511.

Thompson (Prof. 8. P.) on certain pheno-
mena accompanying rainbows, 450; on
new magnetic figures, 450; on the
phenomena of binaural audition, 601.

—— and Dr. O. J. Lodge on unilateral
conductivity in tourmaline crystals,
495.

Thomson (Dr, A.) on some points in
the osteology of an infantile gorilla
skeleton, 597; on the aberrant form
of the sacrum connected with Nae-

_gele’s obliquely contracted pelvis,
605.

Thomson (Prof. Sir C. Wyville) *on the |

729

genus Holopus, 571; on some deep sea
radiolarians, 571 ; Address by, to the
Geographical Section, 613; *on the
progress of the official report of the
“ Challenger ” expedition, 633.

Thomson (Prof. J.) on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 219; on
the flow of water in uniform régime
in rivers and in open channels gene-
rally, 434; on dimensional equations,
and on some verbal expressions in
numerical science, 451.

Thomson (Prof. Sir Wm.) onthe mechani-
cal equivalent of heat, 102 ; on arrange-
ments for taking certain observations
in India, and observations on atmo-
spheric electricity at Madeira, 103; on
the elasticity of wires, 103 ; on patent
legislation, 157; on mathematical
tables, 172 ; on underground tempera-
ture, 178; on the phenomena of the
stationary tides in the English Channel
and the North Sea, and the value of
tidal observations in the North Atlantic
Ocean, 217 ; on the datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, and
the tabulation and comparison of other
datum-marks, 219; on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 219; on
the effect of propellers on the steering
of vessels, 419; on Gaussin’s warning
regarding the sluggishness of ships’
magnetism, 496; on the influence of
the Straits of Dover on the tides of
the British Channel and the North
Sea, 639.

Thomson (Prof. Sir Wm.) and Capt.
Evans on the tides of the southern
hemisphere and of the Mediterranean,
477.

Thomson (W.) on the estimation of
mineral oil or paraffin wax when mixed
with other oils or fats, 508.

Tichborne (Dr. C. R. C.) on some pecu-
liarities of the Vartry water, and on
the action of that water upon boiler
plates, 517.

Tidal observations at Madeira or other
islands in the North Atlantic Ocean,
on the value of, 217.

Tiddeman (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 185;
on the exploration of the Settle Caves
(Victoria Cave), 377.

Tides of the British Channel and the
North Sea, the influence of the Straits
of Dover on the, Sir William Thomson
on, 639. *

—— of the southern hemisphere avd of
the Mediterranean, Capt. Evans and Sir
Wm. Thomson on the, 477.

——, stationary, in the English Channel
and the North Sea, report on the phe-
nomena of, 217,

730

Tod (Miss I. M.) on the boarding-out of
pauper children, 659.

Topley (Mr.) ‘on the Kentish boring
exploration, 380.

Torbay, the relative ages of the raised
beaches and submerged forests of, W.
Pengelly on, 531.

Tourmaline crystals, unilateral conduc-
tivity in, Prof. S. P. Thompson and Dr.
O. J. Lodge on, 495.

Trades unionism, the social aspects of
J. H. M. Campbell on, 676.

—— unionists, some economic fallacies
of, Prof. J. J. Shaw on, 675.

Traill (W. A.) on the rocks of Ulster as a
source of water-supply, 537.

Transfer of land, the simplification of,
J. H. Edge on, 663.

*Traquair (Dr. R. H.) on the genus
Ctenodus (Agassiz), 571.

Tribe (A.) and Dr. Gladstone on alumi-
nium alcohols, 508.

Tristram (Rev. Canon) on the possibility
of establishing a “close time” for
indigenous animals, 146.

Tyrone, the metamorphic and intrusive
rocks of, J. Nolan on, 536.

Ulster, the rocks of, as a source cf water-

_ supply, W. A. Traill on, 537.

Ultramundane corpuscles, the mutual ac-
tion of vortex atoms and, Prof. G.
Forbes on, 498.

Underground temperature, eleventh re-
port on the rate of increase of, down-
wards in various localities of dry land
and under water, 178.

— waters in the Jurassic, New Red
Sandstone, and Permian formations of
England, fourth report on the circula-
tion of the, 382.

Unilateral conductivity in tourmaline
crystals, Prof. 8. P. Thompson and Dr.
O. J. Lodge on, 495.

*Vanadium, some fluor compounds of,
Prof. H. E. Roscoe on, 507.

Vartry water, on some peculiarities of
the, and on the action of that water
upon boiler plates, by Dr. C. R. C.
Tichborne, 517.

Ventilation, a system of, by means of
fans and punkahs worked by com-
pressed air, for use in hospitals and
barracks in India and other tropical
climatés, by the Hon. R. C. Parsons,
710.

Veratria, report on the chemistry of. 105.

*Vertebrata of the Permian formation
of Texas, Prof, E. D. Cope cn the, 571.

Vivian (E.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 124,

REPORT—1878.

Voltaic action, J. Brown on the theory
of, 498.

Vortex atoms and ultramundane corpus-
cles, the mutual action of, Prof, G.
Forbes on, 498,

Wake (C. S.) on the primitive human
family, 592.

Wallace (Dr. W.) on the best means for
the development of light from coal-
gas, 108.

Wanklyn (Prof. J. A.) and W. J. Cooper
*on a method of elementary organic
analysis by a moist process, 517; *on
a direct method for determining the
calorific power of alimentary sub-
stances, 605.

Waterhouse (Capt. J.) on processes of
map-producing, 628.

Watson (Sir J.), how to meet the re-
quirements of population displaced by
Artizans’ I’wellings Act, 658.

Watts (Dr. W. M.) on the oscillation-
frequencies of solar rays, 37.

Weirs, movable and fixed, with reference
to the improvement of the navigation,
mill power, and drainage of flood
waters of rivers, J. Neville on, with
especial notice of the River Shannon,
691.

Wheeler (W. H.) on the drainage of
fenland considered in relation to the
conservancy of the rivers of Great
Britain, 693.

Whitaker (W.) on the circulation of
underground waters 382.

Wigham (J. R.), new application of gas
for lighthouses, 436; a short descrip-
tion of two kinds of fog signals, 437 ;
a new atmospheric gas machine, 437.

*Willett (Mr.) on the Kentish boring ex-
ploration, 380.

Williams (W.) on “ Cervus Megaceros,”’
537.

Williams (W. M.) on the glaciation of Ire-
land, and the tradition of Lough
Lurgan, 528.

Williamson (Dr. A. W.) on patent legis-
lation, 157.

Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on the supposed
radiolarians and diatoms of the car-
boniferous rocks, 534.

Willemesia group of the Crustacea, C. 8.
Bate on the, 561.

*Willis (W., jun.) on a new process of
photo-chemical printing in metallic
platinum, 518.

Wills (T.) on the best means for the
development of light from coal-gas,
108.

Wilson (A. S.) on the amounts of sugar
contained in the nectar of various
flowers, 504 ;. on the association of an

INDEX.

inconspicuous corolla with proterogy-
nous dichogamy in insect-fertilised
flowers, 564 ; on the nectar of flowers,
567; on some dimorphic plants, 568 ;
on some mechanical arrangements
subserving cross-fertilisation of plants
by insects, 568.

*Wilson (Prof. D.) on some American
illustrations of new varieties of man,
583.

*Wilson (Major) on Cyprus, 637.

Wind power, the use of, for raising
water, disposal of sewage, and drain-
age, with special reference to Ireland,
J. Price on, 709.

731

Woodward (C. J.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 185.
Wright (Dr. C. R. A.) on the chemistry

of some of the lesser-known alkaloids,
especially veratria and bebeerine, 105.
*Wryneck obtained in Ireland, exhibi-
tion of a, by A. E. Jacob, 572.
Wynne (A. B.) on underground tempera-
ture, 178.

Zoological station at Naples, report of
the Committee appointed to arrange
with Dr. Dohrn for the occupation of
a table at the, 149.

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734

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735

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736

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whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron,

737

Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the Co-
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Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham,
Report of Committee appointed to conduct Observations.on Subterranean Tempera-
ture in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with
descriptions of certain Fossils indicative of the former existence in that continent
of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order Pachydermata;—W. S. Harris,
Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the
years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—L. Agassiz,
Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. S.
Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special
Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Dean of Ely’s Address, and
: Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

1878. 3B

738

PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.

CONTENTS :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-opera-
tion of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations ;—Lieut.-Col. Sabine, onsome Points in the Meteorology
of Bombay ; Report on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von
Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof.
Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-
Electricity ;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-registering Meteorological Instru-
ments employed in the Observatory at Senfteriberg;—W. R. Birt, Second Report on
Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Present Extent of Savings’
Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, Report on the Gases
evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting of Iron ;—
Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals
and Vegetables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—
Appendix, &ec.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association-and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.

ContTEntTs :—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—
Sixth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds;—Dr. Schunck, on the
Colouring Matters of Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;
---R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ; ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light
on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof.
Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on
the Calewlation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress,
present Amount, and probable future Condition of the Iron Manufacture in Great
Britain;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. Owen, Report on
the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—J. Phillips, on
Anemometry ;—Dr. J. Percy, Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda to Mr.
Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.

Together with the Transactions of the Seetions, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS .or tas SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at
different degrees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Develop-
ment of Heat and the coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when
mixed with Water;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the
Growth of Plants;—R. Mallet, on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof.
Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the
Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes ;—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report
on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—-Rev. W. Whewell and Sir James C. Ross,
Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of completing
our Knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Report
of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and
recent progress of Ethnographical Philology;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various
methods of Research which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the
relations of that Science to other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on
the results of the recent Egyptian researches in reference to Asiatic and African
Ethnology, and the Classification of Lancuages ;—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of
the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the Modern Celtic Dialects still
extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the Aryan and Aboriginal

739

Languages of India ;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Profg W.
H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;
—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tar EIGHTEENTH MEETIN G, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.

CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and
Water of Towns ;—Hight Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring
Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the
Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works ;—R. Hunt, Report of progress in the
investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Plants allied to those
of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Temperature Tables
printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. Dove on
his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them ;

‘with an introductory Notice by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress
of the investigation on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J.
Phillips, Notice of further progress in Anemometrical Researches;—Mr. Mallet’s
Letter to the Assistant-General Secretary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the
Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee relative to the expediency of recom-
mending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory
until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or run NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.

CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Earl of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;
— Prof. Daubeny, on the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants,
especially of those allied to the Fossil Remains found in the Goal Formation ;—Dr.
Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;—Report of the Committee on the
Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Ninth Report of
Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—F. Ronalds,
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from Aug. 9,
1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations
at Kew.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or raz TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)

CONTENTS:—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—
Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the
Structure and History of the British Annelida ;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteoro-
_ logical Observations taken at St. Michael’s from the Ist of J. anuary, 1840, to the 31st
of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on the present State of our Knowledge of the
Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth Report of Committee on Experi-
ments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. Briggs, Report on the
Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the
British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution

3 B2

740

and @ange in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts
of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on
the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of
the Periodical Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—-Snggestions to Astronomers for
the Observation of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 28, 1851.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.

ConTrENTS:—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Eleventh Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of
Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the
Air and Water of Towns: Action of Porous Strata, Water. and Organic Matter ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to consider the probable Effects in an Econo-
mical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tropical Forests ;—A.
Henfrey, on the Reproduct on and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs in the
Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;
—Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on ;
the System of Meteorological Observations proposed to be established in the United
States ;—Col. Sabine, Report on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the
Performance of his three Magnetographs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew
Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British
Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31, 1851 ;—Ordnance Survey
of Scotland.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tax TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.

Contents :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—
Twelfth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—Rey. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;
—A Manual of Ethnological Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day,
and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Stations under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J.
D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the Conduction of Heat ;—R. Hunt, on
the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, on the Composition and
Economy of the Flax Plant ;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater Fishes of Ulster ;—
W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland ;—W. Wills, on the
Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water-Wheel ;—J. B.
Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and
the Feeding of Animals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tuzr TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hall,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1852-53 ;—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Old-
ham, on the Rise, Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull ;—
William Fairbairn, Experimental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomo- —
tive Boilers, and the causes which lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional
Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—Professor Hodges, M.D.. Report on the
Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition and Economy of the Flax
Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and

741

Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;
—Dr. John P. Bell, Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degrada-
tion of the Yorkshire Coast ;—First Report of Committee on the Physical Character
of the Moon’s Surface, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional
Report on Earthquake Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—
William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Metals as derived from repeated
Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of strength and the causes of deterioration ;
-—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued).

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tne TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.

CoNTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena
(continued) ;—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of
Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our
Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel Sabine, on some of the results obtained at
the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—Colonel Portlock, Report of the
Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting Seismometers ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants,
Part 2 ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;
—W. G. Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald
Smith, on the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tus TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-
Mines and Revolving Storms ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radia-
tions on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions,
Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the British Edriophthalma;—J. F. Bateman, on the
present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;—Report of
Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those properties
of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance
to the durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical
Objects in Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-registering
Anemometer and Rain-Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tar TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.

CONTENTS :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report
upon the effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which
within the last fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim
Report on progress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—
Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 1856 ;—Rey. B. Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical
Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigonometry of the Parabola, and the
Geometrical Origin of Logarithms;—R. MacAndrew, Report on the Marine
Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and neighbouring Seas, and the
physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the
present state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of

742

North America ;—T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and
Oysters of the British Shores ;—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage, and Foliation in
Rocks, and on the Theoretical Explanations of these Phenomena, Part 1 ;—Dr. T.
Wright, on the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W.
Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures ; —C.
Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. 8. Bowerbank, on the Vital
Powers of the Spongiadz ;—Report of a Committee upon the Experiments con-
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Pro-
visional Report on the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of
Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Pro-
gress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—R. Mallet, on
Observations with the Seismometer;—A. Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical
Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to consider the formation of a
Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tus TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—A. Cayley, Report on the recent progress of Theoretical Dynamics;
—Sixteenth and Final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation
at Hull;—Report of a Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measur-
ing and Registering the Tonnage of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and
to frame more perfect rules, in order that a correct and uniform principle may be
adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities and Working-power of Steam
Ships ;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of some Deep Mimes in Corn-

=o at\ + Bt) + 18e 42

Le+ yt + tet}
a étant entier négatif, et, de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme est exprimable
par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation a|+!désignant le produit des
facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &e....(a+t -1) ;—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine
Zoology of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish
Channel ;—Charles Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the Extent to
which Mercantile Steam Transport Economy is effected by the Constructive Type of
Shipping, as respects the Proportions of Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bower-
bank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spongiade ;—Dr. John P. Hodges, on
Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of
Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;—Prof. W. A. Miller, on Electro-Chemistry ;—John
Simpson, Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the Plove7’s Wintering-
place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indetermi-
nate Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and
Equatorial Mountings ;—Prof. James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots
in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William
Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of
the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the
Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspension Chains, and a Comparison
of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, to produce equal de-
flections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, Evidences of Lunar Influence on
Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into Liver-
pool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

wall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, de quelques Transformations de la Somme 3¢

Sek -

743

PROCEEDINGS or txzp TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, .at Leeds,.
September 1858, Published at 20s.

CONTENTS :—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake °’
Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857,
1858 ;—R. H. Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders;
especially on the internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report
of the Committee on the Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Lead Mining Districts of
Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E.
Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, Report on the Marine Fauna of the South’
and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Measurement
of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of
the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael. Connel.and
William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock,
and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857;—Report of the
Committee on Shipping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the. Instruments
employed in the Magnetic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report on Crustacea.of Dublin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River
Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with reference to the necessity for.
improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation on the Rivers of British
India ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Appendix
to Mr. Vignoles’ Paper “On the Adaptation of Suspension .Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;”—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society
and the British Association, for procuring a.continuance of the Magnetic and
Meteorological Observatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of. a Self-recording Ane-
mometer.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Re--
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raze TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen;.
September 1859, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—George C. Foster, Preliminary: Report on the Recent Progress and
Present State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of
Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker,
Report on Field: Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the-Constituents :of,
Manures essential to Cultivated Crops;—A. Thomson, of Banchory; Report ony
the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;—On the Upper Silurians. of Lesmahagow,
Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on.the Results obtained by the Mechanico-
Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to
determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for Railway*Trains ;—
Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59 ;—
Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous: Meteors for’ 1858-59 ;—
Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan Hi Hodgson, Egq.,
late Resident in Nepal, &c., &c.;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, .
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—
G. C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James:
Oldham, Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull ;—
Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Transport Economy as affected by the Con-
sumption of Coals ;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the present state of Celestial
Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil and Recent
Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request
of the British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.:—W. Fairbairn, The:
Patent Laws: Report of Committee on the Patent Laws ;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar
Influence on the Temperature of the Air :—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Con-
struction of the Self-recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew
Observatory of the British Association ;—Professor H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of.the Committee.on Steamship Performance;

“744

—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of the British Association
appointed .at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William 'K. Sullivan, Preliminary
Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.

Together. with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tax THIRTIETH MEETING, at ‘Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1859-60 ;—J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J.
Anderson, Report on the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Prof. Buckman, Report on
the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College,
Cireneester ;—Rev. R.' Walker, Report of the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof.
W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-recording Atmo-
spheric Electrometer for Kew,.and Portable Apparatus for observing .Atmospheric
Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory
Action and long-eontinued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860;——Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the
Performance of Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its
Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the
Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second
Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging
of Water by. Triangular Notches ;—List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

‘PROCEEDINGS or toe THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, Septemiber 1861, Published at ‘£1.

ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Dr. E. Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily
Functions of Prisoners, Part I.;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Diffe-
rences in the Dynamic’ Properties of Steamships;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the
Progress of Celestial Photography since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the
Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith,
and H. B. Roscoe, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of Manufacturing
Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ;
or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Gauging
of Water by'Triangular Notches;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field Experiments
and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea ;— Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von’ Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds
of the Genus Apterya living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results
of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new
to Science or to the British Isles;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on
the Physical Aspect of the Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Phy-
sical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report
of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of
preventing the Ravages of Zeredo and other Animais in our Ships and Harbours ;—
R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to ascertain the Transit-
Velocity of Waves,analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local Rock Formations ;
—-T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal- Mines during the year 1859 ;—J. Old-
ham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Prof. G. Dickie, Brief
Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical'Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman
Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel
Sykes, Report of the Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Re-
petition of the Magnetic Survey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for

a ee SS a a

745

Dredging on the North and East Coasts of Scatland ;—-W. Fairbairn, on the Resist-
ance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and the Force of Impact by Projectiles at
High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report to determine the effect of
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-Iron Girders ;
—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part III.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCKEDINGS or tat THIRTY-SECOND MEETING at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.

CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861—
62 ;—G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F.
J. Evans, Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;— Report
on Tidal Observations on the Humber ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles
adapted for Attacking Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observa-
tory at Kew, from a Report presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A.
de Souza ;—H. T. Mennell, Report on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast
and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood, Report upon the best means of ad-
vancing Science through the agency of the Mercantile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson,
Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, Provisional Report on Stan-
dards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for investiga-
ting the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal ;—Prof.
H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in connec-
tion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—
Fleeming Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cay-
ley, Report on the Progress of the Solutionof certain Special Problems of Dynamics;
—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J, Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles
jn 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Thermometric Observations in the Alps ;—J. G. Jef-
freys, Report of the Committee for. Dredging on the North and East Coasts of Scot-
land ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific Evidence in Courts of
Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Hight Balloon Ascents in 1862;—Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof: R. Willis’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tat THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1863, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to War-
like Purposes ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;-—Report
of the Committee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of
Donegal, and on the Rocks associated with them ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Com-
mittee appointed for Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;—
G. D. Gibb, Repoit on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K.
Aken, on the Transmutation of Spectral Rays, Part I.;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the
Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical
Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by the Indian Government on the Foods
used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A. Gages, Synthetical Researches
on the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary Report on the Experi-
mental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the Temperature,
State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours;—Report of the
Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;-—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Bal-
loon Ascents made in 1863 ;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present
State of our Knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North
America ;—Prof. Airy, Report on Steam Boiler Explosions ;—C. W. Siemens, Obser-

746

vations on the Electrical Resistance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials
under Pressures up to 300 Atmospheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron
Ships and the Progress of Iron Shipbuilding on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs.
Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern
Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson, on the Local Manufacture of Lead,
Copper, Zine, Antimony, &c. ;—Messrs. Daglish and Forster, on the Magnesian Lime-
stone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron in connexion with the
Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manufacture of Steel
in the Northern District ;—Prof. H. J.S8. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers,
Part V.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tos THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864, Published at 18s.

CONTENTS :—-Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;-—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures ;—T. 8. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development
and Migration of the Entozoa;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
Action of Nitrite of Amyl ;—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observa-
tions ;—G. 8. Brady, Report on Deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland
and Durham in 1864; --J. Glaisher, Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863
and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the
Committee on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—G. J.
Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and 1863;—W. Fairbairn,
Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the proposed Atlantic
Cable.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tae THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-

ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F.
Buckland, Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—
Report of the Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee
on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains
of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of
the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of
Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Report on Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeenshire ;—J. Glaisher, Account
of Three Balloon Ascents;—Interim Report on the Transmission of Sound under
Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles:—W. Fairbairn, on the
Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;—
Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal
Variations in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and
Birmingham ;—B. W. Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of
certain of the Amyl Compounds ;—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-
flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of
the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Report of the Com-
mittee appointed to communicate with the Russian Government respecting Mag-
netical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Reporton the Distribution of the Verte-
brate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First Report
on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI. ;—Report on the best means of providing
for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;
—A.G. Findlay, on the Bed of the Ocean ;—Prof. A. W. Williamson, on the Com-
position of Gases evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Phillips’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees,

747

PROCEEDINGS or razr THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting-
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen,
Preliminary Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations
of Luminous Meteors ;—W. 8. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed ;—
Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Dr. Norris,
Report on Muscular Ivritability ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
Action of certain compounds of Amyl and Ethyl ;—H. Woodward, Second Report on
the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Second Report on
the “* Menevian Group,” and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pembrokeshire ;
—J.G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides;—Rev. A. M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II. ;—J. Alder, Notices of some Inverte-
brata, in connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report;—G. 8. Brady, Report on the
Ostracoda dredged amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;
—Report on the Transmission of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar
Committee ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests
of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Balloon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct
Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report on the Penetration of Iron-clad Ships by
Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the Alcohols ;—Report on
Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report on Maltese
Fossiliferous Caves, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—
Third Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manu-
facture of Iron in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification
of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Com-
pounds ;—Preliminary Report on the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Green-
land ;—Report of the Steamship Performance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of
Port Louis, in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the Construction and Works of the
Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of
Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and
Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Mascarene
Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by
the Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained
in the Shetland Seas ;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Repcrt on the
best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference
to the interests of Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the
Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tan THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Fourth Report on Kent's
Cavern, Devonshire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and
Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report on
Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Perform-
ance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectro-
metry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—
Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredg-
ing among the Shetland Isles ;—Reports on the Crustacea, &c., and on the Annelida
and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of
_ Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships and their
Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains;—Report on the Desirability of

748

Explorations between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Re-
port on Synthetical Researches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights
and Measures ;—Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the
Committee on Underground Temperature ;—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Re-
port on Polyatomic Cyanides.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tae THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter,
August 1869, Published at £1 2s.

CONTENTS :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the
existing knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea going qualities of Ships ;
—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination
of the Gases existing in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on
Real Property ;—On the Chemical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof, Tyndall ;—
On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the Marine Fauna
and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practicability
of establishing “a Close Time ” for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Experi-
mental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel;—Second Report on
British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared
Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing ;—Report on the Rate of
Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological
Action ;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on
Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;
—Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second
Report of the Steamship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous
Limestone and their Organic Contents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral
Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Re-
port on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water containing Solid Matter in
Suspension ;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—Report on the Physio-
logical Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of Form considered
in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machinery sub-
jected to Rapid Alterations of Strain;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standards of Electrical
Resistance.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tos FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, Sep-
tember 1870, Published at 18s.

CONTENTS :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on
the Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary
Deposits of the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Re-
port on the practicability of establishing a “Close Time” for the protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report
on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of
the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone
Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of
Ships ;— Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;— Report on the Treatment and Utili-
zation of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1869-70 ;—Report
on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of the Methyl
and Allied Series;—Report of the Rainfall Committee;—Report on the Heat
generated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best
means of providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

Sei

749
PROCEEDINGS or raz FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh,

* August 1871, Published at 16s.

CONTENTS :-—Seventh Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Fourth Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71 ;—
Fifth Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report
of the Committee appointed for the purpose of urging on Her Majesty’s Government
the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census
in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of
ready and effective comparison ;—Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose
of Superintending the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers ;—Report of the
Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—
Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals ;—Report on
the Rainfall of the British Isles;—Third Report on the British Fossil Corals ;—
Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the Process of Arterialization ;
—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of Physiological
Experimentation ;—Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Com-
pounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Re-
port on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foun-
dation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report
on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ;- Report on the practi-
cability of establishing a “Close Time” for the protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the best means of pro-
viding for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal Observations.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or taz FORTY-SECOND MEETING, at Brighton,
August 1872, Published at £1 4s.

CoNTENTs :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;—Second Sup-
plementary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the
Committee for Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of
Weights and Measures ;—Eighth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on promoting the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report
on the Fauna of South Devon ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed to
Construct and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a Scale of Wave-
numbers ;—Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface-friction experienced by
a Plane moving through Water ;—Report of the Committee on the Antagonism be-
tween the Action of Active Substances ;—Fifth Report on Underground Tempera-
ture ;—-Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Electrical-Resistance
Pyrometer :—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim
Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and
Currents ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee
on a Geographical Exploration of the Country of Moab;—Sur l’élimination des
Fonctions Arbitraires ;—Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts
of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in
Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for Reward in
respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different Depart-
ments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe ;— Report of
the Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils ; Report on the practicability of establishing a “Close Time ” for
the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classi-
fication of Fossil Crustacea ;— Report of the Committee appointed to organize an Ex-
pedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871 ;—Preliminary Report of
a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ;—On the
Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

750

_ PROCEEDINGS or tne FORTY-THIRD MEETING, at Bradford,
September 1873, Published at £1 5s.

ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ;—Observations
on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of Coal in Mines ;—Concluding Re-
port on the Maltese Fossil Elephants ;—Report of the Committee for ascertaining
the Existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or
Boulders ;—Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Ninth Report on Kent’s
Cavern ;—On the Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of
the Committee for Investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;
—Fifth Report on the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical
Units ;—Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral
Rays ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves;—Sixth Report
on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Seventh
Report on Researches in Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic
and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on the desirability of establishing a “ Close
Time ”’ for the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;
- -On the Visibility of the Dark Side of Venus ;—Report of the Committee for the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Second Report of
the Committee for collecting Fossils from North-western Scotland ;—Fifth Report
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report of the Committee on Monthly
Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—On the Bradford Waterworks ;—Report on
the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;
Interim Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of
Ships, &c.;—Report of the Committee for Determinating High Temperatures by
means of the Refrangibility of Light evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances ;—On a
periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Fifth
Report on the Structure of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on preparing and publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers,
Ethnologists, &c. ;—Preliminary Note from the Committee on the Influence of Forests
on the Rainfall ;—Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—Report of
the Committee on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea
and Measurement of Waves near shore ;—Report on Science Lectures and Organi-
zation ;—Second Report on Science Lectures and Organization.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. A. W. Williamson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tae FORTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Belfast,
August 1874, Published at £1 5s. :

ConTENTS :—Tenth Report om Kent’s Cavern ;—Report for investigating the
Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Second Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—On the Recent Progress and Present
State of Systematic Botany ;—Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature
of Intestinal Secretion ;—Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in
Schools ;—Preliminary Report for investigating Isomeric Cresols and their Deriva-
tives ;—Third Report of the Committee for collecting Fossils from localities in
North-western Scotland ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—On the Bel-
fast Harbour ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;—Report
of a Committee on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain
Rocks ;—Second Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves ;—On the Industrial
uses of the Upper Bann River ;—Report of the Committee on the Structure and
Classification of the Labyrinthodont ;—Second Report of the Committee for record-
ing the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the
Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c. ;—Sixth Report on the Treatment and
Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the
use of Travellers ;—On Cyclone and Rainfall Periodicities ;—Fifth Report on Earth-
quakes in Scotland ;—Report of the Committee appointed to prepare and print
Tables of Wave-numbers ;—Report of the Committee for testing the new Pyrometer
of Mr. Siemens ;—Report to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on Experi-
ments for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on a Surface,

751

&e. ;—Second Report for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Elec-
trical Units ;—On Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time” for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee to inquire into the economic effects
of Combinations of Labourers and Capitalists ;—Preliminary Report on Dredging on
the Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—Re-
port on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. John Tyndall's Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tun FORTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Bristol,
August 1875, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Eleventh Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Seventh Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of a
Committee appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the Estimation of
Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products ;—Report on the present state
of our Knowledge of the Crustacea ;—Second Report on the Thermal Conduc-
tivities of certain Rocks ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for extending the
Observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids ;—Sixth Report on Earthquakes
in Scotland ;—Seventh Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Re-
port of the Committee for furthering the Palestine Explorations ;—Third Report of
the Committee for recording the position, height above the sea, lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c.;—
Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—On the Steering of Screw-Steamers ;—Second Report of
the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour ;—Report on the Method of
making Gold-assays ;—Eighth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Tides in thé
River Mersey ;—Sixth Report of the Committee on the Structure of .Carboniferous
Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves ;—On the
River Avon (Bristol), its Drainage-Area, &c.;—Report of the Committee on the
possibility of establishing a “Close Time” for the Protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to superintend the Publication of
the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report on Dredging off the
Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire in 1874 ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—On
the Analytical Forms called Trees ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical
‘Tables ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Notation and Printing ;—Second
Report of the Committee for investigating Intestinal Secretion ;—Third Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir John Hawkshaw’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Gommittees.

PROCEEDINGS or tor FORTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
September 1876, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Twelfth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report. on Improving the
Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;—Results of a Comparison of the
British-Association Units of Electrical Resistance ;—Third Report on the Thermal
Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report of the Committee on the practicability of
adopting a Common Measure of Value in the Assessment of Direct Taxation i
Report of the Committee for testing experimentally Ohm’s Law ;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a “Close Time ” for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee on the Effect of Propellers on the

Steering of Vessels ;—On the Investigation of the Stecring Qualities of Ships ;—
Seventh Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Crustacea ;—Second Report of the Committee for investigating’
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian -
Formations of England ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Erratic Blocks of
England and Wales, &c.;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Exploration of
the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,

752

1875-76 ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, 1875-76;—Ninth Report on
Underground Temperature ;—Nitrous Oxide in the Gaseous and Liquid States ;—
Eighth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Improved Investiga-
tions on the Flow of Water through Orifices, with Objections to the modes of treat-
ment commonly adopted ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—On Cyclone
and Rainfall Periodicities in connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Report of
the Committee for determining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Third Report of the Committee on the Condi-
tions of Intestinal Secretion and Movement ;—Report of the Committee for collect-
ing and suggesting subjects for Chemical Research.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. T, Andrews’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue FORTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Ply-
mouth, August 1877, Published at £1 4s.

ConrENTS :—Thirteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Second and Third Reports
on the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Com-
mercial Products ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crustacea
(Part III.) ;—Third Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New
Red Sandstone and Permian Formations of England ;—Fifth Report on the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Fourth Report on the Thermal Conducti-
vities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1876-77 ;—
Tenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on
the Steering of Vessels ;—Report on the possibility of establishing a “ Close Time i
for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;--Report on some Double Compounds of
Nickel and Cobalt ;—Fifth Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria
Cave);—Report on the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—
Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthropometric Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Conditions under which Liquid Carbonic Acid exists in
Rocks and Minerals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allen Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

LIS.

OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS

CORRECTED TO DECEMBER 1878

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1878-79.

PRESIDENT.
WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D,, Pres. R.8.,' F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. the Lorp Mayor or DUBLIN. The Right Hon. the EArt or Rosss, B.A., D,C.L.
The Provost or TRINITY CoLLEGE, DUBLIN. F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA.
His Grace the DUKE oF ABERCORN, K.G. The Right Hon. LorD O’HaGan, M.R.I1.A.

The Right Hon. the EARL oF ENNISKILLEN, D.C.L.,| Professor G. G. STOKES, M. i D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Sec. B.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
PROFESSOR G. J, ALLMAN, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., M.R.IA.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Grace the DuKE oF DrvonsHIRE, K.G., M.A.,| The Master CUTLER.

LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Professor T. H. Huxury, Ph.D., LL.D., Sec, R.S.,
The Right Hon, the Earu FitzwitwiaM, K.G., F.L.S., F.G.S.
F.R.G.S. Professor W, ODLING, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.

The Right Hon, the EARL OF WHARNCLIFFE,F.R.G.S.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT SHEFFIELD.
H. Cuirron Sorsy, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. J. F, Moss, Esq.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT SHEFFIELD.
HENRY STEPHENSON, Esq,

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ABEL, F, A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.

B.S. LEFEVRE, GEORGE SHAW, Esq., M.P.
ADAMS, Professor W. G., F.R.S, MASKELYNE, Professor N. S., F.R.S.
BARLOW, W. H., Esq., F.R.S. NEWTON, Professor A., F.R.S.
BRAMWELL, F. a , Esq., C.E., F.R,S, OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir E., C.B., F.R.S,
CAYLEY, Professor, F.R.S . PENGELLY, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Evans, Captain, G.B., F.R.S, PRESTWICH, Professor J., F.R.S.
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. RAYLEIGH, Lord, F.R.S.
Farr, Dr. W., F.R.S. ROLLESTON, Professor G., F.R.S.
FosrEr, Professor G. C., F.R.S. ROscor, Professor H. E., "ER S.
FROUDE, W., Esq., F.R.S. RUSSELL, Dr. W. J., F. R. Ss.
GLAISHER, J. W. TE ., Esq., F.R.S. SANDERSON, Prof. J. 8. BuRD DON, F.R.S.
Hxywoop, J., Esq., F.R.S. SMYTH, WARINGTON W., Esq., F.R.S.

HuaeGiss, W. ) Esq. », F.R.S,

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Capt. DoueLas GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.
Pune LUTLEY ScLATER, Esq., M.A., Ph. D., FR. S., FL. Sey 20 Hanover Square, London, W.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
J. E. H. GorDoNn, Esq., B.A.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General Secretaries for the present and former years, the late Assistant
General Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

General Sir EDWARD Sabine, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir PHILIP DE M, GREY EGERTON, Bart., M. P., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir JoHNn LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., FR. S., oa L. 8.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Devonshire. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, D.C.L,

The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.| Dr. Carpenter, C.B., FR. s.

Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, | Sir William R, Grove, F.R.S. Prof, Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.

General Sir EK. Sabine, K.C.B. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.G. Prof. Tyndall, D. C. L., FR. Ss.

The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Sir John Hawkshaw, OE. F.B.S

The Duke of Argyll. Professor Stokes, M.A., D.C.L. Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.

The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.S. Prof, Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS. .

F, Galton, Esq., F.R.S, Gen, Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Dr. Michael Foster, F.R.S.

Dr. T, A. Hirst, F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S. George Griffith, Esq., M.A.

AUDITORS.

Warren De La Rue, Esq., F.R.S. | Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S. | Professor G. C. Foster, F.R.S.

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LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1878.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Report if
their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1878.
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Assistant Secretary,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.

Year of
Election.

Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough House, Burgess Hill

Sussex.

1866. tAbbott, George J., United States Consul, ey and Nottingham.

1863. *ABEL, FREDERICK Aveustvs, C.B., E.RBS., F.C.8., Director of the
Chemical Establishment of the War Department, Royal Arsenal
Woolwich.

1856. {Abercrombie, John, M.D. 18 Suffolk-square, Cheltenham.

1863. *Abernethy, James. 4 Delahay-street, Westminster, London, S.W.

1875. tAbernethy, James. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.

1860. tAbernethy, Robert. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.

1873. *Anney, Captain W. de W., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. 3 St.
Alban’s-road, Kensington, London, W.

1854. Abraham, John. "97 Bold-street, Liverpool.

1877.§§Ace, Rey. Daniel, D.D. Laughton, near Gainsborough, Lincolnshire.

1873. ‘aaa tee Samuel, Greayes-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.

1869. tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.

1877. “Acland, Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Oxford.

1873. *Acland, Rey. H. D. Loughton, Essex.

ACLAND, Henry W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F-.R.S., E.R.G.S.,

Radcliffe Librarian and Regius Professor of Medicine in the
University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.

1877. ‘mrs aie Dyke, M.A. 13 Vincent-square, Westminster,

x

J

1860, tActanD, Sir Toomwas Dyxz, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., M.P. Phe
cote, Exeter ; and Atheneum Club, "London, S.W.
B

2 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

Adair, John. 13 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
1872, {Apams, A. Lurru, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Zoology,
Royal College of Science for Ireland. 18 Clarendon-gardens,
Maida Hill, W.; and Junior United Service Club, Charles-
street, St. James’s, London, 8.W.
1876. tAdams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
*Apams, Joun Coucn, M.A., LL.D., FR. Se PE R.A. Shy Director of
the Observatory and Lowndsean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. ‘The Observatory,
Cambridge.
1871.§§Adams, John R. 3 College-cardens, Dulwich, Surrey, 8.E.
1877.§§Apams, WILLIAM. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.
1869, *Apams, WittiAM Grvtts, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.8., Professor
of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London.
43 Notting Hill-square, London, W.
1875. {Adams-Acton, John. Margutta House, 103 Marylebone-road,
London, N.W.
ADDERLEY, The Right Hon. Sir Cuartus Bowynr, M.P. Hams-
hall, Coleshill, Warwickshire.
Adelaide, The Right Rey. Augustus Short, D.D., Bishop of. South
Australia.
1860. *Adie, Patrick. Grove Cottage, Barnes, London, S. W.
1865, *Adkins, Henry. Ley Hill, Oakfield, near Birmingh 1am.
1864, *Ainsworth, David. ‘The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1871. * Ainsworth, John Stirling. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton.
1842. *Ainsworth, Thomas. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1871. {Ainsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1859. tArrir, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T. Holly Lodge, Campden
Hill, London, W.; and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire.
Arry, Sir Grorcr Brppett, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., E.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal. The Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, 8.E.
1871. §Aitken, John. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
Akvoyd, Edward. Banlkfield, Halifax.
1862. tAtcocx, Sir Rurnerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
neum Olub, Pall M. all, London, S.W.
1861. {Alcock, Thomas, "M. D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester.
1872. *Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Ashton-on-Mersey, Manchester.
*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.
ALpERSON, Sir JAwEs, M.A., M. Ds; D.C.L., F.R.S., Consulting Phy-
sician to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17 Berkeley -square, London,
W.
1859, {ArExanDER, General Sir James Epwarp, K.C.B., K.C.L.S.,
F.R.S.E., FLR.A.S., F.R.G.S. Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N. B.
1873. tAlexander, Reginald, MD. 13 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1858. {ALEXANDER, Wit AM, M.D. Halifax.
1850. {Alexander, Rey. William Lindsay, D.D.,F.R.S.E. Pinkieburn, Mus-
selburgh, by Edinburgh.
1867. {Alison, George L.C. Dundee.
1859. {Allan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth.
1871. fAllan, G., C.E. 17 Leadenhall-street, London, H.C.
1871. §ALLEN, ALFRED, H., F.C.S. 1 Surr ey-street, Sheffield.
1878. §Allen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N, W.
1861, tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
Allen, William. 50. Henry-street, Dublin.
1852, *ALLEN, Witt1am J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical
Institution, Ulster Bank, Belfast.

Year of

oor

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Election.

1863.

1875.
1873.

1876.
1878.

1850.
1850.
1874.

1876.

1859.

1875.

1870.

1857.
1877.
1859,

1878.

1868.
1870,
1855,

1874,
1851,
1865.
1861.
1867.
1873.
1878,
1874,
1857.

1871.
1870.
1853.

tAllhusen, ©. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*ALLMAN, Guorer J., M.D., F.R.S. L. & i, M.R.LA., F.L.S., Emeri-
tus Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh,
(PRestpENnt Erect.) Queen Anne’s Mansions, St. James's Park,
London, 8.W.; and Parkstone, Dorset.

*Atston, Epwarp R., F.LS., F.Z.8. 224 Dorset-street, Portman-
square, London, W.

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. *

{Anderson, Alexander. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glascow,.

§Anderson, Beresford. Saint Ville, Killiney,

fAnderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields.

{Anderson, John. 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Anderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.

{Anderson, Matthew. 137 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

{AnpeRson, Parrick. 15 King-street, Dundee.

fAnderson, Captain 8., R.E. Junior United Service Club, Charles-
street, St. James's, London, S.W.

{Anderson, Thomas Darnley. West Dingle, Liverpool.

*“AypReEws, Tuomas, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.LA.,
F.C.S., Vice-President and Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s
College, Belfast, Queen’s College, Belfast.

tAndrews, William. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

§Angell, John. 81 Ducie-grove, Oxford-street, Manchester,

tAngus, Jodhn. Town House, Aberdeen.

§Anson, Frederick H. 9 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

*Awnstep, Davip THomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Prince’s-
street, Storey’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.; and Melton, Suffolk.

Anthony, John, M.D. 6 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birmine-
ham,

Apsoun, James, M.D., F.RS., F.GS.,, M.R.LA., Professor of
Mineralogy at Dublin University. South Hill, Blackrock, Co.
Dublin.

fAppleby, C.J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, 8.E.

fArcher, Francis, jun. 8 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

*ARCHER, Professor Tuomas C., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum
of Science and Art, Edinburgh. West N ewington House, Edin-
burch.

fArcher, William, F.R.S., MR.LA. St. Brendan’s, Grosvenor-road
East, Rathmines, Dublin.

{ARG@yL, His Grace the Duke of, K.T.,D.C.L., F.R.S. L. &E., F.G.S.

_ Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W.; and Inverary, Areyle-
‘shire,

tArmitage, J. W., M.D. 9 Huntriss-row, Scarborough.

tArmitage, William. 7 Meal-street, Mosley-street, Manchester.

*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B. ;

§Armstrong, Henry E., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8. London Institution,
Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.

tArmstrong, James. 284 Renfield-street, Glasgow.

fArmstrong, James T., F.C.S; Plym Villa, Clifton-road, Tuebrook,
Liverpool.

Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.

*Armstrone, Sir WILLIAM Groner, O.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
8 Great George-street, London, S.W.; and Jesmond Dene,
Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

{Arnot, William, F.C.S. St. Margaret’s, Kirkintilloch, N.B.

{Arnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London, N. W.

“Arthur, Rey. William, M.A, Clapham Common, London, 8.W.

B2

4 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870. *Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.

1874. {Ashe, Isaac, M.B. District Asylum, Londonderry.

1873. §Ashton, John, Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.

1842. *Ashton, Thomas, M.D. 8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham.

: Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.

1866, {Ashwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham.

*Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

1861. {Aspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

1875. *Aspland, W. Gaskell. IKilrea, Co. Derry, Iveland.

1861. §Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.

1861. tAston, Thomas. 4 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.

1872. §Atchison, Arthur T., M.A. 60 Warwick-road, Earl’s Court, London,,.
S.W.

1875. {Atchison, D. G. Tyersall Hall, Yorkshire.

1858. {Atherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight.

1866. {Atherton, J. H., F.C.S. Long-row, Nottingham.

1865. {Atkin, Alfred. Griffin’s Hill, Birmingham.

1861. {Atkin, Eli. Newton Heath, Manchester.

1865. *ArKinson, Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey.

1863. *Atkinson, & Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1861. Atkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.

1858. *Atkinson, John Hastings. 12 East Parade, Leeds.

1842. *Atkinson, Joseph Beavington. Stratford House, 113 Abingdon-road,
Kensington, London, W.

1858. Atkinson, William. Claremont, Southport.

1863. *Arrrintp, Professor J., Ph.D., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-square,
London, W.C.

1860. *Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William E.C., M.A. The Rectory, Stanton
St. John, near Oxford.

1865. *Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1867. tAvison, Thomas, F.8.A. Fulwood Park, Liverpool. é

1878. *Aylmer, Sir Gerald George, Bart. Donadea Castle, Kilcock, Co..
Kildare.

1877. *Ayrton, Professor W. E. The Imperial College of Engineering,
Tokio, Japan. (Care of Mrs. J. C. Chaplin, 98 Palace-gardens-
terrace, Kensington, London, W.)

1853, *Ayrton, W.S., F.S.A. Cliffden, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.

*Basineton, CHARLES CarpAts, M.A.,, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland.
1863. {Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
1877.§§Badock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.
1870.§§Bailey, Dr. F. J. 51 Groye-street, Liverpool.
1878. §Bailey, John. 3 Blackhall-place,, Dublin.
1865. {Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall.
1855. {Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.
1866, {Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.
1866. {Baillon, L. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.
1878. §Baily, Walter. 176 Haverstock-hill, London, N.W.
1857, {Barty, Witt1Am Heuer, F.LS., F.G.S., Acting Paleontologist to-
the Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-street; and Apsley
Lodge, 92 Rathgar-road, Dublin,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 5

Election.

1878.
1865,

1858.
1858.
1866,
1865.
1861.
1865,
1849,
1863.5
1875.
1875.
1871,

1871,
1875,

1878.
1866.

1863.
1878.

1876.
1870.

1869.

1874,
18652,
1870.
1861,

1866.
1861,
1859.

1855.
1871.

1852.
1860.
1876.
1868,
1863.

§Bain, James. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

t{Baty, Rey. W. J. Glenlark Villa, Leamington.

*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees-
dale, by Darlington. :

*Barnzs, Epwarp. Belgrave Mansions, Grosyenor-gardens, London,
S.W.; and St. Ann’s Hill, Burley, Leeds,

{Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds.

{Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘Mercury’ Office, Leeds.

{Baker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham,

{Baker, James P. Wolverhampton.

*Baker, John. Gatley Hill, Cheadle, Manchester.

{Baker, Robert L. Barham House, Leamington.

*Baker, William. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W.

§Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.

*Baker, W. Mills. Moorland House, Stoke Bishop, near Bristol.

{Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.

*BaLrour, Francis Marrzanp, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

{Balfour,G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.

§Balfour, Isaac Bayley, D.Sc. 27 Inverleith-row, Edinburgh.

*Batrour, JoHN Hurron, M.D., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 27 Inyerleith-
row, Edinburgh.

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. Blaenavon, Monmouthshire.

*Bat, Joun, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 10 Southwell-gardens,
South Kensington, London, 8. W.

*Batt, Ropert Srawect, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Andrews
Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, and Royal
Astronomer. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co, Dublin.

{Ball, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.

§Batt, VALENTINE, F.G.S. . Calcutta.

*Ball, William. Bruce-grove, Tottenham, London; and Glen Rothay,
near Ambleside, Westmoreland.

tBallantyne, James. Southcroft, Rutherglen, Glasgow.

{Balmain, William H., F.C.S. Spring Cottage, Great St. Helen’s,
Lancashire.

{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street,
Westminster, 8. W.

*Bangay, Frederick.Arthur. Cheadle, Cheshire.

tBangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland.

{Banisrer, Rev. Witt1aM, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool.

{tBannermann, James Alexander. Limefield House, Higher Broughton,
near Manchester.

tBarber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

*Barbour, George. Bankhead, Broxton, Chester.

{Barbour, George F. 11 George-square, Edinburgh.

*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

{Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.

Barclay, Charles, F.S.A. Bury Hill, Dorking.
tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
Barclay, James. Catrine, Ayrshire.

*Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

“Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.

“Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham,
Berkshire.

6 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1860. *Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. Hast Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.
1857. {Barker, John, M.D., Curator of the Royal College of os of
Ireland. 83 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
1865. {Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Binninglem,
1870. {Barxty, Sir Heyry, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 25 Queen’s-gate-
terrace, London, Seyi
1873. {Barlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, 8. W.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
Barlow, Peter. 10 Lower Mount-street, Dublin.
1857. {Bartow, Perrr WixtiiaM, F.R.S., F.G.8. 26 Great George-street,
Westminster, 8. W.
1873. §Bartow, W. H., C.E., F.R.S. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster,
8

.W.
1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-
h

am.
1868. §Barnes, Richard H. (Care of Messrs. Collyer, 4 Bedford-row, London,
W.C.
Barnes, Thomas Addison, 40 Chester-street, Wrevhan.
*Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S. 38 Heath-terrace, Worcester.
1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1861. *Barr, William R., F.G.S. Fernside, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.
1860. {Barrett, iB: Hich-street, Wels pools Montgomery.
1872. *Barrerr, W. F., F ‘B.S.E., M.R.ILA., F.0.S., Professor of Physics
in the Roy al College of Science, Dublin,
1874, {Barrington, R. "M. Ses, Ne Bray, Co. Wicklow.
1874, §Barrineton-W ard, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S8., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. St. W inifred’s , Lincoln.
1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
1858. {Barry, Rev. Canon, D.D., D.C.L., Principal of King’s College,
London, W.C.
1862. *Barry, Charles. 15 Penile anare, Bayswater, London, W.
1875, {Barry, John Wolfe. 23 Delahay-street, W estminster, S.W.
Barstow, Thomas. tae THill, near York.
1858. *Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1855. tBartholomew, Hugh. New Gasworks, Glasgow.
1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House, Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.
1873. §Bartley, George C. T. National Penny Bank, 270 Oxford-street,
London, W.
1868. *Barton, Edward (27th Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland.
1857. {Barton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co. Fermanagh.
1852. {Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundall.
1864, {Bartrum, John 8S. 41 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horn-
castle,
1876.§§Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
1876.§§Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
1866. *Bassnrt, Hunry. 44 St. Paul’ s-road, Camden-square, London,
N.W

1866. {Bassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham.

1869. {Bastard, 8. S. Summerland-place, Exeter.

1871. {Basrray, H. Carron, M.D., M.A., F.B.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Pathological Anatomy at Univer sity College. 20 Queen Anne-
street, London, WE

1848. {Bars, C. SPENCE, FR. S., F.L.S. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth.

a

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, a

Election,

1873.
1868.

1842.
1864,

1852.
1851.

1869,

1863.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1868.
1851.

1866.
1854.

1875.
1876,

*Bateman, Daniel. Low Moor, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

Bateman, James, M.A., F.RS., F.R.GS., F.L.S. 9 Hyde Park-
gate South, London, W.

*BATEMAN, JOHN FrepeEric, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 16 Great
George-street, London, 8.W.

}Bates, Henry Water, Assist.-Sec. R.G.S., F.L.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.

{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast.

{Barn anp Wetts, The Right Rey. Lord Arrnur Hervey, Lord
Bishop of. The Palace, Wells, Somerset.

{Batten, John Winterbotham., 85 Palace-gardens-terrace, Kensing-
ton, London, S.W.

§BAUERMAN, H., F.G.S. 22 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, S.W.

{Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester.

tBaxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.

{Baxter, John B. Craig Tay House, Dundee.

{Baxter, The Right Hon. William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee.

{Bayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W.

eye, George. 16 London-street, Fenchurch-street, London,
i.

tBayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham.
tBaylis, C. O., M.D. 22 Devonshire-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
*Baynes, Robert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
Bazley, Thomas Sebastian, M.A, Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Glou-
cestershire.

. *Brare, Lionet §., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological Anatom
) 8 y

in King’s College. 61 Grosyenor-street, London, W.

. {Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. The White House, North Dulwich, Surrey,
' S.E.
. {Beard, Rev. Charles. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liver-

pool.
*Beatson, William. Chemical Works, Rotherham. -

. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.M.S., F.S.S. Atheneum

Club, Pall Mall, London, S. W.

. *Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ips-
ont, yo +P

ich.

Ww
. *Beazley, Captain George G., F.R.G.S. Army and Navy Olub, Pall

Mall, London, 8. W.

. *Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 31 Cornhill, London, E.C.
. §Becker, Miss Lydia EK. Whalley Range, Manchester,
. {Breckies, Samurt H., F.R.S., F.G.S. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonard’s-

on-Sea.

. {Beddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.

. §Brppor, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. Clifton, Bristol.

. §Bedson, P. Phillips, D.Sc. Oak Leigh, Marple, near Stockport.

. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-

shire.

. *BrtAvenerZ, I., Captain of the Russian Imperial Navy, F.R.1GS.,

M.S.0.M.A., Superintendent of the Compass Observatory,
Cronstadt. (Care of Messrs. Baring Brothers, Bishopsgate-
street, London, E.0.)

. {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire,
. §Bell, A. P. Royal Exchange, Manchester,
. §Bell, Charles B. Sprine-bank, Hull.

8 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

Bell, Frederick John.- Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

1859. tBell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton.

1860. {Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marborough College, Wilts.

1855. tBell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham.

1862. *Brtt, Isaac Lowraran, M.P., F.R.S., F.0.S., M.LC.E. Rounton
Grange, by Northallerton.

1875. §Bell, James, F.C.S. The Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C

1871. *Bell, J. Carter, F.C.S. Kersal Clough, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.
1853. {Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull.
1864. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
1876. §Bell, R. Bruce. 2 Olifton-place, Glasgow.
Bett, Toomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. The Wakes, Selborne, near
Alton, Hants.
‘1868. *Bell, Thomas. Crosby Court, Northallerton.
1867. {Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
1875. {Bell, William. 36 Park-road, New Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W.
1842. Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
1854. {Bellhouse, William Dawson. 1 Park-street, Leeds.
Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Treland.
1866. *BrtpEr, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8S. 75
Eaton-square, London, S.W.; and Kingston Hall, Derby.
1864. *Bendyshe, T. 7 Belgrave-villas, Margate.
1870. {Bennerr, ALFRED W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent's Park, London, N.W.
1871. {Bennett, F. J. 12 Hillmarten-road, Camden-road, London, N.
1870. *Bennett, William. 109 Shaw-street, Liverpool.
1870. *Bennett, William, jun. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
1852. *Bennoch, Francis, F.S.A. 19 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
1857. {Benson, Charles. 11 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin.
Benson, Robert, jun. Fairfield, Manchester.
1848. {Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea,
1870. {Benson, W. Alresford, Hants.
1863. tBenson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1848, {BentHaM, GxorcE, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. 25 Wilton-place,
Knightsbridge, London, 8. W.
1842. Bentley, John. 2 Portland-place, London, W.
1863. §BrentiEy, Rosert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College.
1 Trebovir-road, South Kensington, London, S.W.
1875. tBeor, Henry R. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.
1876. {Bergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1868. {BrrkeLey, Rey. M. J., M.A., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market Har-
borough.
1863. {Berkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
1848. {Berrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea.
1866. sear sae eid Arthur George. Monyash Parsonage, Bakewell, Derby-
shire.
1870. {Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
1862, {Besant, William Henry, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1865. *BrssEMER, Henry. Denmark Hill, Camberwell, London, S.E.
1858. {Best, William. Leydon-terrace, Leeds.
Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire.
1876. *Bettany, G. T., B.A., B.Sc. Caius College, Cambridge.
1859. {Beveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen.
1874. *Bevington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks.
1863. {Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.

a on

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

Year of
Election.

*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Leeds.
1870. {Bickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
1863. {Bigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham,
1864, {Biggs, Robert. 16 Green Park, Bath.
1855, {Billings, Robert William. 4 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
Bilton, Rev. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Suffolk-
street, London, S.W.
1877.§§ Binder, W. J., B.A. Barnsley.
1842. Bryygy, Epwarp Writ1am, F.C.S., F.G.S. Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester.
1873. {Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Birchall, Edwin, F.L.8. Douglas, Isle of Man.
Birchall, Henry. College House, Bradford.
1866. *Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham.
*Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, M.A., Professor of Moral Philosophy in
the University of Cambridge. 7 Brookside, Cambridge.
1841. *Brrt, Wirrram Rapcrirr, F.R.A.S. Hawkenbury, Palmerston-
road, Buckhurst Hill.
1871. *Briscnor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
1868. {Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
1866. {Bishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
1877 Le yee oe The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. Cornwood, Ivy-
ridge.
1869. {Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
1834, Blackburn, Bewicke. 14 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.
1876. {Blackburn, Hugh, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Glasgow.
Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
Blackburne, Rev. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-_
enham.
1877.§§Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Blackie, John Stewart, M.A., Professor of Greek in the University
of Edinburgh. ;
1876. {Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow.
1855, *Bracktz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S._ 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
1870, {Blackmore, W. Founder’s-court, Lothbury, London, E.C.
*BLACKWALL, Rev. Jonny, F.L.S. Hendre House, near Llanrwst,
Denbighshire.
1878. §Blair, Matthew. Oakshaw, Paisley.
1868. {Blake, C. Carter, D.Sc. Westminster Hospital School of Medi-
cine, Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, S.W.
1849, *Braxn, Henry Wottaston, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire
place, Portland-place, London, W.
1846, *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
1878. §Blakeney, Rey. Canon, M.A. The Vicarage, Sheffield.
1845. {Blakesley, Rev. J. W., B.D. Ware Vicarage, Hertfordshire.
1861. §Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. 18 Wilton-crescent, London, S.W.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. 140 Harley-street, London, W.
1868. {Blanc, Henry, M.D. 9 Bedford-street, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
1869. {Blanford, W. T., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey of
India. Calcutta.
*BLOMEFIELD, Rey. Leonarp, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 19 Belmont,
Bath.
1878. § Blood, T. Lloyd.
Blore, Edward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.A. 4 Manchester-
square, London, W,
1870. {Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.

10 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1859. {Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
1859. {Blunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.
1858. *Blythe, William. Holland Bank, Church, near Accrington.
1870. {Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
1866, §Bogg, Thomas Wemyss. 2 East Ascent, St. Leonard’s.
1876 §Bogue, David. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
1859. *Bonn, Heyry G., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. North End
House, Twickenham.
1871. {Bohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham,
1859. {Bolster, Rev. Prebendary John A. Cork.
1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
Bolton, R. L. Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1866. {Bond, Banks. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
1871. §Bonney, Rev. Thomas George, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. St.
John’s College, Cambridge.
1866. {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
1861. §Booth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale.
1861. *Booth, William. Hollybank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
1876.§§Booth, William II. Trinity College, Oxford.
1861. *Borchardt, Louis, M.D. Barton Arcade, Manchester.
1849, {Boreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, New-
market.
1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
1865. {Borries, Theodore. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1876. *Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.C.S., F.R.S.A. St. John’s College,
Oxford.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
1867. §Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E.
1858. {Botterill, John. Burley, near Leeds.
1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth,
1871. *Borrominy, James Tomson, M.A.,, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. The Univer-
sity, Glasgow.
Bottomley, William. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, London,
W.
1876. §Bottomley, William, jun. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
1850. {Bouch, Thomas, C.E. Oxford-terrace, Edinburgh.
1870. tBoult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool.
1868. {Boulton, W.S. Norwich.
1866, §Bourne, Stephen, F.S.8. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey.
1872, {Bovill, William Edward. 29 James-street, Buckingham-gate,
London, 8.W.
1870. {Bower, Anthony. Bowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1867. {Bower, Dr. John. Perth.
1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 20 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
1863. {Bowman, R. Benson. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Bowman, William, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 5 Clifford-street, London,
W.
1869. {Bowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.
1865. {Bowron, James. South Stockton-on-Tees. (
1863. §Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham.
1871. Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
1865. {Boyrn, Rev. G. D. Soho House, Handsworth, Birmingham,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 11

Year of
Election.

1872. *Brasroox, BE. W., F.S.A., Dir. A.I. 28 Abingdon-street, West-
minster, 8, W.
1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Mount Henley, Sydenham Hill,
London, S.E.
1870.§§Brace, Edmund. 3 Spring-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F.R.G. S. The Hall, Atherstone, War-
wickshire.
1861. *Bradshaw, William. Slade House, Green-walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1842, *Brapy, Sir Anronro, J.P., F.G.S. Maryland Point, Stratford,
Essex, E.
1857. *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
Brady, Daniel F., M.D. 5 Gardiner’s-row, Dublin.
1863. {Brapy, Grorcr S. 22 Faweett-street, Sunderland.
1862. §Brapy, Henry Bowman, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Hillfield, Gates-
head.
1875. {Bragee, William, F'.S.A., F.G.S. Shirle Hill, Sheffield.
1864. §Braham, Philip, FOS. 6 George-street, Bath.
1870. §Braidwood, Dr. Delemere-terrace, Birkenhead.
1864. §Braikenridge, Rev. George Weare, M.A., F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset.
1865. §BRAMWELL, Frepericx J., M.LC.E., F.R.S. 37 Great George-
street, London, S.W.
1872. {Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
1867. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk.
1852. {Brazrer, Jamss 8., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal Col-
lege and University of Aberdeen.
1857. {Brazill, Thomas. 12 Holles-street, Dublin.
1869, *BREADALBANE, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Taymouth Castle,
N.B.; and Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
1873. {Breffit, Edgar. Castleford, near Normanton.
1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
1877.§§ Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.
1860. tBrett, G. Salford.
1866. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.
1875. §Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.
1867. {Brineman, WitLram Kenortny. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Belle Isle, Windermere.
1870. {Brierley, Joseph, C.E. New Market-street, Blackburn.
1870. *Brice, Joun. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1866. *Briggs, Arthur. Crage Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds.
1866.§§Briges, Joseph. Barrow-in-Furness.
1863. *Bricut, Sir Cuartes Tuston, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
20 Bolton-gardens, London, S.W.
1870. {Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.
Brieut, The Right Hon. J onn, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire.
1868, {Brive, Commander Laxpnsay. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8.W.
1878. §Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, W.C.
1842. Broadbent, Thomas. Marsden-square, Manchester.
1859. *Bropuvrst, Bernard Epwarp. 20 Grosyenor-street, Grosvenor--
square, London, W.
1847. {Broprm, Sir Bensammn C., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Brockham Warren, Reigate.
1834. {Bropin, Rev. Jams, F. GS. Monimail, Fifeshire.
1865. {Bropre, Rey. Prrrr Burraneer, M.A., F.G.S, Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.

12 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

4853. {Bromby, J.H., M.A. The Charter House, Hull.
1878. §Brook, George. Huddersfield, Yorkshire.
*Brookr, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 16 Fitzroy-square,
London, W.
1855. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1864, *Brooke, Rey. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Dewsbury.
1855. {Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1878. §Brooke, Sir Victor, Bart., F.L.S. Colebrook, Brookeborough, Co.
Fermanagh.
1863. §Brooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1846. *Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
Brooks, William. Ordfall Hill, East Retford, Nottinghamshire.
1874.§§Broom, William. 20 Woodlands-terrace, Glascow.
1847, {Broome, C. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath.
*Broun, Joun Arran, F.R.S. 9 Abercorn-place, St. John’s Wood,
London, N.W. ;
1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgrave-crescent,
Kdinburgh.
1867. {Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
1855, {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow. )
1871. §Brown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh.
1863, *Brown, Rev. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
1870. §Brown, Horace T. The Bank, Burton-on-Trent.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
1870. *Brown, J. Camppett, D.Sc., F.O.S. Royal Infirmary School of
Medicine, Liverpool.
1876. §Brown, John. Edenderry House, Belfast.
1859. {Brown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Berwick-on-Tweed.
1874. {Brown, John 8. Edenderry, Shaw’s Bridge, Belfast.
1863. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1871. {Brown, Ropert, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.8. 26 Guildford-
road, Albert-square, London, 8. W.
1868. {Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts.
*Brown, Thomas. Evesham Lawn, Pittville, Cheltenham.
*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, Dartmouth Park, London, N.
1855. {Brown, William. 33 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.
1850, {Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
1865. {Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.
1866. *Browne, Rey. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham.
1862. *Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ire-
land.
1872. {Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Northside, St. John’s, Sevenoaks,
Kent.
1875. {Browne, Walter R. Bridgwater.
1865. *Browne, William, M.D. The Friary, Lichfield.
1865. {Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 111 Minories, London. E.
1855.§§Brownlee, James, jun. 380 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
1853. {Brownlow, William B. Villa-place, Hull.
1863. *Brunel, H. M. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1863. {Brunel, J. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1875. *Brunlees, James, C.K., F.G.S. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.
1875. {Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
1868. {Brunron, T. Lauper, M.D., F.R.S. 50 Welbeck-street, London,
W.

1878. §Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 13:

Year of
Election.

1877.§§Bryant, George. 82 Claverton-street, Pimlico, London, S.W.
1875. {Bryant, G. Squier. 15 White Ladies’-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1875.§§ Bryant, Miss 8. A. The Castle, Denbigh.
1861, {Bryce, James. York-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Bryce, Rey. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast.
1859. {Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.
1867. {BucciEvcH AND QUEENSBERRY, His Grace the Duke of, K.G.,D.C.L.,
F.R.S, L. & E., F.L.S. Whiteball-gardens, London, 8. W. ; and
Dalkeith House, Edinburgh.
1871. §BucHan, ALEXANDER, M.A., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish Meteorologieal
Society. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1867. {Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
BucHanan, ANDREW, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine:
in the University of Glasgow. 4 Ethol-place, Glasgow.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D. C. Poulton-cum-Seacombe, Cheshire.
1871. {Buchanan, John Y. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
1864. §Buckie, Rev. Grorcz, M.A. The Rectory, Weston-super-
Mare.
1865. *Buckley, Henry. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1848, *BuckMan, Professor Jamus, F'.L.S., F.G.S. Bradford Abbas, Sher-
borne, Dorsetshire.
1869. {Bucknill, J.C., M.D., F.R.S. 39 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1851. *Bucxton, GroreE Bownter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,.
Haslemere, Surrey.
1848. *Bupp, James Parmer. Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea.
1875. §Budgett, Samuel. Cotham House, Bristol.
1871. §Bulloch, Matthew. 11 Park-cireus, Glascow.
1845, *Bunsury, Sir Cuartes James Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds.
1865. {Bunce, John Mackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birming-
ham.
1863. §Bunning, T. Wood. Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1842, *Burd, John. 5 Gower-street, London, W.C.
1875. {Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.
1869, {Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
1874. {Burdon, Henry, M.D. Clandeboye, Belfast.
1872. *Burgess, Herbert. 62 High-street, Battle, Sussex.
1876. {Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1859. {Burnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen.
1877.§§Burns, David, C.E. Alston, Carlisle.
1860. {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
1877.§§Burt, J. Kendall. Kendal.
1874. {Burt, Rev. J. T. Broadmoor, Berks.
1866. *Burtoy, Freperick M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.
1864, {Bush, W. 7 Circus, Bath.
Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool.
1855. *Busk, Grorcs, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.S, 52 Harley-street, Cayen-:
dish-square, London, W.
1878. §BurcuER, J. G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, London, 8.W.
1857. {Butt, Isaac, Q.C., M.P. 64 Eccles-street, Dublin.
1872. {Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
1870. {Buxton, David, Principal of the Liverpool Deaf and Dumb Institution,.
Oxford-street, Liverpool.
1868. {Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
1872. {Buxton, Sir T. Fowell, Bart. Warlies, Waltham Abbey, Essex.

14 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1854, {Byrriery, Isaac, F.L.S. Seacombe, Liverpool.

Byng, William Bateman. 2 Bank-street, [pswich.
1852. {Byrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
1875. §Byrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S. 27 King-street, Wigan.

1858. §Cail, John. Stokesley, Yorkshire.

1863. {Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.

1858. *Cuine, Rev. William, M.A. Christ Church Rectory, Denton, near
Manchester.

1876.§§Caird, Alexander M‘Neel. Genoch, Wigtownshire.

1863. {Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.

1876.§§Caird, Edward B. 8 Scotland-street, Glasgow.

1861. *Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.

1855. *Caird, James Tennant. Belleaire, Greenock.

1875. {Caldicott, Rev: J. W., D.D. The Grammar School, Bristol.

1877.§§Caldwell, Miss. 2 Victoria-terrace, Portobello, Edinburgh.

1868. {Caley, A. J. Norwich.

1868. {Caley, W. Norwich.

1857. {Callan, Rey. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College. .

1853. tCalver, Captain E. K., R.N., F.R.S8. The Grange, Redhill, Surrey.

1876. {Cameron, Charles, M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

1857. {Cammron, Cuartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

1870. {Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1857. Sig Dugald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London,
Wi;

1874, *Campsett, Sir Grores, K.C.8.1., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. 13 Corn-
wall-cardens, South Kensington, London, 8.W.; and Eden-
wood, Cupar, Fife.

Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
London, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwick~
shire.

*Campbell, Sir James, 129 Bath-street, Glasgow.

1876, {Campbell, James A. 5 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.

1872. {Camppett, Rey. J. R., D.D. 5 Eldon-place, Manningham-lane,
Bradford, Yorkshire.

1859. {Campbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire.

1871. {Campbell, William Hunter, LL.D. Georgetown, Demerara, British
Guiana. (Messrs. Ridgway & Sons, 2 Waterloo-place, London,
S.W.)

CamPBEtt-JoHNsTON, ALDXANDER Ropert, F.R.S. 84 St.George’s-
square, London, 8. W.

1876. §Campion, Frank, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. The Mount, Duffield-road, Derby.

1862. *Camrron, Rey. Dr. Wrztram M. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

1868. *Cann, William. 9 Southernhay, Exeter.

1873. *Oarbutt, Edward Hamer, C.E. St. Ann’s, Burley, Leeds, Yorkshire,

*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport.

1877.§§Carkeet, John, O.K. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

1876,§§Carlile, Thomas. 5 St. James’s-terrace, Glasgow.

CartistE, The Right Rev. Harvey Goopwr, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Carlisle.

1861. {Carlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester.

1867. {Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

1867. {Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.

Carmichael, John T. C. Messrs. Todd § Co., Cork.

1876, tCarmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.

77

LIST OF MEMBERS, 15

Year of
Election.

1871.
1871.
1854.
1845.

1872.
1842,
1867.

1861.

1857,
1868.
1866.
1855.
1870,

1878.
1870.
1862.

1868.
1866,
1871
1878.

.

1874.

1853.
1859,
1873.

1849,
1860.

1871.
1870.
1858.

1860.
1842,
1842,
1859,
1861,

1859,
1865,
1868,
1842,

{Carpenter, Cartes. Brunswick-square, Brighton.

*Carpenter, P. Herbert. Eton College, Windsor.

{Carpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.

{Carpgyter, WitiraM B., 0.B., M.D., LL.D., E.B.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Registrar of the University of London. 56 Regent’s Park-
road, London, N.W.

§Carpenter, WittiaM Lanr, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. Winifred House,
Pembroke-road, Clifton. Bristol.

*Carr, William, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.C.S. Lee Grove, Blackheath,
S.E

§Carruruers, WititAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. British Museum,
London, W.C.

*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. °18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

{Carre, ALEXANDER, M.D. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.

{Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.

{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

{Carter, Richard, C.E., F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

{Carter, Dr. William. 62 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.

*CarIMELL, Rev. Jamus, D.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ's College.
Christ College Lodge, Cambridge.

§Cartwright, H. 8. Magherafelt Manor, Co. Derry.

§Cartwright, Joshua, A.I.C.B., Borough Surveyor. Bury, Lancashire.

{Carulla, Facundo, F.A.S.L. Gare of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8 Har-
rington-street, Liverpool.

{Cary, Joseph Henry. Newmarket-road, Norwich.

{Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S, 147 Holborn Bars, London, E.C.

{Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

“Cash, William. 38 Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.

Castle, Charles. Clifton, Bristol.

tCaton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool
Medical School. 184 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

{Cator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull.

{Catto, Robert. 44 Kino-street, Aberdeen.

*Cavendish, Lord Frederick, M.P, 21 Carlton House-terrace, London,
S.W

{Cawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester.

§Caytey, Arrnur, LL.D., F.R.S,, V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor
of Mathemathics in the University of Cambridge. Garden
House, Cambridge.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Kdward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire,

*Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.

tChadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool.

*Chadwick, Charles, M.D, Lynncourt, Broadwater Down, Tunbridge
Wells.

{Cuavwick, Davip, M.P. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, 8.1.

CHapwick, Epwiy, C.B._ Richmond, Surrey.
Chadwick, Elias, M.A, Pudleston Court, near Leominster,

{Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.

{Chadwick, Thomas. Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire.

*OHALLIS, Rev. Jaaus, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 2 Trumpington-
street, Cambridge.

tChalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.

{OuamBeRLAIN, J. H. Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham,

T Chamberlain, Robert. Catton, Norwich.

Chambers, George, High Green, Sheffield,

16

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1868.
. 1877.

1865.
1865.
1865.
1861.
1877.
1866.
1871.

1874.
1871.
1836.
1874.
1863.
1866.

1867.
1864.
1874.

. §CurcuxsteR, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Stanmer House, Lewes.

{Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.
eee ae tie Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. Dartington Hall, Totnes,
evon.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
{Chance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Chance, James T. Four Oaks Park, Sutton Coldfield, Birmingham.
§Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Frewen Iall, Oxford.
§Chapman, T. Algernon. Burghill, Hereford.
{Chapman, William. The Park, Nottingham.
§Chappell, William, F.S.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey-
bridge Station.
{Charles, John James, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast.
{Charles, T. C., M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.
CHARLESWORTH, Epwarb, F.G.S. 1184 Strand, London, W.C.
{Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
{Charlton, Edward, M.D. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Cuarnock, Ricoarp SrepHen, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Junior
Garrick Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.
Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, S.W.
*Chatwood, Samuel. 5 Wentworth-place, Bolton.

{Crmapiz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-

berland-gate, London, S.W.
*Chermside, Lieutenant H.C., R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, S.W.

CuicuEstER, The Right Rev. Ricuarp Duryrorp, D.D., Lord
Bishop of. Chichester.

. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Lee Place, Charlbury, Oxon.
. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
. {Cholmeley, Rev. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury.

. {Christie, John, M.D. 46 School-hill, Aberdeen.

. {Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

Curistison, Sir Ropert, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Dietetics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University
of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.

: Sete? her, George, F.C.S. 8 Rectory-grove, Clapham, London,

; *CHRYSTAL, G., B.A., Professor of Mathematics. The University,

St. Andrew’s, N.B.

. §CuuRcH, A. H., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agri-

cultural College, Cirencester.

. tChurch, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
E.C

. tChurchill, F., M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Co, Tyrone.

. tClabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich.

. [Clapham, A. 3 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

. {Clapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

. §CrapHam, Ropert Catvert. Earsdon House, Earsdon, Newcastle-

on-Tyne.

. §Clapp, Frederick. 44 Magdalen-street, Exeter.
. tClarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,

Dublin.

. }Clark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire.
. {Clark, David P. Glasgow.
. *Clark, F. J. 20 Bootham, York.

Clark, G.T. Bombay; and Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 17

Year of
Election.

1876.
1876.
1861.

1855,
1865.
1875.

1872.
1875.
1861.

tClark, George W. Glasgow.
tClark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow. -
sagen 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London,

SV:

{Clark, Rey. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
{Clarke, Rev. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tClarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester.
*CLARKE, Hypr. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, S.W.
tCiaRrkE, Joun Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
*Clarke, John Hope. Lark Hill House, Edgeley, Stockport.

1877.§§Clarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Llinois.

1851.
1861.

1856.
1866.
1875.

1850.

1859.
1861.

1857.

1852.
1873.
1869.

1861.

1854.
1866.
1878.
1873.
1859.
1861.
1863.
1868.
1855.
1855.

1851.
1864.

1864.

1861.
1865,
1876,

{CrarkE, Josnua, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.

Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.

{Clay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.

*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.

*Clay, Colonel William. The Slopes, Wallasea, Cheshire.

tClayden, P. W. 13 Tavisteck-square, London, W.C.

tClegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucester-
shire.

t{CiecHorn, Hveu, M.D., F.L.S., late Conservator of Forests, Madras.
Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scotland.

{Cleghorn, John. Wick.

§CLELAND, Jonn, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the Univer-
sity of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow.

tClements, Henry. Dromin, Listowel, Ireland.

{Clerk, Rev. D. M. Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire.

tClibborn, Edward. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

§Cliff, John, F.G.S. Halton, Runcorn.

tCiirrorp, Witi1aM Krnepon, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in University College, London.

_ 26 Colville-road, Bayswater, London, W.

*Cuirton, R. Beriamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.

Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.

{Close, The Very Rey. Francis, M.A. Carlisle.

§Crosr, Toomas, F.S.A. St. James’s-street, Nottingham.

§Close, Rev. Maxwell, F.G.S. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

tClough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.

tClouston, Rev. Charles. Sandwick, Orkney.

*Clouston, Peter. 1 Park Terrace, Glasgow.

*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.

tCoaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.

*Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley.

*Coats, Thomas. Fergeslie House, Paisley.

Cobb, Edward. 13 Great Bedford-street, Bath.

*CopBoLp, JoHN CHEvALLIER. Holywells, Ipswich; and Atheneum
Club, London, S.W.

tCozpzotp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
and Helminthology in the Royal Veterinary College, London.
74 Portsdown-road, Maida Hill, London, W.

*Cochrane, James Henry. Monmouth House, Wellington-terrace,
Clevedon, Somersetshire.

*Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Highfield, Manchester-road, Bolton.

tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.

tColbourn, E, Rushton. 5 Marchmont-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

Cc

18 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Flection.

1853. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Springfield House, Ipswich.
1868. {Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
1876. §Colebrooke, Sir T. E., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 14 South-street, Park-
lane, London, W.; and Abington House, Abington, N.B,
1860. {Coleman, J. J., F.C.S. 69 St. George’s-place, Glasgow.
1854. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire. :
1878. §Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
1857. {Colles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1869, {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
1854. t{Conzinewoop, Curnprrtr, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 4 Grove-terrace,
Belvedere-road, Upper Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.
1861, *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. Anthropological Institute, 4 St.
Martin’s-place, Loncon, W.C.
1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876. §Cotxins, J. H., F.G.S. 57 Lemon-street, Truro, Cornwall.
1876.§§Collins, William. 38 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.
Collis, Stephen Edward. Listowel, Ireland.
1868. *Comman, J. J., M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.
1870, {Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
Colthurst, John. Clifton, Bristol.
1874. t{Combe, James. Ormiston House, Belfast.
*Compron, The Ven. Lord Atwrn. Castle Ashby, Northampton-
shire; and 145 Piccadilly, London, W.
1846. *Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W.
1852. {Connal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow.
1871. *Connor, Charles C.. Hope House, College Park East, Belfast.
1876. {Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow.
1876, *Cooxr, Conran W., C.E. 5 Nelson-terrace, Clapham Common,
London, 5.W.
1863. {Cooxn, Epwarp, WittuM, R.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Glen Andred, Groombridge, Sussex; and Athenzeum Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8.W.
1868. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich,
Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessington-street, Dublin.
Cooke, J. B. Cayendish-road, Birkenhead.
1868. {Cooxn, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway,
London, N.
1878. §Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.
Cooke, Rev. T. L., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
Cooke, Sir William Fothergill. 31 Castle-street, Farnham, Surrey.
1859. *Cooke, William Henry, M.A., Q.C., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
1865. tCooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
1868, {Cookson, N. C. Benwell Tower, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
1869. §Cooling, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Mile Ash, Derby.
1850, tCoorrr, Sir Hunry, M.D. 7 Chavrlotte-street, Hull.
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
1875. tCooper, T. T., F.R.G.S.. Care of Messrs. King & Co., Cornhill,
London, E.C.
1868. {Cooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.
1846. tCooper, William White, F.R.C.S. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W-
1878. §Cope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.
1871. tCopeland, Ralph, Ph.D. Parsonstown, Ireland.
1868, {Copeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich,
1863. {Coppin, John, North Shields.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

Year of
Election.

1842. Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire,
1855, {Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology
in Queen’s College, Cork.
1870. *Corrretp, W. H., M.A., M.B., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiéne and —
Public Health in University College. 10 Bolton-row, Mayfair,
London, W.
Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S, Stanground, Peterborough,
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London,
1857. (Cottam, Samuel. Brazennose-street, Manchester,
1855. {Cotterill, Rev. Henry, Bishop of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.
1874, *Cotterill, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics. Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
1864. {Corron, General Frepzrick C., R.E., C.S.1. 13 Longridge-road,
: Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.
1869. tCorron, Wit11aM. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
*Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A. Vicarage, Frodsham, Cheshire,
1876. {Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1876. {Couper, James, jun.’ City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1874.§§ Courtauld, John M. Bocking Bridge, Braintree, Essex.
1865. {Courtauld, Samuel, F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, London, W.; and
Gosfield Hall, Essex.
1834. {Cowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh.
1876, {Cowan, J. B. 159 Bath-street, Glasgow.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
1863. {Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
1863. {Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
1872. *Cowan, Thomas William. Hawthorn House, Horsham.
1873. *Cowans, John. Cranford, Middlesex.
Cowie, The Very Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., B.D., Dean of Man-
chester. The Deanery, Manchester.
1871. t{Cowper, C. E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster, 8. W.
1860, {Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.I.C.E. 6 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.
. 1867. *Cox, Edward. 18 Windsor-street, Dundee.
1867. *Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
1867. {Cox, James. Clement Park, Lochee, Dundee.
1870. *Cox, James. 8 Fallmer-square, Liverpool.
Cox, Robert. 25 Rutland-street, Edinburgh.
1867. *Cox, Thomas Hunter. Dunearse, Dundee.
1867. {Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.
1866. *Cox, William H. 50 Newhall-street, Birmingham,
1871, {Cox, William J. 2 Vanburgh-place, Leith.
Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E. 24 York-place, Edinburgh.
1859. {Craig, 8. The Wallands, Lewes, Sussex.
1876. {Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.
1857, {Crampton, Rev. Josiah. The Rectory, Florence Court, Co. F ermanagh,
Ireland.
1858. {Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire,
1876, {Crawford, Chalmond, M.P. Ridemon, Crossear,
1871, *Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. Eagle Foundry, Port Dundas,
Glasgow.
1871. {Crawshaw, Edward. Burnley, Lancashire.
1870. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Oyfarthfa Castle, Merthyr Tydvil.
1876, *Crewdson, Rev. George. St. George’s Vicarage, Kendal.
Creyke, The Venerable Archdeacon. Bolton Perey Rectory, Tad-
caster.
1858, }Crofts, John, Hillary-place, Leeds,
c 2

20

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1878.
1859.
1857.
1866.
1870.

1865.

1855.
1870.
1870.
1870,

186].
1868.
1867.

1853.
1870.
1871.
1866.
1861.
1863.
1860.
1859.

§Croke, John O’Byrne. 1 Casino-terrace, Clontarf, Dublin.

tCroll, A. A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C.

{Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

t{Cronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham.

tCrookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.

§Crooxes, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Mornington-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.

t{Cropper, Rev. John. Wareham, Dorsetshire.

{Crosfield, C. J. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

tCrosfield, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Crosfield, William, jun. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liver-

ool.

Cree Bey. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg.

tCrosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

§CrosskEy, Rev. H. W., F.G.S. 28 George-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tCrosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.

tCrossley, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax.

*Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Moorside Observatory, near Halifax.

§Crowley, Henry. Trafalgar-road, Birkdale Park, Southport.

tCruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Cruickshank, John. City of Glasgow Bank, Aberdeen.

{Cruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen.

1873.§§Crust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.

1859

1874.
1876.
1861.
1861.
1877.
1852.
1869.

1855.
1850.
1866.

1867.

1857.
1878.
1834.

1863.
1854.
1863.
1853.
1865.
1867.
1870.

1859,
1859.

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

tCumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.

t{Cumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.

{Cunlif, Richard S: Carlton House, Stirling.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
§Cunningham, D. J., M.D. University of Edinburgh.
tCunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

{CunnineHam, Ropert O., M.D., F.L.S. Professor of Natural His-

tory in Queen’s College, Belfast.

{Cunningham, William A. 2 Broadwalk, Buxton.

{Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
ea John. 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London,

*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.G.S., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.

{Curtis, Professor ARTHUR Hitt, LL.D. Queen’s College, Galway.

§Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton.

*Cuthbert, John Richmond. 40 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

tDaglish, John. Hetton, Durham.

{Daglish, Robert, C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
tDale, J.B. South Shields.

tDale, Rev. P. Steele, M.A. Hollingfare, Warrington.
{Dale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
{Dalgleish, W. Dundee.

{Dallinger, Rev. W. H. Great Crosby, Liverpool.

Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh.
{Dalrymple, Charles Elphinstone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire.
{Dalrymple, Colonel. Troup, Scotland.

Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 2)

Year of
Election.

*Dalton, Rev. J. E., B.D. Seagrave, Loughborough.
Dalziel, John, M.D. Holm of Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriss-
shire,
1862. {Dansy, T. W. Downing College, Cambridge.
1859. {Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester,
1873. {Danehill, F. H. Vale Hall, Horwich, Bolton, Lancashire.
1876.§§Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
1849. *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.
1861, *DarBisHire, Ropert DuxkinFrerp, B.A., F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester.
1876. {Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glasgow.
Darwin, Cuartes R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hon. F.R.S.E.
and M.R.I.A. Down, near Bromley, Kent.
1878. §Darwin, Horace. Down, near Bromley, Kent.
1848. {DaSilva, Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London,
S.W

1872. §Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
Davey, Richard, F.G.S. Redruth, Cornwall.
1870. {Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool,
1859. {Davidson, Charles. Grove House, Auchmull, Aberdeen.
1871.§§Davidson, James. Newhattle, Dalkeith, N.B.
1859. {Davidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen.
1872. {Davinson, Tomas, F.R.S., F.G.S._ 3 Leopold-road, Brighton.
1875. {Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
1870. {Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
1863. { Davies, Griffith. 17 Cloudesley-street, Islington, London, N.
1842, Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
1878. *Davis, Alfred. Sun Foundry, Leeds.
1870. *Davis, A.S. Mornington Villa, Leckhampton-road, Cheltenham,
1864, {Davis, CHartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster.
1873. *Davis, James W. Chevinedge, near Halifax.
1856, *Davis, Sir Jonn Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Holly-
wood, near Compton, Bristol.
1859. {Davis, J. Barnard, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelton, Hanley, Staf-
fordshire.
1859. *Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, E.C.
1873. {Davis, William Samuel. 1 Cambridge Villas, Derby.
1864, *Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
1857. {Davy, ee W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
1869, {Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
1869. {Daw, R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1854, *Dawbarn, William. Elmswood, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.S. Lappel Lodge, Quinton, near Bir-
mingham, '
1860. *Dawes, J ohn T., jun. Lianferris, Mold, North Wales.
1864, {Dawxins, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Birchview, Nor-
man-road, Rusholme, Manchester.
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter,
1855. TDawson, Joun W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal of M‘Gill
College, Montreal, Canada.
1859, Sie Captain William G. Plumstead Common-road, Kent,
E

1871. {Day, Sz. Joun Vincenr, C.E., F.R.S.E. 166 Buchanan-street,
Glasgow.

22

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870,
1861.
1859,
1861,
1870,
1866.

1878,
1854,

1870.

1875.

1870.
1874,

1856,

1874,
1878.

1870.
1868,

1869.

1868,

1872.
1873.
1852.

1864,

1863.
1867,

1876.
1862.

1877.
1848,

§Deacon, G. F., M.LC.E. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.

t{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.

{Dean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen.

tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

*Deane, Rev. George, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Spring Hill College,
Moseley, near Birmingham.

{Drsus, Herwricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, S.E.

§Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.

*De La Run, Warren, M.A., D.C.L., Ph.D., F.RS., F.CS.,,
F.R.A.S. 73 Portland-place, London, W.

{De Meschin, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. 3 Middle Temple-lane, Temple,
London, E.C.

Denchar, John, Morningside, Edinburgh.

tDenny, William. Seven Ship-yard, Dumbarton.

Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.

*Denton, J. Bailey. 22 Whitehall-place, London, 8. W.

§De Rance, Cuartes E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.

*Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St.
James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Knowsley, near Liver-

ool.

*Teihiien, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. Henleaze Park, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol,

§De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India,

De Saumarez, Rev. Havilland, M.A. St. Peter's Rectory, North-
ampton.

t{Desmond, Dr. 44 Irvine-street, Edge Hill, Liverpool.

{Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.

Dr Tasiey, GrorcE, Lord, F.Z.8. Tabley House, Knutsford,
Cheshire.

{Drvon, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Powderham Castle,
near Exeter.

*Dnvonsnire, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Devonshire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth,
Derbyshire.

{Dewar, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Fullerian Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian
Professor of Natural Experimental Philosophy in the University
of Cambridge. Brookside, Cambridge.

tDewick, Rev. E.S. The College, Eastbourne, Sussex.

*Dew-Smith, A. G. 7a Eaton-square, London, 8.W.

{Dicxre, Grorcr, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Aberdeen.

*Dickinson, F. H., F.G.S. Kineweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 121
St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.

tDickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Dicxson, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University
of Glasgow. 11 Royal-circus, Edinburgh.

{Dickson, Gavin Irving. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.

*Dixe, Sir Casares WenrwortH, Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 76
Sloane-street, London, 8. W.

§ Dillon, James, C.E. 46 Morehampton-road, Dublin.

{Diztwyy, Lewis Lirwetyn, M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S. Parkwerne,
near Swansea.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 23

Year of
Election.

1872. §Dinzs, Grorer, Woodside, Hersham, Walton-on-Thames.

1869. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock. :

1859. “Dingle, Rey. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham.

1876. {Ditchfield, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, . London,
W.C.

1868, {Dittmar, W. Andersonian University, Glasgow.

1874, *Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast.

1858. {Dixon, Edward, M.LC.E. Wilton House, Southampton.

1861. {Drxon, W. Hepworru, F.S.A., F.R.G.8. 6 St. James’s-terrace,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.I.A. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.

1851. {Dobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.LA. Ballivor, Kells, Co. Meath.

1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne Park, London,
W.

1878. *Doxsoy, G. E., M.A., M.B.,F.L.S. Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley,
Southampton.
1864, “Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
1875. *Doewra, George, jun. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham,
1870. *Dodd, John. 6 Thomas-street, Liverpool.
1876, tDodds, J. M. 15 Sandyford-place, Glasgow.
“Dodsworth, Benjamin. Burton House, Scarborough,
*Dodsworth, George. The Mount, York.
Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.
1851. {Domvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin.
1867. {Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1867. {Don, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1873. {Donham, Thomas. Huddersfield.
1869. {Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
1877. *Donkin, Bryan. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.
1874, {Donnell, Professor, M.A. 76 Stephen’s-ereen South, Dublin.
1861. {Donnelly, Captain, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London, W.
1857. *Donnetty, Wit11AM, O.B., Registrar-General for Ireland, Charle<
mont House, Dublin.
1857. {Donovan, M., M.R.I.A. Clave-street, Dublin.
1867. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire,
1871. {Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow.
1876. *Douglas, Rey. G. C. M. 10 Fitzroy-place, Glasgow.
1877. *Douglass, James N., C.E, Trinity House, London, E,C,
1878. §Douglass, William. 104 Baggot-street, Dublin.
1855. {Dovu, Hucror. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh.
1870. {Dowie, J. M. Wetstones, West Kirby, Cheshire. ~
1876. §Dowie, Mrs. Muir, Wetstones, West Kirby, Cheshire.
1878. §Dowling, Thomas. Clonbrock Lodge, Rathgar, Dublin.
1857. {Downine, 8., C.E., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the
University of Dublin. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin,
1878. §Dowse, The Right Hon. Baron. 38 Mountjoy-square, Dublin,
1872. *Dowson, Edward, M.D. 117 Park-street, London, W.
1865. *Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.
1868.§§Drusser, Henry E., F.Z.8. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square,
London, W.
1873, §Drew, Frederic, F.G.S., F.R.G.S._ Eton College, Windsor,
1869. §Drew, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Weymouth.
1865. {Drew, Robert A. 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Man
chester.
1872, *Druce, Frederick, 27 Oriental-place, Brighton.
1874, {Druitt, Charles. Hampden-terrace, Rugby-road, Belfast.
1859, {Drummond, Robert. 17 Stratton-street, London, W,

24 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1866. *Dry, Thomas. 23 Gloucester-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

1870. §Drysdale, J. J.. M.D. 36a Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1856, *Ducrzn, The Right. Hon. Henry Jonn Reynotps Moreron, Earl
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.

1870, {Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Holmfield House, Grassendale,
Liverpool.

1867, *Durr, Mountstvuart Expuinstonre Grant-, LL.B., M.P. York
House, Twickenham, Middlesex.

1852, {Dufferin and Clandeboye, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., K.C.B.,
F.R.S. Clandeboye, near Belfast, Ireland.

1877. §Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

1875. §Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange, C.K. Waterford.

1859, *Duncan, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-gate, London, 8. W.

1859. {Duncan, Charles, 52 Union-place, Aberdeen,

1866, *Duncan, James. 71 Cromwell-road, South Kensington, London,
W.

Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1871. {Duncan, James Matthew, M.D. 30 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
1867, {Duncan, Peter Martin, M.B.,F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in King’s College, London. 99 Abbey-road, St. John’s Wood,
London, N.W.
Dunlop, Alexander. Clober, Milngavie, near Glasgow.
1853, *Dunlop, William Henry. Annanhill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire.
1865, {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
1876. *Dunn, James. 64 Robertson-street, Glasgow.
1862.§§Dunn, Rosert, F.R.C.S. 31 Norfolk-street, Strand, London, W.C.
1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1878. §Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logie in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
Dunnington-Jefferson, Rey. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S. Thicket Hall,
York,
1859. {Duns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
1866, {Duprey, Perry. Woodbury Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
1869, {D’Urban, W. 8S. M., F.L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford,
Exeter.
1860. {DuRHam, ArtHuR Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square,
London, W.
Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon.
1869, §Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.

1868. {Eade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1861, {Eadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.

1877.§§Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
*EARNSHAW, Rey. Samvrt, M.A. 14 Broomfield, Sheffield.

1874, §Eason, Charles, 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.

1871. *Easton, Epwarp, C.E. 7 Delahay-street, Westminster, 8. W.

1865, §Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.

1876. ae i ohn,C.E. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh,

1870, §Eaton, Richard. Basford, Nottingham.
Ebden, Rev. James Collett, M.A., F.R.A.S. Great Stukeley Vicarage,
Huntingdonshire.
1861. {Ecroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
1858, *Eddison, Francis, Martinstown, Dorchester.
1870, *Eddison, Dr. John Edwin. 29 Park-square, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 25+

Year of
Election.

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton,
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Eperworta, Micuart P., F.L.S., F.R.A.S. Mastrim House,
Anerley, London, S.E.
1855, {Edmiston, Robert. Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
1859. {Edmond, James, Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen.
1870, *Edmonds, F, B. 72 Portsdown-road, London, W.
1867, *Edward, Allan: Farineton Hall, Dundee.
1867. {Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.
1867. {Edward, James. Balruddery, Dundee.
1855, *Epwarps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
1867, {Edwards, William. 70 Princes-street, Dundee.
*EGERTON, Sir Poitrp pE Mapas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire.
1859, *Hisdale, David A., M.A. 38 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
1878. tElcock, Charles. 39 Lyme-street, Shakspere-street, Ardwick, Man-
chester. 7
1876. {Elder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
1868, {Elger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. St. Mary, Bedford.
Ellacombe, Rey. H. T., F.S.A. Clyst St. George, Topsham,.
Devon.
1863. {Ellenberger, J. L. Worksop.
1855. §Elliot, Robert, F.B.S.E. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B.
1861, *Exxror, Sir Watrer, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wolfelee, Hawick,,
N.B

1864. {Elliott, E. B. Washington, United States.
1872, {Elliott, Rev. E. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton.
Elliott, John Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham,
1864, *Eiiis, ALEXANDER Jonny, B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. 25 Argyll-road,,
Kensington, London, W.
1877.§§Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. School of Mines, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.; and Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1875, *Ellis, H. D. Fair Park House, Exeter.
1864, *Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
1864, fEllis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate,.
York.
1869. {Ellis, William Horton. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
1862. {Elphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
1868. {Embleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
1868. 4Eimery, Rey. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
1858. {Empson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
1866, {Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
1866. {Enfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
1853. {English, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,.
ull.
1869, {Enelish, J.T. Stratton, Cornwall.
ENNISKILLEN, The Right Hon. Witt1am Wii.ovensy, Earl of,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.LA. 65 Eaton-place,.
London, 8.W.; and Florence Court, Fermanagh, Ireland.
1869. *Enys, John Davis. Care of F. G. Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn,
Cornwall.
1844, {Erichsen, John Eric, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of Clinical Surgery
in University College, London. 6 Cavendish-place, London, W.
1864, *Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool,

26

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1862.
1878,

1869,

1870,
1865.
1872,
1876.

1869,
1861.

1876,
1865.
1875.
1866,
1865.
1871.§
1868.

1863.
1874.
1874.
1859.

*Esson, WiiiiAm, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F-R.A.S.. Merton College ;
and 1 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

§Estcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.

Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.

{Ernerrper, Rosrrt, F.R.S. lias Ei F? G. 8., Rolnonilanet to the
Geological Survey of Great Britain. Museum of. Practical
Geology, Jermyn-street ; and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place,
London, 8. W.

*Hyvans, Arthur John, F.S.A. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.

*Kyans, Rey. Cuartus, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham.

*Evans, Frederick J., C.E. Clayponds, Brentford, Middlesex, W.

fEvans, Captain Freperick J. O., C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F-R.A.S.,
F.R.G.8., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. 116 Victoria-street,
Westminster, S.W.

*Evans, H. Saville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledon,
S.W

iS re *
*Evans, Jonny, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S.. 65 Old’ Bailey,
London, E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.
tEvans; Mortimer, C.E. 97 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
tEvans, Sepastran, M.A., LL.D. Haighgate, near Birmingham.
tEyans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.
{Evans, Thomas, F.G.8. Belper, Derbyshire.
*Evans, William. Ellerslie, Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Eve, H. W. Wellington Colleze, Wokingham, Berkshire.
*Everert, J. D.,D.C.L., F.B.S. i. 65 Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s College, Belfast. Rushmere, Malone-voad, Belfast.
*Hyeritt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.
tHwart, William. Glenmachan, Belfast.
tEwart, W. Quartus. Glenmachan, Belfast.
*Ewine, Archibald Orr, M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn, Stirling-
shire.

. *Ewing, James Alfred, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mechanical Hn-

gineering in the University of Tokio, Japan. 12 Laurel Bank,
Dundee, -

. *Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.
. *Eyre, George Edward, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 59 Lowndes-square,

London, 8.W.; and Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.

. [Eyrn, Major-General Sir Vincent, F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club,

Pali Mall, London, 8. W.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

. {Eyton, T, C. Eyton, near Wellington, Salop.

Fairbairn, Thomas. Manchester.

. [Fairley, Thomas, F'.R.S.E. 8 Newington-groye, Leeds.

. {Faizlie, James M. Charing Cross Corner, Glasgow.

. Fairlie, Robert, C.E. Woodlands, Clapham Common, London, S$. W.
. {Fallkmer, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.

. §Faraday, F. J., F.S.S8. College Chambers, 17 Brazenose-street, Man-

chester.

. {Farquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen.
. §Farr, WririrAM, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Statis-

tical Department, General Register Office,London. Southlands,
Bickley, Kent.

. *Farrar, Rey. Freperick Witim, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., Canon of

Westminster. St. Margaret’s Rectory, Westminster, 5. W.

. [Farrelly, Rey. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 27

lection.

1869. *Faulding, J an The Grange, Greenhill Park, New Barnet, Herts.

1869. {Faulding, W. F. Didsbury College, Manchester.

1859, *Fawcnrr, Henry, M.A., M.P., Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Cambridge. 51 The Lawn, South Lambeth-road,

: London, 8.W.; and 8 Trumpington-street, Cambridge.
1863. {Fawcus, George, Alma-place, North Shields,
1873. *Fazakerley, Miss, The Castle, Denbigh.

1845,

{Felkin, William, F.L.S. The Park, Nottingham.
Fell, John B. Spark? s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.

1864, $F ELLOws, Frank P., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hampstead,

1852.
1876.
1876.
1859,
1871.

1867.
1857.

1854,

1867.
1863.
1862.

1873.

1875.
1868.
1869.
1876.
1864,

1878.
1868.

1863.
1851.

1858.
1869.
1873.
“1875.

1858,
1871.

1871.

1868.
1878.
1878.
1857,
1857,

London, N. W.

{Fenton, 8. Greame, 9 Colleve-square ; and Keswick, near Belfast.

*Fereus, Andrew, M.D. 3 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor- -terrace, Glasgow.

{Ferguson, John. Cove, Nige, Inverness.

*Ferguson, John, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Glasgow.

{Ferguson, “Robert M., Ph. D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

{Ferguson, Samuel, ats, De fav C. 20 Great George’s-street North,
Dublin.

tFereuson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. | Kinmundy, near Mintlaw,
Aberdeenshire.

*Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee.

*FERNIE, JoHN. SBonchurch, Isle of Wight.

{Frrrers, Rey. Norman MacLrop, M.A., F.R.S. Caius College,
Cambridge.

{Ferrier, David, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Forensic Medicine
in King’s College. 16 "Upper Berkeley-street, London, W.

{Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

tField, Edward. Norwich.

*Frnztp, Rogers, B.A., C.E. 5 Cannon-row, Westminster, S.W.

tFielden, James. 2 Darnley-street, Pollokshields, near Glasgow.

t¥inch, Frederick George, B.A., F.G.S. 21 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich,
S.E

Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.

Finch, John, jun. Bridge Work, Chepstow.

*Findlater, William. 2 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

{Firth, G. "W.W. St. Giles’ s-street, Norwich.

Firth, Thomas. Northwick.

*Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds.

*FiscHer, Wititram L. F., MA., LLD., F.R.S. St. Andrews,
Scotland.

{Fishbourne, Captain E. G., R.N. 6 Welamere-terrace, Paddington,
London, W.

{Fisuer, Rey. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlston Rectory, near
Cambridge.

§Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire,

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 2 Park-crescent, Oxford.

{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

*Fison, Frederick W., F.C.S. Eastmoor, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

ro a Gay MA. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,

{Fitch, Robert, F.G.8., F.S.A. Norwich.

§Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
§Fitzgerald, George Francis. Trinity College, Dublin.

{Fitzgerald, The Right Hon, Lord Otho. 13 Dominick-street, Dublin,
{Pitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 381 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin,

28 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1865. {Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.
Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood,
Lancashire.
1850. {Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D. 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham,
Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square North, Dublin,
1876, tFleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.
Fleming, John G., M.D. 155 Bath-street, Glasgow.

1876. {Fleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.

*FLEMING, WILLIAM, M.D. Rowton Grange, near Chester,

1867. §FLercHEr, ALFRED E. 5 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

1870. {Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

1853. {FLercuer, Isaac, M.P., F.RS., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Tarn Bank,
Workington.

1869, {Fiercuer, Lavineron E., 0.E. 41 Corporation-street, Manchester.

Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

1862. {FLowER, Witi1am Henry, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Hun-
terian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator of
the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College
of Surgeons, Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.

1877. *Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S. 7 The Terrace, Putney, 8.W,

1867. {Foggie, William. Woodville, Maryfield, Dundee.

1873. *Forbes, Professor George, M.A., F.R.S.E. Andersonian University,
Glasgow.

1855. tForbes, Rey. John. Symington Manse, Biggar, Scotland.

1877. §Forbes, W. A. West Wickham, Kent.

Ford, H. R. Morecombe Lodge, Yealand Conyers, Lancashire.

1866. {Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park-gardens East,
London, W.

1875, *ForpHam, H. Grorex, F.G.S. Odsey, near Royston, Herts.

*Forrest, William Hutton. 1 Pitt-terrace, Stirling.

1867. {Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.

1858. *Forster, The Right Hon. Witt1am Epwarp, M.P., F.R.S. 80
Eccleston-square, London, 8.W.; and Wharfeside, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, Leeds.

1854. *Fort, Richard. Read Hall, Whalley, Lancashire.

1877.§§Fortrscvug, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

1870. {Forwood, William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.

1875, {Foster, A. Le Neve. East Hill, Wandsworth, Surrey, 5.W.

1865. {Foster, Balthazar, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College, °
Birmingham. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.

1865. *Fostrr, CLemEent LE Neve, B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. Truro, Corn-
wall.

1857. *Fosrmr, Grorce Carey, B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Physics
in University College, London. 12 Hilldrop-road, London, N.

*Foster, Rev. John, M.A. The Oaks Vicarage, Loughborough.

1845. {Foster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire.

1877. §Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.

1859. *Fosrer, Micuart, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.C.S. Trinity
College, and Great Shelford, near Cambridge.

1859. §Fostrr, Prrer Le Nryr, M.A. Society of Arts, Adelphi, London,
W.C

1873. {Foster, Peter Le Neve, jun. Society of Arts, Adelphi, London,
W.C.
1863. {Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1859. *Foster, 8. Lloyd. Old Park Hall, Walsall, Staffordshire.
1873. *Foster, William. Harrowins House, Queensbury, Yorkshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Year of
Election.

1842. Fothergill, Benjamin. 10 The Grove, Boltons, West Brompton,
London, S.W.

1870. {Foulger, Edward. 55 Kirkdale-road, Liverpool.

1866.§§Fowler, George, M.I.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.

1868. {Fowler, G.G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

1876. §Fowler, John. 4 Gray-street, Glasgow.

1870. *Fowler, Robert Nicholas, M.A.,F.R.G.S. 50 Cornhill, London, E.C.

1868. {Fox, Major-General A. H. Lanz, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.A.
Guildford, Surrey.

*Fox, Rey. Edward, M.A. Upper Heyford, Banbury.
1876.§§Fox, G.S. Lane. 9 Sussex-place, London, S.W.
*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.
1860. {Fox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke Newington, London, N.
1866. *Francis,G. B. Inglesby House, Stoke Newington-green, London, N.
Francis, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.

1846, {FRanKLAND, Epwarp, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines. 14 Lancaster-gate,
London, W.

*Frankland, Rey. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent, near Manchester.

1859. {Fraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.

Fraser, James. 25 Westland-row, Dublin.
Fraser, James William. 8A Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.

1865. *Fraser, Joun, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

1871. {Fraser, Tuomas R., M.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 3 Grosvenor-street,
Edinburgh.

1876. {Fraser, Rey. William, LL.D. Free Middle Manse, Paisley.

1859. *Frazer, Daniel. 113 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

1871. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

1860. {Freeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford.

1847. *Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester,
Sussex.

1877.§§Freeman, Francis Ford. Blackfriars House, Plymouth.

1865. {Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Roydon Hall, Diss, Norfolk.

1869. {Frerz, The Right Hon. Sir H. Barrrz E., Bart., G.C.S.1., G.C.B.,
E.R.S., F.R.G.S., Governor of Cape Colony and Dependencies.
Government House, Cape Town.

1869. {Frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol.

1857. *Frith, Richard Hastings, C.H,, M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. 48 Summer-
hill, Dublin.

1869. {Frodsham, Charles. 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.

1847. {Frost, William. Wentworth Lodge, Upper Tulse Hill, London, 8. W.

1860, *FRoupz, Witt1aM, M.A., C.E., F.R.S. Chelston Cross, Torquay.

1875. {Fry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol.
1875. *Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol.
Fry, Richard. Cotham Lawn, Bristol.

1872. *Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester.

1873. [Fuller, Claude S., R.N, 44 Holland-road, Kensington, London, W.

1859. {FutLER, Freperick, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni-

versity and King’s College, Aberdeen.

1869. {Furimr, Gnoren, C.E.; Professor of Engineering in Queen’s College,

Belfast. 6 College-gardens, Belfast.
1864, *Furneaux, Rey. Alan. St. German’s Parsonage, Cornwall.

30 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A, Ewell Castle, Surrey.
1857. {Gaezs, ALpHonsE, M.R.LA. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
1863. *Gainsford, W. D. Richmond Hill, Sheffield.

1876. {Gairdner, Charles. Mount Vernon, Shettleston, N.B.

1850, {Gairdner, Professor W. T., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glaseow.

1861. {Galbraith, Andrew. Glasgow.

GaLBRAITH, Rey. J. A., M.A., M.R.I.A. Trinity College, Dublin,

1876. {Gale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Glascow.

1863. tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W.

1861. {Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester,

1861. {Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester,

1875. §Galloway, W., H.M. Inspector of Mines. Cardiff.

1860, *Gatron, Captain Dovetas, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. (GENERAL SECRETARY.) 12 Chester-street, Grosvenor-
place, London, 8. W.

1860. *Gatton, Francis, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F-R.G.S. 42 Rutland-
gate, Knightsbridge, London, 8. W.

1869. {Garron, Jonn C., M.A., F.L.8S. 13 Margaret-street, Cayendish-
square, London, W.

1870. §Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire,

1870. {Gamble, J.C. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

1872. *Gamble, John G., M.A. 10 Vyvyan-terrace, Clifton, Bristol; and
Albion House, Rottingdean, Brighton.

1877.§§Gamble, William. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

1868, {Gamern, Arraur, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in Owens College, Manchester. Fairview, Princes-road, Fal-
lowfield, Manchester.

1862. §GaRnER, Ropert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent.

1865. §Garner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent.

1842, Garnett, Jeremiah. Warren-street, Manchester.

1873. {Garnham, John. 123 Bunhill-row, London, E.C.

1874. *Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

1870. {Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.

1870. *Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Mayfield-road, Grassendale, Liverpool.

1847, *Gaskell, Samuel. Windham Club, St. James’s-square, London,
S.W

1842. Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. Plymouth-eroye, Manchester.

1862. *Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.8.,F.G.S. Felbridge Park, East
Grinstead, Sussex.

1875. §Gavey, J. 43 Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff.

1875. §Gaye, Henry 8. Newton Abbott, Devon.

1878. {Geach, R. G. Craee Wood, Rawdon, Yorkshire.

1871. {Geddes, John, 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1859. [Geddes, William D., M.A., Professor of Greek, King’s College, Old

; Aberdeen.

1854, {Gee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

1867.§§Grrxin, ARCHIBALD, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Vic-
toria-street, Edinburgh ; and Boroughfield, Edinburgh.

1871. §Geikie, James, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S. 16 Duncan-terrace, New-
ington, Edinburgh.

1855. [Gemmell, Andrew. 38 Queen-street, Glasgow.

1875. *George, Rey. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.

1854, Gerard, Henry. 84 Rumford-place, Liverpool.

1870, {Gerstl, R. University College, London, W.C.

1870, *Gervis, Walter 8., M.D., F.R.G.S. Ashburton, Devonshire,

Year of
Election

1856,
1865.
1871.
1868.
1874,
1876,

1852.
1870.
1870,

1842.

1857.
1859.

1878.

1878.
1871.
1868.

1864,
1861.
1867.
1876.

1867.§
1869

1874,
1850,
1849,

1861,
1875.

1861,
1871.

1853.
1870.
1859,

1867,
1874,

1874,
1870.
1872.
1878,
1852.
1846,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 31

*Gething, George Barkley. Springfield, Newport, Monmouthshire,
{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,
fGibson, Alexander. 10 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
{Gibson, C. M. Bethel-street, Norwich.
{Gibson, Edward, Q.0. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin,
*Gibson, George Alexander, M.B., D.Sec., F.G.S. 10 Old-square,
Birmingham.
*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Walden, Essex.
tGibson, James, M.A.,Q.C. 35 Mountjoy-square South, Dublin.
tGibson, Thomas. 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool.
tGibson, Thomas, jun. 10 Parkfield-road, Prince’s Park, Liver-
ool,
instar JosrpH Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, near
St. Albans.
{Gilbert, J. T., M.R.LA. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.
*Gilchrist, James, M.D. Crichton House, Dumfries.
Gilderdale, Rey. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
§Giles, Oliver. 16 Bellevue-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleizh House, near Chester,
§Gill, Rev. A. W. H. 44 Eaton-square, London, 8. W.
*GitL, Davin, jun. 36 Pembroke-road, Kensington, London, W.
{Gill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le~Grand, E.C.)
tGrtz, Tomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath.
*Gilroy, George. Hindley Hall, Wigan.
{Gilroy, Robert. Oraigie, by Dundee.
§Gimingham, Charles H. 45 St. Augustine’s-road, Camden-square,
London, N.W.
§Grnssure, Rey. 0. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Wokingham, Berkshire.

. {Girdlestone, Rev. Canon E., M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton.

*Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.

*Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S, 31 Ventnor-villas, Cliftonville,
Brighton.

*Guapsronz, Jonn Hart, Ph.D., F-RS., F.OS, 17 Pembridge-
square, Hyde Park, London, W. ;

*Gladstone, Murray. 35 Wilton-crescent, London, 8. W.

*Glaisher, Ernest Henry. 1 Dartmouth-place, Blackheath, London,

3.E

*GLAIsHER, James, F.R.S., F.R.AS. 1 Dartmouth-place, Black-
heath, London, S.E.
*GuaisHer, J. W. L., M.A, F.RS., F.R.AS. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
tGleadon, Thomas Ward. Moira-buildings, Hull.
§Glen, David Corse, F.G.8. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.:
fGlennie, J. S, Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.C.
tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
§Glover, George T, 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. Becley Old Hall, Rowsley, Bakewell.
{Glover, Thomas. 77 Claverton-street, London, S.W,
{Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tGopparp, Rronarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
{Gopwin-Ausren, Roprerr A, C., B.A., F.R.S., F.G.8S, Shalford
House, Guildford,

32 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876. {Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

1877. §Gorr, James. The Mansion "House, Dublin.

1873.§§Goldthorp, Miss R. F.C Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1878. §Good, Rey. Thomas, B.D. 51 Wellington-road, Dublin.

1852. {Goodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.

1870. ¢{Goodison, George William, C.E. Gateacre, Liverpool.

1842. *Goopman, Jonn, M.D. 8 Leicester-street, Southport.

1865. {Goodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.

1869. {Goodman, Neville. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

1870. *Goodwin, Rev. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S. Lambourne Rectory,
Romford.

1878. §Gorpon, J. E. H., B.A. (Assistant Secretary.) Holmwood
Cottage, Dorking.

1871. Bai Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London,

1840. tGordon, Lewis D. B. Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N.
1857. {Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
1865. {Gore, George, Liens F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
1870. {Gossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool.
1875. *Gotch, Francis. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering.
1873. §Gott, ’ Charles, M.LC.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1849. t{Gough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
1857. tGough, The Right Hon. George &., Viscount, M.A,, F.LS., F.G.S.
t. Helen’s s, Booterstown, Dublin.
1868. {Gould, i George. Unthank- road, Norwich.
Goutp, Joun, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R. G. S.,F.Z.S. 26 Charlotte-street,
Bedford-square, ‘London, W.C.
1873. tGourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’ s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1867. {Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
1876. §Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
Gowland, James. London-wall, London, EC.
1873. §Goyder, Dr. D. Manville-crescent, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1861. {Grafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1867. *Granam, Oyrit, F.LS., F.R.G. Ss. 9 Cleveland-row, St. James’s,
London, 8. W.
1875. {GRAHAME, JAMES, Auldhouse, Pollokshaws, near Glasgow.
1852. *Grainger, Rev. John, D.D., M.R. LA. Skerry and Ratheavan Rectory,
Broughshane, near Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
1871. {Grant, Sir ALEXANDER, Bart., M.A., Principal of the University of
Edinburgh, 21 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
1870.§§GRANT, Colonel J. ARG). Bo aOisale, F.RBS., FLAS, F.R.G.S. 19
Upper Grosvenor-street, "London, W.
1859, {Grant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres.
1855. *Grant, Ropert, M.A., LL.D., F. R. g., F.R.A. S., Regius Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
Glasgow.
1854, {GranrHam, Ricwarp B., C.B., F.G.S. 22 Whitehall-place, London,
S.W.

1864, {Grantham, Richard F. 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W.
1874, {Graves, Rev. James, B.A., M.R.I.A. Inisnag Glebe, Stonyford, Co.
Kilkenny.
*Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D. 31 Raglan-road, Dublin.
1864. *Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Worksop.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

co
vo

Year of
Election,

1865. {Gray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston.

1870. {Gray, C. B. 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool,

1876. {Gray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

1857. {Gray, Sir John, M.D. Rathgar, Dublin.

1864. {Gray, Jonathan. Summerhill House, Bath.

1859. {Gray, Rev. J. H. Boisover Castle, Derbyshire.

1870. §Gray, J. Macfarlane. 127 Queen’s-road, Peckham, London, S.F.

1878. §Gray, Matthew Hamilton. 14 St. John’s Park, Blackheath, London,
S.E.

1878. §Gray, Robert Kaye. 14 St. John’s Park, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1875. {Gray, William, M.R.I.A. 6 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*Gray, WILLIAM, F.G.S. Gray’s-court, Minster Yard, York.

; *Gray, Colonel Witt1am. Farley Hall, near Reading.

1854, *Grazebrook, Henry. Clent Grove, near Stourbridge, Worcester-
shire.

1866. §Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 32 Friar-gate, Derby.

1873. {Greaves, James H., C.E, Albert-buildings, Queen Victoria-street,
London, E.C.

1869. §Greaves, William. Wellington-circus, Nottingham.

1872. §Greaves, William. 11 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.

1872. *Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.

1858. *Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.

1863. {Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

1875. tGreenwood, Frederick. School of Medicine, Leeds.

1877. §Greenwood, Holmes, 78 King-street, Accrington.

1862. *Greenwood, Henry. 32 Castle-street, and the Woodlands, Anfield-
road, Anfield, Liverpool.

1849, {Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.

1861. *Gree, Rosert Purrirs, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.

1833. Gregg, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C.

1860. {Grrcor, Rey. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen-

shire.

1868. {Gregory, Charles Hutton, C.E. 1 Delahay-street, Westminster,

S.W.

1861. §Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1875. {Grenfell, J. Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 5 Albert-villas, Clifton, Bristol.
*GRESWELL, Rev. Ricuarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 St. Giles’s-
street, Oxford.
1869, {Grey, Sir Gerorer, F.R.G.S. Belgrave-mansions, Grosyenor-
gardens, London, 8.W.
1875. tGrey, Mrs. Maria G. 18 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
1871. *Grierson, Samuel. Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum,
Melrose, N.B.
1859. {Grrerson, Toomas Boyiz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
1875. §Grieve, David, F.R.S.E. Hobart House, Dalkeith.
1870. {Grieve, John, M.D. 21 Lynedock-street, Glasgow.
1878. §Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
Griffith, Rev. C. T., D.D. Elm, near Frome, Somerset.
1859. *GrirritH, GrorGs, M.A., F.C.S. Harrow.
Griffith, George R. Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
1868, ee Rev. Joun, M.A., D.C.L. Findon Rectory, Worthing,
ussex.
1870. {Griffith, N. R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales.
1870. {Griffith, Rev. Henry, F.G.S. Barnet, Herts.
1847, {Griffith, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham,
Grirritus, Rey. Jonny, M.A. Wadham College, Oxford.
D

34 | LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.
1875. {Grignon, James, H.M. Consul at Riga. Riga.
1870. {Grimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1842. Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A. Errwod, Buxton.
1864. {Groom-Naprrer, CHArtes Orriny, F.G.8. 18 Elgin-road, St.
Peter’s Park, London, N. W.
1869, §Grote, Arthur, F.L.S., F.G.S. 20 Cork-street, Burlington-ardens,
London, W.
Grove, The Hon, Sir Wirttam Rosert, Knt., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
115 Harley-street, London, W.
1863. *Groves, Toomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.
1869. FOR, ; Howarp, F.R.A.S. 40 Leinster-square, Rathmines,
Dublin.
1872. {Griineisen, Sane Lewis, F.R.G.S. 16 Surrey-street, Strand, Lon-
don, W.C.
Guest, Edwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Master of Caius College, Cam-
Eee Caius Lodge, Cambridge; and Sandford Park, Oxford-
shire.
1867. {Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin,
1842. Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
1856. *Guisn, Sir Wirttam VERNON, Bart., F.G.8., F.L.S. Elmore Court,
near Gloucester.
1862. {Gunn, John, M.A., F.G.S. Irstedd Rectory, Norwich.
1877. §Gunn, William, F.G.S. Barnard Castle, Darlington.
1866. {Gtnrupr, ArpertO. L.G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, London, W.C.
18€8. *Gurney, John. Sprouston Hall, Norwich.
1860, *Gurney, Samvet, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 29 Hanover-terrace, Regent's
Park, London, N.W.
*Gutch, John James. Holgate Lodge, York.
1876. {Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
1859. {Gurnrin, Frepericx, B,A., F.RS. L. & E., Professor of Physics in
the Royal School of Mines. 24 Stanley-crescent, Notting Hill,
London, W.
1857. {Gwynne, Rev. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
1876. {Gwyther, R. F. Owens College, Manchester.

Hackett, Michael. Brooklawn, Chapelizod, Dublin.
1865. {Hackney, William. 9 Victoria~chambers, Victoria-street, London,
, S.W.
1866. *Hadden, Frederick J. 3 Park-terrace, Nottingham,
1866, {Haddon, Henry. Lenton Field, Nottingham.
Haden, G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
1842. Hadfield, George. Victoria~park, Manchester.
1870. {Hadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1848. {Hadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire.
1870, {Haigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
1869. {Hake, R. ©. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
1875.§$Hale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor.
1870, {Halhead, W. B. 7 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.
Hatrax, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgrave-square, London,
S.W.; and Hickleston Hall, Doncaster.
1872, {FPall, Dr. Alfred. 30 Old Steine, Brighton.
1854, *Hart, Hucn Ferere, F.G.S. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead.

LIST OF MEMBERS, Biy

Year of
‘Election.

1859. {Hall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey,
1872. *Hall, Captain Marshall. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.
*Hall, Thomas B, Australia. (Care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane
House, Great Yarmouth.)
1866, *Hart, Townsuenp M.,F.G.S.__ Pilton, Barnstaple.
1860. §Hall, Walter. 11 Pier-road, Erith.
1873. §Haurerr, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.
1868, *Hatrerr, Wro11am Henry, F.LS. Buckingham House, Marine
Parade, Brighton.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
1858. *Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.8. The Leys, Barrow-on-
Soar, near Loughborough.
1866. §Hamiiron, ArcuiBaLp, F.G.S. South Barrow, Bromley, Kent.
1865.§§Hamilton, Gilbert. Leicester House, Kenilworth-road, Leamine-
ton.
Haminron, The Very Rev. Henry Parr, Dean of Salisbury, M.A.,
F.RS. L. & E., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Salisbury.
1869. {Hamilton, John, F.G.S. Fyne Court, Bridgewater.
1869. §Hamilton, Roland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
1851. {Hammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
1878, §Hanagan, Anthony. Luckington, Dalkey.
1878. §Hance, Edward M. 24 Church-road, Wavertree, Liverpool.
1875. {Hancock, C. F., jun, M.A. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street,
London, W.
1863. {Hancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1850, {Hancock, John, J.P. The Manor House, Lurgan, Oo. Armagh.
1861, {Hancock, Walker. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, London,
N. ~

1857. {Hancock, William J. 23 Synnot-place, Dublin.
1847, {Hancock, W. Neirson, LL.D., MR.LA. 64 Upper Gardiner-
street, Dublin.
1876. §Hancock, Mrs. \. Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin.
1865. {Hands, M. Coventry
Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E. Edinburgh.
1867. {Hannah, Rey. John, D.C.L. The Vicarage, Brighton.
1859, {Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
1853, {Hansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
“Harcourt, A. G. Vurnoy, M.A., F.RS., F.C.S. 3 Norham-gar-
dens, Oxford.
Harcourt, Egerton V. Vernon, M.A., F.G.S, Whitwell Hall, York-
shire.
1865. {Harding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham,
1869. {Harding, Joseph. Millbrooke House, Exeter.
1877. §Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
1869, {Harding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.
1874, {Hardman, E. T., F.C.S. 14 Hume street, Dublin.
1872, {Hardwicke, Mrs. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
*Harn, CHARLES Joun, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Uni-
versity College, London. 57 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
Harford, Summers. Haverfordwest.
1858, {Hargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
1876. {Harker, Allen. 17 Southgate-street, Gloucester, ,
1878. *Harlness, H. W. Sacramento, California.
1871. §Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C.
1875, *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A.,F.S.A. The Vicarage, Hare-
field, Middlesex.
D2

36.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
lection,

1877.
1862.

1862,

1861.
4868.
1872.

1857,

4874.

*Harland, Henry Seaton. Brompton, Wykeham Station, York.
*Hartey, Guorer, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, London,
W.

*Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury.

*Hurrey, Rev. Rosert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Mill Hill School, Mid-
dlesex; and Burton Bank, Mill Hill, Middlesex, N. W.

tHarman, H. W., C.E. 16 Booth-street, Manchester.

*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

eee Rey. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clayhanger Rectory,

iverton.
*THarvis, Alfred. Oxton Hall, Tadcaster. »
*Harris, Alfred, jun. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland.

. tHarris, Grorer, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid-

dlesex.

. *Harris, Herbert W. 124 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

3. {Harris, T. W. Grange, Middlesbrough-on-Tees.

. tHarris, W. W. Oak-villas, Bradford, Yorkshire.

. tHarrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.

. {Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.

3. §Harrison, George, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.C.S. 14 St. James’s-row,

Sheffield.

. tHarrison, G. D. B. 8 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
8. *Harrisoy, James Park, M.A. Cintra Park Villa, Upper Norwood,

5.1.

. tHTarrison, Recrnatp. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
. tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.
. tHarrison, T. E. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on-

Tyne.
. *Harrison, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. Samlesbury Hall, near Preston,

Lancashire.

. tIlarrowny, The Right Hon. Duptny Ryper, Karl of, K.G., D.C.L.,

F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 Grosvenor-squaye, London, W.; and
Sandon Hall, Lichfield.

59, *Hart, Charles. Harborne Hall, Birmingham.

. *Hart, Thomas. Bank View, 33 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

5. §Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

. { Hartland, F. Dixon, F.S.A., F.R.GS. The Oaklands, near Chelten-

ham.
Tlartley, James. Sunderland.

71. {Iartley, Walter Noel, F.0.S. King’s College, London, W.C.
54. (Harrnup, Jowy, F.R.A.S. Liverpool Observatory, Bidston,

Birkenhead.

. tITarvey, Alexander, 4 South Wellington-place, Glasgow.
. tHarvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea, Douglas-road, Cork.
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork.

. §Harvey, R. J.. M.D. 7 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
2. *IHarwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.
. tHasting, G. W. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern.

Hastings, Rev. H. 8. Martley Rectory, Woyrcester.

7. {Hastings. W. Huddersfield.

*Hatton, James. Richmond House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

t{Haventon, Rey. Samvrt, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.R.LA.,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin.
Trinity College, Dublin.

{Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, F.G.S. Century Club, East Fifteenth-
street, New York,

LIST OF MEMBERS. ° 37

Year of
Election.

1872. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W

*HAWKsHAW, Sir Jonny, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Ilollycombe,
Liphook, Petersfield ; and 33 Great George-street, London, 8S. W.-
1864. *Hawkshaw, John Clarke, M.A., F.G.S. 25 Cornwall-gardens,
South Kensington, 8.W.; and 33 Great George-street, London,
S.W.
1868.§§Hawxstey, Tuomas, C.E.,F.R.S., F.G.S. 30 Great George-street,
London, 8. W.
1863. {Hawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1859. {Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire.
1877.§§Hay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.
1861. *Hay, Rear-Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart, C.B.,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
1858. {Hay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds.
1867. tHay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
1857, {Hayden, Thomas, M.D. 30 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
1873, *Hayes, Rey. William A., M.A. 8 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
1869. {Hayward, J. High-street, Exeter.
1858. *Haywarp, Roprrr Batpwiy, M.A., F.R.S. The Park, Harrow.
1851.§§Hean, Jeremrsan, C.E., F.C.S. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.
1869. {Head, R. T. The Briars, Alphington, Exeter.
1869. tHead, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1863. {Heald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1872. { Healey, C. E. H. Chadwyck. 8 Albert-mansions, Victoria-strect,
London, 8.1.
1871. §Healey, George. Matson’s, Windermere.
1861. *Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester.
1877.§§Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
1865. {Hearder, William. Rocombe, Torquay.
1877.§§Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
1866. {Heath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
18638. {Heath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1861. §HxearHrrep, W. E., F.C.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. - 20 King-street,
St. James’s, London, 8.W.
1865. {Heaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Birmingham.
1858. *Hxaton, JouHn Draxty, M.D., F.R.C.P. Claremont, Leeds.
1865. { Heaton, Ralph. Harborne Lodge, near Birmingham.
1833. tHeavisrpe, Rey. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
1855. {Hxcror, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.8.G.8., Geological Survey
of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.
1867. {Heppxs, M. Fosrer, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of St. Andrews, N.B.
1869. tHedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.
1863. tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1857. *Hemans, George William, C.E., M.R.LA., F.G.S. 1 Westminster-
chambers, Victoria-street, London, 8. W.
1867. {Henderson, Alexander. Dundee.
1845. {Henderson, Andrew. 120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, Lon-
don, W.
1873. *Henderson, A. L. 49 King William-street, London, E.C.
1874. t{Henderson, James Alexander. Norwood Tower, Belfast.
_ 1876. *Henderson, William, Williamfield, Irvine, N.B.
1873. *Hunperson, W. D. 12 Victoria-street, Belfast.
1856, {Hennessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of Science
for Ireland. 3 Idrone-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election,

1857. {Hennessy, John Pope, Governor of the Bahamas. Government

1873.

1874.

House, Nassau.

*Henrici, Olaus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics
in University College, London. 21 South-yillas, Camden-
square, London, N.W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.

Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Henry, Mitchell, M.P, Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London,
We

{Heyry, Rev. P. Suurpam, D.D., M.R.1.A., President, Queen’s
College, Belfast.

*Henry, WILLIAM Cuartes, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.8.
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.

{Henty, William. Norfolk-terrace, Brighton.

*Hepbum, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Sideup-place, Sidcup, Kent,

tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W,

Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, 8.W.

{Hepburn, Thomas H. St. Mary’s Cray, Kent.

Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire.

. {Hepworth, Rev. Robert. .2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.

*Herbert, Thomas, The Park, Nottingham.

{Herrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough.

*HerscHet, Professor ALEXANDER §., B.A., F.R.A.S. College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

. §Herschel, Major John, R.E., F.R.S. Mussoorie, N. W. P. India.

(Care of Messrs. H. Robertson & Co., 5 Crosby-square, London,
E.C.)
{Heslop, Dr. Birmingham.
{Heugh, John. Gaunt’s House, Wimborne, Dorset.
Hey, Rey. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clifton, York,
“Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire,
{Heymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.
*Hrywoop, Jamas, F.R.S., ¥.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.
*Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester. .
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
Naas Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Heriot House, Hendon, Middlesex,
v.W.

§Hicks, W. M. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

“Iirern, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.

*Higein, Edward. Troston Lodge, near Bury St. Edmunds.

*Higgin, James, Lancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester.

Higginbotham, Samuel. 4 Springfield-court, Queen-street, Glas-

pow.

{Higginbottom, John, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Gill-street, Nottingham.

tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.

{Hiteers, Cryment, B.A., F.C.8. 103 Holland-road, Kensington,
London, W.

tHicerns, Rev. Huyry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liver-
pool.

*Higgins, James. Stocks House, Cheetham, Manchester.

» TAgginson, Alfred. 44 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.

Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.

Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex,

Year of
Election

1872.
1857,
1871.

1864.
1876.
1865.
1871.
1858.

1870.

1865,
1863.
1861.
1858.
1861.

1856,
1870.

1864.
1864.
1864.
1866,

1877.5
1877
1876.
1852.

1863.
1873.
1873.
1875.
1865.
1865.
1830.

1865.

1860.
1876.
1854.
1873.
1856,

1865,
1866,
1873.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 89

§Hill, Charles. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grinstead.

*Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.

§Hill, John, 0.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s Office,
Ennis, Ireland.

tHill, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock.

*Hi1, Sir Rowranp, K.O.B., D.C.L., F.R.8., F.R.A.S. Hampstead,
London, N.W.

{Mill, William. Combe Hay, Bristol.

Hill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.

{Hills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.

*Hills, Thomas Hyde. 338 Oxtford-street, London, W.

tHincxs, Rev. THomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stancliff House, Clevedon,
Somerset.

{Hinde, G. J. Buenos Ayres.

Hindley, Rev. H. J. Edlington, Lincolnshire.

*Hindmarsh, Luke. Alnbank House, Alnwick.

{Hinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

tHinds, William, M.D. Parade, Birmingham.

*Hinmers, William. Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport,

{Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.

*Hirst, T. Arncuer, Ph, D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Naval College,
eo ah hae S.E.; and Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London,

.W.

{Hitch, Samuel, M.D. Sandywell Park, Gloucestershire.

tHitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S. 29 Erskine-street,
Liverpool.

*Hoare, Rev. George Tooker. Godstone Rectory, Redhill.

Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.

{Hobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Oadogan-place, London, S.W.

tHobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.

tHobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.

tHocxry, Caries, M.D. 8 Avenue-road, St. John’s Wood, Lon-
don, N.W.

§Hockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall. '

. §Hodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth,

tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.

tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.

*Hopexin, THomas. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tHodgson, James. Oakfield, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Hodgson, Kirkman Daniel, M.P. 67 Brook-street, London, W.

tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.

tHodgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead.

tHodgson, W. B., LL.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Commercial and Po-
litical Economy in the University of Edinburgh.

*Hormany, Avevst Winner, M.D., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
10 Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin.

tHogan, Rev. A. R., M.A. Watlington Vicarage, Oxfordshire,

{Hogg, Robert. 54 Jane-street, Glasgow.

*Holeroft, George. Byron’s-court, St. Mary’s-gate, Manchester,

*Holden, Isaac. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire.

tHolland, Henry. Dumbleton, Evesham.

*Holland, Philip H. Home Office, London, S.W.

tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.

*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.

tHolmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire.

40

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

lection.

1876.
1876,

1870,

1875.
1847,

1865.
1877.

1856.
1842.
1869.
1865.
1870.

1871.
1858.

1876.
1875,
1854,
1856,
1868.

1858.

1859.
1863.
1876.
1857,

1868.
1865,

1863.
1854,
1870,

*Holms, James. Hope Park, Partick, near Glasgow.

{Holms, Colonel William, M.P. 95 Cromwell-road, South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W.

{Holt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

*Hone, Nathaniel, M.A., M.R.LA. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*Hood, John. The Elms, Cotham Hill, Bristol.

tHooxer, Sir JosrpH Datron, K.O.S.1., K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Gardens,
Kew, Surrey.

*Hooper, John P, The Hut, Mitcham Common, Surrey.

*“Hooper, Samuel F. Beechwood, Clapham Common, Surrey,
S.W

tHooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire.
{Hope, William, V.C. Parsloes, Barking, Essex.
{Hopkins, J. S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
“Hopkinson, Jonny, F.R.S. 78 Holland-road, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
§Hopxrnson, Joun, F.1.S., F.G.8. Wansford House, Watford.
{Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
*Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glasrow.
*Horniman, F. J. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
{Horsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley.
tHorsley, John H. 1 Ormond-terrace, Cheltenham.
{Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
Hoventon, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
16 Upper Brook-street, London, W.
tHounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract.
Tiovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
{ Howard, Captain John Henry, R.N. The Deanery, Lichfield.
tHoward, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Carlisle.
THowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
{Howell, Henry H., F.G.S. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-
street, London, S.W.
{Howe t, Rev. Canon Hixps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
*How ert, Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
{Howorrn, H. H. Derby House, Eccles, Manchester.
tHowson, The Very Rev. J. S., D.D., Dean of Chester. Chester.
tHubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

. *Hupson, Henry, M.D., M.R.LA. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
. §Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.8. Clapham Common, London,
S. W,

. t{Hudson, Williom H.H., M.A. 19 Bennet’s-hill, Doctors’ Commons,

London, E.C.; and St. John’s College, Cambridge.

. *Hueerns, Writrram, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, 8. W.

. tHuggon, William. 30 Park-row, Leeds.
. “Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-

berland.

. “Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
. “Hughes, Thomas Edward. The Priory, Repton, Burton-on-

Trent.

. §Hueuss, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology

in the University of Cambridge.

» {Hughes, T. W. 4 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 4}

Year of
Election.

1865. tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
Birmingham.

1867, § Hutt, EDWARD, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geology i in the Royal College
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C. L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;

' and Breamore House, Salisbury.

1861. {Humx, Rey. Canon Asranam, D. 10.L,, LL.D., F.A. \ All cols
Vicarage, Rupert-lane, Liverpool.

1856. {Humphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.

1878. §Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.

1862, *Humpnry, ‘GuorcE Morray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.

1877. *Hunt, Arthur Roope, M.A., EGS. Southwood, "Torquay.

1865. {Hunt, J. P. Gospel Oak. Works, Tipton.

1840. {Hunt, Roper, F.R.S., Keeper of the Mining Records. Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

1864, {Hunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath.

1875. *Hunt, William. The Woodlands, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol. .

Hunter, Andrew Galloway. Denholm, Hawick, N.B.

1868. {Hunter, Christopher. Aliiance Insurance Office, North Shields,

1867. {Hunter, David. Blackness, Dundee.

1869, *Hunter, Rev. Robert, F.G.S. 9 Mecklenburgh-street, London,
W.C.

1863. {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

1875.§§Hurnard, James. Lexden, Colchester, Essex.

1869, {Hurst, George. Bedford.

1861. *Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.

1870, {Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.

Husband, William Dalla. Coney-street, York.

1876, {Hutchinson, John, 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.

-1874. {Hutchinson, Thomas J., F.R.G.S. Chimoo Cottage, Mill Till,
London, N.W.

1876. {Hutchison, Peter. 28 Berkeley-terrace, Glasrow-

1868. *Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. 29 Chester-street, Edinburgh.

1863. | Hutt, The Right Hon. Sir W., K.C.B. Gibside, Gateshead.

Hutton, Crompton. Putney Park, Surrey, S.W.

1864, *Hutton, Darnton. (Care of Arthur Lupton, Esq., Headingley, near
Leeds.)

Hutton, Henry. Edenfield, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

1857. {Hutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin.

1861. *Hurron, T. Maxwert. Summerhill, Dublin.

1852. {Huxtny, THomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines.
4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.

Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
1871. *Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
1875. §Ikin, J. I. 19 Park-place, Leeds.
1861. {Iles, Rey. J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton.
1858. {Ingham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
1876. §Inclis, Anthony. Broomhill, Partick, Glasgow.
1871. tIveris, The Right Hon. Jonny, D.C.L, LL.D., Lord Justice General
of Scotland. Edinburgh.
1876, {Inglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

42 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1858. *Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell. Temple Newsam, Leeds.

1852. {Ineram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek in the
University of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

1870. *Inman, William. Upton Manor, Liverpool.

Treland, R. S., M.D. 121 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1857. tIrvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin.

1862. fIseuin, J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 52 Stockwell Park-road, London,.
S.W

1863. “Ivory, Thomas. 23 Walker-street, Edinburgh.

1865. {Jabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham,
1870. tJack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1859. tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
1876. {Jack, William. 19 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
1866. {Jackson, H. W., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 15 The Terrace, High-road,
Lewisham, 5.E.
1869. §Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate.
Jackson, Professor Thomas, LL.D. St. Andrew’s, Scotland.
1863. *Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. Moonbeam Villa, The Grove, New Wim-
bledon, London, 8. W.
1852. {Jacoss, BeruEet. 40 George-street, Hull.
1874, *Jaffe, John. Cambridge Villa, Strandtown, near Belfast.
1865. *Jaffray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1872. tJames, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney Hill, London, E.C.
1860. {James, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.
1863. *Jamus, Sir Waxrer, Bart., F.G.S. 6 Whitehall-gardens, London,
Shik
1858. {James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.
1876.§§Jamieson, J. L. K. The Mansion House, Govan, Glasgow.
1876. {Jamieson, Rey. Dr. R. 156 Randolph-terrace, Glasgow.
1859. *Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
1850. {Jardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire.
1870. {Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1853. *Jarratt, Rey. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, York-
shire.
Jarrett, Rey. THomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University
of Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk.
1870. §Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
1862. {Jeakes, Rev. James, M.A. 54 Argyll-road, Kensington, W.
Jebb, Rey. John. Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire.
1868. {Jecks, Charles. 26 Langham-place, Northampton.
1856. {Jeffery, Henry M., M.A. 438 Hich-street, Cheltenham.
1855. *Jeffray, John. Cardowan House, Millerston, Glasgow.
1867. par Towel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 5 Brick-court, Temple, London,

1861. *Jurrreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S,, Treas, G.S., F.R.G.S.
Ware Priory, Herts.

1852. ibaa Rey. Joun H., B.D., M.R.LA. 64 Lower Leeson-street,

ublin.

1862. §Jenkin, H. C. Freemine, F.R.S. M.I.C.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. 3 Great Stuart-
street, Edinburgh.

1873. Senet. Major-General J. J. 14 St. James’s-square, London,

J ennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, Birkenhead.
1852. {Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S.,M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.
1872. {Jemnings, W. Grand Hotel, Brighton.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 43

Year of
Election.

1878. §Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.
*Jerram, Rey. 8. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, near Bagshot
Surrey.
1872. {Jesson, Thomas. 7 Upper Wimpole-street, Cavendish-square
London, W.
Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire.
1870. *Jrvons, W. Stantny, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Political
Economy in University College, London. 2 The Chestnuts,
Branch Hill, Hampstead Heath, London, N.W.
1872. *Joad, George C. Oakfield, W imbledon, Surrey, S.W.
1871. *Johnson, David, F.0.8., F.G.8S. Irvon V illa, Grosyenor-road,
Wrexham.
1865. *Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1875. §Johnson, James Henry, F.G.8. 3 Queen’s-road, Southport.
1866. {Johnson, John. Knighton Fields, Leicester.
1866. {Johnson, John G. 18a Basinghall-street, London, E.C.
1872. {Johnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
1861, {Johnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
1870. §Johnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. Higher Bebington Hall, Birken-
head,
1863. {Johnson, R. 8S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
“Johnson, Thomas. The Hermitage, Frodsham, Cheshire.
1861. {Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham.
1871. {Johnston, A. Keith, F.R.G.S, 1 Savile-row, London, W.
1864, {Johnston, David. 13 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
1859. {Johnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
1864, {Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W

?

1876. {Johnston, John, M.D. Edinburgh.
“Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.
1864. {Johnstone, John, 1 Barnard-yvillas, Bath.
1876. {Johnstone, William. 5 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
1864, {Jolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
187i. §Jolly, William (H.M. Inspector of Schools). Inverness, N.B.
1849. {Jones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham.
1856. {Jones,C. W. 7 Grosyenor-place, Cheltenham.
1877. §Jones, Henry C., F.C.S. 166 Blackstock-road, London, N,
1865. {Jones, John. 49 Union-passage, Birmingham.
“Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool.
1873, {Jones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.
1860, {Jones, Tomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy, Royal Military and Staff Colleges, Sandhurst.
5 College-terrace, York Town, Surrey.
1847, {Jonzs, Tuomas Rymegr, F.R.S. 52 Cornwall-road, Westbourne
Park, London, W.
1864,§§Jonzs, Sir WitLoveHsy, Bart., F.R.G.S. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham,
Norfolk.
1875, *Jose, J. E. 3 Queen-square, Bristol.
“Joule, Benjamin St. John B. 28 Leicester-street, Southport, Lan-
cashire.
1842. *JouLz, James Prescorr, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S, 12 Wardle-road,
Sale, near Manchester.
1847, {Jowrrr, Rev. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford.
1858. {Jowett, John. Leeds.
1872, Woy esraay- Junior United Service Club, St. James's, London,.
W.

ad

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1848,

1870,

1863.
1868,

1857.
1859,

1847,
1872.
1875.
1866.
1850.

1878.

1876.
1864.
1855.
1875.

1876,
1857.

1865.

1857.
1857,

1857.

1855,
1876.
1868.
4869,

1869.

1861.
1876.
1876.
1865.

1878.
1860.

1858.
1875,

*Joy, Rey. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, Wantage, Berkshire.
Joy, Rev. John Holmes, M.A. 3 Coloney-terrace, Tunbridge Wells.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax. ~
tJ udd, John Wesley, F.R.S., F.G.S. 6 Manor-view, Brixton, London,
S.W.

tJukes, Rev. Andrew. Spring Bank, Hull.

*Kaines, Joseph, M.A.,D.Sc. 13 Finsbury-place South, London, E.C.

Kang, Sir Rosert, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.C.S., Prin-

cipal of the Royal College of Cork. Fortland, Killiney, Co.
Dublin.

{Kavanach, James W. Gone Rathgar, Ireland.

{Kay, David, *F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W.

Kay, John Gunliff, Fairfield Hall, near Skipton.
*Kay, John Robinson. Walmersley House, Bury, Lancashire.
Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors.

*Kay, Rev. William, D.D. Great Leghs Rectory, Chelmsford.

{Keames, William M. 5 Lower Rock-gardens, Brighton.

{Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

{ Keene, “Alf ed. Eastnoor Ags Leamington.

{Kexanp, Rey. Purr, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Clarendon-crescent,
Edinburgh.

*Kelland, William Henry. 110 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.; and
Grettans, Bow, North Devon.

tKelly, Andrew G. The Manse, Alloa, N.B.

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.

{Kemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull.

{Kennepy, AtexanpER B. W., C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, London. 9 Bartholomew-road, London,
N.W.

{Kennedy, Hugh. Redclyffe, Partickhill, Glaszow.

} Kennedy, Lieut.-Colonel John Pitt, 20 Torrin, gton-square, Blank
bury, London, W.C.

}Kenrick, William. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl's Croome, Worcester.

{Kent, William T., M.R. D. S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin.

{ Kenworth, James "Ryley y. 7 Pembroke-place, Liverpool.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

*Ker, Robert. Dougalston, Milngavie, N.B.

tKer, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

{Kerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Nor wich.

*Kesselmeyer, “Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.

*Keymer, John. Parker-street, Manchester.

{Kidston, J.B. West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Kidston, William. Ferniegair, Helensburgh, N.B.

*Kinahan, Edward Hudson, MRA. Il Merrion-square North,
Dublin.

§Kinahan, Edward Hudson, jun. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

{Kovanan, G. Heyry, M. Ri. A., Geological Survey of Ireland. 14
Hume-street, Dublin. ~

{ Kincaid, Henry Ellis, M.A. 8 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

*Kinch, Edward, F.C.S. Agricultural College, Home Department,
Tokio, Japan. (Care of C. J. Kinch, Esq., Eaton Hasting,
Lechlade, Gloucestershire.)

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45,

Year of
Election.

1872.

1875.
1871.
1855.
1870.

1864,

1860.

1875.
1870.

1869.
1861.
1876.
1835.

1875.

1867.
1867.

1870.

1863.
1860.

1876.

1875.
1870.
1869,
1870.
1836,
1872.

1873.
1872.
1842,
1874.
1876,

1835.
1875.
1870.

1865.

1858,
1859.

1870,

1870.
1877.

*King, Mrs. E. M, 34 Cornwall-road, Westbourne Park, London,
W.

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

*King, Herbert Poole. Theological College, Salisbury.
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

§King, John Thomson, C.E. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.

King, Joseph. Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
nme appear M.D. 27 George-street, and Royal Institution,

ull.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 16 Vyvyan-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
*Kine, Perey L. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

{King, William. 13 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool.

King, William Poole, F.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
{Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.

{Kingsley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Kingston, Thomas. Strawberry House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland.
eae Cuartes T., ga 12 Auriol-road, The Cedars, West
Kensington, London, W.
{Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
*Kinnarrp, The Right Hon. Lord. 2 Pall Mall East, London,
S.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire.
{Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
tKirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholomew-road North, London, N.W.
{Karxman, Rey. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington.

ae ae Rev. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street,.

ublin.

*Kirkwood, cae: LL.D., F.R.S.E. 12 Windsor-terrace West,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.

{Kitchener, Frank E. Rugby.

{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.

§Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

Knipe, J. A, Botcherby, Carlisle.

*Knott, George, LL-B., F.R.A.S. Cuclfield, Hayward’s Heath,
Sussex. j

*Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire. j

{Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, S.W.

Knowles, John. The Lawn, Rugby:

§Knowles, William James. Cullybackey, Belfast, Ireland.

{Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 8 Belgrave Terrace, Hillhead,
Glasgow.

“Hnog, George James. 2 Portland-terrace, Regent's Park, London,
N.W.

Knox, Thomas B. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, W.C.
*Knubley, Rev. E. P. 10 Bridge-road West, Battersea, S.W.
tKynaston, Josiah W. St. Helen’s, Lancashire. ey
{Kynnersley, J.C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.

§Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
§Ladd, William, F.R.A.S. 11 & 13 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon-
don, W.
{Laird, H.H. Birkenhead.
Laird, John, M.P. Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
§Laird, John, jun. Grosyenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
§Lake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.

46

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1859.

1846.
1870.
1871.

{Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. 2 Loneford-terrace, Monkstown, Co,
Dublin.

*Laming, Richard. The Parade, Arundel, Sussex.

{Lamport, Charles. Upper Norwood, Surrey, SE.

tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1877.§§Landon, Frederic G. Nelson House, Devonport.

1859.
1864.
1870.

1865.

tLang, Rev. John Marshall. Bank House, Morningside, Edinburgh,

§Lang, Robert. Langford Lodge, College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Langton, William. Docklands, Ingatestone, Hssex.

{LanxKester, E. Ray, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy and Zoology in University College, London, Exeter
College, Oxford.

Lanyon, Sir Charles. The Abbey, White Abbey, Belfast.

. §Lapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

*Larcom, Major-General Sir THomas AiskEw, Bart., K.C.B., R.E.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA. Heathfield House, Fareham, Hants.
Lassett, Witrr1aM, LL.D., F.RS.L. & E., F.R.A.S. Ray Lodge,
Maidenhead.

. *Latham, Arthur G. Lower King-street, Manchester.
. *LarHam, Batpwin, C.E., F.G.8. 7 Westminster-chambers, West-

minster, 8. W.

. {Laughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval

College, Greenwich, S.E.

. {Layvineton, Wiliam F. 107 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

. *Law, Channell. 5 Champion-park, Camberwell, London, 8.E.

. §Law, Henry, C.E. 5 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 5.W.

. tLaw, Hugh, Q.C. 4 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.

. tLaw, Rev. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.

Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles. Escrick Park, near York.
Lawley, The Ifon. Stephen Willoughby. Escrick Park, near York.

70. {Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
75, {Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.

Halifax, Nova Scotia.

. {Zawson, Henry. 8 Nottingham-place, London, TW.
. Lawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.R.LA. 27 Fitz

william-street, Dublin.

. {Zawson, John. Cluny Hill, Forres, N.B.
. “Lawson, M. Arexanper, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the

University of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford.

3. {Lawton, Benjamin C. Neyille Chambers, 44 Westeate-street,

Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

3. {Lawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.

. t{Lea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham.

. tLeach, Captain R. E. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin.

. *Leaf, Charles John, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Old Change, London,

E.C. ; and Painshill, Cobham.

. *Learnam, Epwarp Atpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Iuddersfield ;

and 46 Eaton-square, London, 8.W.

4. *Leather, John Towlerton, F.S.A. Leventhorpe Hall, near Leeds.

. {Leather, John W. Newton-green, Leeds.

. t{Leavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham. : ;

2. tLrnour, G. A., F.G.8S. Weedpark Hcuse, Dipton, Lintz Green, Co.

Durham.

. *Le Cappelain, John. _Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N.
. t{Ledgard, William. Potter Newton, near Leeds.
. tLee, Henry. Irwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester. -

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 47

of

Election.

1853. *Lrr, Joun Epwarp, F.G.S., F.S.A. Villa Syracusa, Torquay,

1859,

1872.

1869.
1868.
1856.

1861.
1870.
1867.
1870.
1859.
1863.

1867.
1878.
1861,

1871.

1874.
1861.
1872.
1871.
1856.
1882.

1876.
1866.
1870.
1853.
1860.

1876.
1862.

1878,
1871.
1871.

1870.
1842,

. tLees, William. Link Vale Lodge, Viewforth, Edinburgh,

*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, Manchester.

“Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Maples, Bon-
church, Isle of Wight.

tLereven, G. Suaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Spring-gardens, London,
S.W.

*Lerroy, Lieut.-General Sir Joun Henry, C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A,
F.RAS., F.R.G.S. 82 Queen’s-gate, London, 8S. W.

“Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall, M.P. High Legh Hall,
Cheshire ; and 45 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.

tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

tLercesrer, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Holkham, Norfolk.

{Lxien, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square,
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.

*Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester.

{Leighton, Andrew. 35 High-park-street, Liverpool.

§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.

ftLeister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool.

{Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

“Lenpy, Captain Avcuste Freperic, F.L.S., F.G.S. Sunbury
House, Sunbury, Middlesex.

tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.

§Lennon, Rey. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

tLennox, A. C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, S.W.

Lentaigne, John, C.B., M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and 1
Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.

§Lzonarp, Hven, F.G.8., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. Geological Survey
of Ireland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.

tLeppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester.

tLermit, Rey. Dr. School House, Dedham.

{Leslie, Alexander, C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.

tLeslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Rothienorman, Aberdeenshire.

{Lesuim, T. E. Criere, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political
Economy, Queen’s College, Belfast.

{Leveson, Edward John. Cluny, Sydenham Till, SE.

§Levi, Dr. Lzonn, F.S.A., F.S.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Com-
mercial Law in King’s College, London. 5 Crown Office-row,
Temple, London, E.C,

{Lewis, Atrrep Lionen. 151 Church-road, De Beauvoir Town,
London, N.

{Liddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull.

{Lippext, The Very Rey. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford

fLietke, J. O. 50 Gordon-street, Glascow.

{Lrzrorp, The Right Hon, Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.

*Limerick, The Right Rey. Cuartus Graves, D.D., M.R.L.A., Lord
Bishop of. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.

§Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

*Lindsay, Charles. Ridge Park, Lanark, N.B.

*Linpsay, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P., F.R.S. 47 Brook-street,
London, W.

{Lindsay, Rev. T. M. 7 Great Stuart-street, Edinburgh.

{Lindsay, Thomas, F.C.S. 288 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.

*Lingard, John R., F.G.8, 4 Westminster-chambers, London, 8, We

48

Year of
Election

LIST OF MEMBERS.

_ Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 1 Derby-villas, Chel-

1876.
1875.
1870,
1876.
1861.
1876.

1864.
1860.

1842.
1865.

tenham.
§Linn, James. Geological Survey Office, India-buildings, Edinburgh.

Lister, James. Liverpool Union Bank, Liverpool.

* Lister, Samuel Cunliffe. Farfield Hall, Addingham, Leeds.
§Lister, Thomas. Victoria-crescent, Barnsley, Yorkshire,
{Little, Thomas Evelyn. 42 Brunswick-street, Dublin.

Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire.

*Lrveine, G. D., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Cambridge.

*Liversidge, Archibald, F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. (Care
of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.)

§Livesay, J. G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.

{ Livingstone, Rev. Thomas Gott, Minor Canon of Carlisle Cathedral.

Lloyd, Rev. A, R. Hengold, near Oswestry.

Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A. Whittington, Oswestry.

Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.

{Lloyd, G. B. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.

*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S. Park Glass Works, Birmingham.

*Lioyp, Rev. Humenrey, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., M.R.TA.,
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.

{Lloyd, James. 16 Welfield-place, Liverpool.

{Lloyd, J. H., M.D. Anglesey, North Wales.

{Lloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

Lloyd, Rev. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire.

*Lloyd, Sampson Samuel, M.P. Moor Hall, Sutton Coldfield.

*Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myrod House, Wednesbury.

*Losiey, JAmes Loean, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 59 Clarendon-road, Ken-
sington Park, London, W.

*Locke, John. 133 Leinster-road, Dublin.

*Locke, John. 83 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W.

tLocks, Jonny, M.P. 65 Eaton-place, London, 8.W.

{Locxyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S, 16 Penywern-road, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.

*Loper, Ottver J., D.Sc. University College, London, W.C.; and
17 Parkhurst-road, London, N.

{Login, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E. India.

tLong, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.

{Long, Jeremiah. 50 Marine Parade, Brighton.

*Long, John Jex. 727 Duke-street, Glasgow.

tLong, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk.

§Longdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

Lonerietp, The Right Hon. Movntrrort, LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius
Professor of Feudal and English Law in the University of
Dublin. 47 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

{Longmuir, Rey. John, M.A., LL.D. 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen.
*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.B., F.C.S. Southfield Grange,
Wandsworth, 8. W.

. §Longstaff, George Dixon, M.D., F.C.S. Southfields, Wandsworth,

S.W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C. PERE ny
*Longstaff, Lieut.-Colonel Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Reform Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
§Lonsdale, N. Lowenthal. 1 Southernhay, Clifton, Bristol.
*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
tLosh, W.S. Wreay Syke, Carlisle.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 49

Year of

Election.

1876,

1875.
41867.
1863.

1861.

1870.
1868,
1850.

1853.

1870.
1878.
1849.
1875.
1867.
1873.
1866.
1873.
1850.
1853.
1858.
1864.
1874.
1864.

1866

1871.
1874.
1857.
1878.
1862.

1852.
1854.

1876.
1876.
1868.

1878.
1868,
1866.
1840,

SZ.

1866,
1865.
1855.
1876,

“Love, James, F.R.A.S. Talbot Lodge, Bickerton-road , Upper
Holloway, London, N.

“Lovett, W. J. 96 Lionel-street, Birmingham.

*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.

*Lowe, Lieut.-Colonel Arthur S. H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate,
London, W.

“Lows, Epwarp Josrpn, F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.LS., £.G.8., F.M.S.
Highfield House Observatory, near Nottingham.

{Lowe, G. C.-_ 67 Cecil-street, Gveenheys, Manchester.

{Lowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn.

ana Hee Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-

urgh.

*Lusock, Sir Joun, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8, High Elms,
Farnborough, Kent.

{Lubbock, Montague. High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.

§Lucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, 8S. W.

*Luckcock, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Lucy, W. C., F.G.S._ The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester,

*Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee.

{Lumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

“Lund, Charles. 48 Market-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lundie, Cornelius. Tweed Lodge, Charles-street, Cardiff,

{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.

*Lupton, Arthur. Headingley, near Leeds.

*Lupton, Darnton. The Harehills, near Leeds.

*Lupton, Sydney. Harrow.

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

{Lycert, Sir Francis. 18 Highbury-grove, London, N.

{Lyell, Leonard. 42 Regent’s Park-road, London, N. W.

tLynam, James, C.E. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

tLyons, Robert D., M.B., M.R.I.A. 8 Merrion-square West, Dublin.

§Lyte, Cecil Maxwell. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.

*Lyte, F. Maxwell, F.C.S. 6 Cité de Retiro, Faubourg St. Honoré,

Paris.

{McAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.

*MacapaM, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.

{M‘Adam, William. 30 St. Vincent-crescent, Glasgow.

*Macadam, William Ivison. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

tMacaristErR, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Dublin. 13 Adelaide-road, Dublin.

§MeAlister, Donald, B.A., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cambridge,

TM‘Allan, W. A. Norwich.

*M‘Arthur, A., M.P. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, S.W.

Macaulay, James A. M.,M.D. 22 Cambridge-road, Kilburn, Lon-
don, N. W.
{M‘Bain, James, M.D., R.N. Logie Villa, York-road, Trinity, Edin-
burgh.
Were yns) Robert. Messrs, Black and Wingate, 5 Exchange
square, Glascow.
{M‘Catran, Rev. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham.

{M‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate.
{M‘Cann, Rev. James, D.D.,F.G.S. 18 Shaftesbury-terrace, Glassow,
*“M‘Crettanp, A.S, 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

E

‘50 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.
1840, M‘Crmntanp, Jamns, F.S.8. 32 Pembridge-square, London, W. ~
1868. {M‘Crmrocx, Rear-Admiral Sir Francts L., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.GS.
United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
1872. *M‘Clure, J ria The Telephone Company, 115 Cannon-street, ‘Lon-
don, E.C.
1874, {M‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast.
1878. *M‘Comas, Henry. . Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
*M‘Connel, James. Moore-place, Esher, Surrey.
1859. *M‘Connell, David C., F.G.S8. 44 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
1858. {M‘Comnell, J. E. “Woodlands, Great Missenden.
1876. {M‘Oulloch, Richard. 109 Douglas-street, Blythswood-square, Glas-

cow.
1871. {MDonald, William, Yokohama, Japan. (Care of R. K. Kneyvitt,
Esq., Sun-court, Cornhill, F.C.)
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
1878, §McDonnell, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 14 Lower Pembroke-
street, Dublin.
*M‘Ewan, John. 9 Melville-terrace, Stirling, N.B.
1859. {Macfarlane, Alexander. 73 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
1871.§§M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
1855. *Macfarlane, Walter. 22 Park-circus, Glasgow.
1854. *Macfie, Robert Andrew. 13 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
1867. *M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
1855. {MacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
1872. {M‘George, Mungo. Nithsdale, Laurie Park, Sydenham, S.E.
1873. {McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-ayenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1855. {M‘Gregor, Alexander Bennett. 19 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow.
1855. t{MacGregor, James Watt. 2 Laurence-place, Partick, Glasgow.
1876. {M‘Grigor, Alexander B. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
1859. {M‘Hardy, David. 54 Netherkinkgate, Aberdeen.
1874, §MacIlwaine, Rev. William, D.D., M-R.LA. Ulsterville, Belfast.
1876.§§Macindoe, Patrick. 9 Somerset-place, Glasgow.
1859. {Macintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen.
1867. *M‘Intosu, W. O., M.D.,F B.S. L. & E., F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire.
1854. *MacIver, Charles. 8 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1871. {Mackay, Rev. A., LL.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hatton-place, Grange, Edin-
burch.
1873. {McKrnprick, Joun G.,M.D., F.R.S.E. 2 Chester-street, Edinburgh.
1865. tMackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Hythe, Kent.
1872. *Mackey, J. A. 24 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
1867. §Mackre, Samwvrr Josupu, F.G.S. 84 Kensington Park-road, Lon-
don, W.
*Mackinlay, David. Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1865. {Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. 36 Derby-road, Higher Tranmere, Bir-
kenhead.
1850. t{Macknight, Alexander. 12 London-street, Edinburgh,
1867. {Mackson, H. G. 25 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds. ,
1872. *McLacutay, Rosert, F.R.S., F.L.S. 39 Limes-grove, Lewisham,
S.E. ;
1873. tMcLandsborough, John, C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Shipley, near Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.
1860. {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
1864.§§MacLaren, Duncan, M.P. Newington House, Edinburgh.
1873. t{MacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh,
1876, {M‘Lean, Charles. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
1876, {M‘Lean, Mrs. Charles, 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 51

‘Year of

Election,

1859. {Mactuar, Sir THomas, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S. Cape Town,
South Africa.

1862. {Macleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden-hill-road,
London, W.

1868.§§M‘Lrop, Hersert, F.C.S. Indian Civil Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill, Ezham.

1875. {Macliver, D. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.

1875. {Macliver, P.S. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.

1861. *Maclure, John William. 2 Bond-street, Manchester.

1878. *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Ireland.

1862. {Macmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey, S.W.

1874.§§MacMordie, Hans, M.A. & Donegall-street, Belfast.

1871, {M‘Nas, Wrirram Ramsay, M.D., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin. 4 Vernon-parade, Clontarf, Dublin.

1870. {Macnaught, John, M.D. 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

1867. §M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

MacNer1, The Right Hon. Sir Jomy, G.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S,

Granton House, Edinburgh.

MacNetrtt, Sir Jony, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A. 17 The
Grove, South Kensington, London, S.W.
1878. §Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
1852, *Macrory, Adam John. Duncairn, Belfast.
“Macrory, Epmunp,M.A. 40 Leinster-square, Bayswater, London, W.
1876, *Mactear, James. 16 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow, .
1855. {M‘Tyre, William, M.D. Maybole, Ayrshire.
1855. {Macvicar, Rev. Joun Grason, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B.

1868, {Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
1875, *Magnus, Philip. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W.
1878. §Mahony, W. A. 34 College-creen, Dublin.
1869, {Main, Robert. Admiralty, Whitehall, London, 8.W.
1866.§§Mazsor, Ricuarp Henry, F.S.A., Sec.R.G.S. British Museum, ©
London, W.C.
*Mazanipe, The Right Hon. Lord Tarzor pz, M.A., D.C.L., F.RS.,
F.G.S., F.S.A., MR.LA. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1870. *Malcolm, Sir James, Bart. 1 Cornwall-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
1874, {Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
1863, {Maling, 0. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1857. {Mallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.0.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, U.S.
*Matier, Rosert, Ph.D., F.RS., F.G.S., MRL A. Enmore, The
Grove, Clapham-road, Clapham, S.W.
1876, {Malloch, C. 7 Blythwood-square, Glasgow.
1846, {Mansy, Cuartus, F.RS., F.G.S. 60 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde
Park, London, W.
1870. {Manifold, W. H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1866, §Mann, Rozsert James, M.D., F.R.A.S. 5 Kingsdown-yillas, Wands-
\ worth Common, 8.W.
Manning, His Eminence Cardinal, Archbishop's House, West-
minster, S. W.
1866. {Manning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham.
1878, §Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
1864, {Mansel, J.C. Long Thorns, Blandford.
1870, {Marcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid.
1864, {Marxuam, Cremeyts R., C.B., F.R.S., F.LS., Sec.R.G.S., FS.A,
21 Eccleston-square, Pimlico, London,.8, W.
E2

52 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1863. {Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
*Marling, Samuel §., M.P. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucester-
shire.
1871.§§Marreco, A. Friere-. College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
1857. {Marribtt, William, F.C.S. Grafton-street, Huddersfield.
1842. Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester.
1870. {Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool.
1865. tMarsh, J. F. Hardwick House, Chepstow.
1864. {Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosyenor-place, Bath.
1852. {Marshall, James D. Holywood, Belfast.
1876. {Marshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow.
1858. {Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds. «Lh
1849. *Marshall, William P. 6 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. §Marren, Eywarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
1848. {Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham. .
1878. §Martin, H. Newell. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1871. {Martin, Rev. Hugh, M.A. Greenhill Cottage, Lasswade, by Edin-
burgh.
1870. {Martin, Robert, M.D. 120 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
1836. Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.
1867. {Martin, William Young. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.
sap. Nicholas. Meadow Bank, Vanbrugh-fields, Blackheath,
E

*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 5 Gordon-street, Gordon-
square, London, W.C.

1865. {Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1865. {Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.

1875. t{Martyn, Samuel, M.D. 8 Buckingham-villas, Clifton, Bristol.

1878. §Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.:

1847, {MaskeLynE, Nevin Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., Keeper of the
Mineralogical Department, British Museum, and Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. 112 Gloucester-terrace,
Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.

1861. *Mason, Hugh. Groby Lodge, Ashton-under-Lyne.

1868. {Mason, James Wood, F.G.S. The Indian Museum, Calcutta.
(Care of Messrs. Henry 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London,
E.C.)

1876. §Mason, Robert. 6 Albion-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1876. {Mason, Stephen. 9 Rosslyn-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick.

1870. tMassey, Thomas. 5 Gray’s-Inn-square, London, W.C.

1870. {Massy, Frederick. 50 Grove-street, Liverpool.

1876.§§Matheson, John. LEastfield, Rutherglen, Glasgow.

1865. *Matthews, G. 8. Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1861. *Marnews, Witrram, M.A., F.G.S. 49 Harborne-road, Birming-
ham.

1876, *Mathiesen, John, jun. Cordale, Renton, Glasgow.

1865. {Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham. -

1858. {Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.

1860.§§Matthews, Rev. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild-
ford.

1863. {Maughan, Rey. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1865. *Maw, Goren, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall Hall, Broseley,
Shropshire.

1876, t{Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 53

Year of
Election.

1864, *Maxwell, Francis. St. Germains, Longniddry, East Lothian.
*MAXwELL, JAmus Crerxk, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., Professor of
Experimental Physics i in the University of Cambiidge. Glenlair,
Dalbeattie, N.B.; and 11 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Gr oomsport House, Belfast.
1868. {Mayall, J. E., F.C.S. Stork’s Nest, Lancing, Sussex.
1835. Mayne, Edward Ellis. Rocklands, Stillorgan, Ireland.
1878. *Mayne, Thomas. 38 Castle-street, Dublin.
1863. {Mease, George D. Bylton Villa, South Shields.
1871. {Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
1867. {Mztprum, Cartes, M.A., F.RS., FLR.A.S. Port Louis, Mau-
ritius.
1866. {Mzx1o, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton,
Chesterfield.
1854, {Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
1847. {Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College, Gal-

way.
1863. {Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
1877. *Menabrea, Lieut.-General Count. 385 Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.
1862.§§MrnneLt, Henry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, F.C.
1868. §MzRRIFIELD, CHARLES W., F.R.S. 20 Girdler’s-road, Brook Green,
London, W.
1877.§§ Merrifield, J ohn, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Gascoigne-place, Plymouth,
1871. {Merson, John. Northumberland County Asylum, Morpeth.
1872. *Messent, John. 429 Strand, London, W.C.
1863. {Messent, Pela Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
1869. {Mratt, Lovis C., F.G.S.,Professor of Biology in Yorkshire College,
Leeds.
1865. { Michie, Alexander. 26 Austin Friars, London, E.C.
1865. {Middlemure, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876. *Middleton, Robert T. 197 “West George-street, Glasgow.
1866. {Midgley, John. Colne, Lancashire.
1867. {Midgley, Robert. Colne, Lancashire.
1859. {Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Treland.
1863, {Millar, John, M.D., F.LS., F.G.8. Bethnal House, Gaapedeeioee
London, E.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
1876. {Millar, William. Highfield House, Dennistoun, Glasgow.
1876. §Millar, W. J. 145 Hill-street, Garnethill, Glasgow.
1876. {Miller, Daniel. 258 St. George’ s-road, Glasgow.
1875. {Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
1865, {Miller, Rev. Canon J. C., D.D. The Vicarage, Greenwich, S.E.
1861. *Miller, Robert. Poise House, Bosden, near Stockport.
1876, *Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1876. { Miller, Thomas Paterson. Morriston House, Cambuslang, N.B.
MintEr, Wrr11am Hatrows, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. 7 Ser oope-
terrace, Cambridge.
1868, *Milligan, Joseph, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 6 Craven-
street, Strand, London, W.C.
1868, *Mri1s, Epwunp o D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry i in Anderson's University, Glasgow. 234
East George-street, Glasgow.
*Mills, John Robert. 11 Bootham, York.
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.O.B., F.R.S.E. 13 New-
street, Spring-gardens, London, 8. W.

54 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1867. {Milne, James. Murie House, Errol, by Dundee. WE
1867. *Mrtnz-Homm, Davin, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 10 York-place,
Edinburgh.
1864. *Mizroy, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.G.S. 17 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire.
1865. {Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley.
1855. {Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
1876. {Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1863. {Mitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1873. {Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire,
1870.§§Mitchell, John. York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
1868.§§Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
1855. *Moffat, John, C.E. Ardrossan, Scotland. 7
1854. §Morrat, Tuomas, M.D., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Hawarden,
Chester.
1864. {Mogg, John Rees. High Littleton House, uear Bristol.
1866.§§Mocermer, Marruew, F.G.S. 8 Bina-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
1855. {Moir, James. 174 Gallogate, Glasgow.
1861. {Molesworth, Rev. W. N., M.A. Spotland, Rochdale.
Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.
1878. §Molloy, Constantine. 70 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.
1877. *Molloy, Rev. G. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1852. {Molony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus.
1865. §MotynEvx, Wit1tAM, F.G.S. Branston Cottage, Burton-upon-
Trent.
1860. {Monk, Rev. William, M.A.,F.R.A.S. Wymington Rectory, Higham
Ferrers, Northamptonshire.
1853. {Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
1872. §Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.
1872. tMoon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
1859. {Moorz, Cuartus, F.G.S. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Bath.
1874. §Moore, David, Ph.D., F.L.S., M.R.I.A. Glasnevin, Dublin,
1857. t{Moore, Rey. John, D.D. Clontarf, Dublin.
Moore, John. 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol.
*Moors, Joun Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 115 Eaton-square,
London, 8.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
1866, *Moorr, Tuomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London,
S.W.
1854, {Moorn, Tuomas Jonn, Cor. M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liver-

pool.
1877. §Moore, W. F. The Friary, Plymouth.
1857. *Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.
1877.§§Moore, William Vanderkemp. 15 Princess-square, Plymouth.

1871. {Morn, Arexanper G., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Botanic View, Glas-
neyin, Dublin.

1873. {Morgan, Edward Delmar. 15 Rowland-gardens, London, W.

1868. {Morgan, Thomas H. Oakhurst, Hastings.

1833. Morgan, William, D.C.L. Oxon. Uckfield, Sussex.

1878. §Morgan, William, Ph.D. Swansea.

1867. {Morison, William R. Dundee.

1863, {Mortzy, Samvuet, M.P. 18 Wood-street, Cheapside, London,
E

C0,
1865. *Morrieson, Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London,
W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 55

Year of
Election.
*Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen, B.A, Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,

York.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
1876.§§Morris, Rey. 8.8. O. The Grammar School, Dolgelly.
1874, ¢Morrison, G. J., C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, 5. W.
1871, *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
1865. §Mortimer, J. R. St, John’s-villas, Driffield.
1869, t{Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1857. §Morron, Grorer H., F.G.S. 122 London-road, Liverpool.
1858, *Morron, Henry Josern. 4 Royal Crescent, Scarborough.
1871. {Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
1857. tMoses, Marcus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon-
Trent, Staffordshire.
1878. §Moss, Edward Lawton, M.D.,R.N. 48 Haddington-road, Dublin.
Moss, John. Ottersgool, near Liverpool.
1878. *Moss, Jonn Francis. Ranmoor, Sheffield.
1870. {Moss, John Miles, M.A. 2 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1876. §Moss, RrcHarD Jackson, F.C.8., MR.LA. 66 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.
1873. *Mosse, George Staley. Cowley Hall, near Uxbridge.
1864, *Mosse, J. R. Public Works’ Department, Ceylon. (Care of Messrs.
H. S. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, H.C.)
1873. {Mossman, William. Woodhall, Calverley, Leeds.
1869. §Morr, Atserr J., F.G.S. Adsett Court, Westbury-on-Severn.
1865.§§Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead.
1866. §Mott, Frederick T., F.R.G.S. Birstall Hill, Leicester.
1872. +Mott, Miss Minnie. 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester.’
1862. *Movar, Frepprick Jonny, M.D., Local Government Inspector, 12
Durham-villas, Campden Hill, London, W.
1856. {Mould, Rey. J. G., B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk.
1878. *Moulton, J. F. 74 Onslow-gardens, London, 5. W.
1863. tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
Mounsey, John. Sunderland.
1861. *Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester. ;
1877.$§Mount-Epecuise, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland.
1850. tMowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
1874, §Muir, M. M. Pattison, F.R.S.E. Owens College, Manchester.
1876. *Muir, John. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow.
1876.§§Muir, Thomas. High School, Glasgow.
1872. {Muirhead, Alexander, D.Se., F.C.S, 159 Camden-road, London, N
1871. *Murrueap, Heyry, M.D. Bushy Hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire.
1876, {Muirhead, R. F. Meikle Cloak, Lochwinnoch, Rentrewshire.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.
1866. {Munpera, A. J., M.P., F.R.G.S, The Park, Nottingham.
1876. §Munro, Donald, F.C.S. 97 Eglinton-street, Glasgow.
1860, *Muwro, Major-General Wirtr1AM, C.B., F.L.S: United Service Club,
ae Mall, London, 8.W.; and Mapperton Lodge, Farnborough,
ants.
1872. *Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton.
1871. *Munster, William Felix. 41 Brompton-square, London, W.
1864.§§Murcu, Jerom. Cranwells, Bath.
*Murchison, John Henry. Surbiton Hill, Kingston.
1864, *Murchison, K. R. Brokehurst, East Grinstead.

++

*

56 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876. {Murdoch, James. Altony Albany, Girvan, N.B.
1855. §Murdock, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow.
1852. {Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.
1852. t{Murphy, Joseph John, Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
1869. {Murray, Adam. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
1871. {Murray, Dr. Ivor, F.R.S.E. The Knowle, Brenchley, Staplehurst, Kent.
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1871. §Murray, John. 3 Clarendon-crescent, Edinburgh.
1859. {Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
*Murray, John, C.E. Downlands, Sutton, Surrey.
{Murray, Rey. John. Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
1872. {Murray, J. Jardine. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
1863. {Murray, William. 54 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1859, *Murton, James. Highfield, Silverdale, Carnforth, Lancaster.
Musgrave, The Venerable Charles, D.D., Archdeacon of Craven,
Halifax. :
1874. §Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumeglass House, Belfast.
1861. {Musgrove, John, jun. Bolton.
1870, *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
1865. {Myers, Rev. E., F.G.S. 3 Waterloo-road, Wolverhampton.
1859.§§Myinz, Ropert WitiiaM, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. 21 Whitehall—
place, London, S. W.

1842, Nadin, Joseph. Manchester.
1855. *Naprer, Jams R., F.R.S. 22 Blythwood-square, Glasgow.
1876.§§Napier, James 8. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1876. {Napier, John. Saughfield House, Hillhead, Glasgow.
*Napier, Captain Johnstone, C.E. Laverstock House, Salisbury.
1839. *Naprer, The Right Hon. Sir Joszpu, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D.
4 Merrion-square South, Dublin.
Napper, James William L. Loughcrew, Oldcastle, Co. Meath.
1872. §Nares, Captain Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St.
Philip’s-road, Surbiton.
1866. {Nash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.S. 10 Imperial-square, Cheltenham.
1850. *Nasmytu, JAMES, Penshurst, Tunbridge.
1864. {Natal, Rev. John William Colenso, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Natal.
1860. {Neate, Charles, M.A. Oriel Colleze, Oxford.
1873. {Neill, Alexander Renton. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1875. {Neill, Archibald. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
1865, {Neilson, W. Montgomerie. Glasgow.
1876.§§Nelson, D. M. 48 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
Ness, John. Helmsley, near York.
1868. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.
1866. *Neyill, Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of Dunedin, New
: Zealand.
1857. {Neville, John, C.E., M.R.I.A. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland.
1852. {Neville, Parke, C.E., M.R.I.A. 58 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
1869, {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1842, New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
Newall, Henry. Hare Hill, Littleborough, Lancashire.
*Newall, Robert Stirling, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ferndene, Gateshead--
* upon-Tyne.
1866. et a Albert L. 2 The Pavement, Clapham Common, London,,
= | W. »

1876. §Newhaus, Albert. 1 Prince’s-terrace, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Election.

1842, “Newman, Professor Francis Wittram. 15 Arundel-crescent,.
‘Weston-super-Mare.

1863. *Nnwmarcu, Witt1am, F.R.S. Beech Holme, Balham, London,
S.W.

1866. *Newmarch, William Thomas. 1 Elms-road, Clapham Common,
London, S.W.

1877.§§Newth, A. H., M.D. Hayward’s Heath, Sussex.

1860. *Newron, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. “Mag--
dalen College, Cambridge.

1872. {Newton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.

1865, {Newton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford-
on-A von

1867. {Nicholl, Thomas, ex-Dean of Guild. Dundee.

1874.§§Nicholls, H. F. King’s-square, Bridgewater, Somerset.

1875. {Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol. ;

1866. {NicHoLson, Sir CHARLEs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.G.S.,.
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts. :

1838, *Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., F.S.A. Wellfield, Muswell Hill, Lon

don, N.
1861. *Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1871.§§Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne Hill, London, 8.E.
1867. {Nicnotson, Hunry Atteynz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of St. Andrews, N.B. y
1850. {Nrcon, Jamus, F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Professor of Natural History in
Marischal College, Aberdeen.
1867. {Nimmo, Dr. Matthew. Nethergate, Dundee.
1878. §Niven, C. Queen’s College, Cork.
1877. *Niven, James, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
Niven, Ninian. Clonturk Lodge, Drumcondra, Dublin.
‘tNixon, Randal C. J., M.A. Green Island, Belfast.
1863, *Nosiz, Captain Anprew, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick Works,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1870. {Nolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1860. *Nolloth, Rear-Admiral Matthew S., R.N., F.R.G.S.. United Service
Club, 8.W. ; and 13 North-terrace, Camberwell, London, S.E.
1859. {Norfolk, Richard. Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada.
Dock, Liverpool.
1868. Norgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
1863.§§Norman, Rey. ALFRED Mertz, M.A. Burnmoor Rectory, Fence
House, Co. Durham.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
1865. {Norris Ricnarp, M.D, 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
1872.§§Norris, Thomas George. Corphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
1866. {North, Thomas. Cinder-hill, Nottingham.
1869. {NorrHcore, The Right Hon. Sir Srarrorp H., Bart., C.B., M.P.,.
F.R.S. Pynes, Exeter,
*Norruwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosyenor—
square, London, W.
1868. {Norwich, The Hon. and Right Rev. J. T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. Norwich.
1861. {Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
1878. §Nugent, Edward, O.E. Seel’s-buildings, Liverpool.

1878. §O’Brien, Murrough. 1 Willow-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.

58 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1878. §O’Carroll, Joseph F. 2 Garville-road, Dublin.
1878. §O' Connor Don, The, M.P. Clonalis, Castlerea, Tealaha
Odgers, Rev. William James. . Saville House, Weston-road, Bath.
1858. *OpLine, Witt1aM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S. Wayntlete Professor of
Chemistry in "the University of Oxford. The Museum, -Ox-'.
ford.
1857. {O’Donnavan, William John, Portarlington, Ireland.
1870. O'Donnell, J.O,, M.D. 34 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1877. §Ogden, Joseph. 46 London-wall, London, E.C.
1876. §§Ozilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Lenton, Suffolk.
1859. {Osilvie, C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.
*OaitvrE-ForpEs, Goren, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of.
Medicine in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Boyndlie, Fraser-
burgh, N.B.
1874. §Ogilvie, Thomas Robertson, Bank Top, 3 Lyle-street, Greenock,
N.B.

1863. {Ogilvy, G. R. Inverquharity, N.B.
1863, {Oaitvy, Sir Jon, Bart. Inverquharity, N.B.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
1859. {Oeston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen.
18387. {O' Hagan, John, M. A.,Q.C. 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
1874. tO'HAGan, The Right Hon. Lord, M.R.LA. 34 Rutland-square
West, Dublin.
1862. {O’Kxttry, oT osppH, M.A., M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1853. §OLpHAM, JAMES, C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.
1860. {O’Leary, Pr ofessor Purcell, M.A. Queenstown.
1863. {Oliver, Daniel, I.R.8., Professor of Botany in University College,
London. Roy al Gardens, Kew, Surrey.
1874, {O’Meara, Rev. Eugene. Newcastle Rectory, Hazlehatch, Ireland.
*OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir Erasmous, C.B., F. R. S., FRA. 8, F.R.G.S.
The Towers, Yarmouth, Isle of W icht.
1872. {Onslow, D. Robert. New University” Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
1867. {Orchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
1842. OrmeErop, GEORGE Warerne, M. AY F.G.8S. — Brookbank, Teign-
mouth.
1861. {Ormerod, Henry Mere: Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
1858. {Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
1835. Orprn, Joun H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1838. Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
1876. {Orr, John B. Granville-terrace, Crosshill, Glasgow.
1873. tOsborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
1865. {Osborne, E. C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*OstEr, A. Fotrerr, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, meer ee \
1877. *Osler, Miss A. F. South Bank , Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. *Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1869. *Osler, , Sidney F, 1 Pownall-gardens, Hounslow, near London.
1854. Outram, Thomas. Greetland, near Halifax.
OVERSTONE, SAMUEL J ONES Lrovn, Lord, F.G.8. 2 Carlton-gardens,
London, S.W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley.
1870. tOwen, Harold. The Brook Villa, Liv erpool.
1857. {Owen, JamesH. Park House, Sandymount, Co. Dublin.
Owen, Ricwarp, C.B., M.D., D.C.Li, ‘LL.D.; FiR:S., F.L.8.) FiG:S,,'-
Hon. M. RSE, Director of the Natural-History Department,
British Museum, Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, 8.W.- «
1877.§§Oxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, — 59

‘Eiection.

1859,

}Paex, Davy, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. College of Physical Science,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. *Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.

{Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire,
*Palgrave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth,

. {Palmer, George. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.

§Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottingham.
*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Lucan, Co. Dublin.
§Palmer, William. Iron Foundry, Canal-street, Nottingham.
*Palmer, W. R. 376 Coldharbour-lane, Stockwell, S.W.
Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. The Vicarage, Hornsea, Hull.

. *Parker, Alexander, M.R.I.A. 59 William-street, Dublin.

{Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

. {Parker, Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-

Tyne.

y
. {Parker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.

Parker, Joseph, F.G.8. Upton Chaney, Bitton, near Bristol,
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork.

. *Parker, Walter Mantel. High-street, Alton, Hants.

Parker, Rev. William. Saham, Norfolk.

. {Parker, William. Thorton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
. *Parkes, Samuel Hickling. 6 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham...

1864.§§Parkes, Wittram. 23 Abinedon-street, Westminster, 8.W.
1859. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. West View, Toller-lane, Bradford, York-

1862,

1877.
1865.
1878.
1878.
1875.
1855.
1861,

1871.

1863.
1867.
1876,
1874.
18638.
1865.
1867.

1864.
1863.
1863.

1864,
1877.
» 1851.
1866.

shire,

*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, E.

Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B.

§Parson, T. Edecumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.

*Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Parsons, Hon. C. A. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.

§Parsons, Hon. R. C. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.

{Pass, Alfred ©. 16 Redland Park, Clifton, Bristol.

{ Paterson, William. 100 Brunswick-street, Glasgow.

{Patterson, Andrew. Deaf and Dumb School, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

*Patterson, A. Henry. 3 Old-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.C.

tPatterson, H. L. Scott's House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Patterson, James. JKinnettles, Dundee.

§Patterson,T.L. Belmont, Margaret-street, Greenock.

{Patterson, W. H., M.R.LA. 26 High-street, Belfast.

{Pattinson, John. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London,
E.C

{Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.

}Pavn, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8. W.

{Pavy, Frepertck Wrorram, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Physiology
and Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital. 385
Grosvenor-street, London, W.

{Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath.

§Payne, J. C. Charles. Botanic Avenue, Belfast.

t Payne, Joseph. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.

tPayne, Dr. Joseph F. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.

1876.§§Peace, G. H. Morton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.
1847, {Pnacu, Cuartes W., Pres. R.P.S. Edin., A.L.S. 380 Haddington-:

place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh.

60 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1875. {Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London,
W.C.
1876. {Pearce, W. Elmpark House, Govan, Glasgow.
*Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S. Birkbeck Literary and Scientific
Institution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, W.C.
1875. {Pearson, H. W. Tramore Villa, Nugent Hill, Cotham, Bristol.
1872. *Pearson, Joseph, Lern Side Works, Nottingham.
1870, {Pearson, Rev. Samuel. 48 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
1863, §Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington.
1863. *Pease, Joseph W., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough.
1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1858. *Pease, Thomas, F.G.S. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near
Bristol.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
1855. *Peckover, Alexander, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Harecroft House, Wisbech,
Cambridgeshire.
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Sibald’s Holme, Wisbech, Cam-
bridgeshire.
1878, *Peek, William. St. Clair, Hayward’s Heath, Sussex.

1867,

*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester.

tPeel, Thomas. 9 Hampton-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

*Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester.

§Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln's Inn-fields, London,
W.C.

E {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
. “Pender, John, M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, S.W.

{Pendergast, Thomas. Lancefield, Cheltenham.

. §Pencetty, WitiiaM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.

{Percival, Rey. J., M.A., LL.D. The College, Clifton, Bristol.

{Pzrcy, Joun, M.D., F.R.S., ¥.G.S., Professor of Metallurgy in the
Royal School of Mines. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-
street, S.W.; and 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde Park, London,
W.

*Perigal, Frederick. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street,
London, 8. W.

“Perkin, WittrAM Huyry, F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts, Sudbury,
Harrow.

{ Perkins, Rev. George. St. James's View, Dickenson-road, Rusholme,
near Manchester.

§Perkins, Loftus. 140 Abbey-road, Kilburn, London, N.W.

Perkins, Rey. R. B., D.C.L. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucester-

shire.

. *Perkins, V. R. The Brands, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
. [Perring, John Shae. 104 King-street, Manchester.

Perry, The Right Rey. Charles, M.A., D.D. 82 Avenue-road,.
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

. {Perry, John. 5 Falls-road, Belfast.

*Perry, Rey. S.G. F., M.A. Tottington Vicarage, near Bury.

*Prrry, Rev. 8. J., F-R.S., F.R.AS., F.M.S. Stonyhurst College
Observatory, Whalley, Blackburn.

*Petrie, John. South-street, Rochdale.

Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 108 Marina, St. Leonard’s-

on-Sea.

{Puayre, Lieut.-General Sir Anruur, K.C.S.1.,C.B. Governor of

Mauritius.

LIST OF MEMBERS, " “GE

Year of
Election.

1863. *PuEné, Jonn Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, S.W.
1870. {Philip, T. D, 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
1853. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
1853. *Philips, Herbert. 35 Church-street, Manchester.
*Philips, Mark. Welcombe, Stratford-on-A von.
Philips, Robert N. The Park, Manchester.
1863. {Philipson, Dr. 1 Savile-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1859. *Puitirs, Major-General Sir B. TRAvELL. United Service Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8S. W.
1862. {Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
1872. {Puitiies, J. AntHUR. Cressington Park, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1877. §Phillips, Tl. Wishart. 269 West Ferry-road, London, E,
1868. {Phipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich.
1868. {Purpson, T. L., Ph.D. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, S.W.
1864. {Pickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon.
1861. {Pickstone, William. Radcliff Bridge near Manchester.
1870.§§Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool.
1870. {Pigot, Rev. E. V. Malpas, Cheshire.
1871. {Pigot, Thomas F., C.E., M.R.LA. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
*Pike, Ebenezer. Besborough, Cork.
1865, {Prxz, L. OwEn. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida-vale, London, W.
18735. §Pike, W. H. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
1857. {Pilkington, Henry M., M.A.,Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.
1863, *Prm, Captain Beprorp C. T., R.N., M.P., F.R.G.S. Leaside, Kings-
wood-road, Upper Norwood, London, 8.E:
Pim, George, M.R.I.A. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.
Pim, Jonathan. Harold’s Cross, Dublin.
1877. §Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
Pim, William H., M.R.L.A. Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrews, Norwich.
1876, {Pirie, Rev. G. Queen’s College Cambridge.
1859. {Pirrie, William, M.D., LL.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen.
1866. {Pitcairn, David. Dudhope House, Dundee.
1875. {Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.
1864, {Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
1869. §Prant, Jamus, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester.
1865. {Plant, Thomas L. Camp Hill, and 33 Union-street, Birmingham.
1842, Prayrarr, The Right Hon. Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., MP.,
F.RS.L. & E., F.C.S. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
1867, {Puayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel R. L., H.M. Consul, Algeria. (Messrs. King
& Co., Pall Mall, London, 8. W.)
1857. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
1861. *Pocuin, Henry Davis, F.C.S._Bodnant Hall, near Conway.
1846, {Porr, Wrt11am, Mus. Doc., F.R.S., M.LC.E, Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
* Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A, Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
1862, *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
1854, {Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead.
1868. { Pooley, Thomas A., B.Sc. South Side, Clapham Common, London,
SW.
1868. {Portal, Wyndham 8. Malsanger, Basingstoke.
1874, {Porter, Rey. J. Leslie, D.D., LL.D, College Park, Belfast.

62

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

-1866,

1863,
1842.

1863.
1857.

1873.

1875

1857.
1867.
1855.

1869.

1871.
1856,

1872.

1875.
1870.
1875.

§Porter, Robert. Beeston, Nottingham.

Porter, Rey. T, H., D.D., MR.LA. inllglided>, Co. Tyrone,

{Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Porrer, Epmund, F.R.S. Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts,

Potter, Thomas. George-street, Manchester.

tPotts, "James, 26 Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*PoUNDEN, Captain LonspAzE, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club,
St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Brownswood House,
Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford.

*Powell, Francis 8. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge-
square, London, W.

}Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.

{Power, Sir James, Bart. Hdermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland.

tPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

ae John E, Clyde Neuck, Uddingstone, Hamilton, Scot-
land.

*Preece, William Henry. Gothic Lodge, Wimbledon Common,
London, 8. W.

Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham.

*Prestwich, JosepH, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Geology in the University of Oxford. 34 Broad-street, Oxford ;
and Shoreham, near Sevenoaks.

tPrice, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, London, W.O.

*Pricr, Rev. Barrnotomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford.
11 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

tPrice, Dayid S., Ph.D. 26 Great George-street, Westminster,
S.W

Price, J. "T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
*Price, Rees. 54 Loftus-road, Shepherd's s Bush, London, W.
*Price, Captain W. E., M.P., F.G.S. . Tibberton Court, Gloucester.
*Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.

1876.§§ Priestley, John. Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester.

187

1846,

5. tPrince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1864.
1835.

*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent's Park, London, N.W.

*Pritchard, ‘Andrew, F.RS.E. 87 St. Paul’ s-road, Canonbury, Lon-
don, N.

*Prrrcwarp, Rev. CHArzes, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
Oxford.

. {Pritchard, Rey. W. Gee. Brignal Rectory, Barnard Castle, Co..

Durham.

. “PrircHaRD, Ursan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 8 George-street, Hanover-

square, London, W.

. tProctor, R. 5. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Proctor, Thomas. Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.

. §Proctor, William, M.D., F.C. 8. 24 Petergate, York.

53. “Prosser, Thomas. West Boldon, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

3. {Proud, ‘Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on Tyne.

. {Prowse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth,
. *Pryor, M. Robert. Western Manor, Stevenage, Herts,

*Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey,

73. {Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
57. tPullar, John. 4 St. Leonard Bank, Perth.
. *Pullar, Robert. 6 St. Leonard Bank, Perth,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63"

Year of
Election.

1842. *Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham,
Punnet; Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Earth, Cornwall.

1852. {Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.I). Belfast.

1860. {Purpy, Freprricx, F.8.8., Principal of the Statistical Department of
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken--
sington, London, W.

1874. {Purspr, Freprrick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.

1866. {PuRsER, Professor Jonny, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast.

1878. §Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

1860. *Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

1868, §Pyzn-Smirn, P. H., M.D. 56 Havrley-street, W.; and Guy’s Hos-
pital, London, 8.E.

1861, *Pyne, Joseph John. St. German’s Villa, St. Lawrence-road, Not-
ting Hill, London, W.

1870. {Rabbits, W. T. Forest Hill, London, S.E.

1860. {Rapciirre, CHARrtEs Branp, M.D. 25 Cavendish-square, London, W..

1870. {Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.

1877.§§ Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.

*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.

1854, {Rafiles, Thomas Stamford. 15 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

1870. {Raffles, William Winter. Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1864. {Rainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath.

Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.

1863. {Ramsay, ALpxanpER, F'.G.S. ilmorey Lodge, 6 Kent-gardens,
Ealing, W.

1845. {Ramsay, AnpREw Crompis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director-
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom and
of the Museum of Economic Geology. Geological Survey Office,
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

1867. {Ramsay, James, jun. Dundee.

1861. {Ramsay, John, M.P. Kildalton, Argyleshire.

1867. *Ramsay, W.F., M.D. 61 Overstone-road, Hammersmith, London, W,

1876. {Ramsay, William, Ph.D. 11 Ashton-terrace, Glasgow.

1873. *Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.

1835. *Rance, Henry (Solicitor). Cambridge.

1869. *Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.M. 62 St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge.

1860. {Randall, Thomas. Gyrandepoint House, Oxford.

1865. {Randel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham,

1855. { Randolph, Charles. Pollockshiels, Glasgow.

Ranelagh, The Right Hon, Lord. 7 New Burlington-street, Regent-
street, London, W.

1868. *Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Kempstone Mill, Bedford.

1863. §Ransom, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.

1861, {Ransome, Arthur, M.A. Bowdon, Manchester.

Ransome, Thomas. 54 Princess-street, Manchester.

1872, *Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 25 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn,
London, W.C.

Rashlei¢h, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London.
N.W.

Ratcrrrr, Colonel Cuarrezs, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A,, F.R.G.S. Wyd-
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1864, {Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire,

1870. {Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.

1870. {Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool,

1870, §Rathhone, R, R. Beechwood House, Liverpool,

64 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1863. {Rattray, W. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen.
1874. {Ravenstein, E. G., F.R.G.S. 10 Lorn-road, Brixton, London,
S.W.

Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.

1870. {Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhall, Liverpool.

*Rawlins, John. Shrawley Wood House, near Stourport.

1866. *Rawxinson, Rev. Canon Grorcr, M.A., Camden Professor of An-
cient History in the University of Oxford. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.

1855. *Raw.rnson, Major-General Sir Henry C., K.C.B., LL.D., F.B.S.,
F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.

1875. §Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G.,C.B. Drayton House, West
Drayton, Middlesex.

1868. *RayiEteH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Carlton-
gardens, Pall Mall, London,S.W.; and Terling Place, Witham,
Essex.

1865. { Rayner, Henry. West View, Liverpool-road, Chester.

1870, {Rayner, Joseph (Town Clerk). Liverpool.

1852. {Read, Thomas, M.D. Donegal-square West, Belfast.

1865. {Read, William. Albion House, Epworth, Bawtry.

*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.8. 12 Blake-street, York.

1870. §ReApE, THomas Metiarp, C.H., F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.

1862. *Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.IA., F.G.S. 28 Bold-street, Alex-
andra-road, Manchester.

1852. *Reprern, Professor Peter, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.

1863. {Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.

1863. {Redmayne, R. R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Redwood, Isaac. Oae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.

1861. {Reep, Epwarp J., C.B., M.P., F.R.S. 74 Gloucester-road, South
Kensington, London, W.

1875. {Rees-Mogg, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.

1876.§§Reid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

1874. {Reid, Robert, M.A. 35 Dublin-road, Belfast.

1850. {Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.

1875. §Reinold, A. W., M.A., Professor of Physical Science. Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, S.E.

1863. §Renats, E. ‘ Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.

1863. {Rendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1867. {Renny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1871. {Reynotps, JAmes Emurson, M.A., F.0.S., M.R.LA., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Laboratory, Trinity
College, Dublin.

1870. *Reynotps, Ospornz, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in
Owens College, Manchester. Fallowfield, Manchester,

1858. §Reynotps, Ricwarp, FC.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds.

1858. *Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.

1877. §Rhodes, John. 358 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

1877. *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy.

1868.§§RicHarps, Vice-Admiral Sir Grorer H., C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W.

1863. {Ricnarpson, Bensamry Warp, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 12 Hinde-
street, Manchester-square, London, W.

1861.§§Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.

1869. *Richardson, Charles. Albert Park, Abingdon, Berks.

1863. *Richardson, Edward. 6 Stanley-terrace, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 65

Year of
Election.

1868. *Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
1870. {Richardson, J. H. 3 Arundel-terrace, Cork.
1870, {Richardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
Richardson, Thomas. Montpelier-hill, Dublin.
1861. {Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
1876.§§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1861. {Richson, Rev. Canon, M.A. Shakespeare-street, Ardwick, Man-
chester.
1863. {Richter, Otto, Ph.D. 6 Derby-terrace, Glasgow
1870. {Rickards, Dr. 36 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
1868. §Rickerrs, CHartes, M.D., F.G.S.. 22 Argyle-street, Birken-
head. *
1877.§§Ricketts, James, M.D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
*RIppELL, Major-General Cuartzs J. Bucnanay, C.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon. }
1861. *Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth.
1872. {Ridge, James. 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
1862. {Ridgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. . Bank Field, Halifax.
1861. tRidley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1863. *Rigby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington.
1873. {Ripley, Edward. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
1873.§§Ripley, H. W. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
*Ripon, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.G.S. 1 Carlton-gardens, London, 8. W.
1860. { Ritchie, George Robert. 4 Watkyn-terrace, Coldharbour-lane, Cam-
berwell, London, S.E.
1867. {Ritchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
1855. {Ritchie, Robert, C.E. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
1867. {Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
1869. *Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.
1854, {Robberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.
1869. *Rossins, Joun, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale, London,
WwW

Roberton, John. Oxford-road, Manchester.
1878. §Roberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.
1859. {Roberts, George Christopher. Hull.
1859. {Roberts, Henry, F.S.A. Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.
1870. *Roberts, Isaac, F.G.S. Kennessee, Maghull, Lancashire.
1857. {Roberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.
1868. §Roserts, W. CuHanpier, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. Royal Mint,
London, E.
1866. {Robertson, Alister Stuart, M.D., F.R.G.S. Horwich, Bolton, Lan-
cashire.
1876. tRobertson, Andrew Carrick. Woodend House, Helensburgh, N.B.
1859. {Robertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
1867. §Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee.
1871. tRobertson, George, O.E., F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
1870. *Robertson, John. Lyme View, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1876. {Robertson, R. A. 9 Queen’s-square, Regent Park, Glasgow.
1866, tRoprrtson, Wittiam Trnpat, M.D. Nottingham.
1861. {Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
1852. {Robinson, Rev. George: Tartaragham Glebe, Loughgall, Ireland.
1859. {Robinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Robinson, H. Oliver. 34 Bishopsgate-street, London, E.C.
1873. §Robinson, Hugh. 82 Donegall-street, Belfast.
1861. {Robinson, John. Atlas Works, Manchester.
1863, {Robinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
F

66 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1878. §Robinson, John L., C.E. 198 Great Brunswick-street, London, W.

1876, {Robinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

1875. *Robinson, Robert, C.E. 2 West-terrace, Darlington.

1860. tRobinson, Admiral Sir Robert Spencer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 61 Eatau-
place, London, S.W. ;

Rosrnson, Rev. Tuomas Romngy, D.D., F.RS., F.RAS.,
Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.1.A., Director of the Armagh Observatory.
Armagh,

1863. {Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

1870, tRobinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool.

1870. *Robson, E. R. 41 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.

1876.§§Robson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.

* Robson, Rev. John, M.A., D.D. Ajmere Lodge, Cathkin-road, Lang-
side, Glasgow.

1855. tRobson, Neil, C.E. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1872. *Robson, William. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin-
bureh.

1872. §Ropwett, Grorcz F., F.R.AS., F.0.8. Marlborough College,
Wiltshire.

1866. {Roe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch.

1861. tRorsr, Joun, F.G.S. 9 Crosbie-terrace, Leamington.

1860, tRocrrs, James E. Toorop, Professor of Economic Science and
Statistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street, Ox-
ford.

1867. tRogers, James S. Rosemill, by Dundee.

1869. *Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 87 South-street, Exeter.

1870. {Rogers, T. L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool.

1859, tRoriesron, Grorex, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Ana-
tomy and Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Park,
Oxford.

1876. §Rollit, A. K.,B.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. The Literary and Philosophical
Society, Hull.

1866. {Rolph, George Frederick. War Office, Horse Guards, London,
S.W

1876, {Romanes, George John, M.A., F.L.S. 18 Cornwall-terrace, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.

1863. tRomilly, Edward. 14 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W.

1846. tRonalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh.

1869. tRoper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.

1872. *Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.

1855. *Roscoz, Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.

1863. tRoseby, John. Haverholm House, Brigg, Lincolnshire.

1874. tRoss, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.

1857. tRoss, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin.

1872. tRoss, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfvot, near Manchester.

1859. *Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford.

1874. tRoss, Rev. William. Chapelhill Manse, Rothesay, Scotland.

1869, *Ros3r, The Right Hon. the Earl of, B.A., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
M.R.LA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland; and 32 Lowndes-
square, London, S.W.

1865. *Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.

1876.§§Rottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.

1861. tRouth, Edward J., M.A., V.RS., F.RAS., F.G.S. St. Peter's
College, Cambridge. ;

LIST OF MEMBERS. 67

Year of
Election.

1872. *Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam,
India, (Care of Messrs. King & Oo., 45 Pall Mall, London,
S.W.

1861. tRowan, Doyial Elliot-street, Glasgow.

1876. {Rowan, David. 22 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

1877. §Rowe, J. Brooking, F.L.S. 16 Lockyer-street, Plymouth.

1865. §Rowe, Rev. John, Load Vicarage, Langport, Somerset,

1855, *Rownry, Tuomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College Galway. Salerno, Salthill, Galway.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 12 Heslington-road, York.
1862. {Rowsell, Rey. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal-

ming.
1876. {Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
1861. *Royle, Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Leyer-street, Man-
chester.
1875. {Riicker, A. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Physics in the
Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1869, §Rudler, F. W., F.G.S. Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in
_ University College, Aberystwith.
1873. {Rushforth, Joseph. 43 Ash-grove, Horton-lane, Bradford, York-
shire.
1847. {Ruskin, Jonny, M.A., F.G.S., Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the
University of Oxford. Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
1857. {Russell, The Very Rev. C. W., D.D., M.R.ILA. Maynooth College.
1875. *Russell, The Hon. F, A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,
Surrey.
1876. *Russell, George. 103 Blenheim-crescent, Notting Hill, London, W.
1865. {Russell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin,
RussExL, Joun Scorr, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E. Sydenham, S.E. ; and
5 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W.
1852. *Russell, Norman Scott. 5 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
1876. §Russell, R., C.E., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.
1862. §RusseLt, W. H. L., A.B., F.R.S. 5 The Grove, Highgate, Lon-
don, N. :
1852. *Russett, Wit11aM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry,
St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
1875.§§Rutherford, David Greig. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
1871, §RurneRForD, Wir11aM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
1875. {Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C.
1874, §Rye, ee F.Z.S., Librarian R.G.S. 70 Charlewood-road, Putney,
S.W.

1865, tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham. -
1861. *Ryzanps, Tomas GuiazEBRoox, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington,

*Sabine, General Sir Epwarp, K.C.B., R.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 13 Ashley-place, Westminster, 8. W.
1865. {Sabine, Robert. Auckland House, Willesden-lane, London, N.W.
1871, §Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon,
Wiltshire.
1866, *St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham,
Salkeld, Joseph, Penrith, Cumberland,
F 2

68

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1857.

18738,
1872.

1842.
1861.
1867.
1870.
1861.
1876.
1878.
1857.
1872.
1871.

{Satmon, Rev. Grorex, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

{Satviy, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Brookland Avenue, Cam-
bridge.

Sambrooke, T. G. 32 EHaton-place, London, 8. W.

*Samgon, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

tSamuelson, Edward. Roby, near Liverpool.

tSamuelson, James. St. Domingo-grove, Everton, Liverpool.

*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth.

§Sandeman, David. Woodlands, Lenzie, Glasgow.

§Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.

tSanders, Gilbert. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

{Sanders, Mrs. 8 Powis-square, Brighton.

tSanders, William R., M.D. 11 Walker-street, Edinburgh.

1872.§§Sanperson, J. S. Burpon, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology

1864,
1854.

1873.
1865.
1868.
1846.
1564.

1860.

1871.
1863,
1872.
1868.
1850.
1862.
1842.
1874,

in University College, London. 49 Queen Anne-street, London,
WwW

Sandes, T homas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry..
{Sandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath.
{Sandon, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 39 Gloucester-square, London,
W.

{Sands, T. C. 24 Spring-gardens, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Sargant, W. L. Edmund-street, Birmingham.
{Saunders, A.,C.E. King’s Lynn.
tSaunpeErs, TRELAWNEY W. India Office, London, S.W.
{Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath.
*Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton.
§Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
{Savory, Valentine. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
*Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
{Sawyer, John Robert. Grove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
tScarth, Pillans. 2 James’s-place, Leith.
§Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol.

Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
§Scholefield, Henry. Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Scholes, T. Seddon. 10 Warwick-place, Leamington.

1876.§§Schuman, Sigismond. 7 Royal Bank-place, Glasgow.

1873.
1861.
1847,

1867.
1878,
1876,
1871.
1876.
1872.

1871.
1857.

Scuunck, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man-

chester.

*Scuuster, ARTHUR, Ph.D. Sunnyside, Upper Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

*Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Ryecroft House, Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester. ’

*Sorarer, Pamir Luriry, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., Sec. Zool.
Soc. (GunERAL SeEcrerary.) 11 Hanover-square, London,
W.

{Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.

§Scott, Arthur William. St. David’s College, Lampeter.

{Scott, Mr. Bailie. Glasgow.

{Scott, Rev. C.G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh.

tScott, D. D. Glasgow.

{Scott, Major-General H. Y. D., O.B., R.E., F.R.S. Sunnyside,
Ealing, W.

{Scott, James 8S. T. Monkrigg, Haddingtonshire.

*Scorr, Roperr H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.MS., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 116 Victoria-street,
London, 8S. W.

_ LIST OF MEMBERS. Go

Year of
Election.

1861. §Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhi!!,
Glasgow.
1874. {Scott, Rev. Robinson, D.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
1864, {Scott, Wentworth Lascelles. Wolverhampton.
1858. {Scott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds.
1869. §Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
1859. {Seaton, John Love. Hull.
1877.§§Seaton, Robert Cooper, B.A. Dulwich College, Dulwich, Surrey,S.E.
1861. *SrELEY, Harry Govisr, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., Professor
of Geography in King’s College, London. 61 Adelaide-road,
South Hampstead, London, N.W.
1855, {Seligman, H. L. 135 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
1873. {Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
1858. *Senior, George, F.8.S. Rosehill Lodge, Dodworth, near Barnsley.
1870, *Sephton, Rev. J. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1875, §Seville, Thomas. Elm House, Royton, near Manchester.
1873.§§Sewell, Rev. E., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. - Ilkley College, near Leeds.
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
1861. *Seymour, Henry D. 209 Piccadilly, London, W.
1853. {Shackles,G. L. 6 Albion-street, Hull.
“Shaen, William. 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
1871. *Shand, James. Fullbrooks, Worcester Park, Surrey.
1867. §Shanks, James. Den Ivon Works, Arbroath, N.B.
1869, *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. The Barnfield, Exeter.
1878. §Sharp, David. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
1861. {SHarp, Samvuet, F.G.8., F.S.A. Great Harrowden Hall, near
Wellingborough.
“Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
Smarpry, Witriam, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 50 Torrington-
square, London, W.C.
1858. *Shaw, Bentley. Woodfield House, Huddersfield.
1854. *Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man,
1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain,
1865. {Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham,
1870. {Shaw, John. 24 Great George-place, Liverpool.
1845. {Shaw, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8. Hop House, Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
1853. {Shaw, Norton, M.D. St. Croix, West Indies.
1839. Shepard, John. 41 Drewton-street, Manningham-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1863. {Shepherd, A. B. 49 Seymour-street, Portman-square, London, W.
1870. §Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool.
Sheppard, Rey. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth,
Hants.
1878. §Shelford, W., C.E. Great George-street, Westminster, 8. W.
1866. {Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham.
1867. {Shinn, William C. Her Majesty’s Printing Office, near Fetter-lane,
London, E.C. :
1870. *SHoorsrep, James N., O.E., F.G.S. 3 Westminster-chambers,
London, 8. W.
1875.§§Shore, Thomas W., F.C.8. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
1861, *Sidebotham, Joseph. The Beeches, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. The Beeches, Bowdon, Cheshire.

70 LIST OF MEMBERS. .

Year of
Election.

1873. {Sidgwick, R. H. The Raikes, Skipton.

1857. {Sidney, aoe John, LL.D., M.R.LA. 19 Herbert-street,
Dublin.

Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1873. *Siemens, Alexander. 12 Queen Anne’s-cate, Westminster, S.W.

1856. *Sremens, C. Witttam, D.O.L., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.IL.C.E. 12 Queen
Anne’s-gate, Westminster, 8. W.

1878. §Sigerson, Professor George, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 8 Clare-street,
Dublin.

1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.

1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.

1865. {Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton.

1862. {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C.

1874. §Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.

1876.§§Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.

1847. {Simon, John, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Medical Officer of the
Privy Council. 40 Kensington-square, London, W.

1866. {Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.

1871. *Smupson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1867. {Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

1859. {Simpson, John, Maykirk, Kincardineshire.

1863. [Simpson, J. B., F.G.S. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

1857. {Srupson, Maxwet1, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Cork.

1876.§§Simpson, Robert. 14 Ibrox-terrace, Glasgow.

*Simpson, Rey. Samuel. Kingston House, Chester.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.

1859. {Sinclair, Alexander. 153 George-street, Edinburgh.

1876. {Sinclair, James. Titwood Bank, Pollockshields, near Glasgow.

1874. {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.

1854. {Sinclair, Vetch, M.D. 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

1870. *Sinclair, W. P. 19 Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1864. *Sircar, Mahendra Lal, M.D. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta. (Care of
Messrs. 8S. Harraden & Co., 3 Hill’s-place, Oxford-street, Lon-
don, W.)

1865. {Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.

1870. §Sladen, Walter Percy, F.G.S., F.L.S. Exley House, near Halifax.

1878. {Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.

1870. {Slater, W. B. 42 Clifton’ Park-avenue, Belfast.

1842, *Slater, William. Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

1855. {Sleddon, Francis. 2 Kingston-terrace, Hull.

1877. §Sleeman, Rey. Philip. Clifton, Bristol.

1849. {Sloper, George Edgar. Devizes.

1849. {Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes.

1860. $Sloper, S. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton.

1872. {Smale, The Hon. Sir John, Chief Justice of Hong Kong.

1867. {Small, David. Gray House, Dundee,

1858. {Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.

1876. {Smeiton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1876. {Smeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1867. {Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee.

1876. §Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1877.§§Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-

tenham.
1857. {Smith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.L.A. 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 71

Year of
Election.

1868.
1872.

1874.
1873.
1865.
1865.
1866.
1855.
1876.
1855.

1860.

1876.
1870.
1871.

1876.
1874.
1867.

1871.
1870.

1860.

1837.
1847.

1870.
1866.
1873.
1867.
1867.
1859.
1852.
1875.
1876.
1878.
1874.
1850.

1874.
1870.
1857.

1868.

tSmith, Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.

*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead-
Heath, London, N. W.

*Smith, Benjamin Leigh. 64 Gower-street, London, W.C.

{Smith, ©. Sidney College, Cambridge.

{Surru, Davin, F-R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

fSmith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley.

*Smith, F.C.,M.P. Bank, Nottingham.

tSmith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.

Smith, George. Glasgow.

tSmith, George Cruickshank. 19 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

*Suira, Henry Jonn Srepuen, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Savilian Pro-
fessor of Geometry in the University of Oxford, and Keeper of
the University Museum. The Museum, Oxford.

*Smith, Heywood, M.A.,M.D. 2 Portugal-street, Grosvenor-square,

s: London, W.

TSmith, J. Glasgow.

Smith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.

*Smith, John Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E. 10 Palmerston-place, Edin-
burgh.

*Smith, J Y Giatite, 173 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

{Smith, John Haigh. Beech Hill, Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Smith, John P., C.E. Haughhead Cottage, Glasgow.

Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, near Coalport, Shrop-

shire.

{Smith, Professor J. William Robertson. Free Church College,
Aberdeen.

{Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.

“Smith, Philip, B.A. 26 South Hill Park, Hampstead, London,
N.W.

*Smith, Protherce, M.D. 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, Lon-
don, W.

Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury. .

§SMrrH, Rosert Anevs, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 22 Devonshire-street,
Manchester.

*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

{Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, H.C.

{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

tSmith, Thomas. Dundee.

{tSmith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.8., F.C.S. Hessle, near Hull.

{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Werks, Glasgow.

*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.

§Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

§Smithson, Joseph S. Balnagowan, Rathmines, Co. Dublin.

{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

*Suyrn, Caries Prazzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for
Scotland, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edin-
burgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Smyth, Henry, C.E. Downpatrick, Treland.

{Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A. .Barrackpore, near Calcutta.

*SmytH, JOHN, jun., "M. A., C.E., F.M.S. Lenaderg, Banbridge,
Treland.

{Smyth, Rev. J. D. Hurst. 13 Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

72 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864. {Suyra, Warrmeton W., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Lecturer
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 5 Inverness-
terrace, Bayswater, London, W.
1878. §Smyth, Mrs. Wigmore Lodge, Cullenswood-ayenue, Dublin.
1854, {Smythe, Lieut.-General W. J., R.A.. F.R.S. Athenzeum Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
1878. §Snell, H. Saxon. 3 Greville-place, Maida Hill, London, N. W.
Soden, John. Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
*Sotty, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Park House,
Sutton, Surrey. :
*SopwirH, THomas, M.A., F.RS., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 103 Victoria-
street, Westminster, S. W.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
1859. *Sorsy, H. Crirron, F.R.S., F.G.8. Broomfield, Sheffield.
1865. *Southall, John Tertius. Leominster.
1859. {Southall, Nornian. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C. ,
1856. {Southwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College.
1863. {Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham.
1863. *Spark, H. King. Starforth House, Barnard Castle.
1859, {Spence, Rev. James, D.D. 6 Clapton-square, London, N.E.
*Spence, Joseph. 60 Holgate Hill, York.
1869. *Spence, J. Berger. Erlington House, Manchester.
1854. §Spence, Peter. Pendleton Alum Works, Newton Heath ; and Smed-
ley Hall, near Manchester.
1861. {Spencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8. W.
1861. *Spencer, Joseph. Springbank, Old Trafford, Manchester.
1863. *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.
1875. {Spencer, W.H. Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.
1871. {Spicer, George. Broomfield, Halifax.
1864. *Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Patk, Highbury,
London, N.
1864.§§Spicer, William R. 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, E.C.
1864, ees a Joun, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London,

1878. §Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 29 Ashley-place, London, S.W.
1846. *Sporriswoopz, Wiit1aM, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S. (Presrpenr.) 41 Grosvenor-place, London, 8. W.
1864, *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, 8. W.
1854. *Spracur, THomas Bonp. 29 Buckingham-terrace, Edinburgh.
1853. {Spratt, Joseph James. West Parade, Hull.
Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.S. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth.
1877.§§SquarE, WitiaM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Ply-
mouth.
*Squire, Lovell. The Observatory, Falmouth.
1858, *Srarinton, Henry T., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Mountsfield, Lewis-
ham, S.E.
1865. §StanrorD, Epwarp C.0. Thornloe, Partick Hill, near Glasgow. |
1837. Staniforth, Rev. Thomas. Storrs, Windermere.
Srantey, The Very Rey. AnrHuR Prnruyn, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of
Westminster. The Deanery, Westminster, Loudon, S.W.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
1866. {Starey, Thomas R, Daybrook House, Nottingham.
1876. §Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. The Avenue, Erith, Kent.
Stayeley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
1873. *Stead, Charles, Saltaire, Bradford, Yorkshire.

—

LIST OF MEMBERS. 73

Year of
Election.

1857.
1870.
1863.
1873.

1861

1872
1861

.

{Steale, William Edward, MD. 15, Hatch-street, Dublin.

{Stearn, C. H. 2 St. Paul’s-villas, Rock Ferry, Liverpool.

{Steele, Rev. Dr. 35 Sydney-buildings, Bath.

§Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester.
SrenHousr, Jouy, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Rodney-street, Pen-

tonville, London, N.
{Stennett, Mrs, Eliza. 2 Clarendon-terrace, Brighton,
*Stern,S. J. Littlegrove, East Barnet, Herts.

1863.§§Sterriker, John. Driftield, Yorkshire.

1872.
1876.
1870.
1861.

1863.
1868.
1878.

1863.
1876.
1855.

1864.
1856,

1875.
1847,
1876.
1867.
1868.
1876,
1867.
1865.
1864,

1854,

1862.

1874,
1876.
1859.
1857.

1878.
1861,

1876.
1854.
1873.

1867.
1859.

{Sterry, William, Union Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

{Steuart, Walter. City Bank, Pollockshaws, near Glasgow.

*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. . Belmont, Devizes-road, Salisbury.

“Stevens, Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalgar-square, London,
W.C

*Stevenson, Archibald. 2 Wellington-crescent, South Shields.

{Stevenson, Henry, F.LS. Newmarket-road, Norwich.

§Stevenson, Rev. James, M.A. 21 Garville-avenue, Rathgar,
Dublin.

“Stevenson, Jamis C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields.

“Stewart, Alexander B. Raweliffe Lodge, Langside, Glaszow.

{Srewart, Batrour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester.

{Srewart, Cuarzes, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas's Hospital, London,
S.E

“Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D., M.R.I.A. 75 Eccles-street,
Dublin.

“Stewart, James, B.A. Mount Hope, Sneyd Park, near Bristol.

{Stewart, Robert, M.D. The Asylum, Belfast.

{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.

{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

{Stirling, Edward. 34 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.

Stirling, William, M.D., D.Sc. The University, Edinburgh.

“Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. 14 Atkinson-street, Deansgate, Manchester.

*Stock, Joseph 8S. 1 Chartham-terrace, Ramsgate.

§Sroppart, Wirtiam Watrer, F.G.S., F.C.S. Grafton Lodge,
Sneyd Park, Bristol.

{Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.

*Srokes, GroRGE GABRIEL, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Lens-
field Cottage, Cambridge.

{Sronz, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the

Radcliffe Observatory, Oxtord.

§Stone, J. Harris, B.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 16 Wilmot-terrace, Belfast.

{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Springfield, Nuneaton.

{Stone, Dr. William H. 14 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S. W.

{Sronzy, Brypon B., O.E., M.R.LA., Engineer of the Port of Dublin.
42 Wellington-road, Dublin.

*Stoney, G. Gerald. 8 Palmerston Park, Dublin.

*Srongy, GzoreE Jonnsrong, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Secretary to
the Queen’s University, Ireland. 3 Palmerston Park, Dublin.

§Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. East Hill, Colchester.

Store, George. Prospect House, F airfield, Liverpool.

{Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-

don, E.C.
Srorr4R, Joun, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Story, James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.

v4

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1874,
1871.

1876.
1863.

1859.
1867.
1876.

1878.
1876.
1872.
1864,
1873.
1857.
1873.
1878.
1863.
1862.

1863.
1876,
1861.
1862.

1862.

1870.
1863.
1878.
1873.
1847.
1862.
1847.

1870.

1856.
1859.

1860,

1859.

§Stott, William. Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.
*SrracHey, Lieut.-Genéral Ricwarp, R.E., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.GS.,
F.L.S., F.G.S. Stowey House, Clapham Common, London,
S.W.
{Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
tStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
*Strickland, Charles. Loughglyn House, Castlerea, Ireland.
Strickland, William. French Park, Roscommon, Ireland.
{Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
{Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.
*Struthers, John, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Aberdeen.
§Strype, W. G., C.E. Wicklow.
*Stuart, Charles Maddock. Sudbury Hill, Harrow.
*Stuart, Rey. Edward A. 22 Bedford-street, Norwich.
{Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath.
§Style, George, M.A. Giggleswick School, Yorkshire.
t{Sunntivan, Witrram K., Ph.D., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Cork.
{Sutcliffe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tSutcliffe, Robert. Iadle, near Leeds.
{Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*SuTHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE WILLIAM, Duke of, K.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8. W.
tSurron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.
{Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.
*Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
*Swan, WitrrAm, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of St. Andrews. Ardchapel, by Helensburgh,
N.B.
*Swann, Rey. S. Kirke, F.R.A.S. Forest Hill Lodge, Warsop,
Mansfield, Nottinghamshire.
Sweetman, Walter, M.A., M.R.LA. 4 Mountjoy-square North,
Dublin.
*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
t{Swindell, J. S. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley.
*Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
§Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. Cleckheaton.
{Sykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
{Sykes, Captain W. H. F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
SyivestER, James JosepH, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Athenzeum Club,
London, 8. W.
§Symes, Ricuarp Guascorr, A.B., F.G.S. Geological Survey of
Ireland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Symonds, Frederick, M.A., F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford.
t{Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
{Symonns, Rev. W.S., M.A., F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcester-
shire.
§Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec. M.S. 62 Camden-square, London,
N.W

: *Symons, WILLIAM, F.C.S. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple.

Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
{Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.

. {Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Year of
Election.

1877.

1871.
1867.

1874,
1866.

1878.
1861.
1856.
1857.
1863.
1870.

1858.

*Tart, Lawson, F.R.C.S. 7 Great Charles-street, Birmingham.

{Tarz, PETER Gururtie, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.

{Tait, P. M., F.R.G.S. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

§Talbot, William Hawkshead. Hartwood Hall, Chorley, Lancashire.

§Talmage, C. G. Leyton Observatory, Essex, E.

{Tarbottom, Marrott “Ogle, M.1L.C.E., F.G.S8. Newstead-grove, Not-
tingham.

§Tarpey, Hugh. Dublin.

*Tarratt, Henry W. Mountfield, Grove Hill, Tunbridge Wells.

{Tartt, William Macdonald, FS. 8. Sandford-place, Cheltenham.

*Tate, Alexander. 2 Queen ’s-elms, Belfast.

tTate, John. Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland.

¢Tate, Norman A. 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liver-
ool.
*Tatham, George. Springfield Mount, Leeds.

1876.§§Tatlock, Robert R. 26 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

1864,

1871.
1878.

1874.
1867.

1874.
1861.
1873.

1865.

1876.
1878.

*TAWNEY, Epwarp B., F.G.S. Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge.

{Tayler, William, F, S.A, F.S.8. 28 Park-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.

*Taylor, A. Claude. Clinton House, The Park, Nottingham.

{Taylor, Alexander O'Driscoll. 3 Upper-crescent, Belfast.

tTaylor, Rey. Andrew. Dundee.

Taylor, Frederick, Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.

tTaylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.

*TayLor, JoHN, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, EC.

*Taylor, John, jun. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.

tTaytor, Joun Ettor, F.L.S., F.G.S. The Mount, Ipswich.

tTaylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

*Taytor, Ricwarp, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-
street, London, EC.

tTaylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.

§Taylor, Robert, J.P., LL.D. Corballis, Diralicden

1870.§§Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.

1858.
1869.
1876.
1863.

1857.
1866.
1871.
1871.

1835.
1870.
1871.
1875.

1875.
1869.

*Taylor, William Edward. Millfield House, Hnfield, near Accring-
ton.

{Teale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

tTeesdale, C.S. M. Whyke House, Chichester,

tTemperley, Ernest. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Trnnant, James, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Profesor of Mineralogy in
King’s College. 149 Strand, London, W.C.

{Tennison, Edward King. Kildare-street Club House, Dublin.

tThackeray, J. L. Amo Vale, Nottingham.

{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.

{tTuiseLton-DygEr, W. T., M.A., B.Sc., F. Las swikd Gloucester-road,
Kew, W.

Thom, J ohn. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

tThom, Robert Wilson. "Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

{Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.

*THOMAS, CHRISTOPHER JAMES. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol.

Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
§Thomas, Herbert. 2 Great George-street, Bristol.
t{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

76 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Elect.on.

1869. ¢Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.

1875.§§Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

18653.
1858,

{Thompson, Rev. Francis. St. Giles’s, Durham.
*Thompson, Frederick. South-parade, Wakefield.

1859.§§Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen. :

1870.

1861.
1864,

1873.
1876.
1874.
1876.

1878.
1865.
1867.
1855.

1850.

1852.
1850.

1855.
1868.

Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, York-
shire.

{THompson, Sir Henry. 385 Wimpole-street, London, W.

Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.

*Thompson, Joseph. Woodlands, Fulshaw, near Manchester.

{Tuompson, Rev. JosrpH Hesseterave, B.A. Cradley, near
Brierley Hill.

Thompson, Leonard. Sheriff-Hutton Park, Yorkshire.

¢{Thompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire.

*Thompson, Richard. Park-street, The Mount, York.

§Thompson, Robert. Walton, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.

§THompson, Sttvanus- Pups, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Physics in University College, Bristol. 8 Carlton-place,
Clifton, Bristol.

§Thompson, T. D. Clare Hall, Raheny, Co. Dublin.

t{Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-read, Dundee.

{Tnomson, AttEN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 66 Palace Gardens-
terrace, Kensington, London, W.

{THomson, Sir Cuartes Wrvit1e. LL.D., F.RS. L. & E., F.G.S.,
Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. 20 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.

tThomson, Gordon A. Bedeque House, Belfast.

Thomson, Guy. Oxford.

*THomson, Professor James, M.A., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. L. & E.
Oakfield House, University Avenue, Glasgow.

{ Thompson, James. 82 West Nile-street, Glasgow.

§THomson, Jamus, F.G.8. 3 Abbotsford-place, Glasgow.

*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh.

1876.§§Thomson, James'R. Dalmuir House, Dalmuir, Glasgow.

1874.
1871.
1871.
1865.
1847,

1877.
1874.
1876.

{Thompson, John. Harbour Office, Belfast.

*Thomson, John Millar, F.C.S. King’s College, London, W.C.

{Thomson, Robert, LL.B. 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh.

{Thomson, R. W., O.E., F.R.S.E. 3 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

*THomson, Sir WitttaM, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS. L. & E.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow,
The University, Glasgow,

*Thomson, Lady. The University, Glasgow.

§Thomson, William, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.

{¢Thomson, William. 6 Mansfield-place, Edinburgh.

1871.§§Thomson, William Burnes, F.R.S.E. 1 Ramsay-gardens, Edinburgh.

1871.
1852.
1866.

1867.
1845,
1871.
1864.

t¢Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.

t{Thornburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.

{Thornton, James. Edwalton, Nottingham.

*Thornton, Samuel, J.P. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham.

{Thornton, Thomas. Dundee.

§Thorp, Dr. Disney. Suffolk Laun, Cheltenham.

§Thorp, Henry. LBriarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.

*THorp, Wixtr1aM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 39 Sandringham-road, Kingsland,
London, E.

1871.§§THorpr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.8., Professor of Che-

mistry in Yorkshire College, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 77

Year of
Election.

1868. {Thuillier, Colonel, R.A., C.S.1, F.R.S., Surveyor-General of India.
46 Park-street, Calcutta.

1870. {Tichborne, Charles R. C., F.C.S., M.R.I.A. Apothecaries’ Hall of
Ireland, Dublin.

1873. *TmppEman, R. H., M.A.. F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

1874. {Tilden, William A., D.Sc., F.C.S. Clifton College, Bristol.

1873. {Tilzhman, B. C. Philadelphia, United States.

1865.§§Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield.
*TinneE, JoHn A., F.R.G.S. Briarley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

1876.§§Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, 8.E.

1861. *fopHunrer, Isaac, M.A., F.R.S., Principal Mathematical Lecturer
at St. John’s College, Cambridge. Brookside, Gaabanee:

1857. tTombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

1856. {Tomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-A von.

1864. *Tomirnson, CHarxes, F.R.S., FCS. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, High-
gate, London, N.

1863. {Tone, John F. Jesmond-villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1865, §Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.

1865.§§Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.

1873. *Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal Schoo! of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.

1861. *Topham, John, A.I.C.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney,

London, E.

1872. *Torrny, Witiiam, F.G.S., A.I.C.E. Geological Survey Office,
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

1875. §Torr, Charles Hawley. Harrowby House, Park-row, Nottingham.

1863. {Torrens, Colonel Sir R. R., K.C.M.G. 2 Gloucester-place, Hyde
Park, London, W.

1859. aa Very Rey. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus,

B.

Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.

1873. tTownend, W.H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1875. {Townsend, Charles. Avenue House, Cotham Park, Bristol.

1857. *TownsEnp, Rev. Ricuarp, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.

1861. {Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.

1854. {Towson, Joun THomas, F.R.G.S. 47 Upper Parliament-street,
Liverpool ; and Local Marine Board, Liverpool.

1877. §Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.

1876. *Trail, J. W. H., M.A., M.B., F.L.S. King’s Colleze, Old Aberdeen.

1870. {TRaitt, Witt1AM A., M.R.I.A. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

1875.§§Trapnell, Caleb. 'Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.

1868. {TRagvarr, Ramsay H., M.D., Professor of Zoology. Museum of
Science and Art, Edinbur oh.

1835, Travers, Robert, MB. Williamstown, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

1865. {Travers, William, F.R.C.S. 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London,
Ww.

Tregelles, Nathaniel. Liskeard, Cornwall.

1868. tTrehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.

1869. {Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

1870. {Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool.
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
*TREVELYAN, ArruuR, J.P. Tyneholm, Pencaitland, N.B.

78 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

TREVELYAN, Sir WALTER CALVERLEY, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.; Wallington,
Northumberland ; and Nettlecombe, Somerset.

1871. {TRrpE, ALFRED, F.C.S. 14 Denbigh-road, Bayswater, London, W.
1871. {TRmen, Rowranp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s Office, Cape
Town, Cape of Good Hope.
1877.§§TRimEN, Henry, M.B., F.L.S. British Museum, London, W.C.
1860. §TRistRaM, Rev. Henry Baker, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Canon
of Durham. The College, Durham.
1869. {Troyte,C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.
1864. {Truell, Robert. Ballyhenry, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
1869. {Tucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter.
1847, *Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Baldwin-street, Bristol.
Tuke, James H. Bank, Hitchen.
1871. {Tuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
1867. {Tulloch, The Very Rey. Principal, D.D. St. Andrew’s, Fife-
shire.
1854, {TurnBULL, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1855, §Turnbull, John. 87 West George-street, Glasgow.
1856. {Turnbull, Rev. J.C. 8 Bays-hill-villas, Cheltenham.
1871.§§Turnbull, William, F.R.S.E. 14 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
1873. *Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
1875. {Turner, Thomas, F.S.8._ Ashley House, Kingsdown, Bristol.
1863, *Turner, WittraM, M.B., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Edinburgh. 16 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.
1842. Twamley, Charles, F.G.S._Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Coventry.
1847, {Twiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Paper-
buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
1865.§§Tytor, Epwarp Buryerr, F.R.S. Linden, Wellington, Somer-
t.

set.

1858. *Tynpat1, Jonn, D.O.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle-street, London, W,

1861. *Tysoe, John, 28 Seedley-road, Pendleton, near Manchester.

1876, *Unwin, W. C., A.IC.E., Professor of Hydraulic Engineering.
Cooper’s Hill, Middlesex.

1872. t{Upward, Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London,
S.W,

1876. {Ure, J ohn F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

1859. {Urquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
Treland.

1866. {Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

*Vance, Rev. Robert. 24 Blaekhall-street, Dublin.
1863. {Vandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de S. M.
Tunisienne, Geneva.
1854. {Varley, Cromwell F., F.R.S. Fleetwood House, Beckenham, Kent.
1868.§§ Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
1865. *Vartry, S. ALFRED. Hatfield, Herts,
1870. { Varley, Mrs. S. A. Hatfield, Herts,
1869. {Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.
1875.§§ Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
1849, es Frederick. Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Aus-
tralia,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 79

Year of
Election.

1873. *VERNEY, Captain Epmunp H., R.N., F.R.G.S. Rhianya, Bangor,
North Wales.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
1866. {Vernon, Rey. E. H. Harcourt. Cotgrave Rectory, near Nottingham.
Vernon, George John, Lord. 32 Curzon-street, London, W.; and
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.

1854. *VeRNon, GroreE V., F.R.A.S. 1 Osborne-place, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

1864, *Vicary, Witu1aM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.

1868. {Vincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.

1875. {Vines, David, F.R.A.S. Observatory House, Somerset-street, Kings-
down, Bristol.

1856. {Vivran, Epwarp, M.A. Woodfield, Torquay.

*Vivian, H. Hussry, M.P., F.G.S. Park Werne, Swansea; and 27
Belgrave-square, London, 8. W.

1856.§§ Vortcxer, J. Cu. Aveusrus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 39
Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.

1875. {Volckman, Mrs. E.G. 48 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.

1875. {Volckman, William. 43 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.

tVose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

1875. t Wace, Rev, A. St. Paul's, Maidstone, Kent.
1860.§§Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, .Winchcombe, Gloucester-
shire.
1859. { Waddington, John. New Dock Works, Leeds.
1870. §Waxe, Cuartes Stanttanp. 70 Wright-street, Hull.
1855. *Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville. 26 Portland-place, London, W.
1873. {Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1869. * Walford, Cornelius. 86 Belsize Park-gardens, London, N.W.
1849, §WaLker, Cuarizs V., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fernside, Reigate Hill,
Reigate.
Walker, Sir Edward S. Berry Hill, Mansfield.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
1866, { Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1855. tWalker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow.
1842. *Walker, John. Thorncliffe, Kemilworth-road, Leamington.
1866. *Watxer, J. F., M.A., F.C.P.S., F.0.8., F.G.S., F.L.8, 16 Gilly-
gate, York.
1867. * Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
1866. { Walker, S. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
1869. * Walker, Thomas F. W., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Circus, Bath,
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1869. {| Walkey, J. E. C. High-street, Exeter.
1863. [WaLLAce, ALFRED Russet, F.R.G.S., F.L.S, Waldron Edge,
Duppas Hill, Croydon.
1859. {Wattace, Witt1aM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 138 Bath-
street, Glasgow.
1857. { Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland.
1862, {Waticu, GrorcrE CuHartzs, M.D., F.R.G.S., F.LS. Terrace
House, St. George’s-terrace, Herne Bay.
1862. {Watpotz, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L., M.P.,
F.R.S. Ealing, London, W-
1857. { Walsh, Albert Jasper, F.R.C.S.I. 89 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). Dundrum Castle, Co, Dublin,
1863. {Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House Clifton, Bristol.

80

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1863.

1872,
1874.
1874.
1857.

1863.

1867.
1858.
1865.

1878.
1864,
1872.
1856.
1875.

1865.

1856.
1876.

1875.

1854.
1870.
1875.

1875.
1867.
1855,
1867.

1878.
1859.

1863.
1863.
1867.
1869.
1861.
1875.

1846.
1870.

1873.
1858.

1859.

tWanklyn, James Alfred. 117 Charlotte-street, Fitzroy-square,
London, W.
{ Warburton, Benjamin. Leicester.
§Ward, F.D. Fernleigh, Botanic-road, Belfast.
§ Ward, John, F.R.G.S. Lenox Vale, Belfast.
}Ward, John 8. Prospect-hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
Ward, Rev. Richard, M.A. 12 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
tWard, Robert. Dean-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Ward, William Sykes, F.C.S. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall,
Leeds.
{ Warden, Alexander J. Dundee.
t Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
tWaring, Edward John, M.D., F,L.S. 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida Vale,
London, W.
§ Warington, Robert. Harpenden, St. Alban’s, Herts.
*Warner, Edward. 49 Grosvenor-place, London, 8. W.
*Warner, Thomas. 47 Sussex-square, Brighton.
tWarner, Thomas H. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford.
{Warren, Algernon. Naseby House, Pembroke-road, Clifton, .
Bristol.
*Warren, Edward P. 18 Old-square, Birmingham.
Warwick, William Atkinson, Wyddrington House, Cheltenham.
t Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
tWaterhouse, A. Willenhall House, Barnet, Herts.
*WaTERHOUSE, JOHN, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Wellhead, Halifax,
Yorkshire.
*Waterhouse, Captain J. Surveyor-General’s Office, Calcutta. (Care
of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate-hill, London, E.C.
{ Waterhouse, Nicholas. 6 Rake-lane, Liverpool.
{ Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
§Waters, Arthur W., F.G.S8., F.L.8. Woodbrook, Alderléy Edge,
near Manchester.
{Watherston, Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bowdon, Cheshire.
t{ Watson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee.
{ Watson, Ebenezer. 16 Abercromby-place, Glasgow.
{ Watson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorne House, Cringleford, Norwich.
*Wartson, Henry Hoven, F.C.8. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors.
Watson, Hewerr Corrrett. Thames Ditton, Surrey.
*Watson, Sir James. Milton-Lockhart, Carluke, N.B.
tWartson, Joon Forpus, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. India Museum, Lon-
don, 8S. W.
{t Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne.
tWatson, R. 8. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{ Watson, Thomas Donald. 41 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C.
{ Watt, Robert B. E., C.E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
{ Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester.
*Warts, Jonny, B.A., D.Sc. 57 Baker-street, Portman-square,
London, W.
§ Watts, John King, F.R.G.S, Market-place, St. Ives, Hunts.
§ Watts, William. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Piethorn, near
Rochdale.
*Warts, W. Marswatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.
tWaud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds.
Waud, Rey. 8. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.O.P.S. Rettenden, near
Wickford, Essex.
}Waugh, Edwin. Sager-street, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 81

Year of
Election.

1859. *Wavenry, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S.° 7 Audley -square,
London, W.
*Way, J. THomas, F.C.S. 9 Russell-road, Kensington, London, S.W.
1869. { Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
1871. { Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
*Wess, Rev. THomas WittraM, M.A., F.R.A.S. Hardwick Vicar-
age, Hay, South Wales.
1866, *Wrsp, WILLIAM FReEpERIcK, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. . Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
1859. {Webster, John. 42 King-street, Aberdeen.
1834, {Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London,
E.C ;

1845. { Wedgewood, Hensleigh. 17 Cumberland -terrace, Regent's Park,
London, N.W.

1854, { Weightman, William Henry. Farn Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool.

1865. {Welch, Christopher, M.A. University Club, Pall Mall East,
London, S. W.

1867. §Wetpon, WatreER, F.R.S.E. Rede Hall, Burstow, Surrey.

1878. § Weldon, Mrs. Walter. Rede Hall, Burstow, Surrey.

1876. § Weldon, W. F. R. Abbey Lodge, Merton, Surrey.

1850. { Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near

Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1864. *Were, Anthony Berwick. Whitehaven, Cumberland.

1853. {West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.

1870. {West, Captain E. W. Bombay.

1853. {West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

1853. {West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.

1851. *Wesrern, Sir T. B., Bart. Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.

1870. «ie cadet William. 10 Bolton-gardens, South Kensington, Lon-
don, W.

1842. Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester.

Westhead, John. Manchester.
1842. *Westhead, Joshua Proctor Brown. Lea Castle, near Kidder-
minster.

1857. *Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, S.W.

1863. {Westmacott, Perey. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.

1860. {Weston, James Woods. Belmont House, Pendleton, Manchester.

1875. *Weston, Joseph D. Dorset House, Clifton Down, Bristol.

1864. {Wexsrropr, W. H.8., M.R.I.A. Lisdoonvarna, Co. Clare.

1860. {Wesrwoop, John O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the

University of Oxford. Oxford.
1853. {Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
1866, ec Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,

1847, A ete Edmund, F.R.A.S. 48 Tollington-road, Holloway, Lon-
on, N.

1878. *Wheeler, W. H., C.E. Churchyard, Boston, Lincolnshire.

1873. { Whipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S, Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.

1874. § Whitaker, Henry,M.D. 11 Clarence-place, Belfast.

1859. *WuITAKER, WILLIAM, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

1876. tWhite, Angus. Easdale, Argyleshire.

1864, {White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath.

1837, | Wauuire, James, F.G.S. 58 Gresham House, Old Broad-street,
London, E.O.

@

82

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876.
1878.

1859.
1865.
1869.
1859.
1877.
1861.
1858.
1861.
1861.
1856.

1871.
1866.
1874.
1852.

1870,
1857.

1874.
1863.

1870.
1878.
1865.
1855.
1857.
1859.
1872.
1869.

1859.
1872.
1870.
1861.
1864,
1861.
1875.
1857.
1870.
1875.
1869.

1877.
1865.

*White, James. Overtoun, Dumbarton.
§ White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
White, John. 80 Wilson-street, Glasgow.
{Wuute, Joun Forses. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen.
t{White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
ft White, Laban. Blanford, Dorset.
{White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland. :
*White, William. 365 Euston-road, London, N.W.
{ Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester.
{ Whitehead, J. H. Southsyde, Saddleworth.
*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. Belmont, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
* Whitehouse, Wildeman, W. O. 12 Thurlow-road, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N.W.
Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen’s-street, Rhyl.
{Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.
{Whitfield, Samuel. Golden Hillock, Small Heath, Birmingham.
{ Whitford, William. 5 Claremont-street, Belfast.
t{Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
Whitley, Rey. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington,
Morpeth.
§ Whittem, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry.
*Wuirty, Rev. Joun Irwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 94 Baggot-
street, Dublin.
*Whitwell, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.
*Whitwell, Thomas. Thornaby Iron Works, Stockton-on-Tees.
*Wuirworth, Sir Josrpx, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Firs,
Manchester; and Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire.
{Wurrworts, Rey. W. Atten, M.A. 185 Islington, Liverpool.
§Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.
{Wiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harbourne, Birmingham,
{Wilkie, John. Westburn, Helensburgh, N.B.
{Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.
§ Wilkinson, Robert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire.
§ Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
§ Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay.
*Willert, Alderman Paul Ferdinand. Town Hall, Manchester.
{Willet, John, C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{Wrxerr, Heyry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.
{ William, G. F. Copely Mount, Springfield, Liverpool.
‘WILLIAMs, CHartes James, B., M.D., F.R.S. 47 Upper Brook-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 47 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, London, W.
*Wittiams, Sir Freprrick, M., Bart., M.P., F.G.S. Goonvrea,
Perranarworthal, Cornwall.
Babette Samuel, M.A. 28 John-street, Bedford-row, Lon-
on, W.C. :
*Williams, Herbert A., B.A. 91 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
{ Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.
§ WILLIAMS, JoHN, F.C.S. 14 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.
*Williams, M. B. North Hill, Swansea.
Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset.
eo Rey. SrepHen. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Black-
urn.
*Williams, W. Carleton, F.C.S. Owens College, Manchester.
{ Williams, W.M. Belmont-road, Twickenham, near London.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 83

Year of
Election.

1850. *WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., For. Sec. R.S., F.C.S.,
Corresponding Member of the French Academy, Professor of
Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, University College,
ea (GENERAL TREASURER.) University College, London,
W.

1857. { Williamson, Benjamin, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.
1876. { Williamson, Rey. F. J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
1863. { Williamson, John. South Shields.
1876.§§ Williamson, Stephen. 19 James-street, Liverpool.
Wutiamson, WiirraM O., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
Owens College, Manchester, 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
1865. *Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham.
1857. { Willock, Rev. W..N., D.D. Cleenish, Enniskillen, Ireland.
1859. *Wills, Alfred,Q.C. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Inner Temple, E.C.
1865. { Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1874. § Wits, THomas, F.C.S. Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
Wits, W. R. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1878. § Wilson, Alexander, S., M.A., B.Sc. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
1859. § Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.E. North Kinmundy, Summerhill,
by Aberdeen.
1876. { Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh. -
1674. §Witson, Major CO. W., C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Director of the
‘ Topographical and Statistical Department of the War Office.
Ordnance Survey Office, Dublin.
1850. {Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada.
1876.§§ Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
1863. {Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
1847, *Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
Wilson, George. 40 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
1861. {Wilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
1875. § Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.
1874. *Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co, Dublin.
1863, {Wilson, George W. Heron-hill, Hawick, N.B.
1855. { Wilson, Hugh. 75 Glasford-street, Glasgow.
1857. {Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool.
1865. {Wrtson, Jamzs M., M.A. Hillmorton-road, Rugby.
1858, *Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.
Wuson, Joun, F.G.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture in the
University of Edinburgh. The University, Edinburgh.
1876. { Wilson, J. G.,M.D., F.R.S.E. 9 Woodside-vrescent, Glasgow.
1876. § Wilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, 8. W.
1847. *Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
1863, *Wilson, Thomas. Shotley Hall, Shotley Bridge, Northumber-
land.
1861. {Wilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
1867. { Wilson, Rev. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee.
1871. * Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.
1870. {Wilson, William Henry. 31 Grove-park, Liverpool.
186]. *WiitsHrre, Rev. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S. 25 Gran-
ville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E.
1877.§§Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
1866. *Windley, W. Mapperley Plains, Nottingham,
*Winsor, F. A. 60 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
1868. {Winter, CO. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich.
1863. *Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A.,F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
G2

84

Year of
Election.

1863.
1861.

1870.
1875.
1856.

1878.
1864.
1861.
1871.
1850.
1865.
1861.
1872.
1863.

1870.
1850.

1865.
1871.

1872.
1869.

1866.
1870.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Bridge of Earn, N.B.

*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.

*Wood, George B., M.D. 1117 Arch-street, Philadelphia, United
States.

*Wood, George 8. 20 Lord-street, Liverpool.

*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.

*Woop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne,
Dorset.

§Wood, H. Trueman, B.A. Society of Arts, John-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.

tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.

§ Wood, Samuel, F.S.A. St. Mary’s Court, Shrewsbury.

tWood, Provost, T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh.

tWood, Rev. Walter. Elie, Fife.

Wood, William. Edge-lane, Liverpool.

*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.

tWood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester.

§Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.

*Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.

*WoopaLL, Major Jonn Woopatt, M.A.,F.G.S. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough.

t{Woodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.

*Woodd, Charles H. L.,F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London,

N.W.

tWoodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Charlotte-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tWoodiwis, James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester.

tWoodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.

tWoodman, William Robert, M.D. Ford House, Exeter.

*Woops, Epwarp, 0.E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster,
London, S. W.

Woops, Samust. 5 Austin Friars, Old Broad-street, London, E.C.

*Woopwarp, C. J., BSc. 76 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

}Woopwarp, Henry, F.R.S., F.G.S. British Museum, London,
W.O

t Woodward, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.

1877.§§ Woollecombe, Robert W. 14 St. Jean d’Acre-terrace, Plymouth.
1856. {Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.

1872.
1874.
1878.

1863.
1856.

1856.
1871.
1861.

{ Woolmer, Shirley. 6 Park-crescent, Brighton.

Worcester, The Right Rev. Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of
Worcester.

t+ Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.

§Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. 165 Loughborough-road, London,
S.W

*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Old Meeting Parsonage,
Mansfield.
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire.
t{ Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent, Hamp-
stead-road, London, N. W.
§Wricut, C. R. A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in St.
Mary's Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.
*Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Year of
Election.

1857.

1866.
1876.
1874.
1865.

1855.

1876.
1871.
1867.

1863.
1867.
1871.
1862.

}Wrieut, E. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.LS., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin. ;

}Wright, G. H. Heanor Hall, near Derby.

tWright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

tWright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast.

tWright, J. S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.

*Wright, Robert Francis. Hinton Blewett, Temple-Cloud, near
Bristol.

{Wrieut, Toomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., St. Margaret’s-tetrace,
Cheltenham.

Wright, T. G., M.D, Milnes House, Wakefield.

tWright, William. 101 Glassford-street, Glasgow.

tWrightson, Thomas. Norton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees.

{Witwnscu, Epwarp AtFrep. 146 West George-street, Glasgow.

Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C.

*Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham.

tWylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire.

§Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.

¢Wynnz, Arraur Busryor, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of
India. Bombay.

1875.§§Yabbicom, Thomas Henry, C.E. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton,

1865.

1867.
1855.

1877.
1870.
1876.
1876.
1868.

1876.
1871.

Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp's Mount, Doncaster.
{Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Yates, James. Carr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
{Yeaman, James. Dundee.
tYeats, John, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Clayton-place, Peckham, London,
S.E

§Yonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
tYoune, Jamus, F.R.S. L.& E., F.C.8. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by
Greenock.
Young, John. Taunton, Somersetshire, ;
tYoune Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
*Young, John, F.0.8. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by Greenock.
Younge, Robert, F.L.S. Greystones, near Sheffield.
tYoungs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
tYuille, Andrew. 7 Sardinia-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tYuzx, Colonel Hunry, 0.B. East India United Service Club, St.
James’s-square, London, 8. W.

Year

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1871. HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY tos EMPEROR or rut BRAZILS.

1868

. M. D’Avesac, Mem. de l'Institut de France. 42 Rue du Bac, Paris.

1866. Captain I. Belavenetz, R.LN., F.R.LG.S., M.S.C.M.A., Superin-

1870.
1872.
1861.

1874.
1868.
1864.

1861.
1864,
1871.
1873.
1870.
1855.
1876.
1872.
1874.
1866.
1862.

1872.
1870.
1845.

1876.
1848.
1861.
1874.
1872.
1856.
1842.
1866.
1861.
1872.
1870.

1876
1852

1866.
1871.

1876

tendent of the Compass Observatory, Cronstadt, Russia.

Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium.

Ch. Bergeron, C.E, 26 Rue des Penthievre, Paris.

Dr: Bergsma, Director of the Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi-
pelago. Utrecht, Holland.

M. A. Niaudet Breguet. 39 Quai de l’'Horloge, Paris.

Professor Broca. Paris.

Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland.

Dr. Carus. Leipzig.

M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris.

Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen.

Signor Guido Cora. 17 Via Providenza, Turin.

J. M. Crafts, M.D.

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.

Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome.

Professor M. Croullebois. 18 Rue Sorbonne, Paris.

M. Ch. D’Almeida. 31 Rue Bonaparte, Paris.

Dr. Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn.

Wie Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heildel-

erg.

Professor G. Devalque. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.

Heinrich Dove, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Berlin.

Professor Dumas. Paris.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Esmark. Christiania.

Professor A. Favre. Geneva.

Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.

W. de Fonvielle. Rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor EK. Frémy. Paris.

M. Frisiani.

Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Soc. of France. Paris.

Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.

Professor Paul Gervais. Museum de Paris.

Governor Gilpin. Colorado, United States.

. Dr. Benjamin A. Gould, Director of the Argentine National Observa-

tory.

. Professor Asa Gray. Cambridge, United States,

Professor Edward Grube, Ph.D. Breslau.

Dr. Paul Gussfeldt, of the University of Bonn. 83 Meckenheimer-
strasse, Bonn, Prussia.

. Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

Year of
Election,

1862.

1872.
1864.
1877.
1868.
1872.
1861.
1876.
1867.
1876.
1862,

1876.
1877.
1862.
1861.
1866,
1878.
1874.
1868,
1856.

1877.

1876.
1872.
1877.

1846.
1857.
1871.
1871.
. Professor C. 8. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

. Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.

. Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jar din des Plants. Montpellier,

Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Lieden, Holland.

Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.

M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Paris.

Professor H. L. F, Helmholtz. Berlin,

A. Heynsius. Leyden.

J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington.

Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna.

Professor von Quintus Icilius. Hanover.

Dr. Janssen. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. The University, Leyden.

Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer of Natural History and Librarian
at the Royal Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Milan.

M. Akin Karoly. 5 Babenbergerstrasse, Vienna,

Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry.’ Ghent, Belgium:

M. Khanikof. 11 Rue de Condé, Paris.

Dr. Henry Kiepert, Professor of Geography. Berlin.

Dr. Felix Klein. Munich, Bavaria.

Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany.

Professor Karl Koch. Berlin.

Professor A. Kélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.

Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Palzeontology in the University of Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. 57 Sidonien-strasse,
Leipzi

Dr. Eee Munich.

Professor von Lasaulx. Breslau.

Georges Lemoine. 19 Ruedu Sommerard, Paris.

Dr. M. Lindeman, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society,
Bremen.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.

Professor Elias Loomis. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

Professor Jacob Liiroth. Carlsruhe, Baden.

Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.

France.

. Professor P. Merian. Bale, Switzerland.

. Professor von Middendorff. St. Petersburg,

. Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris.

. M. PAbbé Moigno. Paris. :

. Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.

. Dr. Arnold Moritz. Tiflis, Russia.

. Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique 4 l'Université de Liége,

um,

. Dr. T. Nachtigal. Berlin. 2
. Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society,

Turin, Ital

. Herr Newaeayar: \ The Admiralty, Leipziger Platz 12, Berlin.

. Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
. Professor Nilsson. Lund, Sweden.

. M. E. Peligot, Memb. de YInstitut, Paris.

. Professor Benjamin Pierce. Washington, United States.

. Gustav Plarr. 22 Hadlow-road, Tunbridge, Kent.

88

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870.
1868.

1866.

1872.
1873.

1850.
1857.

1857.
1874.
1872.
1873.
1861.
1849,
1876.
1878.
1862,

1864.
1866.
1845.
1871.
1870.
1852.

1864.

1868.

1842.
1874.
1876,
1872.
1875.

Professor Felix Plateau. Place du Casino, 15, Gand, Belgium.
Professor L. Radkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of
Munich.

M. de la Rive. Geneva.

F. Roemer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia.

Professor Victor yon Richter. St. Petersburg.

Baron von Richthofen, President of the Berlin Geographical Society.
71 Steglitzer-strasse, Berlin.

Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, United States.

Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersberg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.

Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth, Cairo.

Professor Carl Semper. Wurzburg, Bavaria.

Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague.

M. Werner Siemens. Berlin.

Dr. Siljestrom. Stockholm.

Professor R. D. Silva. Ecole Centrale, Paris.

Professor J. Lawrence Smith. Louisville, United States.

J. A. de Souza, Professor of Physics in the University of Coimbra,
Portugal.

Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics. Copenhagen.

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.

Dr. Svanberg. Stockholm.

Dr. Joseph Szabo. Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Tchebichef. Membre de l’Académie de St. Petersburg.

M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence.

Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Vogt. Geneva.

Baron Satorius von Waltershausen. Gottingen, Hanover.

Professor Wartmann. Geneva.

Professor Wiedemann. Leipzig.

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aix-la-Chapelle.

Professor A. Wurtz. Paris.

Dr, E. L.Youmans. New York.

89

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN

Admiralty, Library of the.

Anthropological Institute.

Arts, Society of.

Asiatic Society (Royal).

Astronomical Society (Royal).

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Institute of Mechanical
Engineers. °

—— Midland Institute.

Bristol Philosophical Institution.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Chemical Society.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.

Dublin Geological Society.

, Royal Irish Academy.

——., Royal Society of.

East India Library.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

Royal Medical Society of.

— , Scottish Society of Arts.

Enniskillen, Public Library.

Engineers, Institute of Civil.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Geographical Society (Royal).

Geological Society.

Geology, Museum of Practical.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineersand Ship-
builders in Scotland.

Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

Kew Observatory.

AND IRELAND.

Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.

——, Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety of.

Linnean Society.

Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.

, Royal Institution,

London Institution.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

, Mechanics’ Institute.

Neweastle-upon-Tyne Literary and
Philosophical Society.

‘| Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

—., Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

Physicians, Royal College of.

Royal Institution.

—— Society.

Salford Royal Museum and Library.

Statistical Society.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Surgeons, Royal College of.

Trade, Board of (Meteorological De-
partment).

United Service Instiution.

War Office, Library of the.

Wales (South), Royal Institution of.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

Zoological Society.

EUROPE.

Alten, Lapland. Literary and Philoso-
phical Society.

(Berlin... :.......- Der Kaiserlichen Aka-
demie der Wissen-
schaften.

———sevecereeees Royal Academy of

ciences.

Breslau ......... Silesian Patriotic So-
ciety.

PBODN j...00.06+.00 University Library.

Brussels ......... Royal Academy of
Sciences.

Charkow ......... University Library.

Copenhagen ...Royal Society of
Sciences.

Dorpat, Russia . University Library.

Frankfort ...... Natural History So-
ciety.

Geneva ......00 Natural History So-
ciety.

Gottingen ...... University. Library.

Heidelberg ...... University Library.

Helsingfors ...... University Library. °

Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise

des Sciences.
Kasan, Russia... University Library.

90

Kael’? <.scssecseonee Royal Observatory. aris’ occsessctere chool of Mines.
Ke yaratee ieee University Library. Pultova ......... Imperial Observatory.
Lausanne......... The Academy. INOMEN Se as.ee--t Accademia dei Lyncei.
Leyden ......... University Library. as iy oSsinacaniees Collegio Romano.
VAG2e) “snssese sess: University Library. See as ves eeeeeee The Italian Society of
Lisbon ............ Academia Real des Sciences.

Sciences. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Milan eus. tea seeess The Institute. | ——_ssaeeeeceeee Imperial Observatory.
Modena ......... Royal Academy. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Moscow .......+. Society of Naturalists. | Turin ............ Royal Academy of

eee cesoetodses University Library. Sciences.

Mamighiieees--ars University Library. Utrecht ......... University Library.
Naples ..........+- Royal Academy of | Vienna............ The Imperial Library.

Sciences, «= | ———_ eaeveeveeeee Central Anstalt fir
Nicolaieff......... University Library. Meteorologie und
Paris ssvccieetes Geographical Society. Erdmagnetismus.

Poo cn: Geological Society. Zurich............General Swiss Society.

———neeseeevecseee Royal Academy of

Sciences.

ASIA.

APTA niss.ceeese The College. Calcutta ......... Hindoo College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ............ Hoogly College.

ELON GES, teh |b ——“ evesseccesd Medical College.
a seep oriens eas Grant Medical Col- | Madras............ The Observatory.

Lepey OM bade lave to ee oes University Library.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society.

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope .

. The Observatory.

AMERICA. |

Ui oaninp. Papscbees The Institute. Philadelphia ...American Philosophi-
Boston .......+++++ American Academy of cal Society.

Arts and Sciences. | Toronto ......... The Observatory.
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | Washington ...Smithsonian Institu-

Library. tion.
New York ...... Lyceum of Natural | —— ............ United States Geolo-

History. gical Survey of the
Philadelphia ...American Medical As- _Territories.

sociation.

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Victoria .

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Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London,

50, ALBEMARLE STREET,
february, 1879.

Mr. Murray's List of
Hot Corks.

A POPULAR COMMENTARY.

The Student's Edition of the Speaker's
Commentary on the Holy Bible.

Abridged and Edited by JOHN M. FULLER, M.A.
Vicar of Bexley, formerly Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

To be completed in 6 Volumes. Vol. I. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.

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ee

The Bedouins of the Euphrates Valley.

By Lady ANNE BLUNT.
Edited, with a Preface and some Account of the Arabs and their Horses,
by W. S. B.
With Map and Tilustrations. 2 Vols, Crown 8vo.

“Lady Anne Blunt is entitled by descent to be an authoress, since she is the grand-daughter
of Lord Byron. Having previously explored the Sahara south of the Atlas range, she spent
last winter with her husband among the wandering Arabs of the Syrian desert. Admitted by
their hosts to the privileges, not only of hospitality but of sworn brotherhood, the travellers
lived with them in their tents, moved with their encampments, and were even spectators of
some of their feuds and strifes. Although the chief tribes were in arms, and war was raging
in the desert at the time, the English visitors were honoured as friends and admitted to all the
privacies of tent life."—A¢heneum.

>

Gleanings of Past Years, 1843-78.
By the Right Hon. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P.

6 Vols. Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. each.

Vou. I.—THE THRONE AND THE PRINCE CONSORT, THE CABINET,
AND CONSTITUTION . : - : 3 3 . >» Ready,
VoL. IT.—PERSONAL AND LITERARY

VoL. JII.—HiIsTORICAL AND SPECULATIVE C : “ -
VoL. 1V.—FoREIGN . 2 b ; P 6 - 5 - « » Lit the Press.
Vos, V. AND VI.—ECCLESIASTICAL . ; 4 : = 5 -

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

iS)

DR. SMILES’ NEW WORKS.

Life of Thomas Edward, Shoemaker of

Banff, Scotch Naturalist. With Portrait and 30
Lllustrations. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.

Life of Robert Dick, Baker of Thurso,
Geologist and Botanist. With Portrait and 50

Lllustrations. Crown 8vo. 12s.

“Tt was my gratification, a second time, to meet with a remarkable man in the town of
Thurso, named Robert Dick, a baker by trade. I am proud to call him my distinguished
friend. Here is a man who is earning his daily bread by hard work, who is obliged to read
and study by night ; and yet who is able to instruct the Director-General of the Geographical
Society.”—SIR RODERICK MURCHISON.

———

Flistory of Eeypt under the Pharaohs.
Derived entirely from Monuments.

WITH A MEMOIR ON THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES.

By HENRY BRUGSCH BEY.
Translated by H. DANBY SEYMOUR and PHILIP SMITH, B.A.
With Maps and Illustrations. 2 Vols. 8vo. 30s.

The History of Egypt now offered to the English reader is distinct from the long train of
able and interesting works which, in opening to the last and the present generations the life
and story of the Old Egyptians, as by a new revelation, have at the same time thrown a clear
and vivid light on many portions of Holy Scripture.

It embodies the Herculean task of weaving the testimony of the Egyptian records, whether
inscribed on the raonuments or written on the countless rolls of papyrus, into a consecutive
history, derived solely from these ancient and authentic sources, and free from all the
colouring of external traditions.

Six Months in Ascension. An Unscientific
Account of a Scientific Expedition.

By Mrs. GILL.

PREFACED BY A BRIEF AND POPULAR HISTORY OF THE METHODS EMPLOYED
TO DISCOVER THE SUN’s DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH.

By DAVID GILL.
With Map. Crown 8vo. 9s.

A Scientific Expedition may be said to have two histories. The one treats of the special
objects of the Expedition, the other of the personal adventures of those concerned in it. It is
only the former which finds permanent record in the transactions of Scientific Societies ; the
latter too often remains unwritten.

This little work must be regarded as ove side of the history of ove step, and derives its
interest from its truthfulness as a record of an attempt to solve a great problem, viz., é#e
Distance of the Earth from the Sun.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 3)

The Manners and Customs of the Anctent

Egyptians. Their Private Life, Government, Laws,
Arts, Manufactures, Religion, Agriculture, Early Fis-
tory, &c., derived from a Comparison of the Paintings,
Sculptures, and Monuments still existing, with the
Accounts of Ancient Authors.

By SIR J. GARDNER WILKINSON, F.R.S.
A New Edition, with Additions by the late Author. Revised and Edited

By SAMUEL BIRCH, LL.D.
With Coloured Plates and 500 Illustrations. 3 Vols. Medium 8vo. 84s.

“The present edition has been prepared from the notes and manuscript which the late Sir
Gardner Wilkinson left behind, with the addition of fresh matter contributed by the Editor.
Very little of the original text has been omitted, and only those statements and opinions which
the progress of science no longer regards as useful or correct ; while new views and facts
acquired by the progress of Egyptian research have been embodied in notes or inserted in
the text.

“The great merit of the acute observation of the Author, and the exhaustive illustrations of
Egyptian manners and customs as depicted by the monuments, have made the present work a
text-book on the subject, both for the general public and individual students ; its chief
excellence consists in the great trouble which the author took in explaining and comparing
Egyptian and Greek notions."—£ditor's Preface.

ILLUSTRATED EDITION OF

Lhe Wild Sports and Natural Flrstory
of the Flighlands of Scotland.

By CHARLES ST. JOHN.

The [lustrations by \VHYMPER, CORBOULD, COLLINS, ELWES, ava HARRISON WEIR.
With 70 Woodcuts of Birds, Beasts, Views, &c. Crown 8vo. 155.

Though this work is admitted to take rank with White’s ‘‘Selborne’’ and Walton's
“‘Angler,”’ no attempt has hitherto been made to illustrate the scenes, anecdotes, and /ere
natur@é so graphically described by Mr. St. John. ‘This want—to which attention has often
been called—it is the object of the present edition to supply. Great pains have been taken in
illustrating this edition, accurately to enter into the spirit, and, where possible, to depict the
actual scene of the events described in the text.

“To the naturalist who loves to know the habits of an animal in its native haunts, this
book must be a treasure. Every picture in the book is a masterpiece in its way." —JVature.

fresearches into the Early H<story of
Mankind, and the Developnrent of Crvilization.

By E. B; TYLOR, F.R:S:
Third Edition, Revised. 8va 12s.

“It would be impossible to give any idea of the interesting series of facts brought together
n an eminently suggestive manner in this valuable book.’"— Westminster Review,

4 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

Life of Fohn Wilson, D.D. (of Bombay):
fifty Years a Philanthropist and Scholar in
the East.

By GEORGE SMITH, LL.D.
With Portrait and Illustrations, 8vo. 18s.

“For 47 years, as a public man and a missionary, he worked, he wrote, he spoke, and in
countless ways he joyfully toiled for the people of India. While viceroys and governors,
scholars and travellers, officials and merchants, succeeded each other, and passed away all too
rapidly, he remained a permanent living force, a mediator between the natives and the
geverning class, an interpreter of the various Asiatic races, creeds, and longings, to their
alien but benevolent rulers. From Central India to Central Africa, and from Cabul to
Comorin, there are thousands who call John Wilson blessed.” —Awthor's Preface.

“This volume displays a masterly knowledge of Indian affairs." —Pad/ Mall Gazette.

>

Lhe Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria.

By GEORGE DENNIS.

A New Epition. REVISED AND ENLARGED SO AS TO INCORPORATE ALL THE
MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES.

With Maps and 200 Tilustrations. 2 Vols. Medium 8vo. 42s.

“Since the publication of the former edition of this work in 1848, many important
discoveries have been made in Etruria; and the interest in such discoveries has so greatly
increased that museums have been established in not a few provincial towns, and private
collections have become numerous. I have had the gratification of learning that the former
edition of this work, apart from literary and antiquarian considerations, has received the
approval of not a few who have used it as a guide, on account of the conscientious accuracy
of its descriptions. I trust that the present issue will maintain its reputation in this respect,
for to ensure correctness has been my primary endeavour."—Author's Preface.

“A very full and valuable book, which everyone interested in art and archeology should
read.” —Builder.

—_ > —_—_

Lritish Burma and its People ; Sketches of
the Native Manners, Customs, and Religion.

By Capt. C. J. F. S. FORBES, F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S., &c.,

Officiating Deputy-Commissioner, British Burma.

Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.

CONTENTS:
SUPERSTITIONS, FOLK-LORE, &c.

WILD TRIBES OF BRITISH BURMA,
BURMAN BUDDHISM.

THE BURMAN PHOONGYEES OR MONKS.
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE,

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE RACES OF BRITISH BURMA,
SoctAL LIFE AND MANNERS,
AGRICULTURE, TRADES, &c.
AMUSEMENTS.

FESTIVALS AND FEASTs.

‘‘ A province which has within the Jast twenty years more than doubled its revenue and its
population, and more than trebled its commerce, we think deserves to be a little better known
to all classes." —A uthor's Preface.

“We can confidently recommend a perusal of Captain Forbes’ book.” —Fie/d.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 5

A Descriptive Catalogue of the Etched
Work of Rembrandt Von Rhyn ; preceded by
a Life and Genealogy.
By CHAS. H. MIDDLETON, B.A.

With 12 Plates. Medium 8vo. 315. 6d.

‘Having for five and twenty years been an earnest admirer of the works of the great
Dutch Master, and having acquainted myself with the well-known Catalogues, I have long
been of opinion that there is room for another which, while it presents an accurate account of
the various States in which these etched works exist, shall form an index to the large public
collections, and by a careful re-arrangement shall give a clearer view of Rembrandt's work as
- whole and convey an idea of the order in which the several works were executed.""—A uthor's

reface.

i

Lectures on the Rise and Development of
Medieval Architecture. Delivered at the
Royal Academy.

By Sir G GILBERT SCOTT, R.A.

CONTENTS:
Tue CLAIMs OF MEDLZVAL ARCHITEC- | THE XIIITH CENTURY.
TURE UPON OUR STUDY. RATIONALE OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

SKETCH OF THE RISE OF MEDI#VAL | A DIGRESSION CONCERNING WINDOWS.

ARCHITECTURE. THE PRACTICAL STUDY OF GOTHIC
THE TRANSITION. ARCHITECTURE. DoMEs, &c,

With 450 Illustrations. 2 Vols, Medium 8vo. 42s.

+

The Witness of the Psalms to Chrest
and Christianity.
THE BAMPTON LECTURES, 1876.

By WILLIAM ALEXANDER, D.D., D.C.L.,
Lorp BisHor OF DERRY AND RAPHOE,

Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. 8vo. 145.

“The Bishop has chosen a grand and noble subject; one which he is pre-eminently
qualified to deal with, and on which we have no hesitation in saying he has given us, not an
exhaustive—for when will the fountain of inspired song cease to flow ?—but a solid, instructive,
and a most charming book.’ —Yohn Bull.

Qs
The Temples of the Fews, and the other
Buildings in the Haram Area at Ferusalem.
By JAMES FERGUSSON, F.R.S.
With Plates and Woodcuts. 40. 42s.
‘Mr, Fergusson’s splendid volume, is unquestionably a work that has severely taxed his

thought and his time, and reflects great credit on the industry, enthusiasm and ability to
which it so amply testifies.” —Morning Post.

6 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

Cyprus; tts Frstory, Art, and A ntiguattes.
A Narrative of Researches and Excavations
during Ten Years Residence in that Island.

By General LOUIS P. DI CESNOLA.

With Map and 400 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 50s.

“‘Incomparably the best English book on the subject.” —Saturday Review.
‘«The work is well written, and as diverting as it is instructive.” — Z?mes.

—_—__@—__—__

A SECOND SERIES OF

Classic Preachers of the Eenghsh Church.

LECTURES DELIVERED AT ST. JAMES’S, 1878.

CONTENTS:
BULL (The Primitive Preacher) ....60ccceceees Rev. W. WARBURTON, M.A.
HORSLEY (The Scholarly Preacher) ...... Lorp BisHop or ELy.

TAYLOR (The English Chrysostom)......... CANON BARRY,

SANDERSON (The Fudicious Preacher)... LORD BISHOP OF DERRY AND RAPHOE.
TILLOTSON (he Practical Preacher)...... Rrv. W. G. Humpnry, B.D.
ANDREWES (The Catholic Preacher)...... Rev. H. J. Nortu, M.A.

Post 8vo. 75. 6d.

‘This second series will not be less acceptable than the former, which, so deservedly, met
with large approval." — Scottish Guardian.

a

The Student's Elements of Geology.

By SIR CHARLES LYELL, Bart.
Third Edition, thoroughly Revised. With 600 Tllustrations. Post 8vo. 9s.

‘«The present edition has been revised and corrected throughout, receiving such additions
and corrections as the results of more recent investigations seemed to require. At the same
time care has been taken not to alter the original character of the book."—Zditor’s Preface.

‘Sir Charles Lyell has here done for the geological student what Sir John Herschel did for
the student of astronomy in his incomparable ‘Outlines.’ Young beginners in natural science
had long wanted a short manual of geology at a reasonable price, which should yet contain a
full explanation of the leading facts and principles of the science. Now they have it.” —Axaminer.

A Manual of Naval Architecture. For
the Use of Officers of the Royal Navy and Mercantile
Marine, Shipowners, Shipbuilders, and Vachtsmen.

By W. H. WHITE, Assistant-Constructor, Royal Navy.
With 130 Illustrations. 8vo. 245.

““Mr. White’s manner is excellent, and as his work embraces in a concise and elear form
all that is at present known of naval science, it can conscientiously be recommended as a
trustworthy preceptor. All who take an interest in ships, whether they be war, merchant, or
es ships, such as yachts, will find in the ‘Manual’ all that science can teach them.”—
ield.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 7

DR. SCHLIEMANN’S WORKS.

Troy and its Remains. A Narrative of
Discoveries and Researches made on the Site
of Llium, and in the Trojan Plain.

With 500 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 425.

Mycene and Tiryns. A Narrative of
Researches and Discoveries on the Sites of
those Cities. The Preface by the Right Hon. W. E.
GLapsTONE, M.P.

With Maps and 500 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 50s.

“Dr. Schliemann may fairly be called the creator of Homeric archzeology."— 77mes.

——_ ¢+-———

Old Enghsh Plate: Ecclesiastical, Deco-
vative and Domestic. Its Makers and Marks.
With Improved Tables of the Date Letters used in
England, Scotland, and Lreland.

By WILFRED JOSEPH CRIPPS, M.A., Barrister-at-Law.
With 80 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 215.

‘« We may confidently say that ‘Cripps on Old English Plate’ will henceforth be found on
the shelves of every library worthy of the name, and be recognized for what it is—the best
work on its own subject," —Pad/ Mall Gazette.

¢

Pioneering tn South Brazil. Three Years
of Forest and Prairie Life in the Province of
Parana.

By THOS. P. BIGG WITHER.
With Map and Illustrations. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 245.

‘‘Volumes of genuine and varied interest and much instruction. Mr. Wither is an
excellent observer, and his book abounds with information on the natives, the natural history
and physical geography of the region. He met with many adventures and suffered much
from heat and insects, but altogether he seems to have had a thoroughly enjoyable time of it.

He writes throughout in an attractive and simple style, and his work must be regarded as an
important contribution to a knowledge of the luxuriant region with which it deals." —/Vature,

8 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

HANDBOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS.
fing. land and Wales » Alphabetically arranged,

and forming a Companion Volume to Bradshaw's
hawlway Tables. With Map. Post vo. tos.

L urkey wm Asia; Constantinople, The Bosphorus,
Dardanelles, Plain of T roy, Brousa, Cyprus, Rhodes,
Smyrna, Ephesus, Coasts of the Black Sea, Armenia,
Luphrates Valley route to India, Gc. New Edition.
Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. tos.

A loer za and Tunts , Carthage, Algiers, Constan-
tine, Oran, the Atlas Range, 6c. New Edition.
Maps. Post 8vo. tos.

Northampton and Rutland ; Peterborough, Tow-
cester, Daventry, Market Harborough, Kettering,
Wellingborough, Thrapston, Stamford, Uppingham,
Oakham, &c. Map. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

lreland » Dublin, Belfast, Giant's Causeway, Donegal,
Galway, Wexford, Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Wick-
low, Killarney, Bantry, Glengarif, Gc. Revised
Edition. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 10s.

——_ — &——_—_

Purity in Musical Art.

By A. F. JUSTUS THIBAUT.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, WITH A PREFATORY MEMOIR,
By W. H. GLADSTONE, M.P.

Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

‘The general aim of the volume is so high, and its whole tone so excellent, that it is well
worth reading. The translation, which is dedicated to the Bach Choir, is exceedingly good.”
—Academy,

ee

Litian. Llis Life and Times, with some

Account of his Family, chiefly from Unpub-
lished Records.

By J. A. CROWE, and G. B. CAVALCASELLE.
Portrait and Illustrations. 2 Vols. S8vo. 42s.
‘No such gap has existed in the history of art as that which is filled by the present
volumes. Everything on the subject is now superseded. We cannot make an abstract of nine

hundred pages ; suffice it to repeat that the book is by far the most important contribution
made in our time to the history of art.” —A theneum.

a oa

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 9

The People of Turkey; a Twenty Ye cars

Residence among the Bulgarians, Greeks,
Albanians, Turks, and Armenians.
By AN ENGLISH CONSUL’S WIFE.
Edited by STANLEY LANE POOLE.
2 Vols. Crown 8v0. 215%
“Tt is a real pleasure to come at last upon a work which bears the stamp of genuine

knowledge of the subject, and of serious endeavour to rise out of the false lights of party
doctrine and tell us simply what manner of men these people of Turkey are.” —Zzmes.

Leaves from my Sketch Book. A Selection

Jrom Sketches made during many Tours. By
E. W. Cooks, R.A. 50 Plates. 2 Vols. Small folio.
318. 6a. each.

First Series :—Paris—Arles—Monaco—Nuremburg—S witzerland—Rome—Egypt, &c.
SECOND SERIES :—Venice—Naples—Pompeii—Pestum—The Nile, &c,

** An acceptable work, whether for the drawing-table of fashionable d/ettante, or for study
by art tyros. The illustrations form, of course, the most important portion of the contents,

and the majority of these deserve high praise, both for correctness of drawing and clear
engraving.” —G/ole.

>——

Field Paths and Green Lanes; an

Account of Rambles in Survey, Sussex, and
Flerefordshire.

By LOUIS J. JENNINGS.
Second Edition. Illustrated by J. WW. WHYMPER. Jost 8vo. 10s. 6d.

‘*There is a breeziness and freshness about this pleasant volume which will commend it
equally to dwellers in town and country. Mr. Jennings writes simply and easily, with a
purpose and without a moral. In all places he finds something appropriate to say, something
fresh to point out, something worthy to describe.'""—Axaminer.

ad

Scepticism in Geology, and the Reasons

for it. An Assemblage of Facts from Nature com-
bining to tnvalidate and refute the Geological Theory
of “ Causes now tn Action.”
By VERIFIER.
Second Edition Revised. With Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 6s.
“A sprightly little book called ‘Scepticism in Geology’ has recently shown that

‘orthodox’ geologists may possibly have misinterpreted scme of the most important texts
from which they preach their sermons on stones,""—Sfec/ator,

to MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

$$$

é

ST. JAMES’S LECTURES.
I.—1875-76.—Companions for the Devout

Life. With Preface by Rev. J. E. Kempr, M.A.,
Rector of St. James's. Post 8vo. 6s.

‘©A volume of more than ordinary interest. ‘The books selected are well known, and
favourites with large numbers of readers. ‘The lecturers have all treated their respective
subjects simply and practically, their aim having been to make these ‘Companions to the
Devout Life’ more companionable and useful than they have hitherto been." —Church Review.

II.—1877-78.—Classic Preachers of the
English Church. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. each.

‘*Masterly as these discourses are, it is not as sermons that we regard them, ‘This
criticism apart—and it does not really touch the substantial merits of these volumes—there is
little but what we can unreservedly praise.""—Spectator.

———

My Boyhood; a True Story of Country
Life and Adventures for the Old and Young.

By H. C. BARKLEY.
Author of “ Bulgaria North of the Balkans.”
With Miustrations by CORBOULD. Jost 8vo. 6s,

“ This is about as good a book of its kind as we have ever seen." — Spectator,

“The adventures are so plainly real, and are told with such total absence of egotism
although personal, that boys will thoroughly appreciate them. It is the genuine biography of
a typical boy.” —Pudlic Opinion.

England and Russia wn the East. A

Series of Papers on the Political and Geo-
graphical Condition of Central Asia.
By Major-Gen. Sir HENRY RAWLINSON, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Member of the Council of India.
Second Edition. Map. 8vo. 125.

‘© valuable contribution to the modern history of Central Asia. There is ne single
chapter which does not merit careful study, and none from which the reader will rise without
a solution of some disputed point in geography, without a more distinct light thrown back on
Oriental tendencies and traditions, and withcut a more clear conception of the single-
mindedness, the persistence, and the adaptation of means to ends, displayed by Russian
autocrats of the field or Cabinet, in carrying out the policy of Peter the Great."”—Saturday
Review.

o——_

A Treatise on the Augustinian Doctrine

of Predestination.

By the late JU. B. MOZLEY, D.D., Canon of Christ Church.
New Edition. Crown 8vo. 9s.
“Mr. Mozley has contributed a volume which we believe will live. His plummet has
sounded the depths of controversies which have engaged the most luminous minds for ages,

and he comes to the only conclusion concerning them which it is in the province of the human
mind to form.”—7he Press.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. tI

————

Masters in Eenglish Theology. The King's
College Lectures, 1877. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

CONTENTS:
Hooker, Canon Barry. Wi iIcHco're and Smitit, Canon Westcott.
ANDREWES, Dean of St. Paul’s. Jeremy Tayior, Canon Farrar.
CHILLINGWoRTH, Professor Plumptre. P£ARSON, Professor Cheetham.

With an Introduction by ALFRED BARRY, D.D.

«The whole series of lectures is most scholarly and able, and will do much to sharpen the
reader's appreciation of this interesting period of our Church history. The great men whose
names head these lectures are sketched for us by firm and skilful hands. ‘ Masters in
Theology’ ought to take a noticeable place among our current theological literature."—
Literary Churchman.

— >

A History of the Englhsh Church. From
the Accession of Henry VIL. to the Silencing
of Convocation in the 18th Century.

By G. G. PERRY, M.A., Hon. Canon of Lincoln, and Rector of Waddington.
Post 8vo. 75. 6d.

“Canon Perry's ‘ History of the English Church,’ is, in brief, the best book of its kind that
we have ever read, and we strongly advise the adoption of it as a text book in theological
seminaries.""—Literary Churchman.

———-{ ~ —_—

The Talmud; Selected Extracts from ut,
chiefly tllustrating the Teaching of the Bible. Wath an
Introduction describing its general Character.

By Rev. JOSEPH BARCLAY, LL.D.
Tilustrations. 8vo. 145.

“Dr. Barclay has admirably performed the task which he assigned to himself, and as
the result, we have a deeply interesting volume, which will be sure to receive a cordial
welcome from Biblical students as a most valuable addition to standard works of reference.’’—
English Independent.

———_- > ——

A Manual of Ecclesiastical Ffrstory
during the First Ten Centuries; from gts Foundation
to the Full Establishment of the Holy Roman Enipire
and the Papal Power.

By PHILIP SMITH, B.A.

Author of ‘‘ The Student’s Old and New Testament Histories.”
Iilusirations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

‘We can.recommend this as a very useful manual, by a painstaking and conscientious
writer." —School Guardian,

12 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

Nyassa. A Fournal of Occurrences tn
Exploring the Lake, and Establishing the Missionary
and Commercial Settlement of “ Livingstonia.”

By E. D. YOUNG, R.N.
Edited by Rev. HORACE WALLER, F.R.G.S.
Second Edition. With Maps. Post 8vo. 7s. Cd.

“This Journal will serve many purposes rarely served by books of travel in that quarter of
the world. . . . One of the most gratifying features in the charming volume is the
evidence it affords abundantly of the affection and honour with which the English are
welcomed in the heart of Africa.” —Standard.

—_+——_

Notes on the Churches of Kent.

By the late SIR STEPHEN R. GLYNNE, Bart.
With a Preface by W. H. GLADSTONE, M.P.
With Illustrations. S8wvo. 2s.

‘€A book which will be very valuable to the archzeologist, and we hope that the present
instalment will be so successful as to lead to a publication of the complete notes, which will
form a most acceptable contribution to the history of church architecture in England. In the
meantime the portion now published contains much in which dwellers in Kent will take
especial interest." —-Fohn Dull.

A Visit to the Sacred City of the Moors.
A Fourney from Tripoli in Barbary to the
Holy City of Kairwan.

By EDWARD RAE,
Author of the “ Land of the North Wind.”
With Map and 6 Etchings. Crown 8vo. 125.

“Mr. Rae's pleasant and amusing narrative contains information which is of considerable
value to historical students. We can say of it with truth, what certainly cannot be said of the
great majority of modern books of travel, that its publication is a distinct gain to our
literature,’"—Academy.

The Tower of London. Notices of Flrstorie
Persons buried in the Chapel of the Tower of London.
With an Account of the Discovery of the supposed
Remains of Queen Anne Boleyn.

By DOYNE C. BELL, F.S.A.

With 24 Illustrations. 8vo. 145,

‘This volume has been executed with industry and care, and is full of curious reading ; it
is one which we can heartily recommend.” —Spectator,

vT

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 13

Notebook of Sir Fohn Northcote, M.P. am

the Long Parliament. Containing Memoranda of
Proceedings during tts First Sesston, 1640. from
the MS. in the possession of Sir Stafford Northcote,
Bart.

Edited, with a Memoir, by A. H. A. HAMILTON.

Crown 8vo. 95.

“ This work opens up a subject of singular interest both to the student of history and the
more general reader,..... We recommend it heartily.” —S¢axdard.
y

—E—

Freedom of Science in the Modern State.

By RUDOLPH VIRCHOW,

Professor of Pathology in the University of Berlin.
Second Edition. Feap. 8ve. 25.

‘This remarkable pamphlet is a speech by a scientific man in Germany, whose authority
no man of science in any country will dispute. The name of Professor Virchow is at the
present day, and must always remain, one of the most distinguished in the history of
pathological research. It was delivered at the annual gathering of German Natural Philo-
sophers and Physicians of Munich,’"—Quwarterly Review, January, 1878.

——— es

Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. Com-
prising the History, Institutions, and Antiquities of
the Christian Church, from the Time of the Apostles
to the Age of Charlemagne.

By Various WRITERS.

Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., & Rev. Professor CHEETHAM, M.A.
With Tlustrations. (To be completed in 2 vols.) Vol. I, Medium 8vo, 31s. 6d.

A Dictionary of Christian Biography,
Literature, Sects, and Doctrines. From the
Time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne.

By VARIOUS WRITERS.
Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and Rev. Professor WACE, M.A.
(Zo be completed in 3, vols.) Vol. I. Medium 8vo. 315s. 6d.

14 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

lhe Speaker's Commentary on the Bible.
Explanatory and Critical, with a Revision of
the Translation.
Edited by F. C. COOK, M.A., Canon of Exeter.

OLD TESTAMENT,

Complete in 6 Vols. Medium 8vo. £6 155.
Vot. I.—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, | | VoL. 1V.—Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Eccle-
Numbers, Deuteronomy. 30s. siastes, Song of Solomon. 245.

Vor. V.—Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamenta-
Vors. II. and III.—Joshua, Judges, | ticns. 20s,

Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra = : : i
Neteraiali Esther, abr: ? ? bmn ae Daniel, The Minor
NEW TESTAMENT.

To be completed in 4 Vols. Medium 8vo.
Editor. ST. Mark, The Editor. St.

Luke, W. Basil Jones, D.D., Bishop of
St. David’s, and The Editor. 18s.

Vol. I.:— GENERAL INTRODUCTION,
Wm. Thomson, D.D., Archbishop of
York, St. MattHew, H. L. Mansel,
D.D., late Dean of St. Paul’s, and The

See

An Atlas of Ancient Geography. Bibhcal

and Classical. Intended to illustrate Smith's
Classical and Biblical Dictionaries, and the “ Speaker's
Commentary on the Bible.”

Compiled under the Superintendence of WM. SMITH, D.C.L.,
and GEORGE GROVE, F.R.G.S.

WITH DESCRIPTIVE TEXT, GIVING THE SOURCES AND
AUTHORITIES, INDICES, &c.

With 43 Maps. Folio, half-bound. £6 6s.

eee

Annals of Winchcombe and Sudeley.

By EMMA DENT.
With 120 Portraits, Plates, and Woodcuts. Ato. 42s.

‘This is a thoroughly pleasant book, delightful to read and beautiful to look upon, with
its large, clearly printed pages and variety of well-executed illustrations. One chief pleasure
of reading Mrs. Dent's book is the variety of social matters which are touched upon and
illustrated.” —A theneum,

50, ALBEMARLE STREET,
February, 1879.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST

OF

WORKS IN PREPARATION.

The

Life of Samuel Wilberforce, D.D.,

LORD BISHOP OF OXFORD AND WINCHESTER.

By REV. A. R. ASHWELL, M.A.,
Canon of the Cathedral and Principal of the Theological College, Chichester.

With Portraits, &c. To be completed in 3 vols. Vol. I. $8vo.

Adventures and Discoveries
among the Lakes and Mountains
of Eastern Africa.

From the Journals of the late CAPT. F. ELTON,

Late of the Prince of Wales's Regiment of Foot, and A. D. C, to Lord Strathnairn, and H.B.M. Consul
in Mozambique.

Edited and Completed by H. B. COTTERILL, F.R.G.S.
With 3 Maps and Illustrations from the Author’s sketches. $yo.

“Knowing that I have broken entirely new ground, I believe I have some acceptable
experiences of interest to relate, and therefore I invoke those kindly powers to my assistance
who enable mortal man to tell a story worth the hearing : who kindly show him where he is
to begin it and where he is to end it, what he is to put into it and what he is to leave out, how
much of it he is to cast into a shade and whereabouts he is to throw his light,""—CoNsuL
ELTON.

1 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

Word, Work, and Will.

COLLECTED PAPERS

By the LORD ARCHBISHOP OF YORK.
Crown 8vo.

Memoir of Bishop Stanley.

WITH EXTRACTS FROM THE JOURNALS anp LETTERS oF uis Wipow,
CATHERINE STANLEY.
By A. P. STANLEY, D.D.,
Dean of Westminster.

Revised and ssh dae Edition. Crown Svo.

A History of Ameen Geography.

By E. H. BUNBURY, F.R.G.S.

2vols. 8vo.

A New Life of Albert Durer.

With A HISTORY OF HIS ART,
By MORITZ THAUSING,

Keeper of Archduke Albert’s Art Collections at Vienna.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN WITH THE AUTHOR’S SANCTION,

With Portrait and Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium Svo.

The Cathedral :
Its Necessary Place in the Life and Work

of the Church.

By EDWARD WHITE BENSON, D.D., Lord Bishop of Truro.
Crown 8vo. 6s. (Ready)

Life of St. Hugh “a Avalon, Bishop |
of Lincoln.

By GEO. G. PERRY, Hon. Canon of LINCOLN & Rector of Waddingter,
and Author of ‘ History of the English Church.”
With Portrait. Crown 8vo.

oe ee ee

MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION. 17

The Italian Principia. Part I.

A FIRST ITALIAN COURSE, CONTAINING A GRAMMAR, DELECTUS
EXERCISE BOOK, WITH VOCABULARIES, AND MATERIALS FOR
ITALIAN CONVERSATION.
ON THE PLAN oF Dr. WILLIAM SMITH’sS PRINCIPIA LATINA.
By SIGNOR RICCI.

I2mo,

The Greek Verb,

ITS STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT.

By PROFESSOR G. CURTIUS,
Of the University of Leipzig.

Translated into English, with the Author’s sanction,
By A. S. WILKINS, M.A., Professor of Latin and Comparative Philology, and

E. B. ENGLAND, M.A., Assistant Lecturer in Classics,
Owens College, Manchester.

8vo.

Medieval Latin-English Dictionary.

In IMITATION OF THE GREAT WorK OF DUCANGE,
Re-arranged and Edited in accordance with the Modern Science of Philology.

E. A. DAYMAN, B.D.,

Prebendary of Sarum, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford.

Assisted by J. H. HESSELS.
Small 4to. j

Metallu rey.

THE ART OF EXTRACTING METALS FROM THEIR ORES,
AND ADAPTING THEM TO VARIOUS PURPOSES
OF MANUFACTURE.

Silver.
By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.RS.,

Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Government School of Mines.
With numerous Illustrations. 8vo.

The Lex Salica;

THE TEN EMENDED TEXTS WITH THE GLOSSES.
EDITED (THE INTERPRETATION OF THE GLOSSES)
_ By Dr. H. KERN,
Professor of Sanscrit, University of Leyden.
Tur TEXTS, NEWLY COLLATED, WITH GLOSSARY, INTRODUCTION, &c.,

By J. H. HESSELS,
Joint Editor of The New Ducange’s ‘“‘ Medieval Latin-English Dictionary.’
4to.

18 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

Dictionary of Christian Biography,
Literature, Sects, and Doctrines.

By Various WRITERS.

Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and HENRY WACE, M.A.
(To be completed in 3 vols.) Vol. 2. Medium 8vo.,

In this volume the articles on Anglo-Saxon History have been contributed chiefly by
Professor Stubbs and Professor Bright, of Oxford, and by Canon Raine, of York. Dr.
Benson, the Bishop of Truro, has treated all names connected with St. Cyprian. The
Dean of Canterbury has written on Ephraim Syrus. Professor Lightfoot contributes an
article on Eusebius the historian, Professor Lipsius, of Jena, has contributed articles on
Epiphanius, and the Apocryphal Gospels. Professor Swainson has written on the Rule
of Faith, the Incarnation, and some kindred subjects. Professor Salmon, of Dublin, has
treated Gnosticism and many important names connected with that subject. P/ofessor
Bright contributes articles on the Alexandrian Fathers, and the Rev. % Barmby, of
Durham, on the Popes. Professor Bryce, of Oxford, has treated Justinian. Other
important articles are contributed by the Rev. ¥. Garmby of Durham, the Rev. C. IV.
Boase, of Exeter College, Oxford, 7. 2. Buchanan, Esq., of All Souls’ College, the
Rev. Chancellor Cazenove, of Edinburgh, the Rev. % Llewellyn Davies, the Rev. Professor
Dickson, of Glasgow, the Rev. Canon Liliott, the Rev. E. S. Ffoulkes, the Rev. Canon
Venables, the Hon. and Rev. W. H. Fremantle, the Rev. ¥. MM. Fuller, the Rev. Dr.
Ginsburg, the Rev. Dr. Edersheim, the Rev. H. S. Holland, Mrs. Humphrey Wart, the
kev. Professor Leathes, the Rev. Professor Milligan, of Aberdeen, the Rev. Dr. Plumptre,
the Rev. J. Gregory Smith, the Rev. Professor Stewart, of Glasgow, the Rev. Fohn
Wordsworth, of Brasenose College, Oxford, the Rev. H. B. Swete, of Caius College,
Cambridge, the Kev. A. AZ. Mason, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and others.

Dictionary of Christian Antiquities.

COMPRISING THE HISTORY, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES
OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, FROM THE TIME OF THE
APOSTLES TO THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.

By Various WRITERS.

Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., & Rev. Professor CHEETHAM, M.A.
With Illustrations. Vol. II. (completing the work). Medium 8vo.

The Moral Philosophy of Aristotle.

TRANSLATIONS OF THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS, AND OF THE
PARAPHRASE OF ANDRONICUS,

TOGETHER WITH PHILOSOPHICAL Essays, INTRODUCTIONS AND ANALYSES.

Designed for the use of Students at the Universities,

By WALTER M. HATCH, M.A.,
Late Fellow of New College, Oxford.

2vols. 8vo.

MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION. 19

London; Past and Present.

By the late PETER CUNNINGHAM, F-.S.A.

Tn this work will be found much antiquarian, historical, and entertaining information,
together with ample descriptions of all the streets and buildings of note now to be seen,
as well as those no longer existing ; and every place endeared to Englishmen by Ziéerest-
ing and Historical associations, including :—

REMARKABLE OLD INNS, COFFEE | PLACES REFERRED TO BY OLD WRITERS.

HOousEs, AND TAVERNS, WARDS OF LONDON.

Town Houses OF THE OLD Nopsiity. | THE Crry CompaANIEs.
PLACES OF PUBLIC ENTERTAINMENT. THE CLUBs.
ANCIENT THEATRES, AND OLD LONDON | CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS.

SIGHTS. RESIDENCES OF MEMORABLE MEN.
ANCIENT CROSSES, AND CITY GATES. STREETS REMARKABLE FOR SOME EVENT.
THE HOSTELS OF CHURCH DIGNITARIES. BirnrH PLACES AND BURIAL PLACES OF
PRIVILEGED PLACES FOR DEBTORS. EMINENT INDIVIDUALS.

OLD LONDON PRISONs. &c., &c.

Revised and Edited by JAMES THORNE, F.S.A.,

Author of the “‘ Handbook to the Environs of London.”

New Edition. 8vo.

New and Copious Dictionary of
the English Language.

FOR PRACTICAL REFERENCE, METHODICALLY ARRANGED, AND
BASED UPON THE BEST PHILOLOGICAL AUTHORITIES,

Medium 8vyo.

A Glossary of Peculiar
Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words
and Phrases.

ETYMOLOGICAL, HISTORICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL.

By HENRY YULE, C.B., and ARTHUR BURNELL, Ph.D.
8vo.

Handbook of Familiar Quotations
from English Authors.

Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged. Fcap. 8vo.

29 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

The Speaker's Commentary on
the New Testament.

EXPLANATORY AND CRITICAL, WITH A REVISION OF THE
TRANSLATION.

By BISHOPS and CLERGY of the ANGLICAN CHURCH.
Edited by F. C. COOK, M.A.,

Canon of Exeter, Preacher at Lincoln’s Inn, and Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen.

To be completed in 4 Vols. Medium 8vo.

Vol. |. 18s. (Published.)

pee a INTRODUC- Wm. THomson, D.D., Archbishop of York.
ST. MATTHEW and) H. LONGUEVILLE MANSEL, D.D., late Dean of St. Paul's,
BT MEATERS -civcccncnsss and The EDITOR.
SOR URE. 02 cekscesesveen W. Basi Jones, D.D., Bishop of St. David’s,

Vol. Il. (Nearly Ready.)

B. F. Westcott, D.D., Canon of Peterborough, and Regius
ST. JOHN .............+.... | Professor of Divinity at Cambridge.
PH ACIS esc ccsaevnceens W. Jacogson, D.D., Bishop of Chester.
Vol. Ill.
E. H. Girrorp, D.D., Hon. Canon of Worcester, Rector
ROMANS i iciceve. sete se of Much Hadham, and Examining Chaplain to the

Bishop of London.
T. S. Evans, Canon of Durham, and Professor of Greek in
Durham University.
J. WartE, M.A., Vicar of Norham, Northumberland.
GALATIANS............... J. S. Howson, D.D., Dean of Chester.

PHILIPPIANS, EPHE- J. A. JEREMIE, D.D., late Dean of Lincoln.
SIANS, COLOSSIANS,

THESSALONIANS, Canon WEsTCcoTT, D.D.

CORINTHIANS....... ....

and PHILEMON ...... Won. ALEXANDER, D.D., Bishop of Derry and Raphoe.
PASTORAL EPISTLES. JouN JAcKsoN, D.D., Bishop of London,
HEBREWS. ...........0000 W. Kay, D.D.
Vol. IV.

EPISTLE of 8ST. JAMES Rosert Scott, D.D., Dean of Rochester.
EPISTLES of 8ST. JOHN Wwm.-.ALEXANDER, D.D., Bishop of Derry and Raphoe.

J. B. Licutroot, D.D., Canon of St. Paul’s, and Margaret
ST, PETER & ST. JUDE Professor of Divinity at Cambridge.

J. R. Lumby, B.D., Incumbent of St. Edward’s, Cambridge.
Sn eee Wo. LEE, D.D., Archdeacon of Dublin.

BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.

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